Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Auditing Principles and Procedures PDF
Auditing Principles and Procedures PDF
s
1
L
V
E
R
JUBILEE
PRINCIPLES &
PROCEDURES
1993
PROF. DR. KHAWAJA AM J AD
SAEED
CHARTERED ACCOUNTANT COST AND
MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTANT
INSTITUTE OF BUSINESS
MANAGEMENT
G.P.O. BOX 1164, LAHORE PAKISTAN
т
PREFACE
ТО SILVER JUBILEE
EDITION
. The book entitled Auditing: Principles and Procedures, was. first published in 1968. Its
revised version appeared in 1973. Since then many changes have taken place. The Companies
Ordinance 1984 was enforced. Several International Accounting Standards have been in
currency and wealth of literature on auditing has appeared in the world through changes in
auditing techniques and specially through the International Standard on Auditing. Besides,
courses and syllabi of various academic and professional examinations have undergone
changes.1 Some new laws on auditing have also come up. Various professional institutes have
issued several pronouncements and consequently the practical aspects of audit have undergone a
significant -'change.
I have been trying to update myself in respect of above developments through travel
abroad, visits to various professional institutes, at home and abroad, and have also benefitted
considerably from the excellent work produced by the International Federation of Accountants
(IF AC). I visited the headquarters of IF AC in New York in the year 1988, 1990, 1991 and 1992
and procured all available literature. I am on their mailing list and continue to stay updated. They
have published IF AC Handbook in 1992 containing Technical Pronouncements.
Current >edition is Silver Jubilee edition and has been written in the light of various
changes mentioned above and I do hope that it will serve the students pursuing higher academic
and professional qualifications including courses offered by Chartered Accountants of Pakistan
and the institute of Cost and Management Accountants of Pakistan. Three .additional chapters on
summary of 'International Standards on Audit' 'Computer and the Auditor* and Glossory of
Terms have been included in this edition. Changes introduced by Chartered Accountants Bye-
Laws 1983 have also been incorporated. Every Chapter has been re-written and expanded in the
light of current environments.
I am most grateful to the reading community for the excellent support received in the past
and do hope that, through gesture of goodwill in reading this edition, they will ornament
themselves with the modern techniques of auditing.
I am most grateful to International Federation of Accountants, New York, for their kind
permission to include appropriate material from the International and ends on Auditing ISAs
published by them. With-their permission ISAs have been cited and reproduced in this book.
I also thank Professor S. M. Naseer Ajmal for the logistical support extended which has
enabled the book to be neatly printed.
Г remain grateful to Messrs Aftab Shabeen, Abdul Ghaffar Naeem and Nijat Hussain for
the useful support in getting the work printed.
I thank the readers for their kind support. Improvement is an on-going activity and
suggestions for improvement will be most gratefully acknowledged.
I appreciate the encouragement received by me from Dr. Muneer-ud-Din Chughtai, Vice-
Chancellor, University of the Punjab, Lahore, for pursuing academic and research efforts.
Professor Dr. Khawaja Amjad Saeed holds Master Degrees in Commerce (M. Com.) from,
the University of the Punjab (1959) and in Business Administration (MBA) from the American
University of Beirut (1970). He is a Fellow Member of all the six professional Institutes of
Pakistan, ie. the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan (FCA 1966), the Institute of Cost
and Management Accountants of Pakistan (FCMA 1971), the Institute of Corporate Secretaries
of Pakistan (FICS 1974), the Institute of Marketing Management (FhMM 1986), the Institute of
Taxation Management (FITM 1988) and- the Institute of Chartered Secretaries and Managers.
Besides holding a Degree in Law (LL.B.) from the University of the Punjab <1976), he is a
holder of Diplomas in Industrial Accountancy from the British Tutorial Institute, London (1964),
in Project Analysis — Industry and Infrastructure from the United Nations Asian Institute of
Economic Development and Planning, Bangkok (1971) and a certificate holder in teaching of
Project Analysis from the Economic Development Institute of the World Bank, Washington
(1979). He has also obtained Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Business Administration (Ph.D)
from USA (1981).
He has been honoured with various Awards. Besides having seven years of field experience
in corporate finance, audit, accounting, taxation and business management, he has 28 years of
teaching experience at the Masters level in commerce, business administration, public
administration and economics and has also extensively taught in professional examination
courses. Several Management Development Programs have been conducted by him at home and
abroad.
He has authored 30 books in the areas of Income Tax, Auditing, Management, Financial,
Reports, Corporate and Mercantile Laws, Economics, Financial Institutions, Accounting and
Higher Accountancy. He is widely travelled and has contributed over 600 articles in journals of
national and international repute. Some of his articles have been abstracted by the Commerce
Clearing House Inc., New York.
He was awarded Appreciation Scroll by tile International Federation -of Accountants, New
York, for his contribution made to accounting profession on worldwide basis in 1990.
He has participated in several international conferences, contributed papers for the same
and has also conducted several research studies including research studies for International
Labour Organisation (ILO), King Abdul Aziz University, Saudi Arabia, ICFTU, Belgium,
TWARO, Tokyo and other international bodies. During the summer of 1984, he was on Visiting
Faculty assignment at the University of Hawaii and also visited 12 top business schools of USA.
During 1984, he delivered
(о)
tv^elvft'ftalks inynanagoment development programs in India under the auspices of the Institute
of Cost and Works Accountants of. India. He has presented several papers in international
conferences he'IH-iri USA, Japan, South Korea, Thailand, Switzerland, Sri Lanka, India, Nepal,
Australia, UK, Bangladesh and several other
countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... . . .
.. He presented a paper in 7th CAPA (1973) in Bangkok, Thailand, attended 8th ОЛРЛ (1976)
in Hong Kong, presented a paper in 10th С A PA (1983) in New Delhi, India, Chaired a technical
session in 11th CAPA (1986) in Melbourn, Australia and contributed a paper for the 12th CAPA
(1989) held in Seoul, Korea. . .
His paper was accepted in the 5th International Conference on Accounting Education (1982)
held in Mexico and also presented a paper in the 6th above conference held in Koyoto, Japan
(1987).
Hehas also.served as representative on Finance.and Management Accounting Committee of
International Federation of Accountants (IFAC-FMAC) for three
years..
He is University Professor and Director of Institute of Business Administration, University
of the Punjab, Lahore arid is also serving ps Director (Planning and Development) of the
University of the Punjab.
He is also serving as Dean, Faculty of Arts, University of the Punjab*. Vice President of the
Institute of Cost & Management Accountants of Pakistan, Vice President of the Association of
Management Development Institutions of South' Asia (AMDE3A) and Member Board of
Studies, Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan'and is holding several offices in national
and international bodies. He is Founder President of the Institute of Marketing Management,
Institute of Taxation Management and the Institute of Chartered Secretaries and Managers.
т
GUIDANCE NOTES
FOR READERS
1. Executives
Several executives are engaged in external and internal audit. Some are charged with the
responsibility of strengthening financial controls. They will find the reading of the hook
interesting from their functional point of view.
Since several ISAs have been reproduced, these are available for ready reference. However,
for quick reference they may read the summary on ISAs
included as a separate Chapter. t
Students may read the selected chapters relevant to their syllabus.' Summary
may l>e prepared wherever relevant ..- . * - '. ''
■■._[-
(гда)
PRESCRIBED
SYLLABUS FOR B.
COM.
LIST OF FORMS/CHARTS
Case Page
LIST OF
ABBREVIATIONS
MERCANTILE LAW
OF PAKISTAN
Contents
Readership
Стогн)
BY Tl IE SAME AUTHOR
Contents
Covers an interesting exposition of Law governing Income Tax Ordinance. 1979 and
includes all available amendments introduced into the above Ordinance through circular?
issued by the CBR and till the enforcement of Finance Act, 1993- '■
The book covers topics such as: Introduction; Capital and Revenue; Income Exempt from
Tax; Salient Features of the Finance Act. 1993 ; Income Tax Authorities; Appeals and
Revision; Salaries: Interest on Securities; Income from Property: Profits and Gains of
Business and Profession: Depreciation; Income from other Sources and Capital Gains: Self
Assessment Scheme of Income Tax; Assessment Procedure: Registration of Firms;
Computation of Income of Special Concerns; Method of Accounting: Set-off and Carry-
forward of Losses; Foreign Investment and Pakistan Taxation; Miscellaneous; Assessment of
Individuals; Assessment of Firms; Assessment of Companies; Set-off and Carry-forward of
Losses: Solutions to Typical Practical Problems; Index.
Readership;
PRIC Rs.80.0
E O
CONTENT
S
Foreword................................................................................. ......................................111
Preface............................................................................................................■............ w
Bio-Data of the Author.................,............................................................................... vi
Guidance Notes for Readers.................................................................................... xiii
Prescribed Syllabus for B. Com., University of the Punjab.......................................... ix
Table of Statutes...........................................................................................-................. x
Table of Appendices/Annexures................................................................................... rii
List of Forms/Charts ...............,...................................................................................xiii
List of Cases Cited............................................................................................xiv
List of Abbreviations................................................................................................... xvi
Incorrect allocation........................................................................... 7
Omission of Outstanding assets and liabilities................................. 7
Incorrect Valuation of assets............................................................ 7
Location of Errors............................................................................. 7
Trial Balance Checking.................................................................. 7
Short cut Method............................................................................. 7
Extensive checking................................................—.............. 8
The Detection and Prevention of Fraud...................................................... 8
Embezzlement of cash.......................................................................... S
Misappropriation of goods...............................................\............... Э
Fraudulent manipulation of accounts.................................................... 9
f Expression of independent opinion on accounts................................................ 10
Moral check......................................................'....................................... 10
Responsibility for the detection of fraud and error............................................. 10
* Inherent limitations of an audit................................................................... 11
Risk of fraud and error.................................................................... 12
Procedures when there is an indication
that fraud or error may exist.................................................................. 13
Other reporting responsibilities.................................................................. 13
History of auditing profession in Pakistan...................................................... 14
Auditor and accounting machine ."..................................................................... 14
Advantages.................................................................................................. 14
Disadvantages............................................................................................. 14
Auditor and the Computer................................................................................... 15
Fundamental Principles and Techniques of Auditing.......................................... 15
Examples of events which increase the Risk of Fraud or Error...........................16
History of Auditing Profession in Pakistan.................................................-.....:-18
/X
P AUDITING PROCEDURES............................................................................... 23-74
///A
The Operation of Audit.........................................................v..................... 23
Ticking....................................................................................................... 23
Casting...............................................................................................:...... 23
Calling-over....................................".......................................................... 23
Vouching.............................................................................................. 24
Verification.....................................................................................24
Reporting.................................................................................................... 24
Procedures Affecting Audit................................................................................. 25
Compliance Procedures.......................................................................-..... 25
Substantive Procedures............................................................................... 25
Analytical Review Procedures............................................................ 25
•Scope of Audit.................................................................................................... 25
Introduction......................................................................................................... 25
'Objective of an Audit........................................................................................... 26
Responsibility for the Financial statements......................................................... 26
f Scope of Audit........................................................................................................ 26
Ethics............................................................................'.............................; 28
Integrity, objectivity and Independence................................................................28
Confidentiality..................................................................................................... 28
Ч/Professional comptence and due care and Technical standards............................ 28
Planning.........................................................................Г:............-.................... 29
Work performed by others................................................................................... 29
Documentation..................................................................................................... 30
v^^Audit Evidence.................................................................................................... 30
Audit Conclusion and Reporting......................................................................... 30
Conduct of Audit.................. .............................................................................. 31
^Continuous Audit........................................................................................ 31
л Concept................................................................................................. 31
.Advantages............................................................................................. 31
• Disadvantages....................................................................................... 31
J-'inal Audit.......................:............................:..................................-....... 32
' Interim Audit ............................................................................................... 33
Audit Engagement Letters .................................................................................. 33
Principal Contents....................................................................................... 34
Recurring Audits......................................................................................... 34
Audits of Components ................................................................................ 35
Using the Work of an Auditor...................................................................... 37
Introduction................................................................................................. 37
Acceptance as Principal Auditor................................................................. 38
The Principal Auditor's Procedures............................................................. 38
Documentation........................................................................ .................. 39
Cooperation between Auditors..............................;.......«........................... 39
Reporting Considerations............................................................................ 40
Division of Responsibility...............................-......-.................................. 40
Professional Conduct .......................................................................................... 40
Functions of the Council....................................................................................■ 42
Duties and Obligations of a student and principal............................................... 42
Auditing Planning................................................................................................ 44
Knowledge of the Client's Business............................................................ 44
Development of an Overall Plan................................................................. 45
Developing the Audit Programme............................................................... 46
Audit Evidence .......................................................-........................-................. 47
Sufficient Appropriate Audit Evidence....................................................... 47
Method of Obtaining Audit Evidence......................................................... 49
Inspection.............................................................................................. 49
Observation........................................................................................... 50
Inquiry and Confirmation...................................................................... 50
Computation........................... .............................................................. 50
Analytical Review................................................................................. 50
Introduction.......................................................................... ................ 50
Observation of Inventory...................................................................... 51
Confirmation of Accounts Receivable.................................................. 53
Inquiry regarding Litigation and Claims................................................ 55
Long-Term Investments......................................................................... 56
Segment Information ..v-....................................................................... 57
Organisational Set up of an Audit Office ..:......................................................... 57
Organisation Chart of an Audit Firm................................................................... 58
Commencement of a new audit............................................л............................. 59
' Audit Programme.......................................................................-......................... 61
•Definition..............................................::.„:................................................ 61
Preparation........................................................................r......................... 61
"Extent of Works...............................................:......................................... 62
Advantages................................................................................................... 62
'Limitations............'....................................................................................... 62
-Removal of Limitations ..'.................."....................:..........-..................... 62
Test Checking.......................................................................:.............................. 62
Audit Notebook.................................................__________ ............................... 64
Audit Programme........................................................................................'64
(24)
|, VOUCHING......................................................................................................... - 112-152
' Definition of Voucher........................................................................................ 112
Routine Checking.............................................................................................. 112
Definitions of Vouching...........................................................................•......■ ИЗ
Extent of Vouching............................................................................................ ИЗ
Procedure of Vouching............,........................................................................ ИЗ
Technique of Vouching...................................................................................... 114
Cut-off Procedures.............................,.............................................................. П5
Audit Sampling................................................................................................... 115
Design of the Sample................................................................................ 116
Audit Objectives................................................................................. 116
Population..........................................................................................- 116
Risk and Assurance............................................................................. H7
Compliance Testing............................................................................ H7
Substantive Testing ............................................................................ 118
Tolerable Error.................................................................................... 118
Expected Error in the Population.................................................... 118
Stratification........................................................................................ H9
Selection of the Sample............................................................................ 119
Evaluation of Sample Results .................................................................. 120
Analysis of Errors in the Sample........................................................ 120
Projection of Errors............................................................................. 120
Assessing Sampling Risk.................................................................... 121
Conclusions............................................................................................... 121
Depth Test......................................................................................................... 121
Concept...................................................................-.................•............. 121
Objectives................................................................................................. 122
Vouching of Cash Book — Receipts Side......................................................... 122
Opening Balance...................................................................................... 122
Cash Sales................................................................................................ 122
Cash Received from Debtors...............................................................-■- 122
Interest Income .............................................................................. ........ 123
Dividend Income.................................................................... ................. 123
Rents Received......................................................................................... 123
Commission Received.............................................................................. 124
-Subscriptions Received.......................................................-................... 124
Sale of Securities...................................................................................... 124
Bills Receivable..........................................................................-............ 124
Bad Debts Dividend........................................................................ 124
Insurance Claim Money Received............................................................ 124
Share Capital............................................................................................. 125
Sale of Fixed Assets..................................................-............................. 125
Miscellaneous Receipts............................................................................ 125
Vouching of Cash Book — Payments Side....................................................... 125
Payments to Creditors ..'........................................................................... 125
Cash Purchases......................................................................................... 126
Wages........................................................................................................ 126
Time Records...................................................................................... 126
Piece-work Records............................................................................ 127
Preparation of Wages-sheets or Wages book...............................-..... 127
Payment of Wages............................................................................... 127
Payment of Salaries ................................................................................. 128
Capital Expenditure.................................................................................. 128
Freehold and leasehold property......................................................... 128
Plant and Machinery........................................................................... 129
Furniture and Fixtures..................................................................... 129
Motor Vehicles ................................................................................... 129
Investments............................................................................................... 129
Loans............................................................. .................................'.'...... 129
Payments under hire-purchase and instalment agreements...................... 130
(28)
Сеете)
Ссек)
Щ, VERIFICATION - GENERAL.......................................................:...............153-189
Need for Verification......................................................................................... 153
Six-rx>int Technique forVerification ..........................i.........................:,........... 153
Physical Existence.................................................................................... 154
Correct Valuation..................................................................:„............... 154
Ownership................................................................................................. 155
Correct Disclosure ....................I.'..,.'......................................------...... 157
■ Assets suffering from a charge................................................................... 157^
Company's Register of Mortgage........................................................... 158
Registration with Registrar ...................................v........:............,........ 159
Fixed Charges.................л...:.............................................................. 159
(31)
(хеш)
EDP...................................................................................................... 255
The assessments of inherent and control risk
and their impact on substantive procedures............................................256
Compliance procedures and audit conclusions............................... 257
Substantive procedures and audit conclusions......................................... 257
Materiality............................................................................................... 257
Fraud or Error........................................................................................... 258
Going concern.................................................................259
Accounting, estimates ..........,.................................................................. 260
Analytical review.................................................."................................. 261
Related party transactions.........................................................................«!62
Subsequent events.................................................................................... 263
Management representations.................................................................... 263
Opening balance........................................................................................264
Work performed by others........................................................................ 264
Another Audit...................................................................................... 265
Internal Auditors....................................................................................... 266
Experts............................................................................................. 267
Documentation....................................................................................... 268
Basic principles and Essential reporting procedures................................... 268
General Matters....................................................................................... 269
Dating of report/Subsequent discovery of an error............................... 270
Other information in documents containing
audited financial statements.......................;:.........-................................. 271
Overall objectives and scope......................................'............................. 271
Consideration of other information.................V!.......... ......................... 271
Material inconsistencies........................................................................... 272
Material misstatements of fact ......................:......................................... 272
Availability of other information after
date of the auditor's report.................................................................. 273
Special purpose auditor's reports................................................:................... 273
Overall objective and scope..................................................................... 273
General matters........................................................................................ 273
Other comprehensive basis of accounting................................................ 274
Components of financial statements......................................................... 274
Compliance with contractual agreements................................................. 274
bcxxvii)
^| INDIVISIBLE PROFIT................................................................................................385-400
Importance of proper ascertainment of profits.................................................. 385
^The concept of the Profit ................................................................................. 385
Difficulties in the determination of profits...................................................,...386
Consequences of incorrect deterrnination of profit .......................................... 386
Legal provisions..................................................,............................................. 387
J Concept of divisible profit........................................................................... 387
Directors and payment of dividend............................................................... 388
Payment of dividend.......................................................................................... 389
Payment of interim dividend............................................................................. 390
Appropriation of Profits...............................................'.................................... 390
Legal cases..................................................................................................... 392
Depreciation of fixed and floating assets ................................................. 392
Capital Profits........................................................................................... 393
Past Losses................................................................................................ 393
Draft upon reserves — open and secret.................................................... 394
Transfer to reserves................:............................................................... 396
Profit prior to incorporation...................................................................... 396
Capital losses............................................................................................ 398
Revaluation of fixed assets and the auditor ...................................................... 398
Secret reserve and auditor......................... ....................................................... 399
Sinking fond...................................................................................................... 400
4 A LIABILITIES OF AN AUDITOR...........................................................................401-419
Liability of an auditor appointed by a private concern..................................... 401
Auditors' liability for negligence..................................................^ . .................. 401
Auditors'liability for misfeasance...................................................................... 405
Criminal liabilities and auditor.......................................................................... 407
Auditors'liability for libel.................................................................................. 409
Auditors' liability in dual appointments............................................................ 410
Liability of an honorary auditor........................................................................ 410
Liability of an auditor to third parties .................... ......................................... 411
New professional negligence liability judgement..................................... 413
Narrower test of liability.....................................................-.................... 415
Drastic revision needed............................................................................. 416
Implications for accountants..................................................................... 418
What are reasonable grounds?.................................................................. 418
Auditor — a Watchdog and not a Bloodhound.............................................. 419
^ ^AUDITING CASE-LAW............................................................................................451-464
У
Important Auditing Case-law Tabulated in Summarised Form......................... 451
INDEX.................................................................................................................509-518
PRINCIPLES OF
AUDITING
ORIGIN OF AUDIT
The word 'audit' is derived from the Latin 1 word "audire" which means to hear. In the good
old days whenever the proprietors of a concern suspected a fraud, certain people were appointed
to hear verbal evidence of transactions of barter etc., and to judge the facts. They 'heard' the points
of view of those who maintained the accounts.
Lucas Pacialo who is commonly considered as the father of double entry bookkeeping
wrote his treatise on the double entry bookkeeping and described the duties and responsibilities
of an auditor in it. The roots of 'modem audit' lie deep in the birth of Industrial Revolution which
brought large-scale production in its wake. The rapid growth of banking, transport and insurance
development, use of mechanical appliances and computers in business concerns and gigantic
growth of joint stock companies have resulted in the growing importance of audit. The need of
audit became imminent when the management and ownership of business was divided among
different groups of people. Now, it has become necessary that those who are owners of a
business should know how their money is being utilised by those who manage the business. Fo>'
this purpose, independent auditor has become a necessity.
DEFINITIONS OF AUDIT
The word 'audit' has been defined by many distinguished authors and every one of them
has attempted to highlight one aspect or the other. Definitions of the word 'audit' given by
authorities on the subject are as foUows:
"An audit may then be said to be such an examination of the books, accounts and
vouchers of a business, as shall enable the auditor to satisfy . himself whether the
balance sheet is properly drawn up, so as to give a trae and fair view of the state of
affairs of the business, and that the profit and loss account gives a true and fair view of
the profit or loss for the financial period, according to the best of his information and
the
51 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
explanations given to him as shown by the books; and if not, in what respects he is not
satisfied."1
"An audit is an examination of accounting recc ds undertaken with a view to
establishing whether they correctly and completely reflect the transactions to which
they purport to relate.''2
A special committee of the American Institute of Accoun 'ants has defined the verm 'Audit'
in the Accounting Research Bulletin No.9 as follow л:
(1) "An examination of a claim for payment or credit snd of supporting evidence
for the .purpose ofodetermimng whether th-^ expenditure is properly authorised, has
been or should be duly made, ш d how it should-be treated in the accounts of the payer
— hence 'audited voucher',
(2) An examination of similar character and purpose of an accouit purporting to
deal with actual transactions only, such as receipts and pay 'nents.
(3) By extension, an examination of accounts which purport to reflect not only
.. actual transactions but valuations, estimates, and opinions for the purpose
of determining whether the accounts are properly stated and fairly reflect the matters
with which they purport to deal.
(4) An examination intended, to serve as a basis for an expression of opinion
regarding the fairness, consistency and conformity with accepted
accounting principles, of statements prepared by a corporation or other
entity for publication — in this case more generally called 'examination'.
Perhaps the best way to define audit is to tell why it is done, as the action is presumably
such as to fulfil its puipose. In this context the definition of audit would
differ depending upon whether it is in the case of concerns which voluntarily get their accounts
audited or whether it is mandatory. ;
ISA1 entitled Objective and Basic Principles Governing an Audit has defined audit as
under:
"An audit is the independent examination of financial statements or related
information of an entity, whether profit oriented or not, and irrespective of its size, or
legal form, when such an examination is conducted with a view to expressing an
opinion thereon."
ISA 1 lays down that the auditor is responsible for forming and expressing his opinion on
the financial statements.. The term "Financial Statements" includes balance sheets, income
statements or profit and loss accounts, statements of changes in .financial position, notes and
other statements and explanatory material identified as part of financial statements.
The features that distinguish auditing from accounting are tabulated here:
Accounting Auditing
It means maintaining the books of accounts. It means examining the accounts and
The spade work is done by the accountant to ' reporting on their accuracy. The auditor's
enable the auditor to give a finishing work begins, where the accountant's work
touch. ends.
The accountant prepares the financial
statements. Audit entails preparation and submission of
report on the checking and examination
No prescribed qualifications are legally of the accounts etc.
required to be possessed before It is mandatory that an auditor of a public
appointment of an accountant is made. limited company must be a chartered
accountant (within the meaning of
The job of an accountant is generally Chartered Accountants Ordinance,
entrusted to him by management and he 1961).1
is expected to perform the same. The auditor of a public limited company is
appointed by shareholders.
Summary of the two important legal cases, highlighting the difference between auditing and
accounting, is given below:
I. Chartered Accountants Ordinance, 1961 [X of 1961), Gazette (if Pakistan- Extraordimii-y, March 10, 1961.
53 Auditing; Principles and Procedures
nature of his clients' business. He must have the tact of putting intelligent questions to extract full
information. He must be prepared to hear arguments and decide on logical grounds. He should have the
ability to write his report in a concise, clear and correct manner. He will often be in need of patience,
both with people and with his professional problems. ■
ISA 3 has given emphasis on integrity, objectivity; independence, confidentiality, skills and
competence. In this respect relevant material is reproduced below:
"Integrity, Objectivity and Independence .
The auditor should be straightforward, honest and sincere in his approach to his professional work.
He must be fair and must not allow prejudice or bias to override his objectivity. He should maintain an
impartial attitude and both be and appear to be free of any interest which might be regarded, whatever its
actual effect, as being incompatible with integrity and objectivity.
Confidentiality
The auditor should respect the confidentiality of information acquired in the course of his work and
should not disclose any such information to a third party without specific authority or unless there is a
legal or professional duty to disclose.
Skills and Competence
The audit should be performed and the report prepared with due professional care by persons who
have adequate training, experience and competence in auditing.
The auditor requires specialised skills and competence which are acquired through a
combination of general education, technical knowledge obtained through study and formal
courses concluded by a qualifying examination, and practical expeiience under proper
supervision. In addition, the auditor requires a continuing awareness of developments including
relevant international and national pronouncements on accounting and auditing matters, and
relevant regulations and statutory requirements."
OBJECTS OF AN AUDIT
The dominant principle of audit is the examination by an independent person of the accounts or
statement made by an accountable party, with a view to reporting to the person to whom the account is
rendered on its truth or falsity. The discovery of errors, fraudulent or otherwise, although frequently
supposed to be the main object of audit and in practice of great importance, is only a pait of the general
purpose. In the Act, nowhere the question of discovery of fraud in relation to the auditor's responsibility
is discussed, although negligence on his part leading to the failure to discover defalcations would
normally render him liable in damages.
Principles of Auditing 55
Where an undertaking whose accounts are being audited is large, greater reliance has to be
placed on the system in use for the prevention and detection of misappropriations and errors.
Therefore, the auditor has to use test checking technique to ascertain whether the system is
satisfactory and is being efficiently carried out. In smaller audits, more detailed work will have to
be done as the system, of internal check would be lacking.
Subject to the above remarks, the objects of an audit are classified as under:
(iu) False credits may be passed in customers' accounts relating to discounts, returns,
allowances or bad debts and an equivalent cash received may be stolen.
(v) Misappropriation of cash drawn in respect of wages may be done by either
inserting dummy names in the wages sheet or by overcasting the wages sheets.
(vi) Proceeds of bills discounted may be misappropriated and the bills still shown
on hand.
(vii) Cash received in respect of goods sent on sale or return or under VPP system
may be pocketed and goods shown having been returned.
(viii) Vouchers once approved and paid may be used in support of further reimbur
seme nts.
(ix) Cheques for personal purposes may be charged as business expenses.
(x) Fictitious purchases and expenses may be recorded with the motive of stealing
the corresponding cash.
(xi) Theft of unusual cash receipts, e.g., sale of waste etc., may be resorted to.
(xii) Cash balance may be understated by erroneous footing in the cash receipts and
disbursement records and cash equivalent to the extent of understatement may be
misappropriated.
A thorough vouching and the existence of a sound and effective system of internal conti-ol
would assist in bringing such frauds to light.
(b) Misappropriation of Goods. Goods purchased may be stolen or used for personal benefits.
Proper method of keeping accounts in respect of purchases, sales, consumption, stock-taking,
periodical-physical checking of stocks etc., and the checking thereof with the records would help
in preventing such losses.
(c) Fraudulent Manipulation of Accounts. This type of fraud is comparatively more difficult to
detect than those discussed above, as this is usually committed by directors or the management
with the object of either showing more profits or less profits than they actually are. With these
objectives, certain beneficial strings are linked. Some of the exaniples of such frauds are:
(i) Inflation or suppression of sales.
(ii) Inflation or suppression of purchases.
(iii) Over-valuation or under-valuation of assets and liabilities.
(io) Utilisation of secret reserves during a period when the concern has made
less or no profit, without disclosing this fact to the shareholders, (u) Not providing
any depredation or providing less or more depreciation.
The auditor must carry out the routine checking, vouching and verification, and make
searching enquiries intelligently to detect such fraudulent manipulations.
Principles of Auditing 59
4. Moral check
The visits of an auditor have considerable moral check on the staff of the client, as they are
aware that the accounts will be checked. A regular audit, therefore, tends to keep the books of
accounts up-to-date, and assists in exercising a great moral influence on the staff so as to help in
preventing fraud and errors. ISA 1 contains objective of an audit. Related guideline in this
respect is explained below:
"The objective of an audit of financial statements, prepared within a framework of
recognised accounting policies, is to enable an auditor to express an opinion on such
financial statements.
The auditor's opinion helps establish the credibility of the financial statements. The
user, however, should not assume that the auditor's opinion is an assurance as to the
future viability of the entity nor an opinion as to the efficiency or effectiveness with
which management has conducted the affairs of the entity."
ISA 11 deals with fraud and error. Besides giving definitions of fraud and error, pertinent
topics covered include responsibility for the detection of frauds and error, inherent limitations of
an audit, risk of fraud and error, procedures when there is an indication that fraud or error may
exist and other reporting responsibilities.
Relevant material contained in the above ISA is given below:
The term "fraud" refers to intentional misrepresentations of financial information by one or
more individuals among management, employees, or third parties. Fraud may involve:
(1) manipulatior,, falsification or alteration of records or documents;
(2) misappropribiion of assets;
(3) suppression or omission of the effects of transactions from records or
documents;
(4) recording of •ransactions without substance; and
60 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
The fact that records of a client are made by accounting machines will not affect the
principles of audit. However, it may result in material alteration in the routine work. From the
view-point of the auditor, the following advantages and disadvantages arise from the use of
accounting macliines:
Advantages
(11 Greater reliance may be placed on the arithmetical accuracy of the records, and
therefore less attention need be paid to the checking of detail work. The auditor is thus able to
devote a greater proportion of his time to the more important aspects of the audit.
(2) The records are more easily capable of subdivision between members of the auditors' staff,
thus expediting the checking of detail work.
(3) The records are more legible than when written by hand, and the waste of time and risk of
error so often occasioned through bad figures are avoided.
Disadvantages
(1) Original records require to be examined more closely since an error made thereon will
pass automatically throughout the whole of the records, and will not be brought to light by the
failure of one set of figures to agree with another.
(2) Less detail is normally provided by records compiled by a machine than is the case with
hand-written records. Considerable research may, therefore, be necessary in. certain cases in
older to elucidate doubtful entries.
(3) There is a considerable danger of the loose sheets required by the mechanised system
becoming lost, destroyed or fraudulently substituted.
64 A uditing: Principles and Procedures
ISA 5 is in respect of Auditing in an EDP Environment and ISA 16 deals with Computer-
Assisted Audit Techniques. ISA 6 contains a lucid commentary on Risk Assesment and Internal
Control. A separate chapter has been included in the book covering foregoing aspects.
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
AND TECHNIQUES OF
AUDITING
The fundamental principles of auditing are the principles on which is founded the whole art
of auditing and which govern the objects of audit. The techniques of auditing consists of the
methods adopted for achieving those objects. These principles are the decision of errors and
fraud and the verification of accuracy of accounts. They must remain unchanged whatever
technique is adopted to give effect to them.
Auditing is closely related to accountancy. Therefore any changes and improvements in
methods of accounting result in corresponding changes in the techniques of auditing. The
techniques of auditing are also affected by changes in the law, particularly in relation to the
accounts of the limited company. Such changes in the law usually impose increased duties and
responsibilities of auditors and require some revision in the method of his work.
65 A udiiing: Principles and Procedures
Appendix 1.1
3. Unusual transactions
l a) Unusual transactions, especially near the year end, that have a significant effect on
earnings.
(b ) Transactions with related parties.
(e) Payments for services (for example, to lawyers, consultants or agents) that appear
excessive in relation to the services provided.
Principles of Auditing 66
Appendix 1.2,
This appendix is intended to introduce the readers of this book to the background on the
subject of auditing. For a logical analysis, the history has been subdivided into certain specific
periods and is described below:
- - 1. 1850-1881. The^-st Companies Act in the thenBritish India was enacted
in 1850. One of the provisions included in the said Act was a half-yearly audit and a
report on the accounts audited to be given by the auditor.]! n Indo-1 'а к subcont i nent
there were a few British firms of accountants, but they were so busy that their
services were not available to the general public. The public Companies used to
appoint a European auditor for safeguarding the interests of the European
shareholders, and an Indian auditor with the objective of safeguarding the interests
of the Indian shai'eholders.T ' ."
2. IH82 1913. Then the Companies Act of 1882 was passed. Regulations 83-94 of Table 'A'
contained in the first : Schedule to the said Act provided for the audit of accounts of the.
companies adopting that Table and for the appointment, remuneration and duties of the auditors.
jlt was not necessary for a company auditor in those times to be an accountant himself. Some
companies in fact used to employ lawyers as their auditors^
3. 1913 1932. [The Companies Act, 1913, was passed to be effective as from 1st April, 1914.
No person could then act as the Auditor of a public limited company unless he held an auditor's
certificate granted by the government. The Provincial Governments were empowered to grant
Auditors' Certificates but, at the same time, the Central Government also reserved the right to
recognise members of certain professional bodies as qualified to function in the capacity of
company auditors without obtaining Auditor's Certificate from the government. Consequently
the members of the English, Scottish and Irish Institutes of Chartered Accountants and of the
English Society of Incorporated Accountants and Auditors were recognised as qualified
auditorsH .
Section 130 of the Companies Act, 1913, required that every company should cause to be
kept proper books of account with respect to: -
(a) all sums of money received and expended by the company, and the matters in
respect of which the receipt and expenditure took place;
(b) all sales and purchases of goods by the company; .
(c) the assets and liabilities of the comparw.
Thus'in broad outlines, the maintenance of books of accounts was made mandatory under
the Company Law.
For some years after 1914 the Provincial Governments used to .grant Auditors' Certificate
to persons who possessed some knowledge of accountancy. (At that time
68 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
there was no- provision of any kind for the training and examination of the accountants.
Government of Bombay was the first Provincial Government to take a constructive step in the
direction of organising the profession. In I91S, it instituted the Government Diploma in
Accountancy (called GDA) and made regulations for the examination and'training of those who
wanted to obtain that Diploma and certificate to practise-Д -.'
The action taken by the said government received the approval of other
Provincial and 'Central Governments. The result was that GDA Diploma became
the requisite qualification for the grant of Auditors' Certificates throughout the
then British ihdia^An Accountancy Board was set up by the Government and was
attached to the Sydenham College of Commerce and Economics, Bombay. This
functioned till 1932. The -Board was required to register apprenticeships and
randuct the required examinations. The successful candidates were granted the
GDA Diploma and they could practise if they had previously received training as
apprentices with a practising accountant. The Accountancy Board was also required
to advise the Government on all matters relating to accountancy - and the
Government Л' • ■■',■' :" . ■' . ".' • . •
4. \ 1932-Augtist 14, 1947. Till 1932 there was no centralised control b'ver the profession,
of accountancy, but. the necessity for such control was increasingly being felt because of the
changing requirements of the time ir d growing needs of the economy. Consequently the
Government framed Rules under Section 144 of the Companies Act. 1913,. cawed Auditor*
Certuifites Rules, 1932' The objectives of these Rules were broadly, as follows: * ■
(a ) Registering apprenticeships; : v
Ш "'Conducting examinations; • • -■':[ '■ '.::,':':":'■ •■'
. (c) Controlling and regulating the profession of auditing;
The. Accountancy profession was then being supervised and controlled by the Ministry of
Commerce of the Central Goyer-rrment.. With-.a view to helping the Government hi
rdiKehargirig the : necessary, responsibilities in. respect ' yf the accountancy profession, Indian
Accountancy Board was established. Til's Board consisted of officials and practising accountants
nominated to it" by the Government. Later, in'1939, appointment of a majority of the members on
the.Board was made oh the elective principle. The Board, was only an advisory body, .The
Auditors' Certificates Rules, 1Э32, required the passing of two examinations — Registered
Accountants first and final If further hud down the tenure of".the,"prescribed training which was
required to be completed during the pei'cd of apprenticeship. Provisions meant to regulate
and.control the profession were also "contained therein. ■
" 5. August 14( 1947-1972.|TJakistan emerged as a sovereign state on August 14, 1947, and
adapted the Auditors' Certificates Rules, 1932. Amendments were made in 1950 and the affairs'of
the accountancy profession were then^ administered under the Auditors' Certifyates Rule? 1950
These -.ere published in the Gazette of PaU. stan oil December : 30 "1950 for regulating- the-
accountancy pj^Qfessron m
Principles ofAuditing 69
Pakistan: These Rules were generally based on the old rules with some amendments incorporated
therein. A person who passed the Registered Accountants, first and final examination and who
satisfied the Ministry of Commerce, Central. Government of Pakistan that he-had completed-the
prescribed practical training could:have his name placed on the register ma^ained by the said
Ministry and was entitled to use the designation 'Registered Accountant' (RA). The Companies
Act, 1913, as adapted by Pakistan allowed only a Registered Accountant to act as the auditor of a
public limited .company, although his services could also be utilised for the audit of private
companies, partnership concerns and sole traders. Under the law, as it stands now, it is not
compulsory for private limited companies to get their accounts audited by a. qualified
accountant.1
bi .1962, the Registered Accountants formed a private body known as "Pakistan Institute of
Aecountants'Nwith the object of looking after their own interest and taking up with the Ministry
of Commerce, Government of Pakistan, matters affecting the accountancy profession. It was
realised that the accountancy profession had hitherto been well nursed by .the Government, but
the Registered Accountants in the profession had in their mind the ultimate goal of having an
autonomous association in the country.
.'. The Government also realised that the profession was'rapidly-growing in'its stature and
importance andfin June 1959 the Department of Accountancy was established in the Ministry of
Commerce with a Controller of Accountancy to deal with the profession instead of a Section
OfficerГ] -,
The Pakistan Institute of Accountants persisted with the idea of establishment of an
independent'body .jAn advisory body called the "Council of Accountancy" was set up under the;
Auditors' Certificates Rules, 1950,. which recommended the establishment of the Institute of
Chartered Accountants in Pakistan. The Government accepted the recommendations, and the
Department of Accountancy assisted by the officials; of the Institute and a number of its
members prepared the Draft Ordinance to be passed..
The Chartered Accountants Ordinance, 1961, received the assent of the President of
Pakistan on March 3, 1961, and was published in Part I of the Extraordinary Gazette of Pakistan
on March 10, 1961. The Institute, of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan came into being on July
1, 1961. A draft of the Chartered Accountants Bye-Laws was also prepared and published for
inviting public comments. The amended version called the Chartered Accountants Bye-Laws,
1961, was published in the Part I of the Extraordinary Gazette of Pakistan on July 1, 1961 and .
was enforced as on . that date. As of that date the Department of
1. However, under Section 13A of the Income Tax Act,.1922, all private limited companies, whose puld Up capital waB rupees two
million or more were required to get their accounts certified by a Chartered Accountant or an Industrial Accountant.
Noln' The above Act was replaced by the Income Tax Crdmanc-i, 1979 and Industrial Accountants were redesigned as Cost
and Management Accountants
Principles of Auditing 2Г
Accountancy and the Pakistan Institute of Accountants having served a very useful purpose were
liquidated."/
The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan is now a statutory
autonomous body and is administered by a Council 'of .thirteen. The Council is
assisted by : the three standing committees known as Executive Committee,
Examination Committee and Investigation Committee. The Chartered Accountants
Bye-Laws also provide for the formation of regional committees to look after the
interests of their members. At present there are two such committees; .one each in
Karachi and Lahore. The. members are divided into classes — namely, Associates
and Fellows (АСА, FCA). ■■
The Pakistan Institute of Industrial Accountants .was registered in.the year
1951 by a group of Government and .business executives for the advancement of
Accounting and Cost Accounting. In July 1966, the National Assembly of Pakistan
passed an Act- entitled the 'Cost and Industrial Accountants Act, 1966' (XIV of
1966). This Act regulates the profession of Cost and Industrial Accountancy and the
Pakistan Institute of Industrial Reconstitution of Accountants for that purpose,
which was subsequent done. .. ■
The Finance Ordinance, 1972, empowered its members to certify the accounts of private
limited companies with paid up capital of Rupees two million or over for the purposes of Section
13A of the Income Tax Act, 1922.
6. 1984 Onward. In December 1984, the Companies Act, 1913 was replaced by Companies
Ordinance, 1984. Through this, consolidation of various laws in one company code was
undertaken. Salient features of the relevant legal provisions governing accounting profession are
summarised below:
(а) Maintenance of accounting record was extended to mandatory provision
for cost accounting record in respect of manufacturing industries.
Currently the government is. considering prescribing cost accounting
■ records under Section 230(lXe) of the Companies Ordinance, 1984.
(б) Legal provisions also require cost audit and cost accounting records on
annual basis by a Chartered Accountant or Cost and Management
;
Accountant. •v.
' (c) The Fourth Schedule annexed to the above Oi^nance includes detailed requirements
governing information disclosure relating to preparation of balance sheet and profit and
loss account. For listed companies in Pakistan these requirements are very extensive and
listed companies are legally obliged to follow these. Total number of listed companies on
Karachi Stock Exchange as on. August. 14, 1989, was 418 with market capitalisation of
Rs.45 billion.
(d) The Fifth Schedule annexed to the Companies Ordinance, 1984, lays down .
requirements for preparation of financial statements in respect of unlisted companies.
71 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
(e). For listed companies the above Ordinance has also laid down that > National
Accounting Standards and other standards developed. and. notified by the Corporate Law
Authority, Ministry of Finance, Government of Pakistan, are mandatory. This has been a
good -step in extending the mandatory requirements for compHance of national
accounting standards and -various other standards prescribed by the Institute of
Chartered Accountants of Pakistan and the Institute of Cost and Management
Accountants of Pakistan.
(fl Preparation of funds flow statement has also been made mandatory in
respect of listed companies in Pakistan. ",.
(g) Release of half yearly unaudited financial statements is also the legal necessity for listed
companies in Pakistan.
(Л) A prescribed form (Form 35-A) has been issued by the Corporated Law Authority,
Ministry of Finance, Government of Pakistan, Islamabad, as Auditor's Report for
limited companies.
AUDITING
PROCEDURES
The audit work is operated with, the help of the following techniques:
1. Ticking. Ticking indicates the placing of a mark against an entry in the book todenote
that it has been examined by. the auditor for a certain purpose. Variously shaped marks are used
to denote checking of additions,1 posting, carryforward, tracing, extraction of balances etc. Ticks
are generally put in indelible pencil, although some auditors also use pen and ink for this
purpose.*1
To ensure consistency, most of the good auditors use a tick chart which is required to
bejcanit by heart by all the members of the audit staff.
2- Casting. Casting refers to the checking of additions of books of accounts and financial
statementsTlTis essential that arithmetical, accuracy be checked so Uiat frauds or errors' (if any)
may be detected. This job is normally done by a junior memBer^of audit staff. Most of the
auditors use mechamcal appliances or a3oung machines tq*cneCTFЖе casting of the books of
accounts.
3. Calling-over. A sizable part' of the work of,audit .consists in the
comparison of entries in two or more books or of an entry ш a book with its
supporting evidence or voucher. This is. usually carried" out by two clerks; one
reading the item to the other. Care" зпТлйачбё^гбео! to see that' the whole of the
Important; details of each item is eheckVd and" not merely the amount Special care
m checking postings to personal ledgers is needed as to names and title of.account,
otherwise a wrong posting may remain undetected. Clarity in pronunciation is
esseTftiaT." There may be a confusion between ninety au^'mneteeri, , 'sTxly 'af^'sfxteen
etc. Thus it is advisable to pronounce ninety as'niiietie, sixty as sixtie and so on.
Similarly when calling out a figure as Rs. 80.90, there should be a pause Between
80 and 90, lest it should he understood as Rs. 89. "" ' '""
Some of the instances of ticks together with what they indicate are;'
""V = Vouched. T = Traced С = Casts checked. ! = Posting checked. В = Balance cbtcfcsd-
73 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
4. VoucMng^The function of the voucher is to-authenticate an. entry' and the auditor must
BatisfxJrijnseTf "that it does this. !t_rn.usi .cprrespondln date^and accountT5"the entry in the
books.:It must be in respect of the client and the entry must be correctly passed in the books. The
£cj. of vouching consists of checking the documentary evidence (mvoices, cash memos, bills,
receipts, vouchers, minutes,
"reference to legal documents etcj_as should establish the -accuracy and trutlifulness of Ше,
entries appearing in thebooksof account, and in those eases where it is not so, the matters are
note4"fbr chscussion and if the auditor still remains unsatisfied, the outstanding matters
arereported to the client.
5. Vefification. When an auditor has vouched the entries, appearing in the
books of account, his.duty is not thereby fully ihscharged. If appointed for audit
under the Act, he has to report whether or not the balance sheet exhibits a true and
correct view of the state of affairs of the company. For this purpose, he should
satisfy hi msejf.o^ the following points: ; .
^Xa) That each asset and liability is correctly valued and correctly stated in the
, balance sheet.
^ ' (b) That the assets actually existed at the date of the balance sheet.
■ У\& That they are property of the business. • ';.
-(d) That they are not suffering from a charge except that disclosed in the balance sheet.
The technique of audit.carried out to achieve the foregoing objectives is known
as'verification'. " . - ....
.6. Reporting. After the^aboye^stensjmyejpeen carried out, the auditor will then be
r^^^Sr^sub^t his report. T^s£orrn^and^e''c^^
several factors, e.g., the legal statu? of the appointing authority, the coru'xact'rorTne
scope of work to be done, wliether the audit is being conducted under the "Companies
Ordinance, 1984, Banking Companies Oidinance, 1962. Insurance Act, 19.38, etc.
Tiie'"points to be considered while drafting ^report in respect of sole traders and
partnership coiicerns will be dealt with a length in a separate chapter of this book.
However, the form of auditors' report to be submitted after the annual audit of
ai^iffits_of a company has beenpresmbedas Form 35 A annexed to the Companies
Rules, 1985Г"---------г-^-ггГ"' * ~~ .—" —.-.-^
Modem trends follow the undernoteisequence:' " ^tl)
Examination ofthe accounting system. <f(2) Evaluation of
internal controls. JS) Sample checking of vouchers. <^(4)
Verification of assets and liabilities. ^={5) Submission of
auditors report.
2*i Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Procedures
These tests are designed to qbtainreasonable asjsurancejhat those, internal contro^bn'wTd'eh
auchtrejh^e is to be placed are in effect^
Substantive Procedures
These are designed to obtain evidence as_to and
vah^fyof the daj^jprodui^^ system. These are of two types:
y.'(l) Tests of details of transactions and.balances. .
^ (2) Analysis of significant ratios and trends including the resulting investigation of
unusual fluctuations and items.
SCOPE OF AUDIT
ISA 1 contains lucid discussion in respect of Basic Principles Governing an Audit scope of
audit. Related portions of the above revised until Octber 1991 are given below: .
Introduction •
1. An .audit is the independent exa mination of financial statements or related financial
information of an entity, whether' profit oriented or foot, and irrespective of its size, or legal
form, when such an examination is conducted with a view to expressing ah opinion thereon.
2. This Standard describes the overall objective of an audit and basic principles which govern
the auditor's professional responsibilities and which should be complied with whenever an
audit of financial statements and other financial information is carried out.
3. Other International Standards on AuditingCISAs) elaborate on the principles set out herein to
give guidance on auditing procedures and reporting practices. Compliance with the basic
principles recorires the application of auditing procedures and reporting practices appropriate
to the particular circmrrstances.
Auditing Procedures 75
Objective of an Audit
4. The objective of an audit of financial statements, prepared within a framework of
recognized accounting pohcies,1 is to enable an auditor to express an opinion 2 on such
financial statements.
5. The auditor's opinion helps establish the credibility of the financial statements.
The user, however, should not assume that the auditor's opinioд: is., an
assurance as to the future viability of the entity nor an dpinion as to the
efficiency or effectiveness with which management has conducted the affairs of
the entity. . ■,
Scope of Audit
7. • The scope of an audit of financial statements is noi-mally determined by the
requirements of ISAs, relevant professional bodies, legislation, regulations, and where
appropriate the terms of the audit engagement; and reporting requirements.
8. The audit should be organized to cover adequately all aspects of the entity as far as they are
relevant to the financial statements being audited. The. auditor should determine ■ whether
the information contained in the underlying accounting records and other source data is
reliable and sufficient as the basis for the preparation of the financial statements.
9. The auditor should obtain a svnTicient understanding of the accounting and internal control
systems to plan the audit and develop an effective audit approach. The understanding of the
accounting and internal control systems,
fundamental accounting assumptions and considerations governing tbe selection and application of accounting policies, as
well as other standards to be observed in the presentation of audited financial statements, are issued by the International
Accounting Standards Committee. Many national profesBlofial bodies also issue pronouncements on such matters.
Legislation or regulation within a country often contain further accounting and diaolosm e requirements.
There is a variety of terminology used in diSerant countries by aud itors in expressing an opinion on financial
statements_.T]ie actual woi-ding used reflects concepts determined by local legislation, by rules ieeued by professional bodies
or by the development of general practice within the country. Wordings frequently used to reflect these.соncept« aie "present
fairly in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles," give a true and fair view, ;md "in uniformity with the
law" (see ISA 13, The Auditor's Beport on Financial Statements!
2*i Auditing: Principles and Procedures
together with the inherent and control risk assessments and other considerations, enables
the auditor to:
•
identify the types of potential material misstatements that could occur in the
financial statements;
• - consider factors that effect the risk of material misstatements; and •.. design
appropriate substantive procedures.
10. Judgment permeates the auditor's work; for'example, in deciding the extent of audit
procedures and in assessing the reasonableness of the judgments and estimates made by
management in preparing the.'financial statements. Furthermore, much of the evidence
available to auditors is persuasive rather than conclusive in nature. Because of the above
factors; absolute certainty in auditing is rarely attainable.
11. In forming an opinion on the financial statements, the auditor carries out procedures
designed to ' obtain reasonable assurance that the financial statements give a true and fair
view or present fairly in accordance with the relevant national standards or International
Accounting Standards in all material respects. Because of the test nature and other inherent-
limitations of an audit, together with the inherent limitations of any system of internal
control, there is an unavoidable risk that even some material misstatement may remain
undiscovered
12. The auditor, determines whether the relevant information is properly communicated by:
• comparing the financial statements with the underlying accounting records and other
source data to see whether they properly summarize the transactions and events
recorded therein, and ■' ,
• considering the assertions1 that management has made in preparing the financial
statements; accordingly, the auditor assesses the selection and consistent application
of accounting principles, the manner .in which the
- information has been classified, and the adequacy of disclosure.
13. Constraints on the scope of the audit of financial statements that impair the auditor's ability
to express an unqualified opinion oh such financial statements should be set' out in the
report, and a qualified opinion or disclaimer of Opinion should be expressed, as appropriate.
Ethics
14. In performing audits in accordance with ISAs, auditors should comply with the
Assetertions are representations by management that are emboidied in the financial stuttet^e^ .There are seven clurteifications
of financial statement assertions: exist-jote, tights and «ЪБ«яа> oecurance, completeness, valuation, measurement, and
presentation and disclosure.
Auditing Procedures 23
Confidenthlity;
16". The auditor should, as stated in paragraph' 16 of the Code of Ethics for Professional
Accountants, "respect the confidentiality of information acquired during the course of
performing professional Services and should-not use or disclose any such information
without proper and specific authority or unless there is a legal or professional right or duty
to disclose." ■■
Planning
19. The auditor should plan to conduct an effective audit in an efficient and timely manner. Plans
should be based on a knowledge of the client's business. The
78 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
auditor should obtain sirfficient appropriate audit evidence through the performance of tests
of control and substantive procedures to enable the auditor to draw reasonable conclusions
therefrom on which to base an opinion on the financial information.
20 Plans should be made to cover, among other things:
• obtaining a sufficient knowledge of the client's business and a sufficient . rniderstanding
of the accounting and internal control systems;
. • assessing the lever of audit , risk which includes the risk that material misstatements will occur
(inherent risk), the risk that the client's system of internal control will not prevent or
detect such misstatements (control risk), and the risk that any remaining material
misstatements will not be detected by the auditor (detectionrisk);
• determining and programming the nature, timing and extent of the audit procedures to
be performed; and
• ' considering of the going concern assumption regarding Xhc entity's ability ■
to continue in operation for the foreseeable future, generally for a period not to exceed
one year after the balance sheet date.
21. The auditor should Obtain a sufficient understanding of the accounting and internal control,
systems to plan the audit and develop an effective audit approach. After obtaining the
understanding, the auditor should consider the assessment of control risk to determine the
appropriate detection risk to accept for the financial statement assertions and to determine
the nature, tiniing and extent of substantive procedures for such assertions.
22. Where the auditor assesses control risk at a lower level, substantive procedures would
normally bo less extensive than would other-wise be required and may also differ.as to their
nature and timing;
23. Plans should be further developed and revised as necessary duringthe course of
■ the audit.
Documentation
26. The auditor should document matters which are important in providing -. evidence that the:
audit was .carried out in accordance with the principles of
■ ■ ISAs,'...-.,. Audit
Evidence
27 Tests of control are performed to obtain evidence about the effectiveness of the desipx,«Llhe.
accounting and internal contj^^sysfamr^^ cu'ieciivencss of the operation of the policies and
procedures applied
2S. S ibs1 mtiyo procedures are designed to obtain evidence as to the completeness,
.'■ accuracy \nd validity of the data produced by the accounting system They are
cf two.-types. ~ ■ "~'
• tests of dot-ids of transactions andl^ances;
. . • anajvjas - J j t :.депЩ&гд£^.rjaijpgi,Jand - trends. Jpaclucbr^ the i resulting .. niv
estigation of unusual flj^twatiuns-and items
31. 'viie?.. a yuuiiliixi opimor1 adverse oprrisori of'a dis .l-inncr of cpvue 1
*.s given,
■... --itbe; audit report should state in a clear and informative maimer--aH : of the
. ■.■■ijeasohs thcrefei. ■■'
t
^ V CONDUCT OF AUDIT
Continuous Audit
Concept
.It is also, known as 'Tanning audit'-. /Under such a type of audit, an auditor is required
to'visit fl business house at "lttrvals (which may be fixed or otherwise), during the financial year
and check the books to date as fai, as possible. This type of audit is practised: When it is desired
that the audited filial accounts should be ready immediately after the close of financial year as'in
the base of banking companies; when a business is extraordinarily large and numerous
transactions, are to be cheeked; when, in a business house, monthly or quarterly final accounts are
required Oifoughout the year "**"
.Advantages:- ;■: '...' >
Т. ' Easy rectification o f errors. As the books are" checked soon after the entries have been
made, enws'~c;ui be spotlighted as well as rectified more' quickly. Similarly, frauds can be
detected at an eaily stage
SH'f-*'' 0SjZyi'ds: И imposes a check upon frauds because of the. reason that . books
are kept up-todate and -a inoral check n exerted on.the staff.
3. ' Quick JX)l!ipkti<Xn. The accounts are kept up-to-date and'the audit can be completed
more quickly and accounts can be presented to the shaieholders soon after the closing of the
financial year. .
" 4... Closer contoMjvith the business. The auditor, while practising this type of audit, can have
greater touch with the! transactions of a going: coheern, Inthis way, he can consider all tire:
important points and there is less likelihood of neglecting any important matter.
5. Proper attention. As the auditor has ample time before the finalization of
accounts, greater attention can be paid to the checldng.of accounts and detection of
errors and frauds. ' .' • .■ .'
6. Interim dividend. When the directois of a company decide to pay interim dividend to the
sHarebolders, continuous audit will expedite the preparation of interim accounts without much
delay.
Disadvantages
1. Alteration i n figures. There is a possibility of alteration, in figures either ignorantly or
deliberately after they have been checked by an . auditor, fn this way, errors ОГ frauds cannot be
detected without further ^.checking which is БЕМОИ carried but. ■
Auditing Procedures 81
2. Interruption in work: As the audit is conducted for several years, the auditor may lose
the thread of work and omit to follow up transactions completely which may navebeen left open
at the date of his last visit. ;
.3. Inconvenience. The frequent visits by an auditor and his frequent checking may dislocate
his client's work and causa inconvenience to him. The thread of the work is also likely to be lost.
4. Expensive^ This type of audit is comparatively more expensive as the auditor makes
several visits and performs detailed work involving more time being
The following m^cautions must be taken to reduce the above disadvantages to the
minimum .possiibie; '
The auditor must take special steps while conducting the audit on interim basis. These
steps should require the prohibition of the alteration of figures. Moreover, all the
corrections should be recorded through journal entries with full narration.
On his next visit, the auditor must glance through the altered figures. He should
enquire of the alterations and ensure that they were duly authenticated. In this way
frauds Can be miramized, -
At the end of each visit, the auditor should make a note of all significant totals and
other figures.
There must be a well developed programme so that the possibility of any loose
motives should be dealt with. .
Checking of a book must be completed at least in one visit while the cheeking of all
impersonal account should be postponed till all the books are at the disposal of the
auditor.'
All quarries must be noted in the audit note-book and complete record as to how they
were cleared should also be. maintained;
The system becomes indispensable in the following cases:
- (1) Where monthly financial, accounts are required throughout the period.-
.(2). Where it is required to have the audited accounts ready immediately after the close of
the financial year, e.g., a bank or a financial institution.
(3) Where a satisfactory system of internal control is lacking. •
(4) In big concerns requiring considerable detailed checking. . \-
■ ■ A final or complete audit is one which is started after the close of the accounting year of a
business and it is carried out until completion, It is also called 'balance sheet audit' or 'periodical
audit'. The advantages of this type of audit are as follows:
82 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
(1) The auditor is supplied with the full facts relating to the year under review and he can
peruse the books and accounts duly completed in respect of that particular year.
(2) There is less danger of manipulation and alteration of figures after they have been
checked.
(3) Thread of the work is not likely to be lost, as the whole work is performed at one
stretch.
The final audit works satisfactorily in case of small concerns but in case of large businesses
it takes more time to check accounts and to submit the report to the shareholders. ■
Interim Audit
Ihteriro^u^tjie^midway betweeij finals to know 'the 'reliable trading results of a business for
a part of the year, the proprietor may arrange for the carrying out of _an,,interim audit to be
carried out during the year, i. е., montWy, Quarterlyorhalf-yearly. For example, if the directors of
a particular company desire to pay the interim dividend after a certain period, say nine months
after the date of financial closing, an interim audit may be conducted.
Interim audit has the following advantages:
(1) It enables the final audit to be completed soon.
(2) Auditor's suggestions can be implemented quickly in an interim audit than in the case
of a final audit. Threugh an interim audit, work can be satisfactorily done by staff
along with the advice of auditors.
(3) In the audit of a large and important .concern, some form of interim "audit is almost
indispensable in order that' a sufficient amount of detailed checking may be done.
The type of audit to be adopted depends upon the magnitude and requirements of the
business.
ISA 2 deals with audit engagements letter. JlLl^adyisablg. .that the auditor should send an
engagement letter before. the commencement of engagement. This will help in avoiding
nusunderstandings^with respect to- the engagement.
There is an Appendix attached io the above ISA which presents an example of an Audit
Engagement Letter.
Important aspects contained in the said ISA are reproduced below:
Auditing Procedures 83
Principal Contents
1. The form and content of audit engagement letters may vary for each
client, but they should generally include reference to:
i d) The objective of the audit of financial information.
(6) Management's responsibihty for the financial information.
(c) The scope of the audit, induding reference to applicable legislation, regulations, or
pronouncements of professional bodies to which the auditor adheres.
(d) The form of any reports or other communication of results of the engagement.
(e) The fact that because ofthe test nature and other inherent limitations of anaudit,
togeTher with the inherent limitations of any system of internal controTTthere is an
"imaybidable risk that even some material misstatement may remain undiscovered.
(fi Access to whatever records, documentation and other information requested in
connection with the audit.
2. The auditor may also wish to include in the letter (a)
Arrangements regarding the planning of the audit.
(o) Expectation of receiving from management written confirmation concerning
representations made in connection with the audit.
(c) Request for the client to confirm the terms of the engagement by
acknowledging receipt of the engagement letter.
(d) Inscription of any other letters or reports he expects to issue to the client.
" " Ce) Basis on which fees are computed and any billing aiTangements.
3. When relevant, the following points could also be made:
(a) Arrangements concerning the involvement of other auditors and experts in some
"aspects of the audit.
Co) Arrangements cpncerning the involvement of internal auditors and other client sj^afi\_
(c) Arrange^entsAifany, to be made_with the predecessor auditor, in the case of an
initial^ audit.
(d) Any restriction of the auditor's liability when sueh possibility exists.
(e) A reference to any further agreements between the auditorand theclient.
Recurring Audits
1. On recurring audits, the audrtqr_maxdecjde not to ^enda new. engagement
letter^e^ch^year, However, the following factors mipht cause him to,decide to send a new letter:
84 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
(a) Any indication feat the client nusunderstands the objective scope of
the аигЩ. . L'
(b) Any revised or special terms of the engagement:
(c) A recent change rjf management,,
i d ) ■ A significant change in nature or size ofthe client's business., (e) Legal
requirements.
ша
If the auditor decidesjanew engagement letter is unnecessary for any year.^he У wish to
remind tbe_client of the original letter.
Audits of Components
1. When the auditor of a parent is also the auditor of its subsidiary, branch or division
(component), he should consider such factois as the following in deciding whether to send a
separate engagement letter to the component:
(a) Who appoints the auditor of the component.
(o) Whether a separate audit report is to be issued on the component
(c) Legal requirements.
(d) The extent of any work performed by other auditors.
(e) Degree of ownership by parent.
з<; Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Appendix 1.3
The following letter is for use as a guide in conjunction with the considerations-
Outlined in the Guideline, and should he varied according to individual
requirements and circumstances: :.
To the Board of Directors or the appropriate representative of senior management:
You have requested that we audit the balance sheet, statements of income and
changes in financial position of. . . ......................................: . . . . as of and for the year
ending . .. . . ... . . . i .". -:: . . We are pleased to confirm our
acceptance and our understanding of this engagement by means of this letter. Our audit
will be made in accordance with applicable authoritative
pronouncements in . . ... .л.............................(name of country) with the objective of
our expressing an opinion on the financial statements.
In forming Our opinion on the financial statements, we will perform sufficient
tests to obtain reasonable assurance as to whether the information contained in
the underlying accounting records and other source data is reliable ■ and
sufficient as the basis for the preparation of the financial statements. We will
also decide whether the information is properly communicated in the financial
statements. ,. '■
Because of the test nature and other inherent limitations of an audit, together with-the
inherent limitations of any System of internal control, there is an unavoidable risk that
even some material misstatement may remain undiscovered.
In addition to our report on the financial statements, we expect to provide you with a
separate letter concerning any material weaknesses in internal control which come to our
notice.
May we remind you that the responsibility for the preparation of financial statements
including adequate disclosure" is that of the management of the company. This includes the
maintenance of adequate accounting records and internal controls, the selection and
application of accounting policies, and the safeguarding of the assets of the Company. As
part of our audit process, we will request from management written coi^firmation
concerning representations made to us in connection with the audit.
We look forward to full cooperation with your staff and we trust that they will make
available to us whatever records, documentation and other infortnation are requested in
connection with our audit.
Our fees, which will be billed as work progresses, are baaed on the time required by the
individuals assigned to the engagement phis direct out-of-
Auditing Procedures 86
pocket expenses. Individual hourly rates vary according to the degree of responsibility
involved and the experience and skill required.
This letter will be effective for future years unless it is terminated, amended or superseded.
Please sign and return the attached copy of this letter to indicate that it is in accordance with
your understanding of the arrangements for our audit of the financial statements.
XYZ&CO.
ISA 5 revised upto October 1991 contains useful'standards governing using the work of an
other auditor. In this respect relevant portion are given below:
introduction
1. International Standard on Auditing 1, Objective and Basic Principles Governing an Audit
states:
"When the auditor delegates work to assistants, the auditor continues to be responsible
for forming and expressing an opinion on the financial statements and other financial
information. The auditor should carefully direct, supervise and review work delegated
to assistants.
When the auditor uses work performed by other auditors or experts, the auditor should
obtain reasonable assurance that' such work is adequate for the purposes ofthe audit."
The purpose of this Standard is to amplify the basic principle outlined above as
it relates to other auditors. ..
2. This Standard applies when an independent auditor (referred to herein as the principal
auditor) reporting on the financial statements of an entity uses the work of another
independent auditor (referred to herein as the other auditor) with respect to the financial
statements of one or more divisions, branches, subsidiaries or- associated companies
(referred to herein as components) included in the financial statements ofthe entity. This
Standard also applies when the principal auditor reports on other financial information. For
the purposes of this Standard, offices of the principal auditor's firm in a different country,
affiliated firms, correspondents,, and unrelated auditors who are involved in the audit of
components of the entity are considered as other -auditors.
3. This Standard does not deal with those instances where two or more auditors are appointed
as joint auditors nor does it deal with the arrditor's relationship with a predecessor auditor.
A uditing Procedures 87
2. When the principal auditor concludes that the financial statements of a component are
immaterial, the procedures outlined in this Standard do not apply. When several
components, immaterial in themselves, are together material in relation to the financial
statements of the entity as a whole, the procedures outlined in this Standard should be
considered.
Documentation
10. The principal auditor should document in his working papers the components whose
financial statements were audited by other auditors, their significance to the financial
statements of the entity as a whole, the names of the other auditors. and any conclusions
reached that individual components are immaterial. He should also document how he
applied the procedures he performed, and the conclusions he reached. For example, he
should identify working papers of the other auditor that he has reviewed and record the
results of discussions with the other auditor. However, the principal auditor need not
document in his working papers the reasons for limiting the procedures in the
crrcumstances described in * paragraph 8, provided those reasons are sunimarized
elsewhere in documentation maintained by his firm.
principal auditor, should cooperate with that auditor and assist him actively. For example,
he should bring to the principal auditor's attention any aspect of his work that cannot be
carried out as requested. Similarly, the principal auditor should advise the other auditor of
any matters that come to his attention that he thinks may have an important bearing on the
other auditor's work.
Reporting Considerations
12. The principal auditor should qualify his report or disclaim an opinion when he concludes,
based on his procedures, that he cannot use the work of the other
т auditor and has not been able to perform sufficient additional procedures with respect to the
financial statements of the component reported on by the other auditor.
13. In all circumstances, if an other auditor qualifies his report, the principal auditor should
consider whether the subject of the qualification is of such a nature and significance, in
relation to the financial statements of the entity on which the principal auditor is reporting,
that it requires a qualification of his Own report.
Division of Responsibility
14. While compliance with the guidance in the preceding paragraphs is considered desirable,
the local regulations of some countries permit a principal auditor to base his opinion on the
financial statements taken as a whole solely upon the report of an other auditor with respect
to the financial statements of one or more components. When the principal auditor does so,
his report should state this fact clearly and should indicate the magnitude of the portion of
the financial statements audited by the other auditor. When the auditor makes such a
reference in his report, he ordinarily limits his procedures to those described in paragraph 6
a) through d).
PROFESSIONAL CONDUCT
Based on Section 15 of the Chartered Accountants Ordinance, 1961, it will be the duty of
the Council to carry out the provisions of the above Ordinance, In particular and without
prejudice to the generality of the provision, contained in the above Ordinance the functions of
the Council include:
(1) The examination of candidates for enrollment and the prescribing pf fees
therefor,
(2) the regulation of the engagement and training students;
(3) the prescribing of cmalifications for entry in the Register;
(4) the recognition of foreign qualifications and training for purposes of
enrollment;
(5) the granting or refusal of certificates of practice under the said Ordinance;
(6) the maintenance and publication of a Register of persons qualified to practise
as Chartered Accountants;
(7) the levy and collection of fees from members, examinee and other persons;
(8) the removal of names from the Register and the restoration to the Register of
names which have been removed;
(9) the regulation and maintenance of the status and standard of professional
qualifications of the members of the Institute;
(10) the carrying out, by financial assistance to persons other than members of the
Council or in any other manner, of research in accountancy;
(11) the maintenance of a library and publication of books and periodicals relating
to accountancy;
(12) the exercise of such disciplinary powers over the members and servants of the
Institute as may be prescribed;
(13) the formation of such Striding Committees as may be prescribed;
(14) the constitution of an Investigation Committee consisting of such members as
may be prescribed; and
(15) such other powers as may be conferred on the Council by the Federal
Government.
92 Auditing: Principles and
Procedures
DUTIES AND
OBLIGATIONS OF A
STUDENT AND PRINCIPAL1
The discussion is based on relevant clauses of the '"Training Contract", the profnrma ос >Ппсв кв been prescribed under the
Chartered Accountants Bye-Laws, 1983, as Form "R".
Auditing Procedures 93
AUDIT PLANNING
However, ISA 4 deals exclusively with planning. Relevant portions: are reproduced below:
(1) Planning should be continuous throughout the engagement and involves:
(a) developing an overall plan for the expected scope and conduct of the audit; and
■
(b) developing an audit programme showing the nature, timing, and extend of audit
procedures.
Changes in conditions or unexpected results of audit procedures may cause
revisions ofthe overall'plan and of the audit programme. The reasons for
иэ/У significant changes should be documented. ^ -tr- У t
^улу.ь>1лС-(2) Adequate audit planning helps to ensure that appropriate attention is devoted to important
areas ofthe audit, potential problems are promptly identified, and the work is
completed expeditiously. Planning also assists in proper utilisation of assistants and in
coordination of work done by other auditors and experts.
(3) The extent of planning will vary according to the size and complexity of the audit, the
auditor's previous experience with the client, and his knowledge of the client's
business.
(4) The auditor may wish to discuss elements of his overall plan and certain audit
procedures with the client's management and staff to improve the efficiency ofthe
audit and to coordinate audit procedures with work of the client's personnel. The
overall audit plan and the audit programme, however, remain the auditor's
responsibility.
94 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
D ,
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
The terms of his engagement and any statutory responsibilities.
The nature and timing of reports or other communication with
the client that are expected under the engagement.
The accounting policies adopted by the client and changes in
those policies.
The effect of new accounting or auditing pronouncements on
the audit. The identification of significant audit areas. The
setting of materiality levels for audit purposes.
Conditions requiring special attention, such as the possibility of
material .error or fraud or the involvement of related parties.
The degree of reliance he expects to be able to place on
accounting system and internal control.
Possible rotation of emphasis on specific audit areas.
The nature and extent of audit evidence to be obtained.
The work of internal auditors and the extent of their
involvement, if any, in the audit.
96 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
obtaining sufficient appropriate audit evidence. The auditor should also consider the timing of the
procedures, the coordination of any assistance expected from the client, the availability of
assistants, and the involvement of other auditors or experts.
The auditor normally has flexibility in deciding when to perform audit procedures, as very few
of them have to be carried out within specific time limits. For example, procedures carried out on
transactions can be performed at any time after the transaction has been recorded. On the other
hand, the auditor may have no discretion as to timing, for example, when observing the taking of
inventories by client personnel.
The audit phjn^and, related programme should be reconsidered as the audit progresses. Such
consideration is based-on the auditor's review of internal control, "his preliminary evaluation
thereof, and the results of his compliance and substantive procedures.
AUDIT EVIDENCE
ISA 8 deals with audit evidence. Its salient features are reproduced below:
evidence:
Ш External evidence (e.g., confirmation received from a third parryj is more reliable than
internal evidence.
(2) Internal evidence is more reliable when related internal control is satisfactory.
(3) Evidence obtained by the auditor himself is more reliable than thai obtained
fi'om the entity.
.- (4) Evidence in the form of documents and written representations is more reliable than
oral representations.
The Auditor may gain increased assurance when audit evidence.obtained from different
sources or of a different nature is consistent. In these circumstances, he may obtain a cumulative
degree of assurance higher than that which he attaches to the individual items of evidence by
themselves. Conversely, when audit. evidence obtained from one source is inconsistent with that
obtained from another, further procedures may have to be performed to resolve the inconsistency.
The auditor should be thorough in his efforts to obtain evidence and be objective in its
evaluation. In selecting procedures to obtain evidence, he should recognise the possibility that the
financial information may be materially misstated.'
There should be a rational relationship between me cost of obtaining evidence and the
usefulness of the information obtained. However, the matter of difficulty and expense involved in
testing a particular item is not in itself a valid basis for omitting a procedure.
When the auditor is in reasonable doubt as to any assertion of material sigmficance, he
should attempt to obtain sufficient ■ appropriate evidence to remove such doubt. If he is unable
to obtain sufficient appropriate-evidence, he should not express an unqualified opinion.
Inspection
Inspection consists of examining records, documents, or tangible assets. Inspection of
records and documents provides evidence of varying degrees of reliability depending on their
nature and source and the effectiveness of internal controls over their processing. Three major
categories of documentary evidence, which provide different degrees of reliability to the auditor,
are:
(t) documentary evidence created and held by third parties; -
(ii) documentary evidence created by third parties and held by the entity; and
(iii) documentary evidence created and held by. the entity.
Inspection of tangible assets provides reliable evidence with respect to their existence but
not necessarily as to their ownership or value.
Observation
Observation consists of looking at a process or procedure being performed by others. For
example, the auditor may observe the counting of inventories by client personnel or the
performance of internal control procedures that leave no audit trail.
Computation
Computation consists of checking the arithmetical - accuracy of source documents and
accounting records or of perforating independent calculations.
Analytical Review
Analytical review consists of studying significant ratios and trends and investigating
unusual fluctuations and items, -
Addendum 1 to ISA 8, Audit Evidence, released in February 1991 dealing with Additional
Guidance on observation of Inventory, Confirmation of Accounts Receivable and Inquiry
regarding Litigation and claims is reproduced below:
Auditing Procedures 101
Introduction
1. International standard on Auditing (ISA)8, Audit Evidence, states that tb£ degree of risk of
misstatement is one factor in the auditor's judgment of what, constitutes sufficient
appropriate audit evidence, Further guidance on risk is given in ISA 25, Materiality and
Audit Risk, and ISA 6, Risk Assessment and Internal Control.
2. Factor which enter into the auditor's judgment of what constitutes sufficient appropriate
audit evidence also include:
•
the nature of the item;
•
the nature, sources, and resultant reliability of the evidence available; and
•
alternative available methods are not practicable.
3. The purpose of this Standard is to provide guidance in relation to obtaining audit evidence
by means of observation of inventory, confirmation of receivables and inquiry regarding
litigation and claims, as these procedures are generally accepted as- providing the most
reliable audit evidence in relation to certain assertions.
4. The auditor should assess the results of the observation, confirmation, and inquiry
procedures or (when such procedures are not practicable) alternative procedures and decide
whether they form an adequate basis for the opinion, the effect of this limitation of scope
on the report should be considered (for further guidance see ISA 13, The Auditor's Report
on Financial Statements).
Observation of Inventory
5. Paragraph 13 of ISA-8 states that:
"Inspection consists of examining records, documents, or tangible assets... Inspection
of tangible assets provides reliable evidence with' respect to their existence but not
necessarily as to their ownership or value."
8. When inventories are material to the financial statements, the auditor ^sjdjd.
102 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
r
whether management is expected to establish adequate procedures and issue proper instructions
for physical inventory counting;
■. . the timing of the count;
^ the locations at which inventory is held; and
whether an expert's assistance is needed.
10. When inventory is situated in, several locations, the auditor should consider at
which locations attendance is appropriate, taking into account the materiality
of the inventory and the assessment of control risk at different locations.
11. If unable to attend the stocktakingj on the date planned due to unforeseen
chcumstances, the auditor should .take or observe so me'physical counts on an
alternative date., and when necessary, perform tests " of intervening
transactions. \Vbere^ftehdance at sToclrtakrng'is impracticable because ofthe
.nature and location of the inventories, the auditor' should consider whether
alternative procedures fe.g. evidence of the subsequent sale of specific inventory items
acquired or purchased prior to the inventory count date) provide satisfactory evidence of
physical existence and condition to conclude that he need not make reference to a limitation
on the scope of his examination.
12. *vVhen the quantities are to be..determined by a physical inventory count and
the auditor attends such a count, or wKerTthi entity" operates aT^elpetual
iffventory system" and the auditor" "attends the "stocktaking one or more times
during the year -, he should ordinarily observe count procedures and pertorm
test counts.
13. If the entity_uses procedures to estimate the physical quantity (such as esffinating a coal
'pile), the auditor"' sh6um"_s^isf^ the reasonablenessjjf those procedures.
14. The auditor should review management^s^sbj^or^.a§^f
the apjjlieation of control procedures (e.g. in the case of a physical count, coTTection
of used stocksheets, accounting for unused stocksheets, and count and re-count
procedures);
Auditing Procedures
•
accurate identification of the stage of completion of inventory (e.g. work in
. progress! "and of slow moving, obsolete or damaged items, or Inventory -owned by a
.third party (e.g. consignment);, and
•
whether appropriate arrangements are made regarding the movement of
mveriforieV between areas arid trie snipping and receipt of inventories before and after
the cut-off date.
15. To obtain assurance that management's procedures are adequately-implemented, the auditor
should observe employees' procedures and perform test counts. When
perfgrrnjng..these,.CQ.unt§,jJhe auditor may tegt both the rornrdeteness_and the accuracy of
the count гесогф_Ьу_tracing;.items selected from_thgse records to the physical inventoiy
and items selected from the plrysical inventoiy to the records. The auditoi' should determine
the extent to which he needs to collect a copy of such count recoids for subsequent testing,
and comparison. The auditor should also obtain details of movements of inventoiy just prior
to and after the count date so that the correct accounting for such movements may be
checked at a later date; the auditor should not overlook movements during the count.
16. For practical reasons and when internal control is evaluated as adequate, the physical
inventoiy count may be conducted at a date other than the balance sheet date. In. such
instances, the auditor should assess, through the performance of appropriate' procedures,
whether changes in inventoiy between these dates are correctly recorded.
17. When the entity operates a perpetual inventory system which is used to determine the year-
end balance, the auditor should assess, through the performance of appropriate procedures,
whether the reasons for any significant differences between the.physical count and the
perpetual inventory recoids are understood and the records are properly adjusted.
18. The auditor should test the final inventoiy listing to assess whether it accurately reflects
actual inventory counts.
19. When inventories are under the custody and control of a third party, the
auditor should ordinarily obtain direct confirmation from the third party as to
the quantities and quality of inventories held on behalf of the entity. The
auditor should also consider: '■'
•'. any apparent lack of integrity and independence of the third party;
•
observing, or arranging for another auditor to observe, the physical inventory
count;
■ ' obtaining another auditor's report on the adequacy of the third party's internal controls
for ensuring that inventoiy is rorrectly counted and adequately safeguarded; or .
• documentation as to inventory held by third parties (e.g. if warehouse
receipts are pledged as collateral).
104 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
27. When the positive form is used, the auditor should ordinarily send a гезпшйет to those
debtors who do not reply within- a reasonable time. If replies contain exceptions, these
should be fully investigated. If a reply is not received, alternative procedures should be
applied (e.g. examining evidence of subsequent cash receipts and examining sales and
dispatch documents). For items which cannot be confirmed and for which alternative
procedures have not been performed, the auditor should treat these items as errors for the
purpose of evaluating the audit evidence provided by the audit sample.
28. For practical reasons and when internal control is evaluated as adequate, the auditor may
decide to confirm accounts receivable balances at a date other than the balance sheet date
(e.g. when the audit is to be completed within a short time after the balance sheet date). In
these cases, the auditor should review and test intervening transactions as deemed
necessary to be satisfied that the amount recorded at the balance sheet date is not materially
misstated.
29. When management requests the auditor not to confirm certain accounts receivable balances,
the auditor should consider whether there are valid grounds for such a request. For
example, management may say that the particular account is in dispute with the debtor and
communication on behalf of the auditor may aggravate sensitive negotiations between
management and debtor. Before accepting a refusal as justifiedj the auditor should examine
any available evidence to support management's explanations (e.g. correspondence between
management and debtor), In such a case, alternative procedures should be applied to the
accounts receivable not subjected to confirmation.
32.
106 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
and claims are known and also to obtain assurance as to the reliability of management's
estimates ofthe financial implications, including costs.
33. The letter, which should be prepared by management and sent by the auditor, should request
the lawyer to communicate directly with the auditor. When it is considered unlikely that the
lawyers will respond to a general inquiry, the letter should contain:
•
a list of litigation and claims as provided to the auditor by management;
•
management's assessment of the outcome of the litigation or claim and its
estimate ofthe financial implications, including costs involved; and
•
a request that the lawyer confirm the reasonableness of management's
assessments and provide the auditor with further information if the list is considered
by the lawyer to be incomplete or incorrect.;
34. The auditor should consider the status of legal matters up to the auditor's report date. In
some instances, the auditor may need to obtain updated information from lawyers.
35- In certain circumstances (e.g. where the matter is complex or there is disagreement between
management and the lawyer), it may be necessary for the auditor- to meet with the lawyer to
discuss the likely outcome of existing or pending litigation. In such circumstances, the
meeting should take place with management's peimission and preferably with a
representative of management in attendance.
36. Whenever management refuses to give the auditor permission to communicate with lawyers,
there would be a limitation on the scope of the audit sufficient to preclude an unqualified
opinion. Where the lawyer refuses to respond in an appropriate manner, arid the auditor is
unable to satisfy himself by applying alternative procedures, the auditor should consider
whether there is a scope limitation sufficient to preclude an unqualified opinion.
Addendum to International Standard on Auditing 8, Audit Evidence released in Februaiy,
1992 dealing with Additional guidance on long terms Investment and Segment information is
reproduced below:
Long-Term Investments
1. The auditor should carry out auditing procedures designed to provide a
v reasonable basis to conclude whether long-term investments are accounted for
in accordance with the applicable accounting principles..
2. Such procedures would normally include considering evidence as to whether
the entity has the ability to continue to hold the investments on a long-term
basis, and discussing with management whether the entity will continue to
hold the investments as long-term investments and obtaining written
representations to that effect. Other procedures would normally include
Auditing Procedures 107
considering related financial statements and other information, such as market quotations,
which provide an indication of value and comparing such values to the carrying amount
ofthe investments up to the date of the auditor's report. If such values do not exceed the
carrying amounts, the auditor should consider whether a write down is required. If there is
an uncertainty as to whether the carrying amount will be recovered, the auditor should
consider whether the contingent loss has been appropriately disclosed. In each of these
situations, the related effect, if any, on the auditor's report should also be considered.
Segment Information
3. The auditor should carry out auditing procedures designed to provide a reasonable basis, to
conclude whether segment information is presented in accordance with the applicable
accounting principles.
4. The auditor should consider segment information in relation to the financial statements
taken as a whole, and is not normally required-to apply auditing procedures that would be
necessary to express an opinion on the segment information standing alone. However, the
concept of materiality encompasses both quantitative and qualitative factors and the
auditor's -procedures should recognize this.
5. Such procedures - would normally consist of analytical procedures and other
' audit tests which could also be used to audit segment information. The auditor
should discuss with management the methods used in determining segment information and
related disclosures and consider whether such methods are likely to result in the applicable
accounting standards' being met, and test the application of such methods. The auditor
should consider sales, transfers and charges between segments, elimination of inter-segment
amounts, comparisons with budgets and other expected results (e.g. operating profits as a
percentage of sales), allocation of assets and costs among segments, and consistency with
the prior periods or adequacy of the disclosures with respect to inconsistencies.
Before" the commencement of final audit, the following instructions must be given by the
auditor to his client:
(1) A complete list of books in use together with a list of employees engaged upon them
with their respective duties, a note on the system of bookkeeping in operation and a
statement of the system of internal control in practice should be provided to the audit
staff.
(2) All the books of original entry should be totalled and all the ledgers should be
balanced and ruled off. The final trial balance and the draft final account should be
kept ready for audit and examination.
(3) All supporting vouchers to all the books should be kept properly arranged.
(4) Supporting Schedules to the draft accounts, Schedule of debtors and creditors,
Schedule of bad and doubtful debts, Schedule of outstanding assets and liabilities in
respect of accrued income, unpaid expenditure, pre-paid expenses or income received
in advance, Schedule of investments, detailed inventory sheets, in respect of stock and
fixed assets, Schedule rf share capital etc.), should be prepared and kept in final form.
110 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Before commencing the audit, some of the auditors prepare a job information sheet.
The auditor of a newly-established limited company should carry out the folio wing
preliminary work before commencing the actual audit:
1. Appointment. He should ascertain whether his appointment is in order. He should obtain a
certified true Copy of the resolution of the Board of Directors or Shareholders (whichever is
relevant) and keep it in the permanent audit file. If an auditor is being appointed in place of the
retiring auditor he should see that the requirements of the Companies Ordinance, 1984, have
been complied with.
2. Documents. A copy of the Memorandum and Articles of Association should be obtained
and studied carefully. Particulars affecting the auditor in relation to account books and internal
procedures relating to relevant matters should be noted.
3. Prospectus. Relevant matters affecting the accounts and allied information should be
examined.
4. Minute Books. He should go through the directors and shareholders' nrinute books and job
down notes of important decisions.
5. Contracts. Service contracts concerning the terms of appointment and the scope of
authority in respect of officers of the company should be scrutinised. All material contracts
entered into by the company with the outsiders should be procured and studied (with vendor's,
undei-writers, managing agents etc.). Important matters should be noted.
6. Technical Operations. He should acquaint himself as far as possible with the technical
operations of the company. It is advisable that he should visit works before starting the audit.
7. List of Books. He should obtain a list of books — statutory, statistical and accounting,
which are in use together with the names and duties tf various clerks who are to write them up.
8. System of Accounting. A note on the system of accounting employed by the company
should be obtained.
9. Internal Check. He should ascertain whether the internal check system in operation appears
in black and white in some accounting manuals. If so, he should go through the same and
car'efully note any loopholes. The system, whatever exists in practice, should be tested in all
practical aspects. -
10. Previous Years Audited Accounts and Reports. With the exception of a new company, the
auditor should examine the last balance sheet for the pur-poses of checking the opening entries
for the period under audit. The previous auditors' report should also be inspected and if any
qualifications are contained in it, the possibility of then - being applicable the year under audit
should be carefully
Auditing Procedures 111
examined:
11, Audit Programme. He should then draft an audit programme and commence the work of
audit.
AUDIT PROGRAMME
Definition. An audit programme is a written scheme of the exact details ofthe work to be
done by the auditor and his staff in connection with a particular audit. It is generally contained in
the audit notebook and is invariably in black and white. A space is also provided in the audit
programme against each item of the work to be done so that each audit clerk, responsible for any
portion of the particular work, may put down his signature or initial. One audit programme is
prepared for one audit. The details of the audit programme will depend upon the adequacy or
otherwise of the system of internal control, special provisions of Memorandum and Articles of
Association affecting the duties of an auditor and the nature of the business etc.
Preparation
The audit programme must be developed with due care and skill. Particular attention should
be given to the following:
(1) Exact scope of the duties of an auditor.
(2) Books of original entry and ledgers in use.
(3) The system of book-keeping employed, and it weaknesses (if any).
(4) System of internal check and the extent of its reliability.
(5) Special provisions contained in the legal documents (Partnership Deed, Memorandum
and Articles of Association, etc.) affecting the duties of the auditor.
(6) General nature and routine ofthe business.
The audit programme should not be very rigid; it must be capable of being reviewed in view
of changing circumstances.
A similar audit programme is required to be prepared in respect of all books of original
entries and ledgers. The scope of the contents of the audit programme should cover all the routine
checking and vouching.
Extent of works
The extent of the. work to be .performed in respect of each item must be indicated-in the
audit programme for guidance ofthe audit staff. The extent may be a full checking or the
checking may be restricted to a test basis, the'extent of which (whether one month in a quarter,
one week in a month, one day in a week, etr.' must be clearly indicated in the audit programme..
A uditing: Principles and Procedures
>
о
О
a
I
—
A
о.
э -о Л
ф
Й id йо01"Е
Iщ о ф3 ■— ф
<©hgйо
I I ш —Йhe- ф
о Р. гз_ф-
■гН
О
!ч U О иом-л о [
3 ft б О
оо гМ ■йСpoet
-о .S ■злJkedш
-с: о hecanhec
о3 сф
Uо
Ф £
> Р,
оС
1
Auditing Procedures 113
Advantages
The use of the audit programme offers the following advantages:
(1) It is one of the basic instruments for training the staff and can be used as a guide for
the performance of the job.
(2) Progress ofthe work can be watched periodically.
(3) The audit can be divided amongst the staff.
(4) Uniformity ofthe performance of audit work is ensured.
(5) It is a legal proof for the work done as initials of those who have performed a
particular job are to be appended to it.
(6) The responsibility for the negligence can be fixed.
(1) ■ It extends a useful help in supervising the work of the staff.
Limitations
(1) The audit work may become top mechanical.
(1) Initiative and the dexterity of an audit assistant is likely to be ost as he is required to
faithfully carry out the steps listed in the audit programme.
(3) . No rigid audit programme can be laid down for each type of work.
Removal of Limitations
However, these limitations can be easily overcome. The auditor should review and revise
the audit programme off and on. The auditor should make a flexible programme which could be
adjusted according to circumstances. He should not let it become mechanical and automatic.
TEST CHECKING
The concept of test checking in auditing is based on the "Law of Statistical Inertia" which
means the selection and checking of a representative number of entries of each class of
transactions instead of going through every entry. The basis of thought is that the whole matter
(vouchers, entries, etc.) will correspond to the samples, selected or checking during the audit.
Whether the auditor should resort to test-check or not depends upon several factors, viz., the
existence of a sound system of internal control or otheiwise, the existence of an efficient system
of internal audit or otherwise etc.
However, the following precautions must be taken by the auditor while carrying a test
check of the transactions:
(1) While making selection for test checks, every effort must be made to ensure that the
entries are representative ofthe whole set of books.
(2) The clients should not be knowing the period selected for the test i-bm-fc
114 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
(1) The months selected For test check should be different in the forthcoming year.
(2) The first and the last months of the period covered by the accounts may preferably be
checked in every case.
ISA 19 deals with Audit Sampling. Details in this respect have been included in chapter
Dealing with Vouching.
AUDIT NOTEBOOK
WORKING PAPERS-
Working papers are the connecting link between the client's records and the audited
accounts. These include all the evidence gathered by the auditor indicating what work has been
done by him and the procedure he has followed in verifying a particular asset or a liability. These
provide a permanent historical record logically arranged in order, in which each item appears in
the balance sheet. These also serve as a great guide to the staff to whom the work of audit has
been assigned after the previous year audit. These would come to the help of the auditor in future
in case the client files a suit against the auditor's negligence,
The question of lien in regard to the working papers arose in the case of Sockockinsky vs.
Bright Grakme and Co. (1938) in England. The vital' question involved in this case was whether
the auditors had a right to retain the working papers as if it were their own property even after the
payment of the audit fee. The learned Court gave the judgment in favour of the auditors On the
ground that they were independent contractors and not as agents of the clients.
However, the right of the auditor to retain the working papers must be distinguished from
the light ofthe auditor to retain the books of accounts, if his fees were not paid. It has judiciously
been held that the auditor has-ззо right of lien on, the books of the company in respect of the
payment of their fees. \Hoate, Smith and' Field vs. Valentine Tingey (1926) and Fi ndl ey vs.
Wad del l (1910)1.
.ISA 9 is captioned "Documentation". Documentation refers to the working papers prepared
or obtained by the auditor and retained by him, in.eonnectipn with the performance of his audit.
Three benefits listed in the above ISA are given below:
(1) aid in the planning and performance of the audit; .
' (2) aid in the supervision and review of the audit work; ■_
(3) provide evidence of the audit work performed , to support the auditor's opinion.
Relevant material relating to Form and Contents and Ownership and custody of working
papers is reproduced below:
Becommended for further reading: (a) S. M. Duncan, "An Accountant's Working Papers", SBBMO-Course of the Institute of
Chartered Accountants in England and Wales ~ September, №1 Aciinee presented at the course (London: the Institute of Chnrtei-
ed Accountants in England sad Wafe*^ pp.167-217. .
ft) Audit Guideline (AG 2) entitled: Audit Working Papers issued fay the InsutiEe « (brae Accountants of Pakistan on
December 14,1986, pp. 1-5.
116 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
evidence obtained.
Working papers should be sufficiently completed and detailed for an experienced auditor to
obtain an overall understanding of the audit. The extent of documentation is a matter of
professional judgment since it is neither necessary nor pr&ctical for the auditor to document in
his working papers every observation, consideration or conclusion made. .
All significant matters which require the exercise of judgment, together with the auditor's
conclusion thereon, should be included in the working papers.
The form and content of working papers are affected by matters such as:
(1) The nature of the engagement.
(2) The form of the auditor's report.
(3) The nature and complexity ofthe client's business.
(4) The nature and condition.of the client's records and degree of reliance on
internal controls.
(5) The needs in the particular circumstances for direction,, supervision arid
review of work performed by assistants.
Working papers should be designed and properly organised to meet the circumstances and
the auditor's needs for each individual audit. The use of staridardised working papers (eg.,
checklists, specimen letters, standard organisation of working papers) may improve the
efficiency with which they are prepared and reviewed. They facilitate the delegation of work
while providing a means to control its quality.
To improve audit efficiency, the auditor normally plans with the client to utilise schedules,
analyses and other working papers prepared by the client. In such circumstances, the auditor
should satisfy himself that those working papers have been properly prepared.
Working papers normally include:
(1) Information concerning the legal and organisational structure of the entity.
(2) Extracts or copies of impoitant legal documents, agreements and minutes.
(3) Evidence ofthe planning process ofthe audit and audit programmes.
(4) A record ofthe study and evaluation of the accounting system and related internal
controls. This might be in the form of narrative descriptions, questionnaires or flow
charts, or some combination thereof.
(5) Analyses of transactions and balances.
(6) Analysis of significant ratios and trends.
(7) A" record of the nature, timing and extent of auditing procedures performed, and the
results of such piocedui-es. ■
Auditing Procedures 117
(8) Evidence that the work performed by assistants was supervised ятч^ reviewed.
(9) An indication as to who performed the audit procedures and when they were
performed.
(10) Copies of communications with other auditors, experts and other third parties.
(11) Copies of letters or notes concerning audit matters communicated to or discussed with
the client, including the terms of the engagement and material weaknesses in internal
control.
(12) Letters of representation received from the client.
(13) Conclusions reached by the auditor concerning significant aspects of the audit,
including how exceptions and unusual matters, if any, disclosed by the auditor's
procedures were resolved or treated.
(14) Copies of the financial information being reported on and the related audit reports.
En the case of recurring audits, some working paper files may be classified as permanent
audit files which are updat ed currently with infonnation of continuing importance to succeeding
audits, as distinct from current audit files which contain information relating primarily to the
audit of a single period.
The following steps should be taken to keep a record of the progress of each audit:
1. Staff Engaged, Note names of principal, senior, semi-senior and junior clerks.
2. Checking colours used. These should be noted.
3. Record and Progress
(a) - Date when client's request received for commencement of audit.
(a) Acknowledgment date.
Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Annexure 2.1
'SCHEDULE I
(See Section 2 OA)
PART 1
PROFESSIONAL MISCONDUCT IN RELATION TO
CHARTERED"ACCOUNTANTS IN'PRACTiCE. .
(7) accepts a position as auditor previously held by another member of the Institute
without first comm'irnicating with him in writing;
(8) accepts an appointment as auditor of a company without first ascertaining from it
whether' the requirements of sub-section (6) of Section 144 of the Companies Act,
1913 (VTJ of 1913), in respect of such appointment have been duly complied with; ;
(9) charges or offers to charge, accepts or offers to accept in respect of any
. professional employment fees which are based on a percentage of profits or
which are contingent upon the findings or results of such employment, except in cases
which are permitted under any law for the time being in force or by an order ofthe
Government;
(10) engages in any business or occupation other than the profession of chartered
accountants unless permitted by the Council so to engage:
".' Provided that nothing contained herein shall disentitle a chartered
accountant from being a director" of a company, unless he or any of his partners is
interested in such company as an auditor;
(11) accepts a position as auditor previously held by some other chartered
accountant in such conditions as to constitute undercutting;
(12) allows a person not being a member ofthe Institute or a member not being his
partner to sign on his behalf or on behalf of his firm; any balance sheet, pr ofit and
loss account, report or financial statement; or
(13) gives estimates of future profits for publication in a prospectus or
otherwise, or certifies for publication the statements of average profits over a period of
two years or more without, at the same time, stating the ' profits or losses for each year
separately.
PART 2
PROFESSIONAL MISCONDUCT IN RELATION TO MEMBERS ENGAGED IN
MANAGEMENT. CONSULTANCY
PART 3
PROFESSIONAL MISCONDUCT IN RELATION TO MEMBERS
OF THE INSTITUTE IN SERVICE
A member ofthe Institute (other than a member' in practice) shall be deemed to be guilty of
professional misconduct, if he, being an employee of any company, firm or person, —
(1) pays or allows or agrees to pay directly or indirectly to any person any share in the
emoluments ofthe employment undertaken by the member,
(2) accepts or agrees to accept any part of fees, profits or gains from a lawyer, chartered
accountant or broker engaged by such company, firm-or person, or agent or customer
of such company, firm or person by way of commission or gratification; or
(3) discloses confidential information acquired in the course of bis employment except as
and when required by law or except as permitted by the employer.
122 Auditing; Principles and Procedures
PART 4
PROFESSIONAL MISCONDUCT IN RELATION TO MEMBERS OF THE
INSTITUTE GENERALLY
' A member of the Institute, whether in practice or not, shall be deemed to be guilty of
professional misconduct, if he —
. (1) includes in any-statement, return or form' to be submitted to the Institute any particulars
knowing them to be false;
■ ■ (2) not being a fellow styles himself as a fellow;
(3) does not supply the information called for by the Institute or does not
comply with the requirements asked to be complied with or does not
. comply with any of the directives issued or pronouncements made by the Council or
any of its Standing Cemmittees;
(4) . generally, wilfully rnaligns the Institute, the Council or its Committee to
■ lower their prestige; or to interfere with performance of their duties in
relation to himself or others;
(5) has been guilty of any act or default discreditable to a member of the Institute; or'
(6) contravenes any of the provisions of the- Cadi nance or the bye-laws made thereunder.
SCHEDULE II
(See Sections 20A and 20D)
PART 1
. PROFESSIONAL MISCONDUCT IN RELATION TO CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTS >'. .
IN PRACTICE REQUIRING ACTION BY A HIGH COURT
(4) expresses his opinion on financial statements of any business or any enterprise in
which he, his firm or a partner in his firm has a- substantial interest, unless he
discloses his interest in his report;
(5) fails to disclose a material fact known to him which is not disclosed in a financial
statement, but disclosure of whichis necessary to ensure that the financial statement is
not misleading;
(6) fails, to report a material mis-statement known to him to appear in a financial
statement with which he is concerned in a professional capacity;
(7) is grossly negligent hi the conduct of his professional duties;
(8) fails to obtain sufficient information to warrant the expression 0f an opinion or his
exceptions are sufficiently mateiial to negate the expression of an opinion; or -
(9) fails to keep moneys of his client in a separate banking account or fails to use such
moneys for purposes for which they are intended.
SCHEDULE HI
(See Sections 20A and 20E) PROFESSIONAL MISCONDUCT IN
RELATION TO THE STUDENTS OF THE. INSTITUTE
(2) • does not supply the iriformation called for by the Institute;
(3) does not comply with any requirements which he is asked by the Institute to comply
with;
(4) does not comply with any of the directives issued by the. Council or any of its
committees;
(5) discloses confidential information acquired in the course, of his training except as and
when required by law or except as permitted by his principal;
(6) includes in any statement or form to be submitted to the Institute, any particulars
knowing them to be false; or
(7) has been guilty of any act or omission discreditable to a student of the Institute.
INTERNAL
CONTROL
The expressions 'internal audit', 'internal check' and 'internal control', have been used
indiscriminately and they are differentiated from each other as under:
1. Internal Check. It means a system under which the work relating to carrying out and
recording of transactions is allocated amongst various persons in such a manner that the work of
one person is automatically checked by another and thus possibilities of fraud or error or
irregularity are minimised, if not completely" eliminated.
2. Internal Control. By internal control is meant not only internal check and internal audit
but the whole system of controls, financial and otherwise. established by the management in
order to carry gn the business of the company bran orderly manner, safeguard its assets
amLsecui'f as far as possible the accuracy and reliability of its records.
126 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Internal Audit. It is a continuous review .of operations and records, undertaken within the
business and is normally done by specially assigned staff. It should operate independently ofthe
internal check and in п о case should divest anyone of the responsibilities placed urxmliim. t
——
Thus it is apparent that internal control expression is used in a wide sense and includes
internal check and internal audit as well. , ,
INTERNAL AUDIT
Concept
The internal audit is a continuous review of operations and records undertaken
within the business and is normally done by specially assigned staff. It should
operate independently of all the internal check and in no case should divest.any one
ofthe respoimbiMies pl^d upoojum. ......
The Institute of Internal Auditors, USA, has defined internal audit as under:
"Internal Auditing is an independent appraisal activity within an '. organisation for
the review of operations as a service to management. It is a managerial control which
functions by measuring and evaluating the effectiveness of other controls."
Scope. ;
The above Institute has defined the scope of internal auditing as under:
"The examination and evaluation of the adequacy and effectiveness or the
organisation system of internal control and' the quality of performance in carrying out
assigned responsibilities."
Role
To achieve the said objective, the above Institute has identified the following five areas of
operation for review by an internal auditor:
(1) Reliability and integrity of information.
(2) Compliance with policies, plans, procedures, laws and regulations.
(3) Safeguarding of assets. -
(4) Economical and efficient use of resources.
(5) Accomplishment "of established objectives and goals for operations ox
programmes.
In the light of above points, it can be safely concluded that the current concept of internal
audit not only covers the hitherto traditional functions but also stresses' new arid modern areas
such as reviewing the economic and efficient use of resources and watching the organisational
performance.
Internal Control 127
;
5. Internal Audit Report ' . ■ . ■- . - .. " . ■:
The benefits of internal auditor's work are to be accomplished through the medium of
reports on his findings and recommendations. The above report should be prepar ed in the light
of following aspects:
(a ) These should be carefully prepared and well written.
(&) These should be designed to catch and hold the attention of the person to whom it is
presented.
(c) Conclusions and recommendations must be clearly and succinctly written.
(d) Main ideas be included in the body of the report and supporting details be
included as exhibits.
(c) Rough draft of the report may be reviewed and discussed before final submission.
(f) Specific improvements need to be properly highlighted.
(g) Follow up is needed to ensure action on the findings and
recommendations.
(h) Guidelines included in the Bank Audit Manual be followed for an efficient
approach of work.
There are some similarities of work of an infernal auditor and an external auditor.
However, there are several differences too.
These are tabulated
below:
Basic PointInternal AuditorExternal
AuditorAppointmentAppointed by managementAppointed by
the shareholdersNatureHe is an employee of companyHe is an
outsiderMajor concernServing the needs of
managementCompliance of statutory requirementsBasic
JobReview of operations and internal controls for developing
improvements and ensuring compliance of policies and
proceduresExpression of an independent opinion on financial
state: mentsScope of WorkDetermined by
managementDeteimined by Statutes
Internal Control 129
ьщЩр' deals with the above subject. Full text of this is reproduced below:
Introduction
Safeguarding of assets, refiahUity of fmancial records and. efficiency in
operations^-aj^basie-responsibiKties of management and are prime purposes of
ассош1Йшт end^<iBe®ist^ivHr€om^ aware of the
advantages of bmmg**a&i*to&emaBl audit .function to assist,,in fulfilling such responsibilities.
International Standard on Auditing 6, Study and Evaluation of the Accounting System and
Related Internal Controlsin connection with an Audit, fttetes:
W.he'n anj^^^^^^a^rntern'al audit department, managementmay delegate-f£|i)^
wiffirefbect to the review of mternal control. This particular internal audit function
constitutes a separate component of internal, control undertaken by specially assigned
staff within the entnV with the objective of determining whether other internal control
are well designed and properly operated."
While the independent auditor has sole responsibility for his report and for the
determination of the nature, timing and extent of his auditing procedures, much of the work of
the internal audit department may be useful to him in his examination ofthe financial
information.
Internal Control Si
In this Standard "financial information" encompasses financial statements, and the term
"external auditor" is used, synonymously with "independent auditor".
The purpose of this Standard is to provide guidance as to the procedures which should be -
considered by : the external auditor in assessing the work of the internal auditor for the purpose of
using that work. When internal-audit personnel assist the external'auditor in carrying out
compliance and substantive procedures, they are not performing an internal audit function and
such instances are not dealt with in this guideline. .
An internal audit fVrnction is part of the entity and irrespective of the degree of its
autonomy and objectivity cannot meet the prime criterion of independence which is essential
when the external auditor expresses his opinion on the financial information. The report of the
external auditor is bis sole responsibility, andr that responsibility is not reduced by any use he
makes of the internal auditor's work. Thus, judgments relating to the audit of the financial
information must be those of the external auditor.
auditor work is to be a factor in detmmnning the nature, timing and extent of the external
auditor"s procedures, it is desirable to agree in advance the timing of such work, the extent of
audit coverage, test levels and proposed methods of sample selection, documentation of the work
performed, and review and reporting procedures.
Liaison with the internal auditor is usually more effective when meetings are held at
appropriate intervals during the year. The external auditor should be advised of and have access to
relevant internal audit reports and in addition be kept informed, along with management, of any
significant matter that comes to the internal auditor's attention and which he believes may affect,
the work of the external auditor. Similarly, the external auditor should oro!inarily inform the
internal auditor of any significant matters which may affect his work.
Before starting the audit, the auditor should review the system of internal control for the
following considerations:
Systems of internal control in respect of small and manufacturing concerns and other aspects
of business are explained below:
Small Concerns
(1) (V»yfciv:>p(Vf»>-p All incoming correspondence should be opened by а responsible
official.
136 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
(2) Е&ШШ&г&тё^ПерезЫз. All remittances in the form of cheques, drafts etc., should
be crossed and marked 'Accounts Payee only', and deposited.
■ into the bank on the nest day.
(3) Payment Authorisation. All payments, should be sanctioned by responsible officials.
(4) W^& -and Salaries. Wages and salary sheets/book should be carefully checked and
payments made in the presence of persons knowing the iatourers and Clerks.
(5) 6eee5. A complete record of all goods received and sent out should. be_ mamtairted
and physical count should be carried out at regular intervals.
(15) Stocks and Stores. Periodical physical cheek should be carried out by a responsible
official.
Cash Receipts
(1) Receipt Books. The following inflexible rules should be followed as a sound system
of internal check:
(a) Unused books should be kept under lock and kev.
(b) All receipts should be consecutively numbered.
. (c) The issue and custody of cash receipts should be under the control of a responsible
official.
(d) ■ Originals of all spoilt and cancelled receipts should be retained and
countersigned by a responsible official.
(e) Acknowledgments of the recipients of the receipt book (to be consecutively
numbered) should be obtained so that he could be held
~ „ accountable for the utilisation of it.
(2) Acknowledsiment. For every amount received, official receipt must be issued.
(3) Remittances Received All correspondence received must be opened by a responsible
official. All remittances (drafts, cheques etc.) received must be crossed "Accounts
Payee only" entered in a daily cash diary and then handed over to the cashier. >-
(4) Deposits. All collections must be internally checked and then deposited into the bank
in tact the next day. Pay-in-slips should be filed and checked daily. The amount should
then be traced into the bank statements. All outstanding collections should-be
thoroughly scrutinised and steps should be taken to obtain a credit for the same.
Collection of overdue balances should be attended to.
(5) No Access to Ledgers. The cashier should not be allowed anv access to personal or
general ledgers.
(6) Teeming and'Lading. The following steps should be taken with a view to avoiding
teeming and lading:
• (a) The amount recorded as having been received should be checked with the
corresponding amount mentioned in the statement of account received from each
ofthe debtor. ;
(b) The debtors should be requested to give crossed cheques marked
'Accounts Payee only'.
(c) All remittances received in the form nf rhqqnefi, drafts etc, must be
crossed and marked 'Accounts Payee only' after they have been received.
i d ) . The pay-in-slips should be гчге^Пу checked with t-hp ЯТПЯШЙЕ ADH on the
carbon copy or counterfod receipts.
138 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Cash Payments
(1) Mode of PttyfTieRts. As far as possible, payments must be made by crossed
cheques marked 'Accounts Payee only' and official receipts should be
obtained. . , ..
(2) Аы$!&шайоп. All payments should be authorised by a responsible official duly vested
with these powers by the management. Proper verification should be done before the
payment is made. All payments of special nature should be minuted by the Board.
(3) . J^fiBseimgr All payments should be promptly recorded in the cash book.
(1) Voueliers. All supporting vouchers of payments should be serially .numbered and
filed in order to facilitate the subsequent checking by tlie
auditors.
(5) General:
(u) Arithmetical Accuracy. .Cabts, cross casts and cany forward of all amounts in the
cash hook should be checked
(6) Saak.Reconciliation. Periodical bank reconciliation statements should be prepared.
Bank confirmations should be obtained and all outstanding items should be
carefully., scrutimsed., 1
Purchases
(1) Initiation o f Purchase. There should be established limits for order level, minimum
level and maximum level of stores and stocks to serve as a basis on which the
storekeeper should, .after following these limits, send material purchase requisitions to
enable the purchase department to initiate purchase.
(2) Quotations and- -Tenders. Quotations or tenders should be called and decision made
to buy from a certain seller. The jniiding factor should be to buy at most economic
price.
(3) Placing- Order. An order for' the purchase should then be sanctioned asking the buyer
to supply goods within a stipulated time. All copies of purchase orders should be
consecutively numbered and filed. These should then be entered into the purchase
order register.
(4) Receipt o f Goods. All_goods received should be physically checked, counted or
weighed and a document called 'Goods Received Note' should be prepared and signed
by the store-keeper in token of having received. A copy thereof should be sent to the
accounts department. All goods requiring chemical analysis should be analyzed by the
chemist or quality control department at the time of receipt of goods.
(5) Invoice. The invoice should be internally checked before payment. The following work
in this respect should be done:
(a) See that the dafe, of invoice falls in the year under review.'
(b) The quantity and description of goods should be checked with pur-chase order
and goods received notes to ensure that all quantities ordered and invoiced have
been received. Any discrepancies should be investigated.
(c) The rates should he verified with the purchase order and/or any f contract.
(d) Extensions, casts and cross casts should be checked.
(e) .A rubber stamp should be affixed indicating the checking work done on each
invoice and should be signed by the staff member who performed that job.
(6) Allocation. All vouchers with invoices should be serially numbered and filed to
facilitate its subsequent checking by auditors. The allocation of expenditure should be
verified.
(7) Payment The payment of invoices should be passed by a responsible official who
should satisfy himself that work at number (5) above has been done.
(8) Goods Returned. АЦ goods returned to supplier's should be recorded on goods
returned notes, a copy of which should be forwarded to accounts section. A credit note
should be obtained from the supplier and amouic
14 Auditing: Principles and
0 Procedures
adjusted in the books. (9) Purchases Book. All entries should be promptly recorded in
the purchases
book.
Sales
(1) Orders ReeeweS: An attempt must be made to obtain orders in writing. Confirmations in
writing should be obtained in respect of verbal orders. All orders received should be
entered in the Orders Receiye.d „Врок.
}J (2) ЕхееШШУУг^гй&в. The orders should then he executed within the desired J time and
marked off from the orders received book.
(3) JansSiefc Desired number of the copies of invoice should be prepared and
internally checked. Jn case of contract sales, original contracts should be studied and
basis of billing should be verified. Apart from this, a responsible official should mark
the rate at which goods are to be invoiced.
(4) ВШра1£&^-®вв$&; All goods despatched should be recorded, inJ&eJSoods
Despatch Register. All quantitative movement shown on sales invoices should be
traCed into the above register.
(5) Allocation. The allocation of sales should be verified.
(6) limmptmf^ Money. A сш-eful watch over the collection of money against
credit sale should be kept and such a system should be installed whereby recoveries of
amounts are being made regularly.
(7) (SemdSirB&titipned. All goods returned by customere should be entered in the
goods inward book and a credit note should be passed by a responsible official and
prepared in duplicate for each return of goods or allowance granted. These should then
be recorded
(8)-------------------------------------------------------------------I^MA: The
entiles should be promptly recorded in sales, book and all
sale invoices should be serially arranged to facilitate their subsequent
checking by the auditors. ------------------------------------------------------
(9) Access to Ledgers. The person making the sale should have nothing to do with
the office where sales ledger's are posted up, nor with the cashier's offiCe where the
cheques inpayment of customers' accounts are received.
Postal Sales
(1) V.P.P. Register. A V.P.P. Register should be kept for recording the
particulars of goods sent by post. All cases against which cash is received
should be marked off. Consignments not paid for should be periodically
reviewed and efforts made to settle the cases.
(2) Cash Received, All amounts received should be entered into .the cash book.
t
(3) V.P.P. Articles Returned. A note of all V.P.P. articles returned by post office should also
be made in the V.P.P. Register.
Internal'Control 141
Stores
(1) Ordering level. The quantitative nunimum, maximum and ordering limits
I should be fixed for each kind of material. When an ordering level of a
y«/ " particular material is reached, the storekeeper should advise the buying
V,
^ , i f - department by means of a purchase requisition.
' V; -ir ; {2) Placing o f order. Official order forms (after proper sanction! should be sent
r~\ лг^ С ^ to suppliers in respect of the materials required. A copy of this should also
\ \ be sent to the storekeeper. " ■.
t "^r (3) Receipt o f materials. The materials received should be checked by the
V storekeeper with copies of purchase orders and в report as a quality, etc.,
should also be sent to the buying department.
(4) Stoting^f materiels. All materials should be placed in appropriate racks,
bins, etc.. by the storekeeper, ^ne. quantities should be entered on bin cards attached
to each rack, bin etc., to provide a perpetual record of
■ materials received and issued.
(5) Record o f materials. The storekeeper's report together with the invoices
relating to the materials should be passed by the buying department to the cost office.
The invoices should be posted to the debit of accounts in stores ledger, a separate
account being kept for each class of material held The entiles in the stores ledger may
be in quantities and values, or values may be excluded therefrom.
(6) Payment for materials. All invoices for materials purchased should be
caiefully checked before they are authorised by a i-esponsible official inpayment.
142 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
(7) Issue o f materials. Materials for use in production should be issued by the
storekeeper only on the authority of materials requisition signed by the works
manager or a responsible official duly authorised in this respect. The quantity issued
should be entered by the storekeeper to the credit of the relative bin card and the
requisition then forwarded to the" cost office.
(8) Return of materials. There should be a rule that any material issued which are
found to be surplus in a particular job should be returned to the stores and not
transferred to another job. Particulars of materials returned should be entered on a
stores debit note, a copy of which should be supplied to the cost office.
(9) C&ppgirig for materials. The cost office should price out the requisitions and
stores returned notes, and post the quantities and values of materials issued and
returned to the appropriate stores ledger accounts and also to the production orders
concerned.
(10) РёШГа^&ШШЫщ of materials. The balances shown by the stores accounts
should be checked from time to time with the balances on the relative bin cards. It is
also advisable that the balances on the stores ledger should be tested with physical
stocks as frequently as possible in order that differences may be located and
investigated without undue delay.
USE OF STATISTICAL RECORDS
An intelligent use of the statistical records would impose a useful check. Examples of such
statistics are as under:
(1) The percentage of gross profit to turnover should be computed for the year and
compared with that of the previous year. Any material differences should be
investigated into.
(2) The cost of each process of manufacture, i.e., per ton of material passing
through process, either based on quantity or weight should be established.
(3) The cubic feet of gas made, sold and accounted for, in the case of gas
undertakings etc., should be calculated.
(4) Return on capital should be compared with companies carrying on similar
businesses.
(5) Net profit percentage of turnover.
There are four- methods of evaluating internal controls. These are briefly discussed below:
1. Oral Approach
Oral discussion is held to identify strengths and weaknesses.
Internal Control 143
2. Memorandum Approach
Full notes are taken dming -discussions governing evaluation of internal controls. Analysis
of weaknesses is undertaken and suggestions are offered through management letter for
improvement.
3. Internal Control Questionnaire (ICQ)
An ICQ consists of questions in respect of each element-of business: Answers are obtained
as yes's 'no' or 'not applicable'. Remarks column is used for raising questions and/or identifying
weaknesses of the existing internal controls with a view to removing these. Some firms use
improved and expanded .version of ICQ. This is known as Descriptive System Questionnaire
(DSQ).
4. Flow Charts
Flow charts of each business activity are reviewed and internal controls are evaluated.
MANAGEMENT LETTER
After evaluation of the internal controls, Management; Letter is issued. This is at times
called 'Weakness Letter', The objectives of this letter are as under:
(1) To identify any weaknesses in the internal control.
(2) To suggest adequate accounting control.
(3) To suggest improvements in the existing internal controls. . : -. - ;
There is no prescribed form of the above letter. Major aspects may be included in the letter
and minor weaknesses may be relegated to an annexure.
Introduction
1. International Standaid on Auditing (ISA) 1, Objective and Basic Principles Governing an
Audit, states (paragraph ■ 9): "The auditor should; obtain a sufficient understanding of the
accounting and. internal control systems to plan the audit and develop an effective audit
approach. The understanding of the accounting and internal control systems, together with
the inherent and control risk assessments and other considerations, enables the auditor to:
• identify the types of potential material misstatements thatjcpuld occur in the financial
statements;
144 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Inherent Risk
5. ISA 25, paragraph 13, states: (f^
"Inherent risk is the susceptibility; of an ac be material, individually or when aggregated
with misstatements in other balances or classes, assuming thafthcre were no related internal
controls,"
6. In determining the overall audit strategy and the expected conduct and scope of the audit, the
auditor should assess inherent risk at the financial statement level. In planning the audit in more
detail, the auditor should relate such assessment to material account balances and classes of
transactions. In the absence of such an assessment at the account balance or class of transactions
level, the auditor should assume that inherent risk is high.
7. To assess inherent risk, the auditor uses professional judgment to evaluate numerous factors,
examples of which are:
8. An accounting system supplemented by effective internal controls can provide management with
reasonable assurance that assets are safeguarded from unauthorized use or disposition and that
financial recoids are reliable to permit the preparation of financial information.
9. The system of internal control comprises the control environment and control procedures, and the
plan of organization and all the methods and procedures adopted by the management of an entity
to assist in achieving management's objective of ensuring, as 'far. as practicable, the orderly and
efficient conduct of its business, including adherence to management policies, the safeguarding of
assets, the prevention and detection of fraud and error, the accuracy and completeness of the
accounting records, and the timely preparation of reliable financial information. The system of
internal control extends beyond those matters which relate directly to the functions of the
accouruing system.
Accounting System
10. An accounting system can be defined as-.the series of tasks in an entity when transactions are
processed as a means of maintaining financial records. Such a . system should recognize,
calculate, classify, post, summarize and report transactions.
Control Environment
1Г, Control environment refers to the overall attitude, awareness and actions of directors and
management regarding control and its importance in the entity.1 The environment in which
internal control operates has an impact on the effectiveness ofthe specific control procedures.
A strong control environment , (e.g. one with tight budgetary controls and an effective
internal audit function) can significantly complement specific control procedures. However, a
strong environment does not, by itself, ensure the effectiveness of the overall system of
internal control.
Fiitrtor reflected in the control environment include management's philosophy and operating style, t)ie entity's organizational
structure and methods of assigning authority and responsibility and ■management's control system, including the internal
audit function, the functions of tlie board of directors, personnel policies and procedures, and external influences.
Specific internal cor.:i P(-;;edures desifcud to achieve such ;!.'.iecv>ves could include recom,:llotions checking the
arithmetical accuracy of the records; controls over computer application and environment; the maintenance of control
accounts and trial" balances; approval and control of documents; comparison with external sources of information; comparing
tile results of cash. Hecurity and inventory eountti with accounting records; limiting direct physical access to assets and
records;
Internal Control 147
17. The auditor's undemanding is-: generally obtained through previous experiefe with the entity
and the following: ■
inquiries of appropriate management, supervisoiy and other client personnel at
various organization levels within the entity, together with reference to documentation
such as procedures manuals, jojr^deseriptions and flow charts, to gain knowledge
about the accounting and internal control systems which the auditor has identified as
significant to the audit;
• inspection of documents and records; and
•
observation ofthe entity's activities and operations encompassing the EDP organization,
management, personnel and the nature of transaction processing.
. Accounting System
18. The auditor should obtain an understanding of the design of the accounting system sufficient
to plan the audit and should obtain sufficient knowledge of the design of the accounting
system to identify and understand:
• the major classes of transactions in the entity's operations;
• how such transactions are initiated;
•
the accounting records, supporting documents, and specific accounts in the financial
statements; and
•
the accounting and finahcial reporting process (from the initiation of a transaction to its
inclusion in the financial statements), including how data are processed electronically.
Control Environment
19. The auditor should obtain an understanding of the control environment sufficient to assess
directors' and management's attitudes, awareness and actions regarding control and its
importance in the entity.
Control Procedures
20. The auditor should obtain an v, aderstanciing ofthe control procedures sufficient to plan the
audit. Because control procedures are integrated in the control environment and accounting
system, as the auditor obtains an understanding
of these items, some knowledge about control procedures is also likely to be obtained (e.£.
in obtaining an -understanding of the accounting system pertaining to cash, the auditor
usually becomes aware of whether bank accounts are reconciled). The auditor should
consider knowledge about the presence or absence с f control procedures obtained from the
.understanding of the control environment and accounting system in determining
whether;any additional understanding of'control procedures is necessary to plan the audit.
Ordinarily, audit planning does not5 require an understanding of control
Internal Control 149
procedures for every relevant assertion in each account balance and transaction class.
21. The auditor is not concerned with those policies and procedures within the
accounting and internal control systems that are,not relevant to the assertions in the
financial information. For example, policies and procedures coricernirig the effectiveness
and efficiency of certain management decision making processes (such as the determination
of the selling prices for its products or whether to make research and development
expenditures) although important to the entity, do not usually relate to the work of the
auditor.
26. The auditor may make a preliminary assessment of control risk at less than a high level
only when the auditor:
•
is able to identify policies and procedures of the accounting and internal ' control
systems relevant to specific assertions which are likely to prevent
or detect material misstatements in the financial statements; and
•
plans to perform test of control to support the assessment.
27. Some of the procedures performed to obtain the understanding of the accounting and
internal control systems may not have been specifically planned as tests of control but they
may provide evidence about the effectiveness of both the design and operation of the
policies and procedures relevant to certain assertions and, consequently, serve as tests of
control (e.g. in obtaining the understanding of the system pertaining to cash, the auditor
may have obtained evidence about the effectiveness ofthe bank reconciliations process
through inquiry and observation),
28. When the auditor concludes that procedures performed to obtain the understanding of the
accounting and internal control systems also provide evidence about the design and
operating effectiveness of policies and procedures relevant to certain assertions, the auditor
may use that evidence, provided it is sufficient, to support a control risk assessment at less
than a high level. The auditor should consider the factors in paragraphs 35 through 38 in
judging the degree of assurance provided by such evidence.
29. After obtaining' the understanding of the accounting and internal control systems and
assessing control risk (by considering only the evidence about design and operating
effectiveness of the policies and procedures described in paragraph 27), the auditor may
seek to obtain more evidence about design and operating effectiveness to support an
assessment of control risk at a lower level for certain assertions and to also affect the
nature, timing and extent of substantive procedures. Then in such eases, the auditor should
consider whether audit evidence sufficient to support this assessment is likely to be
available and whether performing additional tests of control to obtain evidence would be
efficient (i.e. the audit effort saved by a reduction in the extent of substantive procedures).
In recuiring audits, the auditor may find it more efficient to plan the preliminary assessment
to obtain additional information about the design and effectiveness at the same time.
When control risk is assessed at less than a high level, the auditor also should document the
basis for the conclusions. The form and extent of this documentation is influenced by the
size and complexity of the entity and the nature of the entity's accounting and internal
control systems. Generally, the more complex the entity's accounting and internal control
systems and the more extensive the procedures the auditor performed, the more extensive
the auditor's documentation.
34. Based onthe results of the tests of control, the auditor should evaluate whether the internal
controls are operating effectively. The evaluation of the deviations found in performing
tests of control may result in the auditor concluding that the assessed level of control risk
should be increased. In this case, the auditor should modify the nature, timing and extent of
planned substantive procedures.
Quality of Evidence .
35. Certain evidence obtained by the auditor provides more assurance than other evidence (e.g.
the auditor might obtain evidence about the proper segregation of duties by observing the
individual who applies a control procedure and malting inquiries of appropriate personnel).
Generally, the auditor's observation provides more assurance than merely making inquiries
about that individual. Evidence obtained by some tests of control, such as observation,
pertains only to the point in time at which the procedure was applied. The auditor may
decide, therefore, to supplement these procedures with other tests of control capable of
providing evidence about other periods of time.
Timeliness of Evidence
36. The auditor should inquire whether the internal controls were in use throughout the period.
If substantially different controls were used at different times during the period, the auditor
should consider each separately. A breakdown in internal controls for a specific portion of
the period would necessitate separate consideration of the nature, timing and extent ofthe
audit procedures to be applied to transactions of that period.
37. In determiiung the appropriate support for a conclusion about control risk, the auditor may
consider'the support obtained for control risk from previous examinations. In a continuing
engagement, the auditor will be aware of internal controls through work carried out
previously but vriU need to update the knowledge gained and consider the need to obtain
further evidence. Before relying on procedures performed in previous examinations, the
auditor should obtain .evidence as to the nature and extent of any changes in the entity's
accounting and internal control systems since such procedures. The auditor should consider
that the longer the time elapsed since the performance of such procedures the less assurance
may result.
38. The auditor may decide to perform some tests of control at an interim date.. i However, the
auditor cannot rely on the results of such procedures without considering the need to obtain
further, evidence relating to the remainder of the accounting period. Factors to be considered
include the results of the inteiim procedures; the length of the remaining accounting period;
whether any
--changes have occurred in the accounting and гЫегпа! control systems during the remaining
period; the n?.ture and amount of the transactions or balances involved; the- auditor's
evaluation of the internal ecntrol environment,
Internal Control 153
especially supervisory controls; and the substantive procedures which the auditor intends to
carry out irrespective of the adequacy of internal contruls.
parties or documentation within the entity, or using tests of details for a particular
audit objective in addition to analytical procedures);
• the timing of substantive tests (e.g. performing them at year end rather than at an earlier
date); or
• the extent of substantive tests (e.g. using a larger sample size).
While tests of control and substantive procedures are distinguishable as to their purpose, the
results of either type of procedure may contribute to the purpose of the other. Misstatements
discovered in conducting substantive procedures may cause the auditor to modify the
previous evaluation that controls were adequate.
44. As the Appendix to ISA 25 states:
"...there should be an inverse relationship between the combined degree of inherent
and control risks and the detection risk established by the auditor. For example, when
an auditor believes that inherent and control risks are high, acceptable detection risk
should be low to restrict audit risk to an acceptable low level. On the other hand, when
inherent and control risks are low, an auditor can accept a higher detection risk and
still restrict audit risk to an acceptably low level."
45. The assessed levels of inherent and control risks cannot be sufficiently low to
eliminate the need for the auditor to perform any substantive procedures for significant
account balances and transaction classes. Consequently, regardless of the assessed levels of
inherent and control risks, the auditor should perform some substantive procedures.
46. The auditor's assessment of the components of audit risk may change during
the course of an audit (e.g. information may come to the auditor's attention when
performing substantive procedures that differs significantly from the information on which
the auditor originally assessed inherent and control risks). In such instances, the auditor
should change substantive procedures based on a revision of the assessed levels of inherent
and control risks for some or all of the financial statement assertions.
47. The higher the assessment of inherent and control risk, the more assurance the
auditor must obtain from the performance of substantive procedures. When both inherent
and control risks are assessed at a high level, the auditor should also consider whether
substantive procedures will provide sufficient assurance to reduce detection risk to an
acceptable level. When the auditor determines that detection risk cannot be reduced to an
acceptable level, the auditor should either qualify or disclaim the opinion or, if this is not
practicable, withdraw from the engagement.
unqualified opinion on the financial statements of both small and large entities. However,
many controls which would be relevant to large entities are not practical in the small
business (e.g. in small businesses, accounting procedures may be performed by few
persons). These persons may have both operating and custodial responsibilities, and
segregation of functions may be missing or severely limited. Inadequate segregation of
duties may, in some eases, be offset by owner/manager supervisory controls which may
exist because of direct personal knowledge of the business and involvement in the business
transactions. In circumstances where segregation of duties is limited and evidence of
supervisory controls is lacking, the evidence necessary to support the auditor's opinion on
the financial information may have to be obtained largely through the performance of
substantive procedures.
Introduction
1. An electronic data processing (EDP) environment is defined in International Standard on
Auditing (ISA) 15, Auditing in an EDP Environment, as follows:
"For purposes of International Standard on Auditing, an EDP environment exists when
a computer of any type or size involved in the processing by the entity of financial
information of significance to the audit, whether that computer is operated by the
entity or by a third party."
The introduction of all desired EDP controls may not be practicable when the size of the
business is small or when microcomputers are used hrespective of the size of the business.
Also, where data is processed by a third party- the consideration of the EDP environment
characteristics may vary depending en the degree of access to third party processing. A
series of Internati^g^
156 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Statements on Auditing has been developed to supplement the following paragraphs. This
series describes various EDP environments and their effect on the accounting and internal
control systems and on auditing procedures.
Organizational Structure
2. In an EDP environment, an entity will establish an organizational structure and procedures to
manage the EDP activities. Characteristics of an EDP organizational structure include:
a. Concentration of functions. and knowledge — although most systems employing EDP
methods will include certain manual operations, generally the number of persons
involved in the processing of financial information is significantly reduced.
Furthermore, certain data processing personnel may be the only ones with a detailed
knowledge of the interrelationship between the source of data, how it is processed and
the distribution and use of the output. It is also likely that they are aware of any
internal control weaknesses and, therefore, may be in a position to alter programs or
data while stored or during processing. Moreover, many conventional controls based
on adequate segregation of incompatible functions may not exist, or in the absence of
access and other controls, may be less effective.
b. Concentration of programs and data -— transaction and master file data are often
concentrated, usually in machine readable form, either in one computer installation
located centrally or in a number of installations distributed throughout an entity.
Computer programs which provide the ability to obtain access to and alter such data
are likely to be stored at the same location as the data. Therefore,, in the absence of
appropriate controls, there is an increased potential for unauthorized access to, and
alternation of, programs and data.
Nature of Processing
©3. The use of computers may result in the design of systems that provide less visible evidence
than those, using manual procedures. In addition, these systems may be accessible by a
larger number of persons. System characteristics that may result irom the nature of EDP
processing include:
a. Absence of input documents — data may be entered directly into the computer system
without supporting documents. In some on-line transaction systems, written evidence
of individual data entry authorization (e.g. approval for order entry) may be replaced
by other procedures, such as authoriza tion controls contained in computer programs
(e.g. credit limit approval).
b. Lack of visible transaction trai -— certain data may be maintained on computei' files
only. In a .aanual system, it is normally possible to follow a transaction through the
system t ' examining source documents, books of
Interna! Control 157
account, records, files and reports. In an EDP environment, however, the transaction
trail may be partly in machine readable form, and furthermore it may exist only for a
limited period of time.
c. Lack of visible output — certain transactions or results of processing may not be
printed. In a manual system, and in some EDP systems, it is normally possible to
examine visually the results of processing. In other EDP systems, the results of
processing may not be printed, or only summary data may be printed. Thus, the lack
of visible output may result in the need to access data-retained on files readable only
by the computer.
d. Ease of access to data and computer programs —- data and computer programs may
be accessed and altered at the computer or through the use of computer equipment at
remote locations. Therefore, in the absence of appropriate controls, there is an
increased potential for unauthorized access to, and alteration of, data and programs by
persons inside or outside the entity.
documentation nor documented in the same way as transactions which are initiated
outside the EDP system (e.g. interest may be calculated and charged automatically to
customers' account balances on the basis of pre-authorized terms contained in a
computer program).
e. Vulnerability of data and program storage media — large volumes of data and the
computer programs used to process such data may be stored on portable or fixed storage
media, such as magnetic disks and tapes. These media are vulnerable to theft, loss, or
intentional or accidental destruction.
Evaluation
11. The general EDP controls may have a pervasive effect on the processing of transactions in
application systems. If these controls are not effective, there may be a risk that
misstatements might occur and go undetected in the application systems. Thus, weaknesses
in general EDP controls may preclude testing certain EDP application controls; however,
manual procedures exercised by users may provide effective control at the application level.
The, following three supplements were also issued and have been reproduced in later
Chapter:
1. Supplement 1 to ISA 6 dealing with EDP Environment — Stand Alone Micro
Computer was released in October 1987.
2. Supplement 2 to ISA 6 dealing with EDP Environments-on-line Computer
System was released in February 1989.
3. Supplement 3 to ISA 6 dealing with EDP Environment on Data Base System
was released in February 1989.
These are reproduced in Chapter 20 ofthe book.
VOUCHIN
G
DEFINITION OF VOUCHER
ROUTINE CHECKING
DEFINITIONS OF VOUCHING
Vouching is the very essence of auditing. The^whole success of_the audit very much depends
upon the intelligence and" skill with which this part of the wojk^is performed. TypJ^hmg means
_and includes^ the_ examination of every,... business transaction with its supporting documentary
evidence^ the checking of which enables the ^auditor to satisfy himself that the transaction is*"m
order: that'.jffiKfi^.. been properly authorised: and that it has been correctly allocated and entered
in the"
book. л;"
,------"
If the auditor fails to vouch the item correctly, he may be considered negligent in the
performance of his duties, and may he пеЙ guilty as was decided iri"ffie"case "oi'ArrnUagc vs.
Brewer and Knott ,■ . ,
The basis on which the extent of the vouching could be carried out are complete
check or test check. The extent of carrying out the vouching will depend upon many
factors. One^of the„most important factor's is the existence or otherwise of sound
intemaFcontrol system in practice." If the system of internal control is"sound and
does operate in practice also, the auditor may consider it advisable in restricting the
youchrng to a test cheek basis rather than cariyihg out 'ffie voMrimg completely.
However,, if the'system of internal control is loose or theiedoesnpt exist _a system of
internal control at all, the auditor will be runmngfThe risk if he does not resort to
complete vou^chrng. "'■ ~ "*" ■ ■■■ ... ..
The type of test check is the matter which is to be decided by the auditor while taking all the
facts into consideration.
PROCEDURE OF VOUCHING
In practice generally the job of vouching is done by two persons. A junior member of the
audit Staff calls out the particular* in respect of each of tf.o entry appearing 4h the" books such as:
date, particulars, accounts debited, credited and amount.
164 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
The senior member compares^ the. details called_ out with the documentary
evidefici^pdueed to him to satisfy himself as to the genuineness ofthe transaction. In practice,
either of the following procedure is followed for identifying the act of vouching on the voucher:
(1) The senior puts his initials on the voucher; or
(2) A rubber stamp is put
upon the voucher and upon its supporting
documents. '.
The object of cancelling the documents by above manners is to ensure that the same
documents 'are not produced again in support of other items.
If a transaction is satisfactorily considered to have been vouched,^distinctive tick
is~pTacod on the amount appearing in the book of original entry If an item, is considered to be
insufficiently vouched for certain reasons, a symbol viz., "Q" is put on the amount appearing in
the book of original entry and the relevant particulars ofthe vouchers which are insufficiently
vouched are noted on the query list.
A copy of the queries should be handed over to the management to give them th^j)^ortunify
and time to'get them cleared. On the production of acquired documentary evidence, the queries
would be cleared and consequently, objections raised against them would be chopped. At the
conclusion of the audit, a list of uncleared queries will be prepared and reported to. the
management or the shareholders, depending upon whether the queries are material or otherwise.
TECHNIQUE OF VOUCHING
At the time of conducting the vouching, the following points must be borne in mind:
1. In order to ensure that valuable time is not lost in vouching, the client should
produce to the auditor all the vouchers arranged- in the order in which entries appear in
the books of account,
2. The auditor must satisfy himself that the dates given on the vouchers which are
recorded in the books fall in the у ear'under review.
3. Satisfaction must be made in respect of the head of account debited or credited
fr om the available documentary evidence.
4. While examining the documentary evidence it should be carefully seen that the
transaction pertains to the business. Care must be given to those vouchers which are m
the personal names of the partners, managers, secretajy, directors etc.
5. Every voucher has been passed by the authorised official.
6. Attention should also be paid to the point whether the voucher bears
proper revenue stamp. *
наедим— —
7. Complete notes should be taken in respect of such items as require further
Vouching 165
CUT-OFF PROCEDURES (Ж .
Cut-off procedures represent arrangements made for ensuring that at a particular point of
time, e.g., December 31, there will be agreement between the physical stock-in-trade and work-
in-process and the figures actually shown in the accounts, as obtained from the records of
purchases, sales, debtors and creditors.
For operationalising cut-off procedures, the following steps be taken;
Stocks relating to outsiders and held on their behalf be excluded from the stocks of
the enterprise.
Stocks owned by the enterprise, wherever situated, should be included in the closing
inventoiy.
Movement of goods in and out at the closing date should be carefully examined.
Goods sold but not delivered on the financial closing date, should be excluded from
the inventory.
f5.' Good bought but not received should not only be included in purchases but also in stock
in-transit.
- ■ . AUDIT SAMPLING ( Ц Э Т
ISA 19 deals with audit sampling. In general parlance it is known as test check. The above
ISA is a comprehensive guidelines and main features are reproduced below:
Auditjsampli^^ substantiveprocedui'e to
less than 100% oTthe items within an account balance or class of transactions to enable., the
auditor to obtain and evaluate evidence of some ch iracterliiic ofthe balance or class and to. form
or assist in forming a conclusion concerning that characteristic.
It isjmportant to recognise that certain testing procedures do not come within the. definition
oT sampling. Tes^jjejiformed on 100% of the items witfiin~"a popuhationjio not
involyje^sanipling. Likewise the technique of selecting all "items within a population which
have a particular significance (e.g. all items over a certain amount) does not qualify as sampling
with respect to. the portion of the
166 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
population examined nor with respect to the population as a whole, since the items were not
selected from the total population on a basis that we expected to be representative. Such items
might imply some characteristic of the remaining portion of-the population but would not be the
basis for a valid conclusion about the remaining portion of the population.
This Standard applies, equally to both statistical and non-statistical sampling
methridsT^nth^r method, when, properly *ap^Ii^rcan~provide sufficient appropriate
audit evidence.' Both^ethr^ i^aWiSsrW^e^^^^^^ox^ judgment
in designing and selecting the sample, perlDrniing~nis audit procedures and evaluating the results
thereof.'
supports the auditor's planned degree of reliance on internal control, the actual
compliance rate does not support such reliance.
(bi Substantive Testing ..
1. Risk of Incorrect Rejection — the risk that, although the sample result supports the
conclusion thai the recorded account balance is materially misstated, in fact it is not
materially misstated.
2. Risk of Incorrect Acceptance — the risk that, although the sample result supports
the conclusion that the recorded account balance is not materially misstated, in fact it
is materially misstated.
The risk of under reliance and the risk of _ incorrect^ rejection are prirnarily concerned with
audit efficiency as they would normally. lead to additional work being performed by the auditor
or his client which would establish that the initial conclusions were incorrect. The__risk of over
reliance and the risk of incorrect acceptance are concerned with audit effectiveness; thus they are
more serious, since they are more likely to lead to an erroneous opinion on the financial
information.
Sample size is affected by the decree of audit assurance the auditor plans to obtain from the
results of the sample. The greater the assurance the auditor requires, the greater the .sample size
should be. In determining the assurance required, the auditor will be concerned with the risk
(complement of assurance) that the conclusions he will draw from his audit procedures might be
invalid.
Tolerable Error
Tolerable error is the maximum error in the popula tion that the auditor would
be wining to accept and still conclude thatTSie result from the sample* has achieved his audit
objective. Tolerable error rs^cqhsiHeied during the planmng stage and is related to the*auditor's
preliminmy judgment about materiality. The smaller the tolerable error, the larger the sample size
the auditor will require.
In compliance procedures, the tolei'able error is the maximum rate of deviation from a
prescribed control procedure that the auditor would be willing to accept without altering his
planned, reliance on the control being tested. In substantive procecurres, the tolerable error is the
maximum monetary erro'r^Tri an'account TSalahce or class of transactions that the auditor would
be willing to accept so that when _he .considers the results .of.ail audit procedures he is able to
conclude, with reasonable assurance, that the financial information is not materially in error.
Expected Error i n t he Population
If the auditor expects error to be present, he will normally have to examine a larger sample
to conclude either that the population value is fairly stated to within the planned tolerable error or
that the planned reliance on a relevant control is justified. Smaller sample sizes are justified when
the population is expected to be error free. In determining the expected error in a population, the
auditor should consider such matters as error levels identified in previous audits, changes in client
Vouching 169
procedures and evidence available from his evaluation of the system of internal control and from
results of analytical review procedures.
Stratification
Stratification is the process of dividing a population into subpopulations, that is a group of
sampling units, which have similar characteristics (often monetary value). The strata must be
explicitly defined so that each sampling unit can belong to only one stratum. This procedure
reduces the variability of the items within each stratum. Stratification enables the auditor to
direct his efforts towards the items he considers potentially contain the greater monetary error.
For example, the auditor might direct his attention to larger value items for accounts receivable
to detect material overstatement errors. In addition, stratification may result in a smaller sample
size. "■
consistent with the method used to select the sampling unit. When projecting error results, the
auditor should keep in mind the qualitative aspects ofthe errors found. When the population is
divided into two or more sub-populations (stratification), the projection of errors is done
separately for each sub-population and the results are added together.
Assessing Sampling Risk
The auditor should consider whether errors in the population might exceed the tolerable
eiTor. To accomplish this, the auditor should compare the projected population error to the
tolei'able error and also then compare the sample results to the evidence obtained from other
relevant audit procedures when forming his conclusions about an account balance, class of
transactions or specific control. The projected population error used for this comparison should
be net of adjustments made by the client. As projected error approaches tolerable error, the risk of
incorrect acceptance or over reliance increases. The auditor should therefore reconsider the
sampling risk and if he determines that the risk is unacceptable, he should consider extending hie
audit procedures or performing alternative audit procedures.
In compliance procedures, the evaluation of the errors may result in the auditor concluding
that the sample results do not support his planned degree of reliance on a control procedure. In
this case, he may ascertain that there is another appropriate control on which he might rely after
applying appropriate compliance procedures. Alternatively, he may modify the nature, timing
and extent of his substantive procedures.
Conclusions
Having evaluated the sampling results, the auditor should conclude as to the extent to which
he has obtained sufficient appropriate audit evidence in support of the particular characteristic of
the account balance or class of transaction with which he is concerned.
Appendices I and II of this Standard illustrate some of the factors influencing sample size.
Appendix III illustrates sampling risk for both compliance and substantive tests. These are given
at the end of this chapter.
DEPTH TEST
Concept
Depth tests are generally known as "cradle to grave" tests and involve taking a transaction
or a series of transactions and following them through the accounting system from start to finish.
The objective is to facilitate an auditor in form his opinion.
172 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Objectives
Depth tests may be undertaken to accomplish the following objectives:
1. To test the accuracy of his record of the client's accounting system! This will
generally involve checking of small number of transactions and is generally known as
"walk through checks".
2. To perform compliance tests.
3. To provide evidence of a substantive nature.
The technique of vouching in respect of the important items which usually appear on the
debit side ofthe. cash book is discussed here:
Opening Balance
It should be cheeked with the balance shown in the audited balance sheet of the previous
year. Reference should be made to the audit working papers to see if the closing balance of the
cash shown in the balance sheet is the result of many balances.
Cash Sales
The required evidence for vouching the cash sales would depend upon the procedure for
recording the cash sales in the book. Usually carbon copies of the cash memos or cash sales
invoices would support such entries which should be checked. Where automatic tills are in use
the entries in the cash book should be checked from the till records. If automatic cash register is
maintained, resort should be made to the summaries.
The basis of charging prices to the customers against cash sales should be inquired into and
documentary evidence in this respect must be examined. A test check, the extent of which will
depend on the efficiency or otherwise of the system of interna] control, with the goods outwards
book should also be carried out.
by the cashier and he makes a personal use of the same. Subsequently on receipt of remittance
from Mr. Ayub the amount is recorded as cash received from Mr. Wahid. Further when some
money is later on received from Mr. Qayyum, the amount is credited to Mr. Ayub and this
process continues. At the end of the month or the year the cashier generally replaces the money
he had so far used without the permission of the management and credits the account of the
debtor whose account has not been credited. In order to put an effective check so that the said
malpractice is checked, the following steps should be taken:
(1) The carbon copy of the receipt or the counterfoil receipt, as the case may be, should be
cheeked with the pay in-slip. Special attention should be given to the amount banked,
number ofthe cheque and corresponding amount. This is meant to ensure whether the
cheques which were received had been deposited into the bank.
(2) The management must follow as an inflexible guiding rule that all bearer or other
cheques received are immediately crossed "Accounts Payee only".
(3) The specimen of the acknowledgment against the receipt of money should provide for
the disclosure of the facts whether the amount was received in cash or by cheque. In
the case of payment by cheque, the cheque number must be stated on the carbon copy
receipt or the counterfoil receipt.
Interest Income
The evidence required to vouch the amount of income will depend upon the nature of the
interest. Interest received on account of fixed deposits in the bank should be checked with the
bank advice and the verification of the arithmetical accuracy of its calculation should also be
done. Interest on savings bank account should be vouched with the bank advices. Interest on any
loans granted should be Vouched with reference to the agreement with the borrower. The terms of
the agreement in respect of rate of interest, the date of the payment etc., should be carefully
scrutinised. Interest received on securities should be checked with reference to the securities,
correspondence exchanged, covering letter in respect of the receipt of the interest and
counterfoil'receipts issued.
Dividend Income
Dividend received should be vouched with the counterfoil or the upper portion of the
dividend warrant and with the letters with which the cheques for amount of dividend had been
received.
Rents Received
Lease deeds and agreements should be exarnined in respect of amounts of rent payable, the
due date, provision regarding repairs etc., counterfoil of the receipts or carbon copies receipts
should be checked. Rent received should also be checked with the rent rolls. If the collection of
the rent is done through an agent, the agent's
174 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Commission Received
Counterfoil or carbon copy of the receipts should be checked with the amount in the cash
book. The accuracy of the amount should be verified with reference to the agreements with the
parties regarding rate of commission and its entitlement of receipt. Calculation of the amount
received and the basis of the working should be checked.
Subscriptions Received
The entitlement of the receipt of the subscription must be checked with the bye-laws of the
association or club. Subscriptions received should be checked with the counterfoil receipt or the
carbon copy receipt with the register of subscriber's. Any unusual amount of subscription should
be inquired into.
Sole of Securities
Broker sold notes should be vouched. The fact that the sale is "ex-dividend" or "cum-
dividend" should carefully be examined. In the case of cum-dividend sale, element of income in
respect of dividend and amount attributable to investments should be apportioned. Minutes ofthe
Board of Director's should also be examined, if the articles of association require that sales of
investment should be minuted by the Board of Directors.
Bills Receivable
The amount received against the bill receivable should be vouched^ with reference to the
bills receivable book. For the bills which are due for the receipt of money but against which the
amount has not been received, inquiries must be made against the same.
Share Capital
Reference may be made to a separate chapter where the procedure for vouching the amount
of share capital has been dealt with at length.
Miscellaneous Receipts
For vouching miscellaneous receipts, resort must be made to correspondence, contracts or
any other documents which will be produced for substantiating the support of transaction
involved in respect ofthe miscellaneous receipts.
The objects of vouching the payment side of the cash book are: to ensure that the payments
were properly authorised, asceitain that they were entered under their - appropriate head of
account in the cash book, see that the payments relate to the business and are a proper business
charge, determine that the payments stated to have been made are supported by the required:
documentary evidence and determine the closing cash and bank balances correctly.
The following points should ■ be carefully considered while
examining the evidence of payments:
(1
)
(2
)
(3
)
Ш
(5
! That the name of client is stated as the payer.
That the date in the payee's acknowledgement agrees with the corresponding entry in
the cash book.
That the payee's name is correctly stated in the cash book.
That the amount of the payment together' with the head of account debited is correctly entered
in the cash book.
176 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Payments to Creditors
An enquiry .should be made to ensure that invoices have been internally
177 A uditing: Principles and Procedures
checked and initialled by the authorised officials and payments are authorised. Payee's
acknowledgements should be checked. Statements of account of the creditors should be
scrutinised. As far as possible, payments must be made through _ crossed cheques. It should be
noted that the name of the payee is correctly recorded in the cash book so that it could later be
traced in the sundry creditors' ledger to the account of the particular creditor- to whom payment
has been made.
Cash Purchases
These should be vouched with cash memos of the suppliers. For acquiring satisfaction that
goods have actually been received, the available evidence, such as, goods received notes (GRN),
goods inward book, or gate pass book etc., whichever is applicable, should be examined.
Allocation to the head of account debited should be verified.
Wages
Before vouching the amount of wages paid, an enquiiy should be made in respect of the
system of preparation of time-keeping and pay-roll records and the procedure of making
payments, and the adequacy or otherwise of the system of internal control.
A sound system of internal control requires the segregation of duties in respect of
preparation of wages records in three phases; each phase of work to be performed by separate
staff, i.e., compilation of time spent or the record of piece-work, computation of the account
payable as wages and payment of wages. If the system of internal check is sound, a test check of
the wages sheets or wages book may be done. However, if the. system of internal check is loose,
then the' auditor should carry out an exhaustive work of checking.
The chances of frauds or errors could be in the following areas:
(1) Possibility of a clerical error.
(2) Fraud or eirors in r espect of time and piece-work records.
(3) The inclusion of 'dummy names' or 'ghost labour-' in the wages sheets or wages book.
A brief sketch of a workable sound system to be followed relating to preparation of wages
sheets is as under:
1. Time Records. — Where mechanical devices are not used, the gatekeeper should record
the time of arrival and departure of each worker. Another similar record should also be
maintained by the foreman. It gives two benefits — firstly, it provides a framework of
the check of the records maintained by the gatekeeper arid the for eman (with the
exception of such case where there is a collusion between the both) and secondly, it
provides a check on the wastage of time by the workers. However, if the mechanical
devices aie intended to be used, then Time Recording Clocks should be
178 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
installed at the gates of the factory. Each worker should be given a card which he
should put in the slot of the said clock to record the date and time of his arrival and
departure.
2. Piece-work Records. — A card should be given to each worker. On it should
be recorded the number of pieces produced or manufactured. It should also
■ be signed by the worker, foreman and the storekeeper to whom the
finished products are delivered. A record of any fine imposed due to
defective goods etc. should also be noted on it.
3. Preparation of wages-sheets or wages book. — On the basis of the information
available from the time record or piece-work record, wages sheet or wages book
should be written down. The time factor or the number of pieces manufactured would
be multiplied with the rate applicable to determine the amount of gross wages payable.
After entering the deduction (contributions to provident fund, wages advance, fines
etc.) the net wages payable be determined. Each number of the staff doing a particular
job should indicate the nature of work performed in relation to the wages sheets and
sign against it. The whole wages sheets or the wages book should also be counter-
signed by a responsible authorised official.
4. Payment of wages. — The wages sheets together with the exact amount drawn from
the bank be handed over to the cashier who should make the payment of wages "to the
workers in the presence of a foreman who must identify the workers before they
receive the amount. AH thumb impressions must be authenticated and eventually a
Certificate of payment of wages be appended on the wages sheets and signed by the
cashier and the foreman as well. A list of all amounts of unpaid wages should be
prepared and the remaining cash balance must agree with it.
The following steps should be taken for vouching the wages paid;
(1) Casts and cross casts of the wages sheets or wages book should be checked
and the amount should be traced into the cash book.
(2) Calculations of the amounts should be checked. The extent of checking would
depend upon the adequacy or otherwise of the system of internal check.
(3) The basis of payments (daily rates, or hourly rates or piece-work rates) should
be enquired into and it should be seen that it has been followed in practice.
(4) Time-keeping recoids and/or piece work records should also be checked with
the wages sheets or wages book.
(5) Payee's acknowledgements should be checked. In case of thumb impression,
the auditor should ensure that they were authenticated. In case of money order
remittances, M.O. (money order) acknowledgments should be cheeked. If the amount
has been credited to wage earners' accounts in a bank, advices ofthe bank should be
examined.
Vouching 179
(1) All unpaid amounts should be traced into unpaid wages register and subsequent
payments out of them should be verified with the said register.
(2) The total amount of wages payable should be checked with the amount of the cheque
drawn.
(3) In order' to see that no dummy or ghost labour is included in the wages sheets book,
the names of some ofthe worker's as mentioned in the wages sheets/book should be
checked with the job cards, and gatekeeper's and the foreman's register.
(4) The auditor should ensure'that the wages sheets/book has been properly .signed by a
responsible official. The part played by several persons in preparing or checking the
wages sheets/hook should be noted on it and signed.
(1) Allocation of wages paid should also be verified.
(2) A test check on suiprise basis to ensure the physical presence/ existence of the wage-
earners is also suggested.
Payment of Salaries
The salary book should be examined and the steps to be followed for its checking are:
(1) Casts and cross casts of salary book should be checked and amount agreed
with the cash book.
(2) Cheques drawn should be tallied with the salaries book.
(3) The recipients' acknowledgement bearing a proper revenue stamp be checked.
(4) Authority for increments should be seen.
(5) In case of senior employees, reference should also be made to the service
contracts and the entitlements and subsequent payments should be verified with the
same.
(6) In case of new recruitments, -letters of appointment or minutes of director's
(whatever is applicable) should be examined. .
(7) It should be seen that the salary book has been signed by an authorised
official in token of the authority for' payment.
Capital Expenditure
The procedure adopted in vouching various items is as follows:
Freehold and leaseliold- property. The agreement for sale and conveyance together with
the title deeds should be vouched for the real property. If the purchase has been effected through
a broker, broker's sold note and/or his statement of account should be examined. If purchased in
an auction, auctioneer's note should be examined. It should be seen that all legal charges incurred
in connection with the
180 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
acquisition of the property and brokerage paid have been capitalised, payee's acknowledgments
should be seen. If the building has been constructed, the architect's certificate, contract for
construction and the payee's acknowledgment should be examined. If the construction was made
by the staff of the organisation then the allocation of materials, labour of overheads should be
carefully checked so that correct amount is capitalised.
Plant and Machinery. The procedure for vouching will differ depending upon the nature of
acquisition of the plant and machinery . If it was got constructed under a contract, the actual
contract should be examined and the certificate for the completion of construction and erection
be seen. The amounts paid should be checked with the contract, bills rendered * by the contractor
and payee's acknowledgment. A careful scrutiny should be made to ensure that allocation is
correctly made to correct head of account. However, if the plant and machinery .has been erected
by the staff of the enterprise, allocation of materials, wages and overheads should be verified.
Proper distinction between capital and revenue should be checked. If the plant and machinery has
been bought or imported, complete documents (invoices, payee's acknowledgment, bank advice,
letter of credit, asset receiving reporting etc.) should be cheeked. The amount of expenditure
under this head should be properly authorised and correctly entered in the cash book,
Furniture and Fixtures. Similar considerations apply, as were discussed in the case of plant
and machinery. ■
Motor Vehicles. Contract for purchase, invoice, broker's note, payee's acknowledgment,
asset receiving report and the registration hook showing the ownership in the name of the client
should be examined.
Patents. If a patent has been purchased, the patent and the receipt acknowledging the
purchase consideration should be seen. If it was purchased through an agent, the statement of
agent's account should also be examined and his commission be capitalised. It should be seen
that renewal fees are not capitalised.
Investments
If the investments are purchased through a broker, Broker's Sold Note showing the exact
amount payable should be checked. The original investments should also be physically examined
to ensure their existence and for acquiring satisfaction that they stood in the name of the client. If
share certificates have not yet been issued, letters of allotment and banker's advice should be
seen. The terms of purchase (whether cum-dividend or ex-dividend) should be noted. In case of
cum-dividend purchase of investments, the auditor should see that the correct allocation between
the capital and revenue is done and interest/dividend is subsequently received.
Loans
Loan agreements should be checked. If the loan is against mortgage, the mortgage deed will
state the amount of the loan, and should be exaimned together
Vouching 181
with the title deeds and certificates. The payee's acknowledgment receiving the loan should be
inspected. If the loan is a secured one, the nature of security should be examined. The authority
for the loan, such as the minutes of board of directors or managing director's approval etc.,
whatever is applicable, must be seen. In case of loans to directors of a company, the auditor must
see that the provisions of the Companies Ordinance, 1984, are not contravened. In respect of
loans to employees, the loan account of each staff member should be scratinised to ensure that
regular recoveries are taking place.
Travelling Allowances
The travelling rules should be studied. The travelling allowance bills should be checked
with the rules and the calculations of the amount may be certified. Payee's acknowledgment
should be checked. Any advances given should be checked to ensure that a proper adjustment is
made at the time of payment.
Insurance Premiums
Insurance policy can either be new" policy or a renewal of old policy. Insurance premium
should be vouched in respect of a new policy in the following way: ■
(1) Examine the actual policy to ascertain its nature.
(2) Check up the demand note of insurance Company.
182 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Sank Charges
Vouching should be done with reference to bank statement and bank advices. Wherever
possible and necessary, calculations should also be checked. Nature and basis of charge of any
material amount should be enquired into. Bank charges in respect of import and acquisition of
fixed assets should be capitalised in the books.
has been uicurred in any one year, the whole amount of such item should be stated with the
addition of reasons why only a portion of such expenditure is charged against the income of the
year.
Dividend Paid
It should be ascertained from the Company's Memorandum and Articles of Association that
the dividend paid is in accordance with the rights attaching to the share capital in question.
The mture of the dividend paid must then be inquired into. If it is interim dividend, the
articles of association ofthe company should be examined to ascertain whether the directors are
empowered to pay the interim dividend and whether the profits disclosed by the interim accounts
justify the payment. If it is final dividend, the resolution passed by the shareholders in the annual
general meeting should be examined. The following steps should then be taken to vouch the
amount:
(1) Check casts, cross casts and carry -forwards ofthe dividend book.
(2) Check dividend book with the returned endorsed dividend warrants.
(3) Check the amounts appearing in the dividend book with the bank statements and
reconcile with the bank account.
(4) See that the total of the gross dividend column in the dividend book represents the
correct percentage of the dividend on the share capital on which it is paid.
(5) Check the income-tax deducted and deposited into the State Bank of Pakistan with the
prevailing rates and the receipted challans.
(6) Trace the unpaid amount into the unpaid dividend register. Any subsequent payment
out of the unpaid amount of dividend should be checked with reference to the said
register.
Custom Duties
If these have been paid by Ше forwarding agents on behalf ofthe customer, the amounts
will be included in their monthly accounts which should be vouched and the official receipt
checked. The,supportings to the bill (bill of entry, wharfage receipts etc.) should be checked.
Where the custom duty is paid directly, receipted bill of entry should be examined.. The
allocation of custom duly, L e., whether it is a revenue or a capital expenditure, should also be
verified.
Postage
The auditor should examine the system of internal control in operation relating
185 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
to incurrence ofthe postage expenditure. Casts ofthe postage book .together will the drawings
received from cash or petty cash book should be checked. Postal receipts should be checked
against the registered letters. Telegram receipts supported with a signed copy of the telegrams
sent should'be checked. For despatches through air, receipts issued by the airline companies
should be inspected. The despatch register should be scrutinised to ascertain that , the charge of
postage is allocatable to the business and personal element is not included. (If so, the recoveries
must be checked against those). If a franking roachine is kept, the amounts deposited should be
traced into the Post Office Franking Deposit Book.
Telephone Expenses
Bill and receipt received from the telephone department should be checked. The trunk call
bill should be traced into the trunk call register to ensure that official calls are charged off to
revenue and private calls are debited to advances .and recoveries made against those. The period
of the rent of telephone must be noted and proper allocation be made to prepaid expenses, if it is
relevant.
Bill Payable
A good internal control system requires that all bills paid should be cancelled immediately to
avoid the possibility of fraud. Vouching of these should be carried out by checking payments made in
respect of bills payable with the actual bills returned duly cancelled. Payee's acknowledgments
should also be examined, The relevant entries should be traced into the bills payable register to see
that only the bills outstanding had remained uncancelled.
Partners Drawings
The auditor should go through the partnership deed to examine the
186 A uditing: Principles and Procedures
entitlement of drawings, the maximum amount which can be drawn and the provisions of interest
chargeable therein. The receipts of the partner should be inspected and the relevant entries in the
partner's drawings book be scrutinised.
The Memorandum and the Articles of Association of a company should be examined for
payment of directors' fees to the receipt of fee. The amount paid must be checked with the
attendance register {to ensure the attendance) and receipts of the payees. Under the Act,
remuneration to directors is required to be shown separately. Hence there should be a separate
head of account to which the amount paid may be debited. If a director has forgone this fee, the
auditor should examine the waiver's letter.
Miscellaneous Expenses
Vouchers, receipts, bills, correspondence should be examined to satisfactorily vouch the
payments which are not covered by the above discussion.
The casts, cross-casts and carry-forwards of the cash book must be checked and-postings
also be checked into the general ledger. Some of the postings should also be checked into the
subsidiary ledgers.
Petty cash book is usually kept on the imprest system (also called 'float' or 'revolving fund').
The auditor should ascertain that the system of petty cash is maintained on the imprest system
and note the amount of imprest should be consistent and in line with the requirements of the
company, although It should not necessarily be rigid. . . .
After examining the adequacy or otherwise of the system of internal check, the following
should be performed for vouching the petty cash book:
(1) Check the amounts drawn for petty cash with reference to the cash book or bank
statement;
(2) Check the casts, cross-casts and carry-forwards of the petty cash book. '
(3) Test check exhaustively the petty cash vouchers with the supporting evidence. The
extent of checking should be full if the system of internal control is loose.
(4) It should be seen that the petty cash book has been signed by cashier at the end ofthe
month.
(5) Posting should be checked into the general ledger.
(6) A surprise count of the cash kept with the petty cashier is also suggested. As at the
date of financial closing, the cash on hand must be physically
Vouching 187
counted.
(Tj (8) Allocation of expenditure should be properly verified.
It should be seen that payment vouchers are properly' authorised.
It is highly essential that an efficient system of internal check must be in force for the
placing of an order, receipt of goods, checking of invoices etc., in order to prevent the errors and
frauds and with a view to ensuring that liability is accounted for only in respect of such cases
where goods were actually received. The auditor should take the following steps to vouch the
purchases book:
Purchases Book
It should be vouched with the invoices, bills or credit memos. The vouched documentary
evidence should be cancelled by a rubber stamp or initials of the auditor so that it may not be
produced again in support of another entry.
Purchase Invoices
While checking the purchase invoices special attention should be given to the following
points:
(a) It is made out in the name of the client.
(Ы The name of the creditor as given on the purchase invoice agrees with the
• purchase book.
(c) The date of the purchase invoices falls, within the financial period under
audit.
(d) The goods mentioned in the invoice are of a nature in which the business is
carried on.
(e) The trade discount (if. any) is to be deducted and the net amount of the invoice
is entered in the purchases book.
i f ) Any private account passed through the purchases book should be charged to the
individual accounts.
(g) It has been properly initiated by those who had internally checked. Brief description of
the internal checking carried out by the client's staff should also be given either on the
back of the invoice or a separate sheet should be attached to it.
Allocation
The allocation of expenditure should be checked. Careful attention should be paid to ensure
that proper distinction is maintained between capital and revenue.
Receipt of Goods
Purchase invoices must be checked with such documentary evidence (goods receipt notes,
goods inward register etc.), as will ensure the receipt of the goods by the company. A test check
of these documents is also suggested with the store records maintained by the client.
Inspection Reports
If the nature of the goods purchased is such as requires inspection (chemical analysis etc.),
inspection reports by the responsible official should be checked to ensure that liability is being
recorded for the right type of goods purchased. The value of defective goods or goods of bad
quality not approved by the chemists should be kept in suspense. This amount should then be
adjusted after proper verification.
Purchase Contracts
Generally, for bulk purchases contracts are executed which must be checked to verify the
accuracy of the basis on which the invoices have been prepared. It must be checked to see that
any concessions available in the contract are fully availed of.
Authorisation
All entries before being made in the purchases book must be properly authorised by a
responsible official. Any entry for which the invoices have not been authorised, proper
authorisations should be obtained. Where proper authorisations for purchase transactions have
not been made, matters should be reported to the client.
Statement of Accounts
If regular statements of accounts are being received from the creditors, a test check of the
amount of purchase invoices with the entries appearing in the statement of the accounts is also
suggested. .
Forward Contracts
Forward contracts entered into for the purchase of goods must be scrutinised and their
eventual settlement should be checked in the light of conditions laid down in the forward
contracts. If the commitments' under the forward contracts are of abnormal amount, a disclosure
by way of footnote on the face of the balance sheet may have to be made. If the contracts are of
abnormal amount and it appears that
189 Auditing; Principles and Procedures
there is probability that in connection with such contracts due to fluctuations in the market prices
etc., provision must be made against such a loss.
Duplicate Invoices
While examining the invoices, if the auditor comes across the invoices marked "true copy
of invoice" or "duplicate invoice", he should satisfy himself that they were obtained in respect of
only those invoices which have actually been lost or mislaid to avoid the same being accounted
for twice in the books. For acquiring such satisfaction he will have to scrutinise the relevant
account of the creditor in the personal ledger and a general scrutiny of the invoices lying to the
credit of the respective creditor is required to be made.
Suppression of Purchases
In order to get a clue to the suppression of purchase invoices the purchases book should be
checked with the goods received during the last two or three weeks of the accounting period as
recorded in the goods inward book. The invoices for the first few weeks ofthe next period should
also be checked to ascertain whether any of them relate to the period under audit and should thus
have been accounted for in the period under audit. A further independent check in this connection
is to compare the percentage of gross profit earned on the cost of goods sold with that of previous
period and if such a rate of gross profit has material variations, the reasons therefor must be
inquired into. There is a likelihood that one of the reasons for -the material variation in the gross
profit ratio may be that goods were taken into stock but the corresponding invoices were not
entered in the purchases book.
190 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Inflation of Purchases
A similar work as mentioned in respect of suppression of purchases, if carried out, is likely to
uncover any deliberate attempt for inflation of purchases-Imports
In case of imports, supporting documents such as letter of credit, foreign invoices, exchange
conversion rates, shipping bills, bills of entries, clearing and forwarding bills, freight and octroi receipts,
banker's advice, bills of exchange etc., should be examined. Goods physically received against imports
should also be verified from the assets receiving reports. The following are some of the errors and
frauds likely to be found in connection with the purchases:
The existence of a second internal check in respect of sales is highly essential. The following work
should be done by an auditor for vouching the sales book:
Sales Book
It should be checked with carbon copy of the invoices, which should be cancelled by a rubber
stamp or initials by the auditor so that it may be produced again in support:of another entry.
Sales Invoices
While checking sales invoices special attention should be given to the following points:
(а) It is made out in the name of debtor. It must be remembered that in the
case of a company there cannot be any sale by a company to itself.
(б) The name of debtor as given on the sales invoice agrees with the sales
book.
Vouching 191
(c) The date of sales invoice falls within the financial period under audit.
(d) The trade, discount, if any, has been deducted and the net amount of the invoice is
entered in the sales book. Authority for the trade discount must be examined.
(e) It has been properly installed by those who had internally verified the basis of the sale
and checked it. Initials of those who do the necessary checking together with the brief
description of the work done should be given either on the back of the invoices or on a
separate sheet to be annexed thereto. ■
Allocation
The allocation of the sales should be checked, carefully noting that sales of non-trading
items-(sales of assete etc.) is not mixed up with the normal sales.
Despatch of Goods
Sales invoices must be. checked with such documentary evidence (goods despatched notes,
goods outward register etc.) as will ensure the despatch of the goods by the company. A test
check of these documents with the finished goods register maintained by the client is also
suggested.
Sole Contracts
If any sale contracts have been executed, the terms oh the basis of which sale invoices were
prepared must be verified with reference to them. In the absence of any sale contracts, an inquiry
must be made as to the selling policy of the management and the selling price mentioned in the
sale invoices should be verified with reference to such policy.
Authorisations
The sale invoices should properly be authorised before being entered into the sales book.
Statement of Accounts
If statements of accounts are being regularly received from the debtors or sent to them by
the client, a test check of the amount of sale invoices with the entries appearing in the statement
of the accounts should also be done.
Exports
In the case of exports of goods. Supporting documents such as sale invoices, exchange
conversion rates, shipping bills, clearing and forwarding bills, octroi and freight receipts,
banker's advices for the negotiation of documents must be examined. The terms of the invoice,
i.e., F.Q.R., F.O.B., C.I.F., etc., must be checked with the sale contracts or export orders received.
Forward Contracts
The forward contracts for the sale of goods must be inspected and their eventual settlement
should be verified. The question of a possible loss on the supply of goods involving future
commitment must be discussed and a provision made therefor. Only the goods actually delivered
should be treated as sales; because it is not desirable to take a credit in advance in connection
with the transaction which is in the nature of forward sales.
Suppression of Sales
In order to get a clue to the suppression of sale invoices, the sales book should be checked
with goods sent out during the last two or three weeks of the accounting period as recorded in the
goods outward book. The sale invoices for the first few weeks of the next period should also be
checked to ascertain whether any of them relate to the period under audit and should thus have
been reflected in the period audited. A further independent check is to compare the percentage of
gross profit earned on the cost of goods sold with that of the previous period and if such a rate of
gross profit has material variations, the reasons therefor must be inquired into. There is a
likelihood that one of the reasons for the material variation in the gross profit ratio may be that
goods were sent out, but the corresponding invoices were not entered in the sales book.
Vouching 193
Inflation of Sales
A similar work as mentioned in respect of the suppression of sales, if carried out, will
uncover any deliberate attempt for inflation of sales.
Heavy Sales
In the event of there being any heavy sales at the close of the period, the auditor should
satisfy himself that all these goods were delivered prior to the date of the financial close and that
none of those goods were included in the closing stock.
The following are some of the errors and frauds likely to be found in connection with the
sale:
(!) Goods sent on approval or V.P.P. but not yet accepted by the customer, or goods sent to
the agent for sale but not yet sold, may be treated as sale.
(2) Sales of fixed assets may be recorded as sale of goods.
(3) Next year's sale may be treated as this years sale.
(4) Sales of consignment inwards may be entered as on sale.
(5) Fictitious sale may be recorded.
The following steps should be carried out for vouching the purchases return book which is
intended for recording entries in respect of goods returned as damaged or not up to sample and
also relating to allowances claimed on account of shortage in weight, Over-charges etc.
Voudiing 194
Debit Notes
While checking the debit notes, special attention should be given to the following points:
(a) It is made out in the name ofthe client.
(ft) The name of the creditor as given on the credit note agrees with the
purchases returns books, (c) The date of the debit note falls within the financial
period under audit.
id) It has been internally checked by some member of the staff or the client and it bears his
initials in token of internal checking.
Allocation
The credit to the revenue account should be given in the books of client to that head of
account which was previously debited.
Manipulation
The entries in the purchases returns book for the early part of the next period should be
examined carefully. There is a possibility of manipulation of accounts by including the fictitious
purchases during the year under audit and showing them as returned after the end of the
accounting period.
195 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Statement of Accounts
A test check of amount in respect of debit notes sent to creditors into the statement of
accounts (if received regularly) should also be done.
The following steps should be taken to vouch the sales returns book:
Credit Notes
While checking the credit notes issued, particular attention should be given to the following
points:
(«) It is made out in the name of the client.
(6) The name of the debtor as given on the credit note 'agrees with the sales returns book.
(c) The date of the credit note falls within the financial period under audit.
id) It has been internally cheeked by some member of the staff of the client and it bears
his initials in token of internal checking.
Allocation
The debit to revenue account should be given in the books of clients to that head of account
which was.previously credited.
Manipulation
The entries in the sales returns book for the early part of the next period should he
examined carefully. There is a possibility of manipulation of accounts by
14fi Auditing: Principles and Procedures
including the fictitious sales during the year under audit and showing them as returned after the
end of the accounting period.
Statement of Accounts
A test check of amount in respect of credit notes into the statement of accounts (if received
regularly) is also suggested.
The casts and carry-forwards ofthe bills receivable book should be checked. Posting to the
ledger account and to the individual customed account in the subsidiary ledger should also be
traeed. If any bill has been disbursed, it should be seen that amount has been debited to the
respective customers. The proceeds of discounted and matured bills should be traced into the cash
book/bank book. If any bills have been sent to bank for collection,' 3 certificate should be directly
received and subsequent realisations noted. Any bills which become overdue must be scrutinised
and fully discussed with the management. A note should be 'taken to show the amount of
contingent liability in respect of bills- not matured but are under discount as at the date of the
balance sheet. Bills on hand should be physically checked and the balance on the bills receivable
account in the general ledger should agree with the total of the bills not matured on hand.
Casts, carry-forwards and postings ofthe bills payable book should be checked. Bills paid
during the year should be vouched with the cash book and the returned bills. The auditor should
see that the total of the bills not matured, as shown by the bills payable book, is in agreement with
the credit balance on the bills payable account in the ledger.
VOUCHING OF JOURNAL
..■ Where in a concern there is ai network of several books of original entr ies, the journal is
principally used for recprding opening, closing and adjusting entries and also those transactions
as could not be recorded in any other book of original entry. The evidence to vouch the entries
would be in the form of voucher's", correspondence, contracts, minutes etc. The several classes of
journal entries would be vouched as follows."
Opening Entries
These should be checked with reference to previous year's audit working papers
or audited balance sheet. ■.
Vouching 197
Closing Entries
These should be checked with reference to the audited closing balances ofthe general
ledger.
Transfer Entries
Authority should be seen for the transfer from one ledger account to another ledger account.
The auditor must see that direct transfer from one account to another is not made.
Rectification Entries
The details of actual mistakes should be scrutinised and transactions must be thoroughly
checked with reference to the available evidence. The necessary entries must be authorised by a
responsible official.
Adjusting Entries
The auditor should see that all outstanding liabilities in respect of expenses relating to the
period under audit; income received in advance .and income earned and not received are duly
made. Adjustments in respect Of expenses prepaid should also be closely scrutinised.
After the books of original entries have been vouched and postings therefrom fully
checked, the following further steps should be taken in connection with the audit of the purchases
ledger which is also called sundry creditors' ledger or accounts payable ledger:
Casts
The casts and carry-forwards of the purchases ledger should be checked.
List of Balances
The list of closing balances of creditors should be checked with the purchases
14fi Auditing: Principles and Procedures
ledger and the control account of the above ledger in the general ledger should be tallied with the
total of the list of balances. The casts of the schedule of creditors should also be checked.
Confirmations
The purchases ledger balances should be compared with the corifirmation or statement of
accounts received. Any differences must be sorted out and reconciled.
Old Balances
The amounts, which remained unclaimed for a long time, should be noted and those which
do not represent payable, should be suggested for write-off.'
Dispute Cases
If certain amounts due to the creditors are in dispute, it should be seen that they me shown
ae contingent liability and are adequately provided for in the accounts.
Debit Balance
In the case of debit balances on any of the accounts, the auditor must satisfy himself that
they are really recoverable.
Scrutiny
Scrutiny should be made to make sure that no item is left unticked on any of the ledger
accounts (except for the month for which no posting has been checked by the auditoi').
Sales ledger is also called sundry debtors' ledger or accounts receivable ledger. After the
books of original entries have been vouched and posting checked, similar work as explained
under the 'Audit of Purchases Ledgeis' should be carried out for the audit of the sales ledger;
Further, the list of debtors must be thoroughly scretinised. Any legally time-haired debts must be
written off. Steps should be taken to ensure that adequate and proper provision for doubtful
accounts. This matter is elaborately explained in the chapter on 'Verification'.
: After the postings into general ledger have been checked, the following work should be done
to audit the general ledger:
199 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Casts
Casts and carry-forwards of the accounts of the general ledger should be checked.
Scrutiny
The general ledger should be scrutinised to ensure that no entry remains unticked. This
would assist in uncovering the cases of entries which did not exist in any ofthe books of original
entries.
Trial Balance
The closing balances of the general ledger must be checked with the trial balance.
The bank column of the cash book should be checked with the bank statements or bank
pass book according to the following procedure:
Casts
A test check of casts, cross-casts and carry-forwards of bank statements is also suggested.
Bank Reconciliation
The bank reconciliation statement should be checked as under:
( a ) Bank balance as at closing date should be verified from the bank certificate directly
received from the clients' banker.
(ft) Amounts deposited but not credited by the bank should be verified from
200 Auditing; Principles anil Procedures
the pay-in-slips and with the subsequent realisations noted in the bank statements of
subsequent period. Entry,by debit to the respective debtor and credit to the hank
account should be made relating to those cases of dishonoured cheques which were
returned with the remarks of. 'insufficient funds' or 'refer to drawer' etc.
(c) Subsequent clearance of all cheques issued but not presented for payment as at
the closing date should be traced into the bank statement of subsequent period. '
(d) The closing balance in respect of cash book shown on the bank reconciliation
statement should be checked with the closing balance indicated on the cash book.
Vouching 201
Appendix 4.1
-----------------Л__.------------------------._____________---------,----:-----------------------------------------------1-------
Factor Conditions Leading to
Smaller Sample Size Larger Sample Size
'
iHarmed reliance on Lower reliance on internal Higher reliance on internal
' internal control (1) control control
i
Higher acceptable rate of Lower acceptable rate of
Allowable rate of deviation
deviation for planned reliance deviation for planned reliance
(tolerable error)
on internal control on internal control
(1) Compliance tests are not performed when no reliance on internal controls is planned.
(2) Larger samples are necessary when deviation occur", in order to obtain more precise
conclusions. However, high deviation rates normally warrant little, if any, reliance on
internal controls and, therefore, compliance testing might be omitted.
Appendix 4.2
Appendix 4.3
The process for vouching enables an auditor to confirm the acquisition of an asset or the
assumption of a liability on a stated date. After such a work has been done the value of such
items may have decreased, their ownership may have changed or they may have ceased to exist.
It is, therefore, essential to substantiate the items at the date of the balance sheet by various
means such as inspection, obtaining of certificates from the responsible officials or by such
documentaiy evidence as is necessaiy in the given set of cuxumstances.
Sub-section (3) of Section 255 of the Ordinance requires an auditor to submit his report to
the shareholders specifically mentioning whether or not the balance sheet exhibits a true and fair
view of the state of company affairs according to the best of his information and the explanation
given to him and as shown in the books of the company. Moreover, the auditor is required to
discharge his duties after due verification.
In order to discharge the above legal duties imposed on the auditor of a company it is
imperative that such work should be carried out as would enable him to submit his report
addressed to the ■ shareholders to his entire satisfaction. This process is known as 'verification'.
Physical Existence
In order to. satisfy himself in respect of the physical existence of an item appearing in the
balance sheet of the company, an auditor generally will have to use two techniques. Firstly, a
stress is given on physical veiification of the- item by actual count, weighing or measurement.
Secondly, where the first step to be followed in ascertaining the physical existence of an asset is
impracticable or not feasible, reference must be made to such documentary evidence and
certified inventories duly signed by a responsible official of the company so as to enable the
auditor to- acquire a satisfaction as to the physical existence of the item stated in the balance
sheet. For example, for the physical existence of the cash in hand, cash must be counted by the
auditor as on the date of the balance sheet. What was held in London Oil Storage Co. Limited vs.
Seear Hashluek and Co. (1904) is as under:
"It cannot be disputed that where # an auditor returns to the shareholder an entry for
cash in hand he must have taken reasonable steps to ascertain that the cash was in
hand. He has the same duty to discharge in regard to the veiification of cash as he has
with regard to the verification of securities."
The physical existence of a bank balance is to be verified with reference to a certificate
obtained directly from the clients' banker. In accordance with generally accepted auditing tests to
be applied for verification, the auditor must obtain a certificate for the closing balance of the cash
at hand directly from the clients' banker.
Investments held must be physically examined. If they are kept with the clients' banker, a
certificate should directly be obtained confrrming that they were held by them, indicating the
purpose of their being held, ie., whether held for safe custody or as a cover against any credit
facilities sanctioned by the banker to his client. It was held in the case of City Equitable Eire
Insurance Co. Ltd. (1924):
. "That it is the duty of a company's auditor, in general, to satisfy himself that the
securities of a company in fact exist and are in safe custody cannot, I think, be
gainsaid."
The question in respect of the checking of the physical existence of the stocks, has a divided
opinion. One school of thought still believes in the Kingston Cotton Mills case wherein it was
held that it was no part of the auditors' duty to take stock.
206 Auditing; Principles and Procedures
However, the decision in the case of Mckesson and Bobbins in 1939 has changed the present
position and auditors' outlook. The present practice in regard to stocktaking has been given in
"Audit by Certified Accountants" published by American Institute of Accountants in 1950 as
under:
"The C.P.A. (Certified Public Accountant — known as Chartered Accountant in our
country), is required by generally accepted auditing practice to be present at the
inventory-taking to observe the effectiveness of the counting procedures when it is
practicable and reasonable to do so and the amount ofthe inventoiy is significant."
In view of the above cited case-law, emphasis is being- laid on the physical taking of the
stocks by an auditor, because this fact now constitutes as a recognised auditing technique. In
practice, it may, in several instances, be impracticable to physically count the items of plant and
machinery, furniture and fixture etc. For getting satisfaction as to the physical existence of the
fixed assets (some of the examples of which are cited above) a certified inventoiy by a
responsible official of the company must be obtained. Similarly in order to ascertain whether a
liability exists physically or not recourse must be made to relevant documentary evidence.
Correct Valuation
In the Kingston Cotton Mills case it was held that an auditor is not a valuer. This case is
now considered as a bad law. It is the duty of an auditor to check the valuation of the assets as far
as possible with reference to any* evidence which may be available. In doing so where technical
knowledge is involved he is entitled to rely upon the information supplied to him by the skilled
and technical persons who may be expected to possess such knowledge. The auditor must apply
all possible tests to obtain satisfaction that the assets have been valued upon the generally
accepted accounting principles and in accordance with the legal provisions contained in the Form
F annexed to the Third Schedule of the Act and other provisions contained therein.
The basis on which the assets of a business are valued for balance sheet purposes, largely
depends upon the nature of the business and the objects for which these assets are held.
Consequently, different methods of valuation are employed for fixed and current assets a brief
discussion of which is given here:
(a) Fixed Assets. These are assets which are acquired for earning income and not for resale.
As a guiding general rule, they are valued at what is generally known as 'a going concern' or
'conventional' or 'token' value which Is the cost less" reasonable depreciation. In Pakistan fixed
assets are' valued at cost less depreciation. In valuing fixed assets, their market and break-up
value is totally ignored for the reasons indicated below:'.
(i) The market value of the fixed assets does not in any way affect their earning power;
Verification — General 207
(ii) It does not affect the proprietor with the exception of those cases where a fixed asset
becomes worn-out and has to be replaced; and
(i i t i The ascertainment of the realisable values of used fixed assets is impracticable except
when they are actually placed on the market for sale.
Due to the continued rise in price levels, the method of determining the profit on the basis
of above principle of valuation has become controversial. It is generally argued that, at first, the
replacement value of the fixed assets be arrived at and then depreciation on that amount be
charged off to profit arid loss account. The method by which depreciation may be provided on
the basis of replacement costs is explained. The fixed assets are written up in the books to their
current replacement values. The appreciation disclosed by such revaluation is to be credited to
the capital reserve account. Thus the future annual charge for depreciation will be computed on a
basis which would write off the appreciated values over the remaining lives of the assets.
However, if it is not desired to write up the assets to their replacement value in the* books, the
annual provision for depreciation in excess of the amount computed on the basis of original cost
of the assets should be credited to a replacement reserve account.
(b) Current Assets. Current Assets are those assets in which the business deals and which are
required for the purpose of sale and their subsequent conversion into cash, e.g., stocks, book
debts, bank balances, cash on hand etc. The following points must be considered in respect of
valuing the current assets:
(i) The valuation must be done at cost or market price whichever is lower;
(ii) The principles of valuation adopted in one year must be consistently adopted in the
subsequent year's;
(Hi ) Any depreciation (decrease in the value of the current assets as at the date ofthe
balance sheet) must be provided for.
The current assets are, as a general rule, valued at cost or market price whichever is less at
the date of balance sheet. However, a temporary fall in the market prices in the value of the
current assets is generally ignored. In valuing current assets, an anticipated loss should be taken
into account, but an expected profit is to be disregarded. It would be wrong to anticipate a profit
which would never be realised.
(c) Wasting Assets. Wasting assets are those assets of a fixed nature which are gradually
consumed or exhausted in the process of earning ineome, e.g., a quarry, a mine etc. Frem a
general point of view it may be said that in order to replace the exhausted capital out of the
revenue, it is necessary to reduce the book value of the wasting assets to the extent of the
estimated amount hy which it has diminished in value.
Ownership
The verification of the ownership of the assets and the liabilities is a
208 Auditing; Principles and Procedures
fundamental aspect to which the auditor should devote his inquisitive attention. If a
certain value is associated in respect of an asset which is shown on the balance sheet, the auditor
must satisfy himself that the ownership in respect of that asset is vested in his client, The
techniques enabling the auditor to acquire a satisfaction on this point will differ depending upon
the nature of an asset or liability. For example, ownership ofthe investments is to be verified either
by physically seeing the name of the client on the share certificates etc. or physically examining
by the auditor or by seeing a confirmatory certificate directly obtained from the banker
mentioning that the securities held by the banker on behalf ofthe client, were held in the name of
the client. The ownership of a bank balance in the name of a client will be verified by reference to
the bank confirmation directly obtained from the client's banker-, clearly indicating that the bank
balance was held in the name of the client. Similarly, the amounts owned in respect of the
liabilities are required to be confirmed with the help of confirmation obtained from the creditors. It
was observed in the case of Irish, Woollen Co. vs. Tyson and others (1УО0) that had the auditor
sent for the statements of account from the creditors, the manipulation and falsification resorted to
would have been disclosed. The judicial pronouncement has lent a backing support to the
circularisation of accounts which is being generally employed as a generally accepted auditing
technique. The ownership of the motorcar is to be checked with the registration book seeing that
the name of the client is stated' as the owner. Title deeds vesting the property in the name of the
client must be physically examined, to vouch that fact or alternatively a certificate from the
company's solicitor should be obtained which should clearly mention that the ownership ofthe
property is vested in the name ofthe client.
It would thus appeal- from the above discussion that the technique to be adopted by the
auditor in getting the satisfaction in respect of the ownership will differ depending upon the nature
ofthe asset or liability.
Correct disclosure
Satisfaction on this point involves .on the part of the auditor to verify whether the
information which is required by law has -in fact been given in the balance sheet on which the
auditor is submitting his report. In this respect the legal requirements are summarised here:
Co) Disclosure requirements govermng listed companies are contained in the Fourth
Schedule annexed to the Oidinance.
(b ) Disclosure requirement governing non-listed companies are contained in the Fifth
Schedule annexed to the Ordinance. .
(e) IAS 5 contains disclosure requirements governing financial statements.
an ownership suffering from a charge in respect of the assets of a company. Some of the type of
charges are Mortgage, Hypothecation, Pledge, Lien, Pawn and Assignment.
The duty of an auditor, in our opinion, in this respect is two-fold. Firstly, he should adopt
such ways and means whereby he ascertains whether an asset of the company is suffering from a
charge or not. The following steps should enable an auditor to find out whether an asst is
suffering from a charge or not:
(a) He must obtain a certificate from the management to the effect that the assets shown in
the balance sheet are free from any such encumbrances, the details of the same must
be obtained.
If any loan has been obtained from a bank or other financing institution, the auditor
should enquire as to the nature of the charge established against the fixed assets or
current assets of the company. In this respect he must obtain the details and the nature
of the charge from the financing institution or the bank which has extended the credit
facilities.
He must carefully, examine the object of holding, any securities from the
confirmations directly obtained from the bankers holding the securities. If the object
of holding the securities is not stated, a further enquiry from the concerned party must
be made so that it becomes-manifestly clear- whether the securities held were for safe
Custody or as a cover against the credit facilities enjoyed by the client.
The register of mortgages and charges as required to be maintained under Section 125
of the Ordinance must be carefully scrutinised. Information in respect of the facilities
granted relating to loans, overdrafts or cash credits, stating the .limit authorised and
the nature of charge, e.g., pledge, hypothecation etc., must be directly obtained by the
auditors from the client's banker. The auditor should also directly obtain from the
banker information in respect of all investments, bills of exchange or other documents
of title held, specifying whether those were held for safe custody or as security.
The second aspect of the auditor's duty in this respect is to see whether an asset of the
company is suffering from a charge; the nature of the charge must be indicated in the balance
sheet. However, if the management does not agree to mention the nature ofthe charge in the
balance sheet, he must qualify his report to the shareholders.
The auditor should give his special attention to the legal provision for the registration of
mortgages and charges created by the company. These are explained as follows:
and enter in it all charges specifically affecting the property of the company.and all floating
charges on its undertaking, giving in each case a short description ofthe property charged, the
amount of the charge and, except in the case of securities tc bearer, the names of the persons
entitled thereto. The non-registration of charge in the companies' own registers of mortgages will
not affect the validity of the charge, but there is a penalty of rupees five hundred on every
director or other officer ofthe company who is knowingly in default.
Fixed Charges
This, is established on the definite property and prevents the borrower, from dealing with
that property without the consent of the holder of the charge.
Verification — General 211
Floating Charges
This represents a charge on changing property and is often expressed to be a charge on
'undertaking' of the company. It is a charge on a class of present and future assets. The class of
assets is one which, in the ordinary course of business, is changing from time to time. Until some
steps are taken to enforce the charge, it is contemplated, that the company will continue to deal
with assets charged in the ordinary course of its business.
Mortgage
The mortgager retains possession ofthe property. The mortgage is given the light, in case of
non-payment of the mortgaged money, to have the property sold through the court and realise his
dues from the sale-proceeds. The mortgager undertakes that if the sale, proceeds of the property
are insufficient to repay the money due, he will remain personally responsible for the payment of
the debt.
Pledge
It is a bailment of goods as security for the payment of a debt. It can be made of moveable
property alone. The borrower must be in possession of the moveable property under a legal light.
If the borrower makes default in payment of the debt, the lender may sell the property pledged by
giving the borrower reasonable notice of the sale.
Hypothecation
It is charged without possession created on moveable property in favour ofthe lender as a
security. The possession of goods remains with the borrower.
Proper Authorisation
The auditoi' must acquaint himself with thy relevant clauses affecting the auditor as laid
down in the memorandum and articles of association. The foregoing constitution of the company
will generally specify that a resolution by shareholders or directors is required to be passed
before any transaction is properly authorised in its final shape. The auditor must examine and see
the documentaiy evidence which establishes a proper authorisation for complete verification of
the entries made in the books of account. The auditors generally require minutes of the board of
the directors for any additions to. or deletions from the fixed assets, acquisition of the
investments and their subsequent disposals etc.
VERIFICATION OF ASSETS
NOT IN POSSESSION OF
CLIENT
Sometimes it happens that certain assets or the documents of title thereto are not in the
possession of client. Consequently they cannot be produced to the auditoi'
16)» Auditing: Principles and Procedures
for verification. In such cases the auditor has to decide whether he will accept a certificate from
the person holding the assets in question which were held at the date of the balance sheet on
behalf of the client or whether he should call upon the person concerned and actually inspect the
documents.
The chief items in respect of which an auditor has recourse to client's banker for
verification are as follows:
(1) Balances of Accounts held at the date of balance sheet favouring client.
(2) Bills under discount and not matured.
(3) Bills held by bankers for collection.
(4) Title deeds, securities, investments, bill of exchange or other documents of title held by
the client's banker, specifying whether held for safe custody or as security.
(5) Balances in respect of loans, overdrafts or cash credits, stating the limits authorised and
the nature of the charge, e.g. , pledge, hypothecation etc.
The necessary certificates should be obtained directly by the auditors. The chief certificates
normally obtained by auditors in support of the items appearing in a balance sheet of a company
are as under:
. (1) Banks in the ordinary course hold certificates or securities on behalf of their customers
and an auditor may in good faith accept the certificate of a reputable bank that it holds
such securities. The mere fact that the certificate is given by a bank is not conclusive
and the auditor must satisfy himself that it is in fact a reputable and tiTistworthy
institution.
(2) Securities may from time to time in the ordinary course of business be placed in the
hands of stockbrokers for the purpose of dealing with them in the course of their
business, and as long as the securities are in the hands of a respectable, trustworthy
and responsible person, the auditor can accept his certificate.
(3) An auditor "must take a certificate from a person who is in the habit of dealing with
and holding securities, and whom he, on reasonable grounds, rightly believes to be,
with exercise of his best judgment, a trustworthy person to give such a certificate."
Prescribed form for obtaining information requires nine types of information to be collected
from a bank. These are listed below:
The Manager
Dear Sir,
In accordance with your above-named customer's instructions given hereon, please send
direct to us at the above address, as auditors of your customer, the
214 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Please state against each item any factors which may limit the completeness of your reply;
if there is nothing to report, state none.
It is understood that any replies given are in strict confidence, for the purposes of audit.
Bank Accounts
1. Full titles of all accounts together with the account numbers and balances thereon,
including nil balances:
(а) where your customer's name is the sole name in the title;
(б) where your customer's name is joined with that of other parties;
(cj where the account is in a trade name.
Notes:(i) Where the amount is subject to any restriction (e.g. a garnishee order or arrestment}
or exchange control considerations (e.g. 'blocked account') this information should be
stated. (i i ) Where the authority upon which you are providing this information does
not cover any amounts held jointly with other parties, please refer to your customer in
order to obtain the requisite authority of the other parties.
2. Full title and dates of closure of all accounts closed during the period.
3. The separate amounts accrued but not charged or credited as at the above date, of
(a) Interest and
(b) Provisional charges (including commitment fees).
4. The amount of interest charge during the period if not specified separately in the
customer'- statement of account.
5. Particulars (i.e. date, type of document and accounts covered) of any written
acknowledgement of set-off, either' by specific letter' of set-off, or incorporated in
some other document or security.
6. Details of loans, overdrafts, cash credits and facilities, specifying agreed limits and in
the case of term loans, date for repayment or review.
7. (a) Security. Please give:
(i) details of any security formally charged to the bank, including the date and type
of charge (e.g., pledge, hypothecation etc.);
(ii) particulars of any undertaking to assign to the bank any assets. If a security is
limited to any boirowing, or if there is a prior, equal or subordinate charge,
please indicate.
Verification — General 215
Ш Investments, bills of exchange, documents of title or other assets held but not
charged. Please give details. . ..
Contingent Liabilities
8. All contingent liabilities, viz.,
(a) Total of bills discounted for your customer, with recourse;
(b) Details of any guarantees, bonds or indemnities given to you Ъу the customer in
favour of third parties;
(c) Details of any guarantees, bonds or indemnities given by you, on your customer's
behalf, stating where there is recourse to your customer and/or to its holding,
parent or any other company within the group;
(d) Total of acceptances;
(e) Total of forward exchange contracts;
(j ) Total of outstanding Uabilities under aceumentary credits;
(g) Others — please given details.
9.- A list of other banks, or branches of your bank, where you are aware that
a relationship has been established during the period.
■ ■ Yours faithfully,
XYZ
Disclosure authorised
For and on behalf of
29. Contingent gains should not ; be accrued in financial statements. The existence of
contingent gains should be disclosed if it is probable that the gain will be realised."
Paras 30 to 34 deal with events occurring after the balance sheet data and are reproduced
below:
"30. Assets and liabilities should be adjusted for events occurring after the balance sheet
date, that. provide additional evidence to assist with.the estimation of amounts relating
to conditions existing at the balance sheet date or that indicate that the going concern
assumptions in relation to the whole or a part of the enterprise is not appropriate,
31. Dividends stated to be in respect of the period covered by the financial statements and
that are proposed or declared after the balance sheet date but before approval of the
financial statements should be either adjusted for or disclosed.
32. Assets and liabilities should not. be adjusted for, but disclosure should be made of,
those events occurring after the balance-sheet date that do not affect the condition of
assets or liabilities at the balance sheet date, but are of such importance that non-
disclosure would affect the ability of the users of the financial statements to make
proper evaluations and decisions.
33. If disclosure of contingencies is required by paragraph 28 or 29 of this statement, the
following information should be provided:
(o) the nature of the contingency, .
(6) the uncertain factors, that may affect the future outcome,
(c) an estimate, of the financial effect, or a statement that such an estimate cannot be
made.
34. If disclosure of events occurring after the balance sheet date is required by paragraph
32 of this statement, the following information should be provided:
(a) the nature of the event.
(Ы an estimate of the financial effect, or a statement that such an estimate cannot be
made.
RELATED PARTIES
ISA 17 is entitled "Belated Parties". This contains definitions such as Related Party, Related
Party Transaction, Significant Influence. There is a lucid discussion in respect of existence, of
related parties, transactions with related parties, examination of identified related party
transactions and audit conclusions and reporting.
Verification ~ General 217
Related portions in. respect ofthe above aspects are reproduced below: Definitions
The following definitions are given in paragraph 4 of IAS 24, "Related Party Disclosures":
"Related party — parties are considered to be related if one party has the ability to
control the other party or exercise significant influence over the other party in making
financial and operating decisions.
Related party transaction — a transfer of resources or obligations between related
uarties, regardless of whether a price is charged.
Control ~ ownership, directly or indirectly through subsidiaries, of more than one half
of the voting power of an enterprise, or a substantial interest in voting power and the
power to direct, by statute or agreement, the financial and operating policies ofthe
management ofthe enterprise.
Significant influence — participation in the financial and operating policy decisions of
an enterprise, but not control of those policies. Sigriificant influence may be exercised
in several ways, usually by representation on the board of directors but also by, for
example, participation in the policy making process; material intercompany
transactions, interchange of managerial personnel or dependency on technical
information. Sigruficant influence may be gained by share ownership, statute or
agreement. With share ownership, significant influence is presumed in accordance
with the definition contained in International Accounting Standard 3, Consolidated
Financial Statements."
In addition, paragraph 5 of IAS 24 sets out the related party relationships covered by the
Standard and paragraph 6 the circumstances where parties are deemed not to be related.
from the stock registrar. 4. Review of minutes of the meetings of stockholders and board of
directors. . 5. Review of the prior year working papers for names of known related parties.
6. Inquiry of other auditors currently involved in the audit, or predecessor auditors, as to
their knowledge of additional related parties.
7. Review of the entity's income tax returns.
1. Transactions which have abnormal terms of trade, such as unusual prices, interest
rates, guarantees, and repayment terms.
2. Transactions which appear to lack a logical reason for their occurrence.
3. Transactions in which substance differs from form.
4. Transactions processed in other than the normal way for processing similar
transactions.
5. High volume or significant transactions with certain customers or suppliers as
compared with others.
In addition, the auditor should also consider whether related party transactions have
occurred that are not recorded, such.as the receipt or provision of management services at no
charge.
opinion, as appropriate.
The auditor has to report that the balance sheet exhibits a true and correct view of the state
of affairs of the company as at a particular date. In order to give such report it is necessary to take
assistance from the events occurring after the date of the balance sheet. Practical illustrations
indicating the events occurring after that date which may assist in the assessment of the position
as it existed on that date in respect of some of the items appearing in the balance sheet are stated
here:
Liabilities
Guidance may be sought from the developments taken place since the balance sheet date in
respect of determining the amount of contingent liabilities or a liability of which the exact
amount cannot be determined as at that date.
Fixed Assets
Where fixed assets were acquired and the consideration was not determined as at the closing
date, the subsequent events have to be examined to reflect in the balance sheet the amount which
would have been subsequently settled.
Debtors
The subsequent realisation and'adjustments to the book debts as at the financial closing date
are a source of guidance as to whether a debt is good or doubtful and assists the auditor in
determining an adequate amount in respect of provision for doubtful accounts. Further if the
amount at which the debt has to be reflected in the amounts has not been agreed as on the date, it
will be estimated, and the events occurring after the balance sheet date will help in establishing
the correct amount to be accounted for in the books as at that date.
Sfock-ln-Trade
If the stock-in-trade is valued by a client at the lower of cost or realisable value, it becomes
essential to establish the realisable value. This is possible only if events occurring after the date
of balance sheet are examined.
221 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
The readers are expected to study the recommendations given by the Institute of Chartered
Accounts (England and Wales) in respect of events occurring after the balance sheet date and their
treatment in accounts.
ISA 21 is in respect of Date of the Auditor's Report; Events after the Balance Sheet Date;
Discovery of Facts after the Financial Statements have been issued. This guideline
comprehensively deals with the following;
(a) Events up to the date of the Auditor's Report.
(i>) Events after the date of the Auditor's Report but before the Financial Statements are
issued.
(c) Diseovery of Facts after the Financial Statements have been issued Full text of the
above ISA dealing with the above subject is reproduced below:
Introduction
1. International Standard o n Auditing 13, The Auditor's Report on Financial Statements, states
(paragraph 13):
"The report should be dated. This informs the reader that the auditor considered the
effect on the financial statements and on his report of events of transactions about
which he became aware that occurred up to that date."
2. International Accounting Standard (IAS) 10, "Contingencies and Events Occurring After the
Balance Sheet Date", issued by the International Accounting Standards Committee, deals
with the treatment in financial statements events occurring after the balance sheet date.
3. The purpose of this Standard is to provide guidance on dating of the auditor report, the
auditor's responsibility in relation to significant events occurring after the balance sheet date
(hereafter described as subsequent events) and the . procedures the auditor should perform to
meet this responsibility. IAS 10 identifies two types of events:
"(1) those that provide further evidence of conditions that existed at the balance sheet
date, and
(2). those that are indicative of conditions that arose subsequent to the balance sheet
date."
This Standard also provides guidance on the auditor's responsibilities in connection with the
discovery of facts after the financial statements have been issued.
occurring up to the date of his report. However, since his responsibility is to report on the
financial statements as prepared and presented by management, the auditor should not date
his report earlier than the date on which the financial statements are approved by
management.
5. The auditor should obtain assurance that the financial statements were approved by
management (e.g. by obtaining a signed copy of the financial statements, or a
representation to that effect).
•
Whether the sale of assets or operating units has occurred or is planned.
•
Whether the issuance of new shares or debentures, or an agreement of • merger of
liquidation has occurred or is planned.
•
Whether assets of the entity have been appropriated by government or destroyed (e.g. by
fire or flood)..
•
Whether there have been any significant developments relative to risk areas and
contingencies known to the auditor, whether inherent in the nature of the business or
revealed by previous experience.
•
Whether any unusual accounting adjustments have been made or are contemplated since
the balance sheet date.
•
Whether management is aware of any events which have occurred or are likely to occur
which will bring into question the appropriateness of accounting policies used in the
financial statements as would be the case, for example, if such events call into
question the validity of the going concern concept.
If the procedures identify events which could affect the financial statements, the auditor
should carry out further procedures to assess whether such events are appropriately
reflected in the financial statements. .
8. In situations involving branches, subsidiaries, investees or associated entities, the auditor
should decide the locations at which the above procedures should be carried out. Where
such entities are audited by other auditors, the auditor should consider obtaining the results
of their procedures, for example, by discussions with the other auditors, written
confirmation or review of working papers.
9. If management does not amend the financial statements in ch'cumstances where the auditor
believes they should be amended, his'action will be determined by whether his report has
been released to the client. If his report has not been released, the auditor should express a
qualified opinion or an adverse opinion, as appropriate. If his report has been released to the
client, the auditor should notify those persons ultimately responsible for the overall
direction of the entity that he will take action to prevent future reliance on his report. The
action taken will depend on the legal rights available to the auditor and the
recommendations of his legal counsel.
10. The guidance contained in paragraphs 9-12 applies equally to the subsequent discovery by
the auditor of facts that existed at the date of the auditor's report.
18. If management does not take the steps referred to in paragraph 17, the auditor should notify
those persons ultimately responsible for the overall direction of the entity that he will take
action to prevent future reliance on his report. The action taken will depend on the legal
rights available to the auditor and the recommendations of his legal counsel.
19. It may not be necessary to revise the financial statements accompanied by the auditor's
report when issuance of financial statements for a later period is imminent, provided
management agrees that appropriate disclosure will be made in such statements.
Appendix 5.1
This paragraph is to be used when the examination is restricted tu the events that necessitated the revision (see paragraph
17).
226 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
REPRESENTATION LETTER
confirmation of manage merit's oral representations, this may not constitute a limitation ori the
scope of his examination.
Written Representations
The possibiUty of misunderstandings between the auditor and management is reduced when
oral representations are confirmed by management in writing. Furthermore, as described above,
written representations from management should be obtained tb confirm oral representations
given to the auditor on matters material to the financial statements when other sufficient
appropriate audit evidence cannot reasonably be expected to exist. Matters which might be
included in a letter from management or in a coralrmatory letter to management are contained in
the example of a management representation letter in the Appendix.
Written representations requested from management may be limited to matters that are
considered either individually or collectively material to the financial statements. With respect to
certain items it may be necessary for the , auditor to provide management his understanding of
materialist.
Appendix 5.2
The following letter is for use as a general guide in conjunction with the considerations set
forth in this Guideline. It is not intended to be a standard letter because representations by
management will vary from one entity to another, and from one year to the next.
Date
■ (To Auditor)
This representation letter' is provided in connection with your audit of the financial
statements of ABC Company as of December 31, 19X1 for the purpose of expressing an opinion
as to whether the financial statements give a true and fair view of (or present fairly' ) the financial
position and results of operations in accordance with (indicate relevant national standards or
International Accounting Standards).
We confirm, to the best of our knowledge and belief, the following representations:
1. We acknowledge our responsibility for the fair - presentation of the financial
statements in accordance with (indicate relevant national
standards or International Accounting Standards) including the - appropriate
disclosure- of all information required by statute.
2. There have been no irregularities involving management or employees who have
significant role in the system of internal control or that could have a material effect on
the financial statements.
229 Л uditing: Principles and
Procedures
capital stock repurchase options and. agreements and capital stock reserved for options,
warrants, conversions and other requirements.
Dear Sirs,
Messrs A.B.C. Limited Accounts for the Year Ended
We confirm to the best of our knowledge and belief the following information and opinions
given to you in connection with your examination of the company's accounts for the year ended
. . . . . . . . and in the light of the requirements of the
Companies Ordinance,. 1984 and corporate law authority.
ASSETS
General
2. The assets shown in the company's books and accounts at...........................................were
owned by the company and were free from any charge except as mentioned in the company's
accounts for the year under review.
Land,-Buildings, Machinery, Equipments and other Assets
3. The net book amounts at which the premises, machinery, equipments and other assets are
stated in the balance sheet are arrived at: ■
(a) After taking into account all capital expenditure on additions thereto, but no
expenditure properly chargeable to revenue.
(b) After praviding for depreciation and obsolescence on bases and at rates calculated to
reduce the net book amount of each asset to its estimated residual value by the end of
its. probable useful life in the company's business-
Stores and Stocks
4. The company's stores and stocks appealing in the accounts Note No. . . . . : . , ' . .
|and No........................at a total value of Rupees :...........................comprise: the whole ofthe
company's stores and stocks wherever situated. Stocks held on behalf of other parties have been
excluded. All executed sales orders (and completed contract work) have been invoiced to custom
ers~and the stocks relating to invoiced sales have been excluded.
J 82 Auditing: Principles'and Procedures
Contingencies
10. The total of contingent liabilities not provided for in the accounts is estimated
provided for in the accounts is estimated at Rupees................................. . ■, including possible
liabilities for claims and complaints received, pending litigation, discounted bills, and guarantees
and indemnities given.
Taxation
11. The amounts included in the balance sheet in respect of taxation are adequate to cover all
unpaid taxation liabilities, agreed, or estimated, arising in respect of profits earned to the date of
the balance sheet.
Charges
12. There were no charges, securities or options exerciseable by third parties over the company's
assets other than those disclosed in the accounts.
Profit and Loss Account
13.. There were no material items affecting the results of an exceptional, поп
Verification — General 233
recurring or prior year ' nature and no material effect from changes in accounting bases, other
than those disclosed in the accounts.
Subsequent Events .
14. Since the end of the financial year no events have occurred which materially affected the
results or financial position shown by the accounts.
Records and Minutes
16. All the company's accounting records and all minutes of shareholders' and directors'meetings
have been made available to you for the purposes of your audit.
DIRECTOR
■ CHIEF ACCOUNTANT
■........................................ .ei9...
ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES
Analytical review procedures are used to describe the analysis of significant ratios and
trends including the resulting investigation of unusual fluctuations and items. ISA 12 deals with
nature of analytical review procedures, objectives and timing of analytical review procedures,
planning analytical review procedures, extent of reliance on analytical review procedures and
investigating unusual fluctuation and items. '
The text of above ISA is reproduced below:
Introduction
1.' International Standard on Auditing (ISA) 1, Objective Basic Principles Governing an Audit,
requires an audit to be adequately planned so that the auditor obtains sufficient appropriate
audit evidence on which to base the expression of his opinion. Analytical procedures are
identified as a type of substantive procedures for obtaimng audit evidence. This Standard
requires the use of analytical procedures in the planning and overall review stages of all audits.
It also gives guidance on the use of analytical procedures as substantive ■ tests. In this
Standard, the term "analytical procedures" is used to describe the analysis of significant ratios
and trends including the resulting investigation of unusual fluctuations and items. The term
''financial information" encompasses financial statements. ' ■ ■ ~ ■
J 82 Auditing: Principles'and Procedures
The audtor's consideration of audit'risk i n the planning stage is also discussed in. paragraph 10 of ISA 25, Materiality and
Audit Kisk.
235 Auditing; Principles and Procedures
10. The auditor should consider the need for testing the controls over the preparation of non-
financial information, if any, used in applying analytical procedures. When such controls
are adequate, the auditor will have greater confidence in the reliability of the non-fmancial
information and, therefore, he will have a greater degree of assurance as to the results of his
analytical procedures. The controls over non-financial information can often be tested in
conjunction with compliance procedures performed in the study and. evaluation of the
accounting system and related internal controls. For example, an entity in establishing
internal controls over the processing of sales invoices may include controls over the
recording of unit sales. In these cii'cumstances,' the auditor could test the controls over the
recording of unit sales in conjunction with his compliance procedures to test the controls
over the processing of sales Invoices.
that internal controls over sales order processing are weak, he may have to rely more
on tests of details of transactions an balances than on analytical procedures in drawing
his conclusion on sales.
ISA 7 deals with quality of audit work. Fundamental objective is that the policies and
procedures are adopted by an audit firm to provide reasonable assurance regarding the quality of
audit work generally.
Excerpts from the above ISA are reproduced below for quick reference:
Delegation .
Any delegation of work to assistants should be in a manner that provides
238 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
reasonable assurance that such work will be performed by persons having independence and the
degree of skills and competence required in the circumstances.
The auditor and assistants with supervisory responsibilities should consider the skills and
competence of assistants in performing the work that is delegated to them in deciding on the
extent of direction, supervision and review appropriate to each.
Appropriate .directions should be given to assistants to whom work is delegated. Direction
involves informing assistants of their responsibilities and the objectives of the procedures they
are to perform. It also involves informing them of matters, such as the nature ofthe entity's
business and possible accounting or auditing problems, that may affect the nature, timing and
extent of audit procedures with which they are involved.
A written audit programme is an important tool for the communication of audit directions.
Time budgets and planning memoranda :-are- also helpful in communicating audit directions.
Supervision
Supervision is closely related to both direction and review, and may involve elements of
both. . -
Personnel carrying out supervisory responsibilities should; perform the following functions
during the performance of an audit:
(c) Monitor the progress of the work to determine that: .
•
assistants appeal's to have the necessary skills and competence to carry out their
assigned tasks;
•
assistants appear to understand the audit directions; and
•
the work is being carried out in accordance with the audit programme and other
planning documents.
(b) Become informed of significant accounting and auditing questions raised
during the audit, assess their significance, and modify the audit
programme where appropiiate.
Review
The work performed by eaeh assistant should be reviewed by personnel of equal or higher
competence to determine whether:
(a) The woi'k has been performed in accordance with professional and firm standards'.
(b) The work performed and the results obtained have been adequately documented.
Verification — General 239
C. Assignment
Audit work should be assigned to personnel who have the degree of technical training and
proficiency required in the circumstances.
240 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
F. Inspection
The firm should monitor the effectiveness of its quality control policies and procedures.
A firm's general quality control policies and procedures should be communicated to its
personnel in a manner that provides reasonable assurance that the policies and procedures are
understood.
The nature and extent 'of a firm's quality control procedures depend on a number of factors
such as the size and nature of its practice, its geographic dispersion, its organisation and
appropriate cost/benefit considerations. Accordingly, the procedures adopted by individual firms
will vary, as will the extent of their documentation. Illustrative examples of quality control
procedures are presented in an appendix to this guideline. The specific procedures used by a firm
would not necessarily include all the illustrative examples or be limited to them, nor would all
procedures carry the same weight for all circumstances. In addition, many ofthe illustrative
examples may not be appropriate to smaller firms.
VERIFICATION -
LIABILITIES
CAPITAL
The steps to be taken for verifying the share capital of the company covering several phases
are ejmnierat.eii as under: '
(1) Check the 'Authorised' share capital with the relevant clause of the
Memorandum of Association. Scrutinise the minute book of. the shareholders to
ensure that no alteration was made during the year. If it was so done, the minutes
should be seen and altered amount may be shown in the accounts. :
(2) Obtain a list of shareholders, check with the register of members, and verify
the control account.
(3) Obtain a schedule showing the movement during the year in the above
account. Veiify entries in respect of the additions oh account of issue of
- new shares (calls, fresh issues, rights, bonus).
The following work in this respect should be carried out:
(a) See that the allotment of the shares has been made complying with
legal previsions.
(b) See that the issued capital does not exceed the authorised capital.
(c)Where permission is necessary from the Controller of Capital Issues.
. see that it has been obtained and the presented conditions are full
complied with. Verify the terms of consent order with the Articles of
Association. . ;.'
(d) Check the share applications with that Application and Allotment
. Book to establish that the shares allotted wore actually applied for.
242 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
к
244 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
sha d, see that the issue of such shares was authorised by the Directors and the
res, amount of discount (if any) did not exceed the amount already received thereon
an "тот the defaulting shareholders.
d (Хф. Any capital profit on re-issue of forfeited shares should be transferred to capital
ens reserve.
ure 45} If shares were allotted to the for eign nationals, examine the permission given by the
tha State Bank of Pakistan for such allotment.
t
the
(6) Where the company has issued redeemable preference shares, verify the terms on which
they were issued with prospectus. See that particulars of such shares must be included
nec
in the balance sheet of the company, specifying what part of the issued capital consists
ess of such shares and the date on which the shares are due to be redeemed or, where no
ary definite date was fixed for redemption, the period or notice to be given for redemption
adj is mentioned. The shares cannot be redeemed unless they are fully paid, and they can be
ust redeemed only out of the proceeds otherwise available for dividend, or out of the sale-
me proceeds of any property of the company. With the exception of the above, the
nts redemption may be made on such terms and in such manner as may be provided in the
we articles ofthe company.
re (7) Examine the rights attaching to the var ious types of shares in the articles of association
ma of the company. Obtain a schedule summarising the various rights in respect of each
de type of share.
in
the (8) -Where the company has organised its share capital, the following steps should be taken
reg to verify the transactions:
iste (a) Pursue the shareholders' minutes recording the special resolution
r of {&) Examine the court's order sanctioning the scheme of recognition and see that a
me copy of the above order has been filed with the Registrar, Joint Stock
mb Companies.
ers.
(c) Vouch the journal entries arising out of reorganisation.
(c)
W
(d) Check the cancelled share certificates with the counterfoils ofthe new share
certificates issued. Scrutinise the share Register to ensure that the necessary
her
adjustments have been made therein.
e
for (9) If the company has reduced its share capital, the auditor should-work on the following
feit lines:
ed (а) Consult the articles of association of the company to check the
sha authority for reduction of share capital. Verify the special resolution
res giving effect to such reduction from the minutes of the meeting of
we shareholders.
re
sol (б) Follow the above points 8(b), (e) and i d).
d
or
re-
iss
ue
Verification — Liabilities 245
(с) See that the fact of such reduction is clearly indicated on the balance sheet with the
womV'And Reduced", for such a period as is required under the court's order.
(10) Note market quotations of shares ofthe client at the year-end and enquire into the
major fluctuations.
Place.............................................................................................................
Date . . . . . . . . . Chartered Accountants
RESERVES
(1) Obtain a movement schedule of each type of reserve and agree the closing balance of
the schedule with the balance sheet.
(2) The opening balance of each of the reserves should be checked with the
audit working papers of the previous year or audited balance sheet.
(3) Scrutinise any addition to or deletion from the reserves carefully and ensure that they
are properly authorised by the articles of the company and the directors' and/or
shareholders' resolution.
(4) The auditor should study the case-law and comply with the guidelines laid down in the
judicial pronouncements.
(3) Note undisclosed secret reserves.
(4) Note provisions in excess of requirements so as to constitute reserves.
(5) See that all reserves required under the tax laws have been created.
DEFERRED TAXATION
It is created with a view to providing future tax liability which is deferred due to the
accelerated rates of depreciation under the Income Tax Ordinance and Rules, as compared to low
rate of depreciation charged in accounts. The auditor should check the computation. Verify the
r^vements during the year. The amount is either provided in the accounts or shown by way of a
footnote.
DEBENTURES
(1)" Examine the memorandum and articles of the company to ascertain its borrowing
powers and the extent and mode of borrowing. If the directors
Verification — Liabilities 247
are empowered to borrow on behalf of the company, examine the Directors' Minutes
regarding the issue of debentures and the mortgage of the company's property.
(2) Exarnine the- debentures trust deed {if any) or an actual debenture bond and note
exact terms and conditions of issue of debentures. See that they were complied with.
(3) Upon a new issue of debentures, carry out the detailed debenture capital audit in the
same manner as in the case of share capital audit explained in detail earlier in this
chapter.
(4) Note carefully the provisions regarding the redemption of debentures and see that they
were compiled with. Note the redemption conditions and vouch any redemption of
debentures with debenture bonds and examine the Directors' Minutes authorising the
redemption.
(5) Obtain a schedule of debenture-holders and check it with the Register of Debenture-
holders which is a statutory book required to be maintained under the Ordinance. Tally
the amount with the control account and with the balance sheet.
(6) If various classes of debenture are issued, e.g., first and second mortgage debentures,
they should be separately shown on the balance sheet stating the nature of security.
The charges created on the company's assets should be entered in the company's
register of mortgages and necessary particulars should be filed with the Registrar -.
(7) The remuneration payable to the trustees of debenture-holders must be either paid or
provided for in the books in accordance with the Trust Deed.
- (8) If debentures are issued at a premium, consult the articles of the company and adhere
to its requirements.
(9) If debentures have been issued as collateral security for a loan, see that they are
properly shown in the balance sheet as a foot note. Examine loan agreement and
Directors' Minutes authorising the issue of such
■ debentures. Trace the entries in the Register of Mortgages and charges. Ascertain that
necessary particulars were filed with the Registrar of Joint Stock Companies.
(10) See that the interest has either been paid or provided in the accounts.
At times debentures are issued as a Collateral Security for a loan. The term "CoUateral
Security" means a security accompanying but subordinate and which can be realised by the
holder thereof, in the event of failure on the part of the company to repay the original loan is
repaid, the Collateral Security is automatically released. When debentures are issued as
Collateral Security, the fact should be distinctly disclosed i n the balance sheet by way of a
footnote under the item or loan against which they are so issued.
Auditing: Principles and Procedures
'aicirvii - LOANS .■
arl t 1o .
Secured
Ьл^Ц^0пдгш^е borrowing powers with reference to the memorandum and articles o^assocmtionTSee
Board Resolution for the approval of exercising the borrowing, powers. Study, the contract for loan
noting the maximum limit sanctioned, rate of interest, plan of repayment, instalments payable) the
nature and extent of scrutiny fl&id type of charge (pledge, hypothecation, mortgage, etc.). Scrutinise
the account to find out ^instances where limits have exceeded and report such instances to
dlrectors^All interest on outstanding balance should either be paid or provided in accounts^Check
the value of the security and see that the loan is fully secured) See confirmation for the loan. In case
of difference, obtain a reconciliation statement. Examine that the charge on assets has been noted on
the register of charges and j^onfirm that it has also been registered by the Registrar, Joint Stock
Companies. ££Prepare a movement account during the year and tie up the opening and closing
balance of the loan.
Unsecured
See that unsecured loans have been classified in the prescribed manner.
Ascertain the company's borrowing powers and see that they are not exceeded. See
the Board Resolution in this respect. Scrutinise the conditions of loan. Obtain a
directr'-cbrifirmation of the closing balance. In case of a difference, obtain a
reconciliation statement. See that interest accrued and due on unreceived loans has
been аесошЙеЙ&гшЬоокб.
■.ЪезСТ is-fiT ztli rijiv -гэпкЫоазп i- -
HI
those liabilities which actually exist are shown in the accounts. See thatqdabitf balance in
creditors' ledger are shown as assets in the balance sheet, under'thet appropriate head. Examine
the directors' minute book to ascertain the liabilities1 assumed or contracts made, if any. пээг
The auditor should carry out the following steps to ascertain that all liabUitjej| have been
accounted for in the books:
(1) Obtain liability certificate (Appendix 6.1) L
■
(2) Glance through the goods received notes for the last month of the firiarrciajk
closing and ascertain that for all goods received, invoices were rece^^edj
and reflected in the books. . ладто
(3) Scrutinise the files of invoices, petty cash vouchers, payments- vouchers* and journal
vouchers for a reasonable period (say one month) subseqaenti to tKe closing date to
see whether any item should have been erdereaiBntO-during the year under review. He
must ensure that adequate сотфШ'Щ being exercised by the client for prompt booking
of liabilities. ч а Ы щ
(4) Enquire into any special claims lodged against the company. f! Я93
^
(5} Examine the files for court cases against the debtors and establish an, opinion about the
doubtful debts. .
(6) Scrutinise the general'ledger and see whether charges accrued to Ihe^atet
of the balance sheet have been provided in accounts. Accounts of salaries
wages, bonus, rates, taxes, water charges, electricity expenses, convmission
etc., should be carefully checked to ensure that liability for the
has been reflected in the accounts.
(7) Compare schedule of liabilities with previous period and examj^^the
reasons for major fluctuations. .", /.
ID biftqnn
(8) Check the provision for leave, retirement and gratuity benefits to^he .jSbjiJG
with terms of service. Is somilsd
. (9) Ensure that interest on all loans and overdrafts accrued up to theTdateioI balance sheet is
either paid or provided in the accounts. .shrt'shr/ib
(10) Compare statements received from creditors with the balances shown on the accounts
and investigate differences.
bills payable are issued out of a regular counterfoil book, go through the running numbers of
bills issued and examine ■ the counterfoils with the bills payable register. Originals of the
cancelled forms together with the counterfoils should be seen.
Proposed Dividends
Examine special provisions in the Memorandum of Association or Articles of Association in
respect of payment of dividends. Ascertain that it does not include unpaid dividends which must
be excluded from it and shown separately. See that the amount of proposed dividend
recommended by the Board may be stated in the balance sheet (in which case a mention of
proposed dividends will be given in the Directors' Report). See that sufficient profits exist for the
appropriation to. proposed dividends. "
UNEXPIRED DISCOUNTS
This item generally arises in the case of banks or financing companies whose business is to
discount bills of exchange on a large scale. See that proport&mate discounts on such bills as
remain unmatured at the date ofthe balance sheet should be transferred from the credit of discount
account .normally called 'Rebate on Bills Discounted' and- should then appear as a liability
under . the above head, representing discounts received during the current year but attributable to
the next year. :
Verification — Liabilities 19»
CONTINGENT LIABILITIES
Appendix 6.1
LIABILITY. CERTIFICATE
(To be signed by the client)
As at. . . . . . ;_______19 . . .
.............'......................................................................................................................Limited.
(Name of Company)
I hereby certify that to the best of my knowledge and belief all liabilities mcurred in or
relating to the year ended 19 have as at the said date been included in the books of account.
I further certify that except for undemoted items there-were no contingent liabilities or
claims against the company not admitted as debts outstanding as at the above date.
I farther certify that with the exception of undemoted liabilities there were
no mortgages or charges outstanding against the company's property and assets as at the above
date:
Place............................................... '..................................................................................
Signature
D a t e . . . . ..................................... ......................................................................................
Designation
VERIFICATION -
ASSETS
Before taking up the task of verification of-assets, the auditor should* satisfy himself in
respect of the following:
(1) That there is adequate control over the custody and handling of assets.
(2) That there is adequate control over the purchase, disposal and scrapping of
assets.
(3) That all assets are free from charges except those noted on the?-balance sheet.
(4) That the insurance cover is sufficient for all assets.
The Balance Sheet Audit means that it is primarily confined to the verification of the existence of assets
shown in the balance sheet, because on account of the multitudinous character of the transactions of a bank,
it is not ordinarily possible to tSj examine every one of them, not it is usually done except with
reference to matters, £«vfo^iL if any, which provoke enquiry. But the existence of the assets must be strictly
verified cash in hand by actual counting, cash in banks by reference to the PassBook or letters of
confirmation, securities by inspection and uncashed cheques by presenting them for being cashed. In the
case of securities, it has been said that if —f^-? some of them are said to be in the hands of a third party
the Auditor has to see whether the alleged Custodian is a party in whose hands the securities might
normally be placed under the approved commercial practice or in the ordinary course of the banks business,
and if that condition is satisfied and the party is also a trustworthy party, the Auditor may accept a
certificate from him instead of verifying the existence of securities by actual inspection. But verification of
the existing assets in some satisfactory form is essential.
The verification procedure of different types of assets will now be explained.
254 Auditing: Principles and procedures
FIXED ASSETS
Goodwill
This asset does not appear, in the balance sheet except when it -is actually purchased, or in
the case of a partnership when it is brought into the boobs oh a change in the constitution of the
firm.
Ascertain the amount of goodwill from the purchase agreement or partnership agreement
and verify the amount. Goodwill may appear in the balance sheet at cost, less any amount written
off. It is not legally obligatory to depreciate it, but it is thought to be a prudent financial policy to
write off the value of the goodwill out of the profits. Where this is done, the auditor should see
the board's resolution. It was held in Stapley vs. Read Bros. Ltd (1924) that profits so applied
were not irrevocably allocated and might be brought, back later to the credit of the profit and loss
account and used for dividend purposes if goodwill had in fact.mamtained its value.
Freehold Land
' Examine registration deed indicating the name of client as the owner. Note the area covered
by it. Verify the basis of valuation and see that it is valued at cost. See that all acquisition
expenses (legal charges, brokerage paid, stamp duty for registration etc.) for the purchase of land
have been capitalised. In case of any doubt in respect of title deeds, obtain a certificate from the
company's solicitor stating that the ownership is vested in the client. If it suffers from a charge of
mortgage against overdraft or loan facilities, obtain a direct bank confirmation stating that the
title deeds were held by the bank as cover suffering from a charge of mortgage against any over-
draft or loan facilities.
Leasehold Land
Study the lease deed noting the date of commencement of lease, area covered, period of
expiry, terms of termination, provisions affecting additions (subsequent construction thereon),
hiring out, ground rent etc. See that the provision for write off is made in accounts according to
the life of the lease.
Buildings
(1) When erected by the client. Verify that the direct materials, direct labour costs and a fair
attributable overheads have correctly been capitalised. Obtain the engineers' certificate stating
that the construction work was completed on or before the date of the balance sheet, otherwise
the cost incurred till the date of accounts should be shown as "capital Work in progress".
(2) When erected by a contractor. Verify the cost with reference to the terms of the contract.
Vouch the contractors' bills duly certified by a responsible official.
Verification ~ Assets 255
Railway Sidings
In our country railways are nationalised. Therefore, generally all the railway sidings are
constructed by the railway authorities. Study the contract with the Pakistan Railways to establish
the actual cost payable for laying the railway sidings with the bills received by the client. Verify
the valuation from factory premises. Ensure that the work has been completed before the date of
the balance sheet. Obtain an inventory of the railway sidings and verify its quantitative aspect
with the original contract. See that the maintenance expenses of railway sidings have either been
paid or provided in full for the year' and have been charged to the revenue account. Ensure that
adequate depreciation with a consistent basis as that ofthe previous year has been provided in the
accounts.,/
bonus vouchers. In case of imports against bonus vouchers bought for this purpose, see that the
cost of bonus vouchers is capitalised. If manufactured by the client, see that the account of direct
materials, direct labour and attributable amount of the overheads are properly capitalised. Also
inspect Architect's certificate in proof of completion of work. If the work is still in progress, the
expenditure up to the date of the balance sheet should be shown under "Capital work-in-
progress". See that all repairs to plant and machinery are charged to revenue and not capitalised.
See that adequate depreciation calculated on a consistent basis as that of last year is provided in
books. Confirm that the basis of charge of depreciation is consistent with that ofthe previous year.
Vouch all additions to and deletions from the account with supporting evidence and examine
authorisations in this respect. See that on sale of furniture, adjustment of accumulated
depreciation included in the depreciation reserve is also made.
Development Expenditure
In the case of plantation, e.g:, tea, rubber, coffee etc., all expenses incurred during the period
of development and up to the time they begin to earn are capitalised and debited to Development
Expenditure. The annual accounts are usually prepared after the crop is sold out. Obtain a
certified inventory of the closing stock. The closing stock is valued at an expected sale price in
the subsequent ■ year less the estimated expenses. Verify the expected sale price with reference to
the subsequently realised orrealisableprice and also determine the adequacy of the estimated
expenses by reference to the actual expenses subsequently incurred. Vouch the expenditure
debited to this account, seeing that expenditure has been properly allocated between capital and
revenue. Be sure that the amount of depreciation provided is adequate.
year to year, based on the depletion, failing which a quaiifying note should be put on the
accounts. When the lease for such assets has expired, see that they are completely written off in
the accounts.
Patents
Obtain a list showing the description of each patent, the registered number, date and
number of years to run. Examine the actual certificates issued by the patent office in respect of
patents granted. Where patents have been purchased from an individual or syndicate, inspect the
agreement for the purchase and note the age of various patents. See that all renewal fee has been
paid or provided in accounts and is charged to revenue. See that the patents which have expired
are written off. The cost of a patent should be written off in the course of its life. At time a patent
might become valueless due to obsolescence or failure to create a demand of the patented article.
In such cases the auditor should see that its value is written off even before the expiration ofthe
period covered by the patent.
Copyrights
The verification of this item will be on the lines similar to those described under patents. If
the copyright was acquired by the client, see the agreement under which it has: been assigned.
Look into the question of amortisation copyrights; it should be revalued at frequent intervals. See
that copyrights which have expired are written off where any publication ceases to command
sales, the copyright in respect thereof loses its value and therefore the cost of publication of such
work should be written off.
Vehicles
fioijGfbtsiin acetified ijavenjtiar^nfrall .vehicles preferably indicating the following
pagtjtsulafcgij tnrb ззг bfnoifa loiifcrnj sdT -baniw—
PRELIMINARY EXPENSES
The statutory report (if applicable), memorandum and articles of association and prospectus
should be examined. The auditor should see that only items connected with the floatation and
promotion of the company are included under this he.ad of account. Broad details of amounts
constituting preliminary expenses flre.V
(1) Legal cost of registei'ing the company.
(2) Stamp duty and fees paid on the authorised capital.
Verification — Assets 259
(1) Fees and stamp duties paid on the documents filed with the Registrar of Joint
Stock Ckmipanies. -
(2) Cost of preparing and printing memorandum and articles of association,
(3) Cost of preparing all preliminary agreements including stamp duties.
(4) Cost ofpreparation, printing and publication of the prospectus.
(71 Engineer and valuer's fees for valuing assets intended to be acquired.
(8) Accountant's charges for certifying profits.
(9) Cost of preparing and printing share certificates, letters of allotment, debentures, trust
deed etc.
(10) Cost of the first set of books of accounts,: statutory and statistical books and
commoneeal ofthe company.
(11) All legal and professional charges in respect of . the promotion and formation of the
eompany;
Supporting documents (solicitor's receipted bills of cost for legal services rendered, receipts
from newspapers or advertising agents for advertising and distribution of prospectus, printer and
stationer's bills and receipts, certificate of incorporation for stamp duties and receipted bills of
cost from accountants engineers and values etc) should be seen.
The auditor should also refer to the contract with the vendors or promoters to ascertain if
they have to bear either the whole or a portion of these expenses. If so, the auditor should see
that the amount of preliminary expenses to be borne by the vendoror promoters are charged to
their account. He should refer to the prospectus to ascertain that the amount estimated therein is
not exceeded.
The amount under this head is required to be shown separately on the assets side of the
balance sheet, till such-time that it has been completely, written off.
Section 82 provides that it shall, be. lawful for a company to pay a commission
to any person in consideration of a subscribing or agreeing to subscribe, whether
absolutely or conditionally or any shares in the company, or procuring or agreeing
to procure subscription for any shares in the company, if: ..
Commission on Shares
If the commission was paid;out of the capital moneys, it should be seen that the
requirements of Section 182 were complied with. The relevant provisions contained in the
articles of association of the company in respect of this item should be examined and if any
restrictions were placed it should be seen that they were adhered to. The underwriting agreement
should be inspected and the amount of commission should be vouched with the underwriters
receipt. The minutes of the Directors should be examined. If the commission was paid in the
shape of shares, it should be seen that the necessary contract was filed with the Registrar, Joint
Stock Companies.
If the shares under written were not fully subscribed for by the public it should be seen that
the underwriters took up the remaining shares and paid for the same. The amount of commission
or so much of it as has not been wiitten off should be shown as a separate item on the balance
sheet.
Commission on Debentures
Apart from the procedure noted under commission of shares above, it should be inquired by
the auditor that the particulars of the amount or rate of commission have been filed with the
Registrar- along with the particulars of mortgages and charges as required by Section 124.
Brokerage
The amounts paid in respect of brokerage should be vouched as under:
(a) The provisions of the articles of the association should be inspected.
(b) The relevant portion of the prospectus dealing with the item of brokerage
should be studied.
(c) The entitlement should be verified by the study of the above documents and
with the application forms marked by the broker.
(d) The brokers' r eceipt should be checked and the directors' minutes should
.. _
tJi be examined for authorisation ofthe payment.
Verification — Assets 261
UNDERWRITING COMMISSION
The terms of underwriting commission should be verified from the articles of association,
prospectus and agr eement with the under-writerCs). It should be seen that the limits laid down
by the controller of capital issues in respect of underwriting commission are not exceeded. If the
said commission has been paid in cash, payee's acknowledgement and the calculation of the
amount should be checked. If shares have been allotted against the consideration of underwriting
commission, the relevant entries should be checked. The amount paid should be separately
shown in the balance sheet until written off.
Obtain a certified inventoiy of stores signed by. a responsible official and check it with
stores and spare parts ledger. Check the casts, cany forward and extensions. Check valuation
from invoices, vouchers etc. Test check receipts and issues and review the slow moving stores
and see that adequate provision is made for the loss arising out of obsolescence and unsuitable
spares not fit for use. Ascertain whether any physical count was carried out by the client. If so,
find out that the differences were investigated by a responsible official and adjusted in books. A
physical test check of closing balance by the auditor should also be preferably carried out. A
certificate from a responsible official should also be obtained indicating the basis of valuation
and total amount of store.
LOOSE TOOLS
If the company manufactures its own tools, see that the cost ol these is properly ascertained
and certified by the Chief Engineer. Obtain a certified closing inventoiy and check its valuation.
The closing balances should be checked with the loose tools register.
LIVE-STOCK
Obtain a certified inventoiy of the animals. Check it with the live-stock register and agree
the control account. See that they are revalued annually and any loss on the sale or death of
animal has been written off.
262 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
STOCKS
Sfock-in-Trade1
sheet value and if so, whether reflected in the valuation of partly manufactured and
finished stock.
(fi Work in Progress —
(i) Test build-up of cost records (materials, labour, over-heads).
(ii) Examine reconciliation of cost and financial accounts.
(iii) Test overhead rates and bases of allocation.
(iv) Consider the volume of activity on which overhead rates have been
based.
(u) Ascertain that overhead In stock valuation excludes selling overheads.
(vi ) Consider any provision is necessary against anticipated losses on uncompleted
contracts.
ig) Finished Stock —
Test valuation with subsequent selling prices (after allowing for selling cost).
(h) Test the obsolete, slow-moving, redundant or damaged stocks are written
down to realisable values.
(i) Test check extensions.
(J ) Addition of stock sheets.
(k ) Prepare summaries of stocks classified according to the nature of business with
comparative figures for preceding year'.
(7) Note value of stocks for insurance purposes.
(m) Note any pledge or lien in connection with stocks.
( n ) Compare values with previous year and account for significant variations, (o)
Consider forward commitments for the purchase of raw material, etc., in
relation to spot prices at balance sheet date, (p) Stock
certificate to be obtained as Appendix 7.1.
Stock-in-Transit
See that the basis of valuation is consistent with that of the previous year -. Check valuation
with invoices, bank advices, voucher's etc. Confirm that stock has been subsequently received.
See that adequate provision is made for any items received as damaged. If the market value of
the items in transit shows a material fall as compared to cost, see that the provision is made In
accounts. Ensure that liability for the stock in transit is reflected in the accounts.
Work in Process
Check the inventoiy of work in process. If the company does not have a cost system in
operation, ascertain that physical inventoiy of work in process was taken
Verification — Assets 265
at the end of the account year and obtain a certified copy thereof. Extract an inventory from the
costing records if maintained. Note the basis of valuation and see that it is consistent with that of
the previous year in respect of treatment of overheads and other charges which should be
included in cost according to generally accepted accounting principles. Trace the subsequent
transfers to the finished stocks. Ensure that provision is made in accounts to cover:
(1) Exceptional losses in work in process.
(2) Fall in market value of raw material below cost.
(3) Fall in sale price of finished stocks below cost. This is particularly important where
production is against .specific orders.
cost or market price whichever is lower and is shown in the trading account and balance sheet.
BILLS OF EXCHANGE
Obtain a schedule of bills receivable. Check casts of it and compare the individual balances
with the bill receivable book. Agree'the control account. Count all the bills on hand and note any
bills which are overdue. Trace the proceeds of all bills which matured subsequent to the date of
balance sheet into the cash book. Obtain direct confirmations from the parties for larger amounts.
Obtain a direct bank, certificate in respect of bills that may be in the process of collection. See
that adequate reserve has been made for any bills which are doubtful of recovery. Ensure that any
bills discounted but not matured as on the date of balance sheet are shown by means of a
footnote as a contingent liability.
BOOK DEBTS1
. Obtain a certified schedule of book debts. Check individual balances shown on the certified
schedule with the debtors ledger and agree the control account. Verify the casts of the schedule.
While scrutinising each debtor account, special attention should be given to the following
matters;
(1) Whether the account is regularly settled? In -such a case the conclusion is that
the debt is good. .'
(1) . Whether the debt is outstanding beyond the period of credit allowed. If so,
it would normally mean that the debt may prove to be doubtful.
(3) Whether the payments are on account and the balance payable by the debtor tends to
increase? If so, the inference is that the party's creditworthiness is doubtful.
(4) Whether the old balance is being carried forward and the new goods are being
supplied for cash? It will lead to mean that the old balance is disputed. One which
should thoroughly be looked into.
(5) Whether- a cheque or a bill r eceived in payment of goods supplied has ever got
dishonoured? If so, it indicates that the party appears to be financially unsound and the
debt may prove to be bad some day.
(6) Whether any note, e.g., account stopped, in solicitor's' hand, in bankruptcy, in
liquidation, address not known, left without leaving any address etc., appears on the
ledger account? If so, the account should be thoroughly looked into. Also establish the
amount which is doubtful of recovery.
(7) Whether the debt is time-barred due to the provisions of Law of Limitation which
allows three years to recover a debt? If so, the amount is doubtful of recovery. . '
(8) Whether the bills of exchange or cheques are constantly being renewed? If so,
apparent conclusion is that the party is financially unsound and the debt may prove to
be doubtful of recovery.
(9) Whether the payments are irregular? In such a case, the debt may not be good and
some day it may become bad.
(10) Whether there are any unusual items of discount or allowances? Such cases should be
thoroughly scrutinised to see the proper- authorisation for such discount.
Major accounts should be scrutinised to see whether unusual financing of parties has been
carried out. See that debts due by directors and other officers ofthe companies are shown
separately. Ensure that the segregation of debts into seemed and unsecured is made and shown in
the balance sheet. Check the nature of securities and its value and ascertain that the debt is fully
seem ed. The aging of the debts should be done. All unsecured debts which are fairly old should
be treated as doubtful. Note subsequent realisations. Discuss fully the old outstanding not paid
even after the date of the balance sheet. Mar k all doubtful accounts and prepare a .separate list
for them. Selected number of debtors should be checked: Specimen of the circular to be sent is
given as Annexure 7.2. For any difference between the balance shown in the books and on the
confirmation} an enquiry should be made to straighten out the matter. Enquire that amount of
sales does not include any items of transactions for future delivery of goods. Pay special attention
to any big items of sales passed through at the close of the accounting year to ascertain that they
are genuine. See that such sales are not shown as 'sales returns' subsequent to the date of account.
If so, the amount should be deducted from the book debts and sales and included in stock at cost
or market price whichever- is lower'. Examine board resolution for bad debts written off during
the year 1 and see that the provision for doubtful debts is adequately made by considering'the
following:
(1) The basis of providing bad and doubtful debts.
(2) The amount of debts marked by the auditor- as doubtful of recovery.
(3) Bad debts incidence in the few previous year's (say three).
(4) Cases in legal hands.
(5) Unexecuted decrees which lapsed.
Debts showing credit balances and appearing in the debtors schedule are liabilities and
should be included under habilities in the accounts.
268 Auditing; Principles and Procedures
ADVANCES
professional valuers' certificate and see that the loan is . secured. Ensure that all interest
receivable on loan has either been received or. accounted for. Inspect the insurance policy
covering comprehensive risk and see the latest premium receipt.
Deposits
Obtain a schedule of deposits. • Check it with original receipts and confirmations. - Enquire
into the reason for the amount deposited.7 Scrutinise any subsequent adjustment.
Prepayments
Obtain a schedule and check it with demand notes, bills, vouchers, etc., noting carefully the
period, for which the prepayments is involved. Scrutinise their subsequent adjustments. Examine
necessary correspondence in this respect. Compare amount with the previous year and note
any'major fluctuations. Enquire into usual financing by the client.
Recoverable Claims
Obtain a schedule giving the details of the recoverable claims. Examine correspondence and
study the developments and possibilities of .recoverability of claims. Note subsequent
realisations. See the adequate provision is made for doubtful claims in the accounts.
INVESTMENTS
1. Principal
{a) Face value and ownership. Examine the investments seeing that name of the client is
stated as the owner and note the face value. If these are held by the bank, obtain a
direct confirmation stating the object of holding it, i.e., for safe custody or as a cover
against loan.
(&} Book Values. Compare with the investment ledger and the previous year's
schedule."Vouch the purchases with brokers bought note and see the terms of purchase,
i.e., ex-dividend ox cum-dividend. And sales during the year should be verified with the
brokers' sold note. See Boar d resolution for the ■ authority of the above purchase and
sale. A comparison of rates at which these were bought or sold with the published lists
<in reliable newspapers, stock exchange repoi"ts, etc) should also be done.
(c) Market Values. Cheek the market value with the quotation list at the date ofthe balance
sheet (or- with the latest available quotation list hear- the
270 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
balance sheet date). Any material loss resulting from the decline in the market value
compared to cost should be provided in the accounts. For unquoted investment,
examine latest available accounts.
2. Interest
(a) Scrutinise each individual investment account to ensure that all interest has
either beenreceived or accrued in books.
(b) In case of the limited companies, enquire into the question of dividend income.
*3. Contingent Liability . . .
Note any amount of uncalled capital relating to shares held as investments and give a foot-
note of it in the balance sheet.
4. Speculative Transactions
Enquire into the. speculative transactions with particular reference to short-term purchases
and sales.
Endowment Policies
Endowment policies are sometimes taken out to make funds available for redeeming some
liability falling due at a later date (e.g., sinking fund policies for redemption of debentures). The
auditor should actually inspect the policies and confirm that the premium is being paid regularly
to ensure that the policy may not lapse.
Cash
All cash on hand should be brought at one table and physically counted as on the closing
date and agreed with cash book and balance sheet. The last numbers of the Receipt book(s), Cash
memo bookts), Cheque payment vouchers, Cash payment vouchers, cheque(s) book and cheque
receipts should be noted.
Verification — Assets 271
See that the collections are segregated and kept separately from imprest. At the time of
counting the cash, examine the pay-in slips for at least seven days prior to cash count and link up
the lodgement dates which cash receipts. Scnitinise bank statements subsequent to cash count for
any dishonoured cheque. Vouch all cheques drawn for cash during fourteen days prior to cash
count.
For LO.U.'s (I Owe You), see that the chits are signed by the recipients. Ensure that the
same is approved by a responsible official, preferably by the passing authority before advancing
money on LO.U's. Assess the materiality of the amount and get it transferred to book debts, if the
amount is of material nature. The practice of showing LO.U.'s as cash in hand should be
discouraged as it omits to record the transactions taking place from day to day.' Check the
exchange conversion into rupee element at official rate of exchange. Obtain agents' confirmations
for cash lying with them.
In case of branches, the client should be requested to deposit all the cash into bank as on
financial closing date. Alternately confirmations from the branches should be obtained for the
closing cash on hand, if it is not practicable for the auditor to count the cash.
Various objectives of standard request for banker's confirmation letter are explained below:
1. Confirmation of ail bank balances of the client at year end is obtained directly.
2. If any charges were not included or credit was not given for accrued interest/return by
the bank, the amount is ascertained and accounted for.
3. Contingent liabilities, if any, are identified for footnoting in the balance sheet.
4. Ascertaining details of any assets held on behalf of the client.
Cash-in-Transit
Compares the dates shown on the paying banker's statement and the receiving banker's
statement. Examine the advices of transfeiring bank and receiving bank. If no advices are
produced for scmtiny, enquire whether the transfer is on account of standing instructions.
Bank Balance
Obtain direct bank coiuirmations in support of the bank balances. A suggested proforma of
the letter to be written in this respect has been included in an earlier chapter. Obtain a bank
reconciliation and agree the balance of cash book as at the date of balance sheet with the balance
shown in the bank statement/bank certificate. Scrutinise all outstanding items and note their
subsequent adjustments. See that the above bank certificate indicates the name of the client in
whose account the money is lying in the books of the bank.
Examine the fixed deposit receipt for amounts lying in fixed deposits (apart from a direct
bank certificate). See that accrued interest to the date of balance sheet has been accounted for in
the books. Show the balances with the bankers on deposit or on current account separately. Veiify
conversion rates in the case of foreign exchange balances and disclose the exchange rate of
conversion as a footnote on the balance sheet. Any loss or gain arising due to devaluation must
be reflected in the accounts.
Where any heavy expenditure in the nature of revenue is incurred, the benefit of which is
likely to extend beyond the financial year' in which it takes place, it is usual to allow such an
expenditure to be ■temporarily capitalised and to be spread equally over number of years for
which it is anticipated that benefit would be reaped by the business. The following are some
ofthe examples:
CONTINGENT ASSETS
The Companies Oidinance 1984 does not require that contingent assets should be disclosed
as a footnote on the balance sheet. Hence usually no mention is made at the foot of the balance
sheet of the contingent assets. Examples are: an option to apply for shares in another company
on favourable' terms, refund of octroi paid for goods which have been sent out later, claim for
money fr om a previous endorser of a bill recoverable which had been discounted but which
might be dishonoured, uncalled share capital of a company, a legal action for infringement of a
copyright etc.
However, it is fair to show the contingent assets as a footnote, provided they involve
material amount and their disclosure would assist in exhibiting a true and correct position of
balance sheet.
274 A uditing: Principles and Procedures
Appendix 7.1
STOCK CERTIFICATE
Dear Sirs,
Accounts for the year ended on 1993
We hereby certify that the inventory as at above date was taken under the supervision of the
responsible official and is summarised as follows:
Val ue Mode of
Valuation
( а ) Raw Materials .................................................................. .............................................
(б) Work-in-process .'............................................................. .............................................
(c) Finished Goods ................................................................................................................
I d ) Stores and Spare Parts....................................................................................................
(e) Loose Tools ' .■-.......................................................................
(f > Others . . ....................................................................... ............................................
Total Rs.
(7) Obsolete, unusable good's and slow-moving stocks have been reduced to their
net realisable value.
(8) These comprise the whole of the company's stocks, wherever situated, and that
stocks held on behalf of other parties have been excluded.
(9) All executed orders for sale have been invoiced to customers and stocks
relevant thereto have been excluded from the above stocks.
(10) There has been no material variation in the basis of valuation as compared
with that adopted in the previous accounting year.
Yours faithfully,
Signature
Designation
276 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Annexure 7.2
Authorised Signatory
(Client's Name)
No...................:............................... Debtor's Name............................................
Annexure 7.3
The rates of gross profit to turnover should be computed for the previous year and the
current year and then compared. An abnormal increase in the ratio of gross profit to turnover
may be due to any one ofthe cumulative results of the following:
1. Purchase price may have remained constant and the sale price enhanced during the
year; or the sale price may have remained constant, but the purchases may have been effected at
cheaper rates.
2. Sales may have been inflated; goods entered in books as sold but not delivered may
also be wrongly included in stock.
3. Stock might have been over-valued due to a different basis of valuation adopted during
the year or due to errors in inventories. A portion of some obsolete stock may have been written
off in the preceding year, but no such adjustment may have been effected in the current year.
Goods may have been taken into stock, but corresponding invoices may not have been entered.
An abnormal decrease in the ratio of gross profit may be due to any or more of the
following reasons:
1. Purchases may have been inflated; goods entered as bought may not have been
received and thus not reflected in stocks.
2. Sal e price of goods dealt in may have remained constant during the year as compared
to the previous year, but the purchase price may have increased; the sale price,
increased but the pur-chase price may have remained the same; goods sold and
actually delivered may not have been inadvertently reflected in accounts.
3. Stock may have been under-valued; there may have been pilferings of stocks; the
accumulated, obsolete arid unusable stock may have all been written off or sold at a
loss during the year;'some of the items may have been omitted Inadvertently from the
inventory list.
Verification — Revenue Account 280
The auditor should examine the possibility of above matters and obtain a satisfactory
explanation for the variation in the gross profit ratio to turnover.
The gross profit having been ascertained should then be transferred from the trading
account to the credit of the profit and loss account. Against this gros^profit would then be set off,
on the debit side all the various expenses incidental to the conduct of the business and relating to
the trading period under audit.
For a satisfactory verification ofthe profit and loss account the auditor should carry out the
following work:
(1) See that the requirement of the Ordinance and IAS 5 in respect of the
disclosure of information have been complied with.
(2) While examining the profit and loss account exercise care to ensure that a
strict distinction between capital and revenue is maintained.
(3) As the object of the profit and loss account is to exhibit the true profit or
. loss resulting from hading during any given period, it is highly essential
that the auditor should see that only expenses and income of the year under audit are
included in the account.
(4) Ensure that various adjustments relating to outstanding expenses, income
received in advance, unexpired discounts, provisions for depreciation, unexpired reser
ve for doubtful debts etc, have been properly made.
(5) See that all accrued and anticipated losses relating to the year- under audit
have been provided in the accounts. Credit has also not Ьеед taken for the unearned
profits.
(6) Ensure that profit and loss account items were computed on a consistent basis.
Make a note of any changes.
(7) Compare expenditure with that of the previous year and note reasons for
material variations.
(8) Disclose correctly any transaction in respect of previous periods.
(9) Verify satisfactorily that dividend, investment income, commission earned etc.,
have been reflected in accounts.
The net profit disclosed by the profit and loss account is transferred to the credit of another
amount called "Profit and Loss Appropriation Account". The objective of this account is to
indicate the amount available for disposal and its
Auditing: Principles and Procedures
appropriations.
On tbe debit side of this account generally appear all such amounts representing
appropriations such as proposed, dividends, dividend equalisation reserve, reserve for deferred
taxation, debenture redemption fund, provision for taxation etc. On the credit side appeal's
amount of profits brought forward 'from previous years and net profit earned during the year.
The auditor should see that: - . ...
(1) All the appropriations of net profits are in accordance with the resolutions
ofthe shareholders-in general meeting and the provisions of memorandum and articles
of association and conditions of the consent order issued by the Controller of Capital
Issues.
(2) All reserves required under tax laws or' any other legislation have been created.
.
Till the writing.of this book,' 29 International Standards on Auditing had been
issued. The following Chart shows the position in a summarised shape in respect of
the titles and their constituents: . . f . " f'. ..
ISA
2
'Audit Evidence
Do< trnentation
raphs 31
8 +
Appendi
x 16 '
14 ■■'
■49 +-
■
Addend
um + ■
3
Supplem
ents
17 +
Appendi
x
18+,, 2
Adden
dum
13 ;■
14
19
230 Auditing: Principles and
Procedures
Source: 1FAC Handbook 1992 Technical Pronuuncuinenin, International Federation of Account ante. New York, 1992
International Standards on Auditing 2:il
The readers are suggested to procure a copy each of the above from the two professional
institutes of our country namely, The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan and Institute
of Cost and Managements Accounts of Pakistan.
Wherever relevant, we have included provisions of ISA in relevant chapters. Moreover
salient features of some ISAs have also been included at related places.
The International Federation of Accountants have also issued "Summary of International
Standards on Auditing and Related Services" in a booklet form. This contains a brief overview of
each ISA issued to date followed by summaries of the basic principles and essential procedures
extracted from ISAs 1—29 and ISA/RSs 1—4 representing ISAs issued till March 1991.
For quick reference and use by readers and professional accountants, text of the above is
reproduced below:
International
Standard >T ■ A'&■ Subject onAudidng
lumbers
Source: Letter dated September 23, 1992 iiddiesned to the author buy the Secretary, the Institute of Chartered AceontantB u1
Pakistan, Karachi.
International -Standards on A uditing 287
PREFACE
." The International Auditing Practices Committee (IAPC) has been given specific
responsibility and authority to issue, on behalf of the Council of the International Federation of
Accountants (ШАС), exposure drafts, Standards and Statements on auditing and.related services.
(Preface I, p.3) Related services comprise reviews, agreed-upon procedures and compilations.
(Framework, рЛ У.
; . The. IAPC believes that the issue .of such Standards will help improve the degree of
uniformity of auditing practices and related services throughout the world. (Prefaee П, p.4)
International Auditing Standards (ISAs) apply whenever an independent audited is carried
out and may also have application as appropriate, to other related activities of auditors. However,
ISAs do not override local r egulations governing the audit and related ser vices of financial
information in a particular- country. (Preface 11, p.11-12) '
, Standards are issued by the IAPC in two separate series, Standards on Audit Services in
International Standard Auditing (ISAs) and Standards on Related Services . in International
Auditing Standnrds/lielated Services (ISA/RSs) (Framework, p.14). For ease of refer ence, the
term ''auditor" is used throughout the Standards when describing both the auditing and related
ser vices which may be performed. (Framework, p.2). ISA/RS 4, however, uses the term
"accountant" to distinguish between an audit and a compilation engagement (RS 4,p.2)
This booklet contains a brief overview of each Standard issued to date followed by
summaries of the basic principles and essential pr ocedures extracted from ISAs 1-26 and
ISA/RSs 1-2, is being all Standards issued to December 31, 1991. The basic principles and
essential procedures have been cross-referenced to the particular Standard and paragraph
number. This booklet will be updated periodically.
Readers are reminded that the essential procedures have been extracted for the purposes of
this Summary and the Standards contain a great deal of background information and other
helpful standard. Accordingly, it will be necessary to refer to the individual Standards to obtain a
proper understanding of the recommended practice.
288 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
(ISAs 1-26 and ISA/RSs 1-2 December 31, 1988) TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. OVERVIEW OF STANDARDS
2. AUDIT - SUMMARY OF BASIC PRINCIPLES AND ESSENTIAL
PROCEDURES
Audit of Financial Statements
Overall Objective and Scope
Basic Principles — General Matters
•
Integrity, Objectivity and Independence
•
Confidentiality
•
Skills and Competence
Basic Principles and Essential Examination Procedures
•
Planning
•
Audit Evidence
•
Accounting System and Internal Control
•
Compliance Procedures and Audit Conclusions ■ • Substantive
Procedures and Audit Conclusions
•
Work Performed by others
•
Documentation
Basic Principles and Essential Reporting Procedures
•
General Matters
•
Dating of Repoi tYSubsequent Discovery of anError Other Information in Documents
Containing Audited Financial Statements
•
Overall Objective and Scope
•
Consideration of other Information
•
Material Inconsistencies
•
Material Misstatements of Fact
•
Availability of other Information after Date of Auditor's Report
International Standards on Auditing 289
1. OVERVIEW OF STANDARDS
ISA 4: Planning
The guidance applies to the planning process of the audit of both financial statements and
other financial information. It is framed hi the context of recurring audits, identifies key elements
in the planning process and provides, practical examples of items which should be considered
when planning an audit. Adequate, audit planning helps to ensure that appropriate attention is
devoted to important areas ofthe audit, that potential problems: are promptly identified, arid that,
the work is completed expeditiously. Planning also assists in proper utilisation of assistants and in
coordination of work done by other- auditors and experts/ - ■' ;.
ISA 9: Documentation
Guidance is provided on the general form and content of working papers as well as specific
examples of working papers normally prepared or obtained by the auditor. Ownership and custody
of working paper is also discussed,
EDP controls (those that affect the EDP environment) and EDP application controls (those that
affect accounting applications). It also explains to the auditor operating in an EDP environment,
the steps involved in (a) making a review and preUminary evaluation, (6) performing compliance
procedures, and (c) making a final evaluation of the accounting system and related internal
controls. The auditor is reminded to communicate to the client management weaknesses in EDP
internal' control and weakness that affect the safeguarding of data and continuity of processing.
ISA 21: Date of the Auditor's Report; Events after the Balance
Sheet Date; Discovery of Facts after the Financial
Statements have been Issued
Guidance is provided on dating of the auditor's report; the auditor's responsibility in
relation to subsequent events, which are sigruficant events occurring after the balance sheet date,
and the auditor's responsibility in connection with the discovery of facts after the financial
statements have been issued. This Standard describes steps the auditor generally performs to
identify subsequent events, responsibilities in relation to events after the date of the auditor's
report hut before the financial statements- are issued, and discovery of facts after the financial
statements are issued. An appendix sets forth an example of an auditor's report on revised
financial statements.
ISA 22: Representations by Management
This Standard provid3.> guidance to the auditor on using management representations as
audit evidence, procedures the auditor should apply in evaluating and documenting them, and
circumstances in which written representations should be obtained. It indicates that with regard
to representations for material financial statement matters, the auditor should seek corroborative
evidence, evaluate the representations for reasonableness and consistency with other audit
evidence and other representations, and consider whether the individual making the
representation can be expected to be well-informed. ft also notes that representations can be
documented in the working papers by summarising oral discussions of by obtaining written
representation. The Standard also notes the conditions for obtaining a letter from management
and considerations ofthe auditor when management refuses to provide or confirm representations
on matters considered necessary.
296 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
client have agreed on, to individual items of financial data, a financial statement or set of
financial statements. Guidance is also given on the types of procedures that may be applied and
the form and content of the report of factual findings to be issued. As the procedures are agreed
between the auditor and client to meet the client's needs for particular information, it is suggested
that the auditor meet with the client and other specified parties who will receive copies of the
report to ensure there is a clear understanding ofthe nature, purpose and extent of the engagement
and procedures to be applied. Furthermore, the auditor is only required to present the evidence
collected to the user, and the report of factual findings provides no assurance on assertions.
Appendices illustrate a sample engagement letter and report of factual findings including an
illustrative list of procedures.
other source data are reliable and sufficient as the basis for the preparation of the financial
statements. In forming his opinion, the auditor should also decide whether the relevant
information is properly communicated in the financial statements.
It is in the interest of both client and auditor that the auditor send an engagement letter,
preferably before the commencement of the examination, to help in avoiding rmsunderstandings
with respect to the engagement.
ISA 3 describes the basic principles which govern the auditor's professional responsibilities
and which should be complied with whenever an audit is carried out. Other ISAs elaborate on the
principles set out in ISA 3 to give guidance on auditing procedures and reporting practices.
[Set out below are the basic principles and essential procedures extracted from all ISAs issued to
date, broadly categorised according to the audit engagement process. As a result of their
importance, the basic principles in ISA 3 have been highlighted in bold print.]
Confidentiality
The auditor should respect the confidentiality of information acquired in the course of his
work and sheuld not disclose any such information to a third party without specific authority or
unless there is a legal or professional duty to disclose.
PROCEDURES Planning
The auditor should plan his work to enable him to conduct an effective audit in an efficient
and timely manner. Flans should be based on a knowledge of the client's business.
International Standards on Auditing 301
Plans should be made to cover, among other things, (o) acquiring knowledge of the client's
accounting system, policies and internal control procedures, (b) establishing the expected degree
of reliance on internal control, (e) determiiiing and programming the nature, timing, and extent of
the audit procedures to be performed, and (d) coordinating the work to be performed.
The auditor needs to have level of knowledge of his client's business and industry that will
enable him-to identify the events, transactions, and practices that, in his judgment, may have a
significant effect on the financial information.
With respect to the previous year's audit working papers and other relevant files, the auditor
should pay particular attention to matters that required special consideration and decide whether
they might affect the work to be done in the . current year.
The auditor, should document his overall plan.
The auditor should prepare a written audit program setting forth the procedures that are
needed to implement the audit plan. The pr ogram should have sufficisnt detail of serve as a set of
instructions to the assistants involved in the audit and as a means to control the proper execution of
the work.
The auditor should consider the timing of the procedures, coordination of any assistance
expected from the client, the availability of assistants, and the involvement of other auditor's or-
experts.
CWhen planning the engagement) the auditor should undertake an overall audit risk
assessment based on his knowledge of the client's business, industry, management, control
environment and operations. As part of this overall risk assessment, the auditor should consider'
whether there is potential for pervasive problems, for example, liquidity or- going concern
problems, audit risk should be considered by the auditor at (the account balance and class of
transactions) level taking into account the results of the overall audit risk assessment made at the
financial statement level.
When planning the audit, the auditor should consider what would make the financial
information materially misstated. The auditor's preliminary judgment of materiality should. be
related to specific account balances and classes of transactions. The audit should be planned so
that audit risk is kept at an acceptably low level.
When planning the audit, the auditor should consider the materiality of inventories and the
need to attend stocktaking. The auditor should consider the nature of the accounting and internal
control systems used in respect of inventory, inherent and control risks, whether management is
expected to establish adequate procedures and issue proper instructions for physical inventoiy
counting, the timing ofthe count, inventory locations and whether an expert's assistance is
needed. (6 Addendum, p.8-9).
302 A uditing: Principles and Procedures
The auditor should nmmalfy plan to obtain direct confirmation of accounts receivable
balances when accounts receivable are material and it is expected that debtors will respond.
When it is expected that the debtor will not respond, the auditor should plan to perform
alternative procedures. (8 Addendum, p.21)
When planning and performing audit procedures and in evaluating the result thereof, the
auditor should be alert to the possibility that the going concern assumption on which the
preparation of the financial statements is based may be subject to question.
The auditor should plan his audited so that he has a reasonable expectation of detecting
material misstatements in the financial information resulting from fraud or error.
The auditor should plan and perform his audit with an attitude of professional skepticism
recognising that he may encounter conditions or events during his examination that would lead
him to question whether fraud or error exist.
In planning and performing his examination the auditor should take into consideration the
risk of material misstatement of the financial information caused by fraud or error. He should
inquire of management as to any fraud or significant error which has occurred in the reporting
period and modify his audit procedures, if necessary.
The auditor should gather information about the EDP environment that is relevant to the
audit plan. ■'■
When planning the audit, the auditor should consider an appropriate combination of manual
and computer-assisted audit techniques.
The names of identified related parties should be provided (by the auditorj to audit personnel
involved in the audit of the entity and its components so that they will be alerted to recognise
transactions with such parties if they are encountered during the audit.
The determination of overall audit strategy requires consideration of inherent risk at the
financial statement level. In planning the audit in more detail such assessment should be related
to material account balances and classes of transactions. The auditor may assume that inherent
risk is high at the account balance and class of transaction level without first performing an
evaluation, but Rhtn^d gain an understanding of the inherent risk factor at the financial statement
level. (29, p.6-7)
The auditor should obtain a sufficient understanding of the internal control and accounting
systems to plan the audit and develop an effective audit approach (29, p. 10)
The auditor should obtain an understanding of the control procedures sufficient to plan
the .audit. The auditor should consider knowledge about the presence or absence of control
procedures ■ obtained from his understanding of the control
International Standards on Auditing 303
Audit Evidence
The auditor should obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence through the performance of
compliance and substantive procedures to enable him to draw reasonable conclusions therefrom
on which to base his opinion on the financial information.
General Matters
The audit evidence should, in total, enable the auditor to form an opinion on the financial
information.
The auditor should be thorough in his efforts to obtain evidence and be objective in its
evaluation. In selecting procedures to obtain evidence, he should recognise the possibility that the
financial information may be materially misstated.
There should be a rational relationship between the cost of obtaining evidence and the
usefulness of the information obtained.
When the auditor is in reasonable doubt as to any assertion of material sigiuficance, he
should attempt to obtain sufficient appropriate evidence to remove such doubt. If (the auditor) is
unable to obtain sufficient appropriate evidence, he should not express an unqualified opinion.
Sampling
The auditor should first consider the Specific audit objectives to be achieved to enable him to
determine the audit procedure or combination of procedures which is . likely to best achieve those
objectives.
304 A uditing: Principles and Procedures
The auditor should determine that the population from which he draws the ' sample is
appropriate for the specific audit objective.
The auditor should define the sampling unit in order to obtain an efficient and effective
sample to achieve the particular audit objective.
The auditor should consider detection risk arising from the uncertainties due to sampling
(sampling risk) as well as those arising from factors other than sampling (non-sampling risk).
The auditor's objective should be to reduce non-sampling risk to a negligible level by
appropriate planning, direction, supervision and review.
In determining the expected error in a population, the auditor should consider such matters
as error levels identified in previous audits, changes in client procedures and evidence available
from his evaluation of the system of internal control and from results of analytical review
procedures.
Sample items should be selected in such a way that the sample can be expected to be
representative ofthe population.
When using systematic selection, the auditor should determine that the population is not
structured in such a manner that the sampling interval corresponds with a particular pattern in
the population.
When the auditor uses (haphazard sampling) he should guard against making a selection that
is biased, for example, towards items which are easily located, as they may not be representative.
Having carried out, on each sample item, those audit procedures that are appropriate to the
particular audit objective, the auditor should (a) analyze any errors detected in the sample, (b)
project the errors found in the sample to the population, and (c) assess the sampling risk.
In analyzing the errors detected in the sample, the auditor should determine that an item in
question is in fact an error.
If the auditor does not or is unable to perform alternative procedures related to the missing
sample item, he should treat this item as an error for the purpose of his evaluation of audit
evidence provided by the audit sample.
The auditor should also consider the qualitative aspects ofthe errors.
(When the auditor decides to produce a sub-population and extend his procedures) he
should then perform separate evaluations (of errors) based on the items examined for each sub-
population.
The auditor should project the error results of the sample to the population
from which the sample was selected. When projecting error results, the auditor should keep in
mind the qualitative aspects of the errors found.
The auditor should consider whether errors in the population might exceed the
International Standards on Auditing 305
tolerable error. To accomplish this, the auditor should compare the projected population error to
the tolerable error and also then compare the sample results to the evidence obtained from other
relevant audit procedures when forming his conclusions about an account balance, class of
transactions or specific control. The auditor should therefore reconsider the sampling risk and if
he determines that the risk is unacceptable, he should consider extending his audit procedures or
performing alternative audit procedures.
Having evaluated the sampling results, the auditor should conclude as to the extent to which
he has obtained sufficient appropriate audit evidence in support of the particular characteristic of
the account balance of class or transaction with which he is concerned.
Opening Balances
The auditor should obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence that opening balances do not
contain misstatements that could materially affect the current year's financial statements, that the
prior year's closing balances have been correctly brought forward or restated, and appropriate
accounting policies are consistently applied. The nature and extent of the audit evidence that the
auditor should obtain in relation to opening balances depends on the accounting policies
followed by the entity, whether the prior year's financial statements were audited,
306 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
and if so whether the auditor's opinion was other than unqualified, and the nature of the accounts
and the risk.of misstatement in the current year's financial statements.(28.p.4-5)
The current auditor may be able to satisfy himself on opening balances by reviewing the
predecessor auditor's working papers. He should be consider the professional competence and
independence of the predecessor auditor. (28.p.7)
When the financial statements were not previously audited, or when the auditor is not able
to satisfy himself by reviewing the predecessor's working papers, sufficient appropriate audit
evidence may be obtained by examining the records underlying the opening balances and by
applying additional procedures as part of the current year's audit procedures. (28.p.9-ll)
The auditor should ordinarily obtain direct corurrmation from a third party who has custody
and control of inventory. (8 Addendum, p. 191
Selection of accounts receivable for corifirmation should be selected by reference to ISA 19
so as to be able to reach a conclusion as to the existence and accuracy of accounts receivable as a
whole. (8 Addendum p.22)
Confirmation letters should be sent by the auditor requesting a reply direct to the auditor. (8
Addendum, p.23)
While the positive form of confirmation of accounts receivable balances will provide more
reliable evidence than negative confirmations, the choice will depend upon the audit evidence
objective and circumstances such as the assessment of inherent and control risks. (8 Addendum,
p.24-26)
The auditor should treat accounts receivable subject to positive corifirmations which cannot
be confirmed, and for .which alternative procedures have not been performed, as errors for the
purpose of evaluating the audit evidence provided by the audit sample. (8 Addendum, p:28)
The auditor should consider whether there are valid grounds and examine any supporting
evidence for a request from management not to confirm certain accounts receivable balances, and
apply alternative procedures to those accounts. (8 Addendum, p.29)
The auditor should apply procedures to become aware of any litigation and claims that may
have material financial implications and seek direct confirmation from the entity's lawyers when
litigation or claims have-been identified or when the auditor believes they may exist. (8
Addendum, p.31-32)
assessment at a lower level is likely to be available and whether performing additional procedures
to obtain evidence would be efficient. (29, p.24-25)
Before relying on procedures performed in previous examinations to support a
conclusion about control risk, the auditor should obtain evidence as to the nature
and extent of any change in the entity's internal control and accounting systems
since the performance of such procedures. The auditor should consider that the
longer the time elapsed since the performance of such procedures the less assurance
may result. *■ ■
Compliance procedures performed at an interim date cannot be relied upon without
considering the need to obtain further evidence relating to the remainder of . the accounting
period. (29, p.30)
Together with the auditor's assessment of control and inherent risk, the auditor should
consider the nature, timing and extent of substantive procedures to determine the required level
of assurance provided by such procedures to reduce detection risk to an acceptable level (29,
p.34)
The auditor should perform some substantive procedures as the assessed levels of inherent
and control risks cannot be sufficiently low to eliminate the need for the auditor to perform any
substantive procedures for significant account balances and transactions classes. (29, p.36)
When both inherent and control risks are assessed at a high level the auditor should also
consider whether substantive procedures will provide sufficient assurance to reduce detection
risk to an acceptable level. (29, p.38)
The auditor should gain an understanding of the accounting system and related internal
controls and should study and evaluate the operation of those internal controls upon which he
wishes to rely in determining the nature, timing and extent of other audit procedures. (3, p.20)
To assess control risk, the auditor should consider the adequacy of control design, as well
as test adherence to control procedures. In the absence of such an assessment, the auditor should
assume that control risk is high.
When the auditor is relying on internal control, it is at these points that he must be satisfied
that internal control procedures applied by the entity are effective for his purpose.
The auditor should review the accounting system and related internal controls to gain an
understanding of the flow of transactions and the specific control procedures to be able to make
a preliminary evaluation and identification of those internal controls on which it might be
effective and efficient to rely in conducting his audit.
The auditor should inquire whether the internal controls were in use throughout the^reiiod
of intended reliance. If substantially different controls were
used at different times during the peiiod, the auditoi- should consider each
International Standards on Auditing 309
separately.
The auditor's preliminary evaluation of the internal controls should he made on the
assumption that the controls operate generally as described and that they function effectively
throughout the period of intended reliance.
For the benefit of his client, the auditor should make management aware, on a timely basis,
of material weakness which have come to his attention (as a result of his study and evaluation of
internal control and other auditing procedures).
When perforrning a review and prehminary evaluation of the accounting system and related
internal controls on which he intends to rely, the auditor should consider whether adequate
procedures and Controls exist over the authorisation and recording of related party transactions.
If such procedures and controls exist and the auditor intends to rely on them, he should perform
tests designed to gain evidence that they have operated properly.
EDP
When auditing in an EDP environment, the auditor should have an understanding of
computer hardware, software and processing systems sufficient to plan the engagement and to
understand how EDP affects the study and evaluation of internal control and the application of
auditing procedures, including computer-assisted audit techniques.
The auditor should also have sufficient knowledge of EDP to implement the auditing
procedures, depending on the particular audit approach adopted.
During the review and preliminaiy evaluation of internal control, the auditor should
acquire knowledge of the accounting system to gain an understanding of the overall control
environment and the flow of transactions. If the auditor plans to rely on internal controls in
conducting his audit, he should consider the manual and computer controls affecting the EDP
function (general EDP controls) and the specific controls over the relevant accounting
implications (EDP application controls).
The auditor should understand and consider the characteristics of the EDP environment
because they affect the design of the accounting system and related internal controls, the
selection of internal controls upon which he intends to rely, and the nature, timing and extent of
his procedures.
The auditor should review the accounting system to the extent considered necessary to gain
an understanding of the overall control environment ani the flow of transactions. If the auditor
wishes to rely on internal controls in conducting his audit, he should also identify and make a
preliminary review of those internal controls eiVwhich it might be effective and efficient to rely.
The "auditor' should consider- how (the) general EDP controls affect the EDP applications
significant to the audit.
310 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
The auditor should conduct a preliminary evaluation of those general EDP controls and EDP
application controls on which he believes it might be effective and efficient to rely in conducting
the audit.
The auditor may become aware of weakness in EDP internal controls during his study and
evaluation of the accounting system and related internal controls. These weakness should be
reported to management (on a timely basis). When the auditor become aware of significant
deficiencies in areas (relating to safeguarding data and continuity of processing), he should
communicate such information to management.
then, ensure that his compliance procedures appropriately cover such a period of change of
fluctuation.
Based on the results of his compliance procedures, the auditor should evaluate whether the
internal controls are adequate for his purposes. •
If, based on the results of his compliance procedures, the auditor concludes that it is not
appropriate to rely on a particular internal control to the degree previously contemplated, he
should ascertain whether there is another control which would satisfy his purpose and on which
he might rely (after applying appropriate compliance procedures). Alternatively, he may modify
the nature, timing or extent of his substantive audit procedures:
The auditor's comph'ance procedures normally should be applied to transactions selected
from those of the whole period under examination. When a shorter period is initially tested, the
auditor needs to consider what is necessary to provide reasonable assurance as to the reliability
of the accounting records for the whole period.
After obtaining an understanding of the internal control and accounting systems and
assessing control risk, the auditor may seek to obtain more evidence about design and operating
effectiveness to support an assessment of control risk at a lower level for certain assertions. As a
result, the auditor may change the nature, timing and extent of substantive procedures. (29,' p.25)
The evaluation of deviations found in performing compliance procedures may result in a
conclusion that the assessed level of control risk should be increased. In this case the nature,
timing and extent of substantive procedures should be modified, 129, p. 26)
Before the conclusion of an audit, the auditor should consider whether the preliminary
assessment of control risk is confirmed. If the assessment is revised, additional procedures
should be performed and the revision documented.(29, p.31)
Materiality
Because the nature of a misstatement may give rise to other concerns, the auditor should be
alert for detected errors of relatively small amounts that could have a material effect on the
financial information..
Materiality should be considered by the auditor when detennining the nature, timing and
extent of audit procedures, when evaluating the effect of misstatements on the measurement and
classification of accounts and when determining the
312 A udiung: Principles and Procedures
Fraud or Error
In planning and performing his examination the auditor should take into consideration the
risk of material misstatement of the financial information caused by fraud or error. He should
inquire of management as to any fraud or significant error which has occurred in the reporting
period and modify his audit procedures, if necessary.
If circumstances indicate the possible existence of fraud or error, the auditor should consider
the potential effect on the financial information. If the auditor believes the suspected fraud or
error could have a material effect on the financial information, he should perform such modified
or additional' procedures as he determines to be appropriate.
Where confirmed, the auditor should satisfy himself that the effect of fraud is properly
reflected in the financial information or the error is corrected.
(When unable to obtain audit evidence either to confirm or dispel a suspicion of fraud), the
auditor should consider the possible impact on the financial information and the effect on his
report. The auditor will also need to consider relevant laws and regulations.
Unless circumstances clearly indicate otherwise, the auditor should not assume that an
instance of fraud or error is an isolated occurrence. If the fraud or error should have been
prevented or detected by the system of internal control, the auditor should reconsider his prior
evaluation of that system and, if necessary, adjust, the nature, timing and extent of his substantive
procedures.
International Standards on Auditing 1 313
When fraud or error involves a member of management, the auditor should reconsider the
reliability of any representations made by that person to the auditor.
The auditor should communicate his findings to management on a timely basis, if (a) he
believes fraud may exist, even if the potential effect on the financial information would be
immaterial or (o) fraud or significant error is actually found to exist. In the latter circumstance,
he should also consider his reporting responsibilities to regulatory authorities.
Going Concern
When a question arises {as to the appropriateness of using the going concern assumption as
the basis for preparation of financial statements,} the auditor should gather sufficient appropriate
evidence to confirm or dispel the doubt regarding the entity's ability to continue in operation for
the foreseeable future, generally for a period not to exceed one year after the balance sheet date.
When analysing cash flow, profit, and other relevant forecasts, the auditor should consider
the reliability of the entity's system for generating such information. The auditor should also
consider the support for significant assumptions underlying the forecast and compare the
prospective data for recent prior periods with historical results, and the prospective data for the
current period with results achieved to date.
The auditor should consider and discuss with management its plans for future action the
outcome of which is expected to improve the situation. The auditor should obtain reasonable
assurance that these plans are feasible, are likely to be implemented and that the outcome of
these plans will improve the situation.
After the auditor has carried out the additional procedures he considers necessary, obtained
all the information which he has required and considered the effect of " any plans of
management and other mitigating factors, he should decide whether, the questions raised
regarding the going concern assumptions have been satisfactorily resolved.
- If the auditor determines that he has obtained reasonable assurance that going concern
assumption used for the preparation of the financial statements is appropriate, he should express
an unqualified opinion on the financial statements. If the auditor detennines that the going
concern assumption is appropriate because of mitigating factors, in particular management's
plans for future action, he should consider whether such plans or other factors should be-
disclosed in the financial statements. If disclosure considered necessary by the auditor is not
made, he should qualify his opinion for lack of such disclosure.
If the auditor determines that the going concern questions are not resolved, he should
ensure there is adequate disclosure in the financial statements of the principal conditions that
raise doubt about the entity's ability to continue in operation in the foreseeable future. Provided
the disclosure is considered adequate
314 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
the auditor should issue an unqualified opinion. If the auditor concludes that adequate disclosure
is not made, he should issue a qualified or adverse opinion for the lack of disclosure. (23, p.14)
When the auditor determines that the going concern matter is not resolved but there is
adequate disclosure, the auditor should add a paragraph (after the opinion paragraph) that draws
attention to the financial statement note. (23, p.15)
If, on tire basis of the additional procedures carried out by the auditor and the information
obtained by him, including the effect of mitigating circumstances, he is convinced that the entity
will not be able to continue in operation in the foreseeable future, he should conclude that the
going concern concept used for the preparation of the financial, statements is incorrect. If the
result of the incorrect assumption used in the preparation ofthe financial statements is so material
and pervasive as to make the financial statements misleading, he should issue an adverse
opinion; otherwise he should issue a qualified opinion.
Accounting Estimates
The auditor should obtain an understanding of the procedures and methods used by
management in making material accounting estimates, including an understanding of the control
environment relating to such procedures and methods.
The auditor should obtain reasonable assurance that the data on which the estimate is based
are accurate, complete and relevant. Where accounting data are used, they should be consistent
with the data processed through the accounting system.
The auditor should ascertain that management has ensured that the data collected are
properly analyzed and projected to form a reasonable basis for determining the estimate. Where
such analytical and projection procedures are computerised, the auditor should ensure that he
can rely on the results by applying appropriate audit procedures.
The auditor should consider whether the entity has a sufficient basis for the principal
assumptions used in the estimate, ,
In evaluating the assumptions on which the estimate is based, the auditor should consider,
among other things, whether they are reasonable in light of actual results in previous accounting
periods except when changes can be justified, consistent with those made for other relevant
accounting estimates, and consistent with management's plans which appear reasonable. The
auditor should pay particular attention to assumptions which are sensitive to variation and
subjective and susceptible to material error.
The auditor should review the continuing appropriateness of formulae used by management
in the preparation of accounting estimates. Such a review should reflect the auditor's knowledge
of the financial results of the entity in previous periods, practices used by other- entities in the
industry and the future plans of
International Standards on Auditing 315
Analytical Review
Analytical review procedures should be applied to some extent in planning, as substantive
tests and in the final review.
316 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
When the auditor is planning to perform analytical review procedures, he should consider
(a ) the objectives of the analytical review procedures and the extent to which he may be able to
rely on their results, (b ) the nature of the entity, (c) the availability, relevance and reliability of
financial and non-financial information, (d) the comparability of the information available, and
(e) the knowledge gained by the auditor during previous examinations.
The auditor should consider the need, if any, for testing the controls over the preparation of
non-financial information used in applying analytical review procedures.
When analytical review procedures identify unusual fluctuations and items, that is,
relationships that are unexpected or inconsistent with evidence obtained from other sources, the
auditor should investigate them. The investigation usually begins with inquiries of management
and the auditor should (a) evaluate the adequacy of replies to such inquiries, and (b) consider
the need to apply other audit procedures based upon the results of such inquiries; Further
investigation, by means of audit procedures designed to produce a satisfactory conclusion, would
be required if management is unable to provide an explanation or if the explanation is not
considered adequate.
his report the limitation, on the scope of his work and express a qualified opinion or
a disclaimer of opinion, as appropriate. " " '-.
If the auditor concludes that the related party disclosures in the financial information are not
in conformity with relevant national or international standards, he should express a qualified
opinion or an adverse opinion, as appropriate.
Subsequent Events i :
The auditor, should perform procedures designed to satisfy himself that all subsequent events
up to the date of his report that may require adjustment of or disclosure in the financial statements
have been identified.
The procedures to identify subsequent events should be performed as near as practicable to
the date of the auditor's report. If the procedure identify events which could affect the financial
statements, the auditor should carry out further procedures to assess whether such events are
appropriately reflected in the financial statements.
In situations involving branches, subsidiaries, investees or associated entities, the auditor
should decide the locations at which the above procedures should be carried out.
If the auditor becomes aware of events occurring after the date ofthe auditor's report but
before the financial statements are issued, the auditor should consider whether the financial
statements should be amended and should discuss the matter with management.
If after the financial statements have been issued, the auditor becomes aware of a fact that
materially affects the financial statements on which he has previously reported and which existed
but was not known to him at the date of his report, he should discuss the matter with management.
.Management Representations
The auditor should obtain evidence that management acknowledges its responsibility for the
appropriate presentation of the financial statements and that management has approved the
financial statements.
When [management] representations [either unsolicited or in response to specific inquiries],
relate to matters which are. material to the financial statements, . the auditor should ,(a) seek
corroborative audit evidence; from sources inside, or outside the entity, (b) evaluate whether the
representations made by management appear reasonable and consistent with other audit evidence
obtained, including Other representations, and (c) consider whether the individuals making the
representations can be expected to be well-informed on the matter. И" a representation by
management is contradicted by other evidence, the auditor should investigate the cii-cumstances
and when necessary, reconsider the reliability of other representations-made by management.
318 A uditing: Principles and Procedures
If the auditor is unable to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence that he believes
should be available, this will constitute a limitation in the scope of his examination even if he
has a representation from management on the matter.
Written representations from management should be obtained to confirm oral
representations given to the auditor on matters material to the financial statements when other
sufficient appropriate audit evidence cannot reasonably be expected to exist.
When_a management representation letter is requested it should be addressed to the
auditor, contain the information requested by him and be appropriately dated and signed.
A management representation letter should normally be dated the -same date as the auditor's
report on the financial statements.
A management representation letter should be signed by the members of
management who have primary responsibility for the entity and its financial aspects, usually the
senior executive officer and the senior financial officer, based on the best of their knowledge and
belief.
[When a scope limitation has occurred, as a result of management refusing to provide
representations the auditor* considers necessary}, the auditor should evaluate any reliance he has
placed on other representations made by management during the course of his examination and
consider' if the refusal may have any additional.effect on his report.
Opening Balances
If, after performing [the suggested procedures], the auditor is unable to obtain sufficient
appropriate audit evidence concerning opening balances, he should qualify or disclaim his
opinion, due to the limitation in scope of his audit. (28, p.12)
The auditor should issue a qualified or adverse opinion if the auditor concludes that the
opening balances contain misstatements which could materially affect the current year's financial
statements, or the current year's accounting policies have not been consistently applied, and these
matters have not properly been accounted for and disclosed.(28, p.13-14)
The auditor and assistants with supervisory responsibilities should consider the skills and
competence of assistants in performing the work that is delegated to them in deciding on the
extent of direction, supervision and review appropriate to each.
Appropriate direction should be given to assistants to whom work is delegated.
Personnel carrying out supervisory responsibilities should perform the following functions
during the performance of an audit, (a) monitor the progress of the work to determine that
assistants appear to have the necessary skills and competence to carry out their assigned tasks
and that the work is being carried out in accordance with the audit program and other planning
documents, (b) become informed of significant accounting and auditing questions raised during
the audit, assess their significance, and modify the audit program where appropriate, and (c)
resolve any differences of professional judgement between personnel.
The work performed by each assistant should be reviewed by personnel of equal or higher
competence to determine whether, (a ) the work has been performed in accordance with
professional and firm standards, (6) the work performed and the results obtained have been
adequately documented, (c) any significant audit matters remain unresolved, and (d) the
objectives of the audit procedures have been achieved and the conclusions expressed are
consistent with the results of the work performed and support the auditor's opinion on the
financial information.
An audit firm should adopt quality control policies that incorporate objectives [relating to
ethics, competence, proficiency, supervision, client evaluation and practice inspection] and
should implement appropriate procedures that provide reasonable assurance of achieving those
objectives.
A firm's general quality control policies and procedures should be communicated to its
personnel in a manner that provides reasonable assurance that the policies and procedures are
understood.
When he delegates work to assistants or uses work performed by other auditors or experts,
the auditor should have sufficient knowledge of EDP to direct, supervise and review the work of
assistants with EDP skills or to obtain reasonable assurance that the work performed by other
auditors or experts with EDP skills is adequate for his purpose, as applicable.
The auditor should obtain reasonable assurance that work performed by other auditors or
experts is adequate for his purpose.
An Other Auditor
The principal auditor should perform procedures to obtain reasonable assurance that the
work performed by the other auditor is adequate for the principal auditor's purpose.
The Principal auditor should document in his working papers the components whose
financial statements were audited by other auditors, their significance to the
320 A uditing: Principles and Procedures
financial statements of the entity as a whole, the names ofthe other auditors and any conclusions
reached that individual components are immaterial. He should also document how he, applied
the procedures he performed, and the conclusions he reached. ■
An other auditor, knowing the context in which his work is to be used by the principal
auditor, should cooperate with that auditor and assist-him actively. Similarly, the principal
auditor should advise the other auditor of any matters that come to his attention that he thinks
may have an important bearing on the other auditor's work.
The principal auditor should qualify his report or disclaim an opinion when he
concludes, based on his procedures, that he cannot use the work of the other auditor and has not
been able to perform sufficient additional procedures with respect to the financial statements of
the component reported on by the other auditor.
In all circumstances, if an other auditor qualifies his report, the principal auditor should
consider whether the subject of the qrjalification is of such a nature
and significance, in relation to the financial statements of the entity on which the principal
auditor is reporting, that it requires a qualification of his own report.
When the principal auditor '[bases his opinion on the financial statements taken as a whole
solely upon the report of another auditor with respect to the financial statements of one or more
components] his report should state this fact clearly and should indicate the magnitude of the
portion of the financial statements audited by the other auditor. -
Where [branches, subsidiaries, investees or associated entities] are audited by other
auditors, the auditor should consider obtaining the results of their procedures, for example, by
discussions with other auditors, written confirmation or review of working papers.
л.
Internal Auditors
The .external auditor should, as part of his audit, evaluate the internal audit
function in so far as he believes that it would be relevant in deterrnining the nature, timing and
extent of his compliance and substantive procedures.
The external auditor should document his evaluation and conclusions with respect to the
use ofthe work ofthe internal auditor.
Having decided in principle that he intends to use the work of the internal auditor, the
external auditor should ascertain the internal auditor's 1 tentative plan for the year and discuss
it/with him at as early a stage as possible to determine areas where he believes he Could use the
internal auditor's work.
The external auditor should be advised of and have access to relevant internal audit reports
and in addition be kept informed, along with management, of any significant matter that comes
to the internal auditor's attention and which he
International Standards on Auditing 321
believes may affect the work ofthe external auditor. Similarly, the external auditor should
ordinarily inform the internal auditor of any significant matters which may affect his work.
Where the external auditor intends to use specific internal audit work as a basis for
modifying the nature, timing and extent of his procedures, he should review the internal auditor's
working papers to satisfy himself that (a) the scope of work and related audit programs are
adequate for the external auditor's purposes, (b) the work was properly planned and the work of
assistants properly supervised, reviewed and documented, (e) sufficient appropriate evidence was
obtained to afford a reasonable basis for the conclusions reached, id) conclusions reached are
appropriate in the circumstances and any reports prepared are consistent with the results of the
work performed, and (e ) any exceptions or unusual matters disclosed by the internal auditor's
procedures have been properly resolved. The external auditoi' should document his conclusions
in respect of the specific work which he has reviewed.
The external auditor should also test the work ofthe internal auditor which he intends to
use.
Experts
When determining whether to use the work of an expert, the auditor should consider {at the
materiality of the item being examined in relation to the financial information as a whole, (b) the
nature and complexity of the item including the risk of error therein, and (c) the other audit
evidence available with respect to the item.
When the auditor plans to use the expert's work as audit evidence, he should satisfy
himself as to the expert's skills and competence by considering the expert's professional
[qualifications] and experience and reputation in the field in which the auditor is seeking
evidence.
The auditor should also consider the objectivity of the expert.
If, when planning the audit, the auditor intends to use the work of an expert, he should
communicate with the expert to confirm the terms of the -expert's engagement.
The auditor should seek reasonable assurance that the expert's work constitutes appropriate
audit evidence in support of the financial information. The auditor should also satisfy himself
that the substance of the expert's findings is properly reflected in the financial information.
The auditor should consider whether the expert has used source data which are
appropriate in the circumstances. .■:
The auditor should obtain an understanding of those assumptions-and methods [used by the
expert] to determine that they are reasonable based on the auditor's knowledge of the client's
business and on the results of his audit procedures.
322 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
If the work of an expert does not support the related representations in the financial
information, the auditor should attempt to resolve the inconsistency by discussions with the client
and the expert.
If, after performing[the necessary] procedures, the auditor concludes that the work of the
expert is inconsistent with the information in the financial statements, or that the work of the
expert does not constitute appropriate audit evidence, he should express a qualified opinion, a
disclaimer of opinion qr an adverse opinion as appropriate.
When expressing an unqualified opinion, the auditor should not refer to the. work of an
expert in his report as such a reference might be misunderstood to be a qualification of the
auditor's opinion or a division of responsibility, neither of which is intended.
If, as a result of the work of an expert, the auditor decides to* express other than Qn
unqualified opinion it may in some circumstances benefit the reader of his report if the auditoi -, in
explaining the nature of his reservation, refers to or describes the work of the expert (including
the identity and the extent of the expert's involvement). In these circumstances, the auditor
should, if he has not already done so, obtain the pel-mission of the expert before making such a
reference. If permission is refused, and the auditor believes a reference is necessary, he should
seek the advice of legal counsel.
Documentation
The auditor should document matters which are important in providing evidence that the
audit was carried out in accordance with the basic principles.
Working papers should record the auditor's planning, the nature, timing and extent of the
auditing procedures performed, and the conclusions drawn from the evidence obtained.
Working papers should be sufficiently complete and detailed for an experienced auditor to
obtain an overall understanding of the audit.
All significant matters which require the exercise of judgment, together with the auditor's
conclusion thereon, should be included in the working papers.
Working papers should be designed and properly organised, to ;meet . the circumstances and
the auditor's needs for each individual audit.
[When the auditor utilises schedules, analyses and other working. papers prepared by the
client], the auditor should satisfy himself that those working papers have been properly prepared
The auditor should adopt reasonable procedures for safe custody and confidentiality of his
working papers and should retain them for a period of time sufficient to meet the needs of his
practice and satisfy any pertinent legal or professional requirements of record retention.
International Standards on Auditing 323
The audit report should contain a clear written expression of opinion on the financial
information.
When a qualified opinion, adverse opinion or a disclaimer of opinion is given, the audit
report should state in a clear and informative manner all of the reasons therefor.
General Matters
The auditor's report should include (a) an appropriate title, such as "Auditor's Report", (&)
an appropriate addressee as required by the circumstances of the engagement and local
regulations, (c) identification of the financial statements that have been audited, including the
name of the entity and the date and period covered by the financial statements, id) indication of
the auditing standards or practices followed in conducting the audit by reference to international
Standard on Auditing or to standards or practices established within a country, (e) the auditor's
opinion on the presentation in the financial statements of the entity's financial position and the
results of its operations [and suggested reference to the accounting standards and in any situation
where it is not evident which country's accounting principles have been used, the country should
be stated], {/) signature in the name of the audit firm, the personal name of the auditor, or both,
as appropriate, (g) a specific location, which is usually the city in which the auditor maintains his
office, and (h) the report should be dated.
It should be clear which type [i.e., unqualified, qualified adverse or disclaimer] of opinion
is rendered.
Whenever the auditor issues a report that is other than unqualified, he should include a
clear description of all the substantive reasons in his report, and unless impracticable, a
quantification of the possible effect(s) on the financial statements. This information should
preferably be set out in a separate paragraph, preceding the opinion or disclaimer of opinion, and
may also include a reference to a more extensive discussion in a note to the financial statements.
A qualified opinion should be expressed as being "except for" the effects of the matter to
which the qualification relates.
When the limitations in the terms of a proposed engagement is such that the auditor
believes he would need to issue a disclaimer of opinion, he should not accept such a hunted
engagement as an audit engagement, A statutory auditor should not accept such an audit
engagement when the limitation infringes on his statutory duties.
In circumstances [when he is unable to carry out an audit procedures that he believes are
desirable], the auditor should attempt to carry out reasonable
324 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
circumstances and he should issue a new report on the revised financial statements. The auditor's
report on the revised financial statements should have a new date and should refer in an
explanatory paragraph to the note to the financial statements that more extensively discusses the
reason for the revision to the previously issued financial statements. The report should also refer to
the earlier report issued by the auditor on the financial statements and, when the auditor has
restricted his subsequent examination to the events that necessitated the revision, should contain a
statement to that effect. If management does not take the steps referred to above . the auditor
should notify those persons ultimately responsible for the overall direction ofthe entity that he will
take action to prevent future reliance on his report.
Material Inconsistencies
If on reading other information, the auditor becomes aware of a material'
inconsistency; he should determine whether the financial statements or other information need
revision and should advise the client accordingly.
If a revision is necessary in the financial statements and the client refuses to make the
revision, the auditor should express a qualified or adverse opinion," depending on the particular
circumstances.
326 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
If a revision is necessary in the other information and the client refuses to make the
revision, the auditor should consider including in his report an explanatory paragraph describing
the material inconsistency, or performing other actions, such as withholding the use of his report
in the document or withdrawing from the engagement.
If the auditor believes a revision of the other information is necessary and the client refuses
to make the specific revision, the auditor should notify the client in writing of his concern and
obtain legal advice as to further appropriate action.
General Matters
Before midertaking [an engagement to give a special purpose auditor's report] it is important
that there be agreement with the client as to the exact nature of the engagement and the form and
content of the report to be issued.
In planning his work, the auditor should have a clear miderstanding of the purpose for which
the information being reported on is to be used, and who is likely to use it.
All special purpose auditor's reports should include a title, addressee, identification of the
financial information audited, reference to auditing practices followed, an expression or
disclaimer of opinion on the financial information, signature, the auditor's address and the date of
his report. The scope ofthe auditor's engagement and his opinion should be given in separate
paragraphs. '
When requested to report on financial information in a prescribed format, the auditor should
consider the substance and wording of the form of report and, when necessary, should make
appropriate changes, either by rewording the form or by attaching a separate report.
[When requested to report on provisions of an agreement], the auditor should ensure that
[any significant] interpretation is clearly disclosed in the financial information and make reference
to the note within the financial information that describes the interpretation.
the auditor's opinion, the financial statements are not suitably titled or the basis of accounting is
not adequately disclosed, he should express a qualified opinion.
In formulating his report, in addition to the [matters referred to under general matters
above] the auditor should include a statement indicating the basis of accounting used in the
preparation of the financial statements on which he is reporting or refer to the note to the
financial statements giving that information. The opinion should state whether the financial
statements "give a true and fair view (or 'present fairly') in accordance with" the basis of
accounting indicated.
opinion should state whether the entity has complied with the particular requirements of the
agreement.
Genera! Matters
Before accepting an engagement, the auditor should determine the intended use and
distribution of the information, the nature of the assumptions, the components to be included in
the information and the period covered: (27, p. 12)
The auditor should obtain a level of knowledge of the entity's business sufficient to evaluate
whether all significant assumptions have been identified, and also become familiar with the
entity's process for preparing prospective financial informatioa (27, p.14)
The auditor should consider the extent to which the entity's historical financial information
can be relied upon as an historical yardstick for considering management's assumptions. The
auditor should consider the impact of this on the approach to the examination of the prospective
financial information. (27, p.15)
The auditor should consider the reasonableness of the period of time covered by the
prospective fmancial information. (27, p.16)
The auditor should be satisfied that the form and content of the prospective financial
information meets relevant reporting requirements, and adequately discloses material
assumptions or assumptions subject to a high degree of uncertainty, and any changes to
accounting policy from that used in prior period historical financial statements. (27, p. 17-20)
Examination Procedures
The auditor should obtain sufficient evidence to determine whether management's
assumptions are reasonable, hypothetical assumptions are consistent with the purpose of the
informations, the prospective financial information is properly prepared on the basis of the
assumptions and properly presented and prepared on a basis consistent with historical financial
statements. (27, p.21)
The auditor should assess the source and the reliability of the of the evidence supporting
management's best estimate assumptions, and seek sufficient
International Standards on Auditing 331
Reporting Procedures
Reports on prospective information should contain a) a title, b) an addressee, c)
identification of the prospective financial information, d) a reference to the standards or practices
followed in carrying out the engagement, e) a statement that .management is responsible for the
prospective financial information and the assumptions on which it is based, f) reference to the
purpose and/or restricted distribution when applicable, g) a statement of negative assurance as to
the reasonableness of the assumptions, h) an opinion as to whether the prospective information is
properly prepared on the basis of the assumptions and presented in accordance with relevant
standards or to a described comprehensive basis of appropriate caveats concerning the
achievability of the results, j) the auditor's signature and address, and k) the date of the report.
(27, p.31-32)
When additional facts come to the auditor's attention that existed at balance date but were
not known to the auditor at that time, and which may require adjustment or disclosure, the auditor
should update the report. (27, p.31)
A qualified or adverse opinion should be issued where the prospective nnancial information
departs from the presentation guidelines in this ISA. (27, p.33)
The auditor should issue an adverse opinion or withdraw from the engagement
332 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
if the auditor believes that one or more significant assumptions do not provide a reasonable basis
for the prospective financial information. {27, p.34)
The auditor should disclaim an opinion or withdraw from the engagement if the auditor is
precluded from applying a procedure considered necessary. (27, p.35)
Integrity
The auditor should be straightforward and honest in performing professional services.'
International Standards on Auditing 333
Objectivity
An auditor shoud be fair and should not allow prejudice or bias or influence of others to
override objectivity.
Confidentiality
The auditor should respect the confidentiality of information acquired during the course of
perfoiroing professional services arid should not use or disclose any such information without
proper and specific authority or unless there is a legal or a professional right or duly to disclose.
Planning
The auditor should plan his work so that the review is conducted in an effective, efficient
and timely manner.
Plans should be based on the knowledge of the client's business relevant to the subject
matter ofthe engagement. Plans should be made to determine and program the nature, timing and
extent of the procedures to be performed and to coordinate work to be performed. Plans should
be further developed and revised as necessary during the course of the review engagement.
General Guidelines
The auditor should obtain sufficient evidence, primarily through inquiry and analytical
review procedures, to provide an appropriate basis for the moderate level of assurance
communicated in the report.
The auditor should perform procedures involving inquiry and analytical review as a
reasonable basis for stating whether anything has come to his attention that causes him to believe
that the information does not give a true and fair view (or "is not presented fairly" in accordance
with the basis of accounting indicated. The selection of specific review procedures to be applied
in any given engagement is a matter of the auditor's judgment.
If, based on his knowledge of the business and the results of his inquiry and analytical
review procedures, the auditor has reason to believe that the information on which he is reporting
may not give a true and fair view (or "be presented fairly'' in accordance with basis of accounting
indicated or is otherwise incomplete or
334 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Documentation
.The auditor should document matters which are important in providing evidence that the
review was carried out in accordance with the basic principles for such an engagement and
supports the level of assurance provided.
The auditor should document in his working papers the work performed and the significant
results of the review procedures carried out and, in particular, the manner in which problems
which were resolved.
An auditor -who, before the completion of his engagement, has been requested to change it
from an audit to a review or from a review to one in which he provides no assurance on
assertions should consider the principles set out in the Framework of International Standard on
Auditing and Related Services.
The auditor should inquire about events subsequent to the date of the financial statements
that may require adjustment of or disclosure in the financial statements. If the auditor becomes
aware of any events after the date of his report, he should be guided by ISA 21.
Integrity
An auditor should be straightforward and honest in performing professional services. (RS
3, p. 7)
Objectivity
An auditor should be fair and not allow prejudice or bias or influence of others to override
objectivity. (RS 3, p.7)
Confidentiality
An auditor should respect the confidentiality of information acquired in the course of his
work and should not use or disclose any such information without proper and specific authority
or unless there is a legal or a professional duty to disclose. (RS 3, p.7) -
BASiC PRINCIPLES-PROCEDURES
Documentation
The auditor should document matters which are important in providing evidence that the
engagement was carried out in accordance" with the basic principles for such an engagement.
(RS 3, p.7)
Planning
The auditor should plan the work so that the engagement is conducted in an effective,
efficient and timely manner. Plans should be based on a knowledge ofthe client's business
relevant to the subject matter of the engagement. (RS 3, p.7)
The auditor should arrange to meet with the client and, ordinarily, other specified parties
who will receive copies of the report of factual findings to ensure that there is a clear
understanding of the nature and purpose of the engagement, the nature of the elements, accounts,
items or'financial statements to which the procedures will be applied, the nature and extent of the
specific procedures to be applied and the extent of report distribution. (RS 3, p.8)
Evidence
The auditor should perform the procedur es agreed upon and use the evidence obtained as
the basis for the report of financial findings. (RS 3, p.7)
Integrity
An accountant should be sti-aightforward and honest in performing professional services.
(RS 4, p.6)
Objectivity
An accountant should be fair and should not allow prejudice or bias or influence of others
to override objectivity. In situations where the accountant is not independent, his report should
state that fact. (RS 4, p.6)
Confidentiality
An accountant should respect the confidentiality of information acquired during the course
of performing professional services and should not use or disclose any such information without
proper and specific authority or unless there is a legal or professional right or duty to disclose.
(RS 4, p.6)
Documentation
The accountant should document matters which are important in providing evidence that the
engagement was carried out in accordance with the basic principles for such an engagement. (RS 4,
p.6)
Planning
The accountant should plan the work so that the engagement is conducted in an effective,
efficient and timely manner. Plans should be based on a knowledge of the client's business
relevant to the subject matter ofthe engagement. (RS 4, p.6)
The accountant should ensure that there is a clear understanding of the nature and scope of
the engagement, the nature of the infoiTnation to be supplied by the client and the fact
management is responsible for the completeness and accuracy of the financial information, the
basis of accounting to be used and that any departures therefrom will be disclosed, the intended
use and distribution of the compiled iirformation and the form of report to be issued when the
accountant's name is to be associated therewith. (RS 4, p.7)
General Guidelines
The accountant should obtain a general knowledge of the client's business and operations,
and be familiar with the relevant industry accounting principles, practices and report
requirements. The accountant should also possess a general understanding ofthe nature ofthe
entity's business transactions, form of accounting records and the accounting basis on which the
financial information is to be presented. (RS 4, p.9-10)
Additional information should be requested from management if the accountant becomes
aware that the infoiTnation supplied is incorrect, incomplete or otherwise unsatisfactory. If
management refuses, the accountant should withdraw from the engagement. (RS 4, p.ll)
The accountant should read the compiled information and consider whether it appears to be
appropriate in form and free from obvious material misstatements. If not, and appropriate
amendments cannot be agreed with the client, the accountant should withdraw from the
engagement. (RS 4, p.12-13)
The accountant should normally obtain management's acknowledgement of its
responsibility for, and approval of, the financial information. (RS 4, p.14)
Appendix 9.1
INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS ON AUDITING AND RELATED
SERVICES
INDEX OF STANDARDS
ISAs
ISA 1
Objective and Scope of the Audit of Financial January 1980
Statements
ISA 2
Audit Engagement Letters June 1980
ISA3
Basic Principles Governing and Audit September
1980-Revised
1990
ISA 4
Planning February 1981
ISA 5
Using the Work of an Other Auditor July 1981
ISA 6
Study and Evaluation of the Accounting System and July 1931-
Related Internal Controls in Connection with an Revised October
Audit 1990
ISA 7
Control ofthe Quality of Audit Work September 1981
January 1982
ISA 8
Audit Evidence January 1982
ISA 9
Documentation - July 1982
ISA 10
Using the Work of an Internal Auditor Fraud October 1982
ISA 11
and Error Analytical Review July 1983-
ISA 12
Revised October
1990
No. Title Publication Date
ISA/RSs
ISA/RS 1
Revised
October 1990
ISA/RS 2 July 1988
Basic rririciples Governing Review Engage- February 1988-
ISA/RS 3 ments
Statements
Inter-Bank Corifirmation Procedures February 1984
1 EDP Environments — - Stand-Alone October 1987
Microcomputers (Supplement No.l to ISA 20)
2 34 EDP Environments — On - line Computer Systems February 1989
(Supplement No.2 to ISA 20)
56 EDP Environments — Database Systems February 1989
(Supplement No.3 to ISA 20)
The Relationship Between Bank Supervisors and July 1989
External Auditors
Particular Considerations in the Audit of Small October 1989
Businesses
The Audit of International Commercial Banks February 1990
THE AUDITOR OF A
LIMITED COMPANY
APPOINTMENT OF AUDITORS
The first auditoifs) of a company shall be appointed by the directors within sixty days of
the date of incorporation of the company. The auditors) so appointed shall hold office until the
conclusion of the first annual general meeting.
Two provisos have ( been attached to . the above sub-section. Their salient features are as
under:
(1) The company in a general meeting may remove any such auditors) and appoint
in his or their place any other person or persons who have been nominated for
appointment by any member of the company and of whose
\ nomination notice has been given to the members of the company not less
than fourteen days before the date of the.meeting.
(2) If the directors fail to exercise their powers, the company in general meeting
may appoint the first auditor or auditors.
Appointment of a partnership by the firm name to be auditors of a company shall be
deemed to be the appointment of all the persons who are partners in the firm of appointment.
Every company is required to appoint an auditors), at each general meeting, to hold office
from the conclusion of the next annual general meeting.
A notice is required for a resolution at a company's annual general meeting appointing as
auditor a person other than a retiring auditor. This notice is required to be given by a member of
the company to the company not less than fourteen days before the annual general meeting, and
the company shall forthwith send a copy of
The A iiditor ofa Limited Company , 291
^ £j..
such notice to the. retiring; auditor and shall also give notice thereof to the membrs not less than
seven days before the date fixed for the annual general meeting and, if the company is a listed
company, shall also publish it at least in one issue each of a daily newspaper in English language
and a daily newspaper in Urdu language having circulation in the Province in which the stock
exchange on which the company is listed is situated.
.A
It is further laid down in the law that where notice is given of such a resolution and the
retiring auditor makes with respect thereto a representation in writing to the company not
exceeding a reasonable length and requests its communication to the members of the company,
the company shall, unless the representation is received by it too late for it to do so. In any notice
of the resolution given to members of the company, the fact of the representation having been
made should be stated. A copy of the representat ion should be sent to every member of the
company to whom notice of meeting is sent whether before or after the receipt of the
representation by the company. However, if a copy ofthe representation is not sent as stated
above because it was received too late or because ofthe company's default, the auditor may,
without prejudice to his right to be heard in person, require that the representation shall be read
out at the meeting.
A proviso attached to the legal provision states that it shall not be necessary to send out or
to read out the representation at the meeting if, on the application either of the company or of any
other person who claimed to be aggrieved, the registrar ie satisfied that the rights conferred are
being abused to secure needless publicity for defamatory matter and the registrar may order, the
company's costs on an application to be paid in whole or in part by the auditor, notwithstanding
that he is not a party to the application.
Every company is required to send intimation to the registrar, within fourteen days from the
date of retirement, removal or otherwise ceasing to hold office of an auditor. •
Moreover, every company shall, within fourteen days from the date of appointment of an
auditor, send to the registrar intimation thereof, together with the consent in writing of the
auditor concerned.
3. Casual Vacancy
The directors may fill any casual vacancy in the-office of an auditor. However, while any
such vacancy continues, the surviving or continuing auditorfs), if any, may act. Any auditor
appointed to fill in any casual vacancy shall hold office until the conclusion of the next annual
general meeting. -
4. No Appointment
The Corporate Law Authority may appoint an auditor to Ell the vacancy in the following
situations:
346 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
(a) Where appointment for the first auditor is not made within 120 days ofthe
date ef incorporation ofthe company, (o) Where at an annual general meeting no
auditors are appointed.
(c) Where auditors appointed are unwilling to act as auditor of the company.
(d) Where a casual vacancy in the office of an auditor is not filled within 30 days
after the occurrence of vacancy.
The company is required to give notice of the above to the Corporate Law Authority within
one week of the Authority's power exercisable by it as mentioned earlier.
INDEPENDENCE OF AN AUDITOR
-To ensure credibility to the financial statements, an auditor must be independent of the
management. The Companies Ordinance, 1984, prohibits the appointment as auditor of the
company in specified circumstances. The objective is to pavjSthe way for an independent
examination of fmancial statements.
Independence has been divided into three categories which are briefly explained below:
AUDITORS' LIEN
It has been held that the auditors have no lien on the books of accounts which have been
audited by them. However, if they worked on the books of account in the capacity of an
accountant they have a right to exercise lien on the books. In the case of Herbeart Alfred Burligh
vs. Ingrim Clark Limited, it was decided that the auditor had no Uen on the books of account in
respect of audit work. But if the work was in the nature of accountancy, lien could be exercised.
The extracts from the judgement of Justice Joyce are given here:
"The affidavits filed show that the respondent claims a lien, not as auditor but as an
accountant. In my opinion the question of an auditor's lien did not arise, and had it
been so, I consider an auditor has no such lien; but that point I do not decide now. In
respect of the
Share Register, the accountant has no possible lien on that, but he is entitled to a lien
on such books as he had actually worked upon in respect of his proper remuneration
for work upon those books only."
In the case of Sockockinsk vs. Bright Grahame and Company 1938, it was laid down that
an accountant can exercise lien on the correspondence and working papers.
Justice Swinfen-Eddy in the case of Arthur Francis Ltd., ordered the auditors to hand over
such books of account on which they claimed lien in respect of accountancy and auditing charges
to the liquidators from the dues and charges of work of liquidations without prejudice to the right
of lien by the auditors.
STATUS OF AUDITOR
AUDIT COMMITTEE
Concept
An audit committee consists generally of non-executive directors. The main objective is to
establish an effective link between the board of directors and management team which is
involved with day-to-day operations of the company, specially with regard to control and
auditing matters.
Scope of Work
Scope of work of audit committee may include the following:
1. Reviewing management letter received from the auditor and making recommendations
on if.
2. Appraising the company accounting policies.
3. Identifying areas of improving audit efficiency.
4. Reviewing internal audit reports of a company.
5. Resolving any possible conflicts between the directors and the company.
Benefits
Benefits of audit committee are listed below:
1. It serves as a communication link between the auditor and the executive board.
2. Efficient audit work is facilitated.
3. Given a good quality of people constituting the audit committee, the company can
gain a lot in terms of ensuring improvements.
■ The auditor must ensure that the concept of materiality is used positively. The following
guidelines be used to consider whether an item is material or not:
30U Auditing: Principles and
Procedures
1. A comparison of the figure in percentage terms be made with the total of that group
items.
1. It is difficult to prescribe a cut off percentage to declare it to be material. However, it
is normally considered to be material if it is 10 percentage or more of a total amount.
1. The amount may be compared with the corresponding amount of the previous year.
2. The impact in terms of changing a profit figure into a loss one or L>£ee versa be
carefully considered.
3. Particular circumstances be carefully considered.
AUDITOR OF A
COMPANY AND LEGAL
DOCUMNETS
The auditor should procure the latest copy of the articles of association and examine the
following matters:
(1) The issue of share capital.
(2) The payment of underwriting commission and brokerage on shares.
(3) The amount of minimum subscription upon which the company may proceed to allot
the shares.
(4) Terms and conditions governing the issue of shares, allotment, making of calls,
forfeiture of shares, transfer of shares, transmission of shares etc.
(5) Borrowing powers of the company and the directors.
(6) Reorganisation of share capital.
(7) Dividends and Reserves.
(8) Rights attached to the different classes of shares issued by the company.
(9) Appointment, qualification, remuneration, powers, duties and rotation of directors.
(10) Accounts and Audit. f
(11) Creation of reserves and disposal of profits.
(12) Appointment, remuneration, duties etc, of the managing agents (if any).
(13) Meetings and how they can be held,
(14) Voting powers of shareholders.
(15) Payment of interest out of capital.
Table A of the First Schedule annexed to the Companies Ordinance 1984 is in respect of
"Regulations for Management of a Company Limited by -Shares.'' which-represent contents of
Articles of Association. These Regulations may be adopted in toto.or partially under Section 26.
It has been held in the case of Leeds Estate Building and Investment Society Limited vs.
Shepherd (1887) that an auditor cannot escape the liability on the plea that he was unaware of the
articles of the company, or that he did not consult them.
When a prospectus has been issued by the company, the auditor should note the fouowing
points contained in it:
(1) The amount of the share capital offered for subscription, the different classes of shares
and the rights attached thereto, if any.
(2) The terms of issue, i.e., amount payable on application, allotment, future calls
whenever made. In Pakistan full amount is received alongwith
358 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Under Section 173 every company is required to keep proper minutes of all general
meetings of members and meetings of Directors. The auditor of the company possesses a
statutory right to inspect them.
Many transactions of a company require the Sanction of a resolution either of the members
in the general meeting or of the directors ofthe company. If this is not done the transaction
becomes ultra vires either of the company or of the directors. Therefore, the auditor must satisfy
himself as to the validity of such transactions and also examine the nunutes book for this
purpose. Under Section 216, the director who is interested in any contract with the company is
prohibited from voting at the time when such contract is considered by the Board of Directors.
The auditor should ascertain that his presence was not counted for the purpose of forming a
quorum at the time of such a vote. He should also refer to the Board's minutes recording the
declaration made by the interested director.
The minutes of the general meeting should be inspected by the auditor for the verification
of the following matters:
(1) The passing and adoption of annual accounts.
(2) Appropriation of profits by way of transfers to reserves and declaration of dividend.
(3) Appointment and remuneration of directors and auditors.
(4) Alteration and reduction of share capital.
(5) Alteration ofthe articles of association ofthe company.
(6) Reconstruction of the company.
Auditor of a Company and Legal Documents
The minutes of the directors' meetings should be examined for the confirmation and
verification of the following matters:
(1) Issue of share capital.
(2) Allotment of shares.
(3) Calls made by the company, if any.
(4) Forfeitures of shares.
(5) Issue of debentures including the terms governing the redemption of debentures.
(6) Appointment, remuneration, duties and powers etc., of managing agents and directors,
secretary and other officers.
(7) Payment of interim divided.
(8) Recommendations as to the declaration in respect of dividend.
(9) Additions/deletions -to fixed assets.
(10) Borrowing on behalf of the company.
(11) Authorising the use of company's seal.
(12) Authorising the directors travelling expenses and any other special remuneration.
(13) Aaopt ion of annual accounts to be published.
(14) Appointment of directors to fill the casual vacancy.
(15) Appointment of first auditors and of auditors to fill a casual vacancy.
(16) Appointment of the bankers to the company and the officers authorised to operate the
bank accounts.
(17) Adoption of contracts.
(18) Any other matter requiring the directors' sanction.
Committees' minute books which contain the proceedings of the meetings of the
eommittees appointed by the Board of Directors should also be examined. ■
Every limited company registered under the Act is required by law to maintain certain
books which are called statutory books. A list of these books is as under:
(1) Register of Members (Section 147)
(2) Index of Members (Section 147)
(3) Annual Returns (Section 156)
(4) Minute Books (Section 173)
(5) Registers of Directors, etc. (Section 206)
(6) Register of Contracts (Section 214)
Auditor of a Company and Legal Documents 360
return of allotment has been filed with the Registrar Joint Stock Companies. In the case of shares
allotted for a consideration other than cash, examine the contract showing the title of allottees to
such shares and see that the copy of such contract has been duly filed with the Registrar.
(c) Cash received against share capital. Vouch the issue of shares payable in cash with the
applications received, copies of allotment letters, application and allotment books, call books,
and register of members. The letter of regret and the receipts obtained must be checked in respect
of amount returned to the non-allottees. Verify the amount of forfeited shares, unpaid calls and
calls received in advance. The relevant entries in the books of account relating to the issue of
shares and cash received in respect thereof should be vouched.
(d) Register of members. Check the balances from the register of members to the schedules of
share capital and see that the control account agrees.
(2) Receipts and Payments Account
(a) Period of Account. Ensure that the abstract of receipts and payments ofthe company has
been prepared up to a date within seven days of the date of report.
(b) Contents. No proforma for the above abstract has been laid down in the Ordinance.
However, contents of the abstract, on a broad principle, have been mentioned in Section 157(3).
The auditor should see that the following information is invariably given in.the above abstract:
Receipts
(i) From shares.
(ii) From debentures. (Hi )
From other sources.
Payments
(i) The payments made thereout.
(it) Commission or discount paid on the issue or sale of shares.
(iii) . On account of the preliminary expenses of the company of estimate of the
preliminary expenses of the company.
(iv) The balance remaining in hand.
(c) Vouching the cash receipts and payments. Vouch the cash received from the proceeds ofthe
shares, or debentures, etc. Check other' receipts such as sale proceeds of assets, interest on
investment etc., with the supporting documentary evidence, including contracts with the vendors
(if applicable). See that the commission, paid on shares and debentures is properly authorised by
the memorandum and articles of association, prospectus and the agreements with concerned
parties. Vouch the amount of preliminary expenses and the capital expenditure with the-suppliers'
invoices, receipts and other relevant vouchers etc. Examine in their respect the minutes of the
directors' proceedings. Other payments should be vouched in the
normal way.
(d) Cash and bank balances. The auditor should physically check the closing balance of
cash in hand. He should also reconcile the bank balance shown in the cash book with the
amount indicated in the bank staten-snt. Bank certificate for the closing balance should be
directly obtained from the client's banker.
If the auditor is satisfied about the accuracy of the foregoing items, he should give his
certificate in connection with the correctness of the prescribed items given in the statutory
report. The form of auditor's certificate to be given at the foot of this report is as follows:
"We the undersigned, being the auditors of the company, hereby certify that so much
of this report as relates to the shares allotted, the cash received in respect of such
shares, and the receipts and payments cf the company is correct."
Л uditon' 309
Reports
Auditors' Report
The report of the auditor of the company must contain the following things:
(1) The profits of the company for each of the five financial years immediately preceding
the issue of the prospectus, supported by a properly classified profit and loss account,
showing clearly the trading results and all charges and expenses incidental thereto,
excluding profits not belonging to the peiiod covered and non-recurring profits, but
including profits appropriated for taxation or reserves.
(2) The rates of dividends (if any) paid by the company for each of the five years stating:
(o) the particulars of each class of shares on which dividends have been paid, that is to
say, the total paid-up share capital and the total number of the issued shares of
each class together with the amount of
each share;
(b) the source from which dividends have been paid; and
(c) the particulars of any class of shareb on which no dividends have been ■
Auditors' Reports 366
paid.
(3) If the latest available audited accounts of the company are more than three months old
on the date ofthe prospectus, a statement of that fact is to be made.
If the company has been carrying on business for less than three years and its account have
been made up only for two years or less, then the auditor's report must be confined only to that
period.
Where the company has a subsidiary company, similar information relating to the
subsidiary company must also be included in the auditor's report.
An example of the suggested form of the report to be submitted by the auditor to the
directors of a company is given here:
Gentlemen,
Auditors' Report
The auditor of a company is required to make a report to the members of the company on
the accounts examined.by him. The requirements ofthe report are laid down under Section
255(3). After the report has been signed, the auditor should forward it to the office of the
company leaving it for the directors to convene the general meeting and send the accounts to the
members. It was held in the case of Allen Craig & Company (London) Ltd. (1934) that the duty
of the auditor was discharged when he fixed his signature to the report attached to the balance
sheet and sent that report to the secretary of the company. Based on this case, it is not the duty of
the auditor to send a copy of his report to each member individually.
Circulation of Accounts
Under Section 233(4), every company is required to send a copy of the audited balance
sheet and profit and loss account (or income and expenditure account) together with a copy ofthe
auditor's report and directors report to every member at his registered address, at least twenty-
one days before the meeting at which these are to be presented. This period is intended to give
the members an adequate opportunity for considering the accounts. Under Section 243, the
members of a company are also entitled to be furnished with copies of balance sheet and profit
and loss account and auditor's report on payment of such sum as the company may
Auditors'Reports 369
Authentication of Accounts
Section 241 provides for-the signing of balance sheet and the profit and loss account or
income and expenditure account as the case may be. The account should be signed by the chief
executive and one director.
When the chief executive is for the time being not in- Pakistan, then the balance sheet and
profit and loss account or income and expenditure account of the company shall be signed by not
less than two directors for the time being in Pakistan, but in such a case there shall be subjoined
to the balance sheet and profit and loss account or income and expenditure account a statement
signed by such directors explaining the reasons for non-compliance with the provisions of sub-
section (1).
If a company makes default in complying with the requirement of this section, the
company and every officer of the company who is knowingly and wilfully in default shall be
liable to a fine not exceeding five thousand rupees.
Filing of Accounts
Section 242 requires every public company to file with the Registrar five copies in the case
of listed companies and three copies in the case of any other company of the balance sheet and
profit and loss account together with the auditor's report after those accounts have been laid
before the general meeting. The copies to be filed must be signed by chief executive, directors,
chairman or the auditors of the company or secretary ofthe company and filed within tliirty days
after the ordinary general meeting.
Contents of Report
According to Section 255X3), the auditors' report should contain the following clauses:
Auditors' Reports 370
First Clause
(a) Whether or not they have obtained all the information and explanations which to the
best of their knowledge and belief were necessary for the purposes of the audit An auditor is
vested with the right of access to the books, accounts and vouchers of the company and also to
require from the directors and the officers of the company such information and explanation as
may be necessary for the performance of his duties. This right has been given to him so that he
may exercise it-"and if he failed to obtain any information or explanation which he thinks are
vital for the performance of his duties, he may qualify his report. In the absence of any
suspicious circumstances, he is entitled to rely on the information supplied to him by the
responsible officers of the company.
Second Clause
Whether or not in their opinion proper books of account as required by the Ordinance
have been kept by the company. Section 230 requires that every company must keep proper
books of account for recording:
(a) all sums of money received and expended by the company and the matters
in respect of which the receipt and expenditure takes place;
(b) all sales and purchases of goods by the company;
(c) all assets of the company;
i d) all liabilities ofthe company; and
(e) in the case of a company engaged in production, processing, manufacturing or mining
activities, such particulars relating to utilisation of material or labour or to other inputs
or items of cost as may be prescribed if such class of companies is required by the
Authority by a general or a special order to include such particulars in the books of
accounts.
The law does riot prescribe any particular system of accounting, nor does it lay down any
particular language in which the accounts ofthe Company should be kept. The books of account
may be kept according to the English system of accountancy or the Pakistani system of
bahikhata, but the accounts kept must be complete and should maintain records fulfflling the
said requirements.
The books of account are to be kept at the registered office ofthe company or at such other
place as the directors may think fit. Where a company has a branch office, proper books of
account relating to the transaction effected by "the branch may be kept at the branch oince; hut
proper summarised returns made up-to-date at intervals of not more than two months must be
sent by the branch office to the head office for incorporation in the principal books of account.
371 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Tnird Clause1
Whether or not i n their opinion the balance sheet and profit and loss account or the
income and expenditure account have been drawn up i n conformity with the Ordinance and are
in agreement with the books of accounts. In order to enable himself to report on the above
matter it is highly essential that the auditor should be fully conversant with the statutory
requirements in respect of the drawing up to balance sheet and profit and loss account. No
prescribed form of balance sheet and profit and loss account has been laid down in the
Ordinance. However, certain essential information is required to be given as provided in Fourth
Schedule for listed companies and Fifth Schedule for unlisted companies. The legal provisions
contained in Section 234 of the Ordinance be also noted.
The auditor should thoroughly acquaint himself with the provision contained in the
Ordinance in respect ofthe following:
Secfion Particulars
237 Balance sheet of holding company to include certain particulars as to
its subsidiaries.
237 Financial year of holding company and subsidiary.
238 Rights of holding company representative and members.
238 Balance sheet of Modaraba company to include to Modaraba
accounts.
Fourth Schedule
Fourth Schedule is annexed to the Companies Ordinance, 1984, and contains requirements
in respect of balance sheet and profit and loss account of listed companies. It consists of three
parts. Part I is entitled "General" and contains definition of terms, broad principles governing
disclosure in the financial statements and treatment to several matters for inclusion in the
financial statements. Part П is entitled "Requirements as to Balance Sheet" and prescribes the
classification and disclosure requirements of assets and liabilities in the balance sheet. Part Ш is
entitled "Requirements as to Profit and Loss Account" and prescribes disclosure requirements
governing various sources of income and expenditures.
Similarly Fifth Schedule prescribes the disclosure requirements in respect of balance sheet
and profit and loss account of non listed companies.
Fourth Clause
Whether or not in their opinion and to the best .of their information and according to the
explanations given to them, the said accounts give the information
required by this Ordinance in the manner so required and give a true and fair view:
(0 in the case of balance sheet, of the state of the company's affairs as at the end of its
financial year;
(ii) in the case of the profit and loss account or the income and expenditure account or the
profit or loss or surplus or deficit, as the case may be, for its financial year; and .
(Hi) in the case of the statement of changes in financial position or sources and application
of funds of a listed company, of the changes in the financial position or the sources
and application o f funds for the financial year.
The generally accepted interpretation of the words "true and correct view" as was used
earlier, is that the financial position of the company must not be- less favourable than that
disclosed by the balance sheet, although it may be more favourable; and where the position of a
company is under-stated on the balance sheet owing to the existing of secret reserves, it is not
usually necessary for the auditor to qualify his report to the shareholders. Therefore it appears
that a balance. sheet may exhibit a true and correct view of the position of the company and yet it
may give misleading impression. The English Companies Act and the Indian Companies Act have
removed the weakness of audit by substituting the words "true and correct view" for "true and fair
view". The object of this change is to place a greater responsibility on the auditor to ensure that
the accounts do reflect a position which is not misleading by being under-stated or over-stated,
and a clean audit report cannot cover a material under statement of the financial position of a
company as disclosed by the balance sheet.
It may further be noted that the phrase "according to the best of the information and
explanations given to him" also limits the responsibility of the auditor. He will not be held
responsible if he acted on the information and explanations which he believed to be true but
which are in fact untrue, provided he exercised a reasonable skill and. diligence in testing the
information supplied to him.
In order to submit the above report, an auditor must examine the vouchers, their supporting
documentary evidence, correspondence, memorandum and articles of association, minutes of the
proceedings of the meetings of directors and shareholders. He must verify the arithmetical
accuracy of the books by routine checking. A complete verification of all assets and liabilities
must also be carried out.
In the case of banking company, legal provisions laid down under Banking Ordinance,
1962, also reqnire that the auditor should also state "whether or not the transactions of the
company which have come to his notice have been within the powers of the company and
whether or not the returns received from the branch offices ofthe company have been found
adequate for the purposes of his audit. Similarly, when auditing the accounts of the insurance
company, the auditor is required by the Insurance Act, 1938, to state in his report that "no part
ofthe assets
И18 A udking: Principles and Procedures
of the life insurance fund has been directly or indirectly utilised in contravention of the provisions
of the Insurance Act, relating to the application and investment of life insurance fund and also that
he has verified cash balance and the securities relating to the company loans, reversions and life
interests and investment."
True and Fair
There is no statutory definition of the words "true and fair". However, true and fair has been
taken to mean the following:
1. Free from prejudice or bias
2. Presentation of an objective picture
3. In accordance with generally accepted accounting principles
4. Consistent and having clarity
5. Not nrisleading but understable by the reader of financial statements.
To facilitate the role of an auditor to express his opinion, it is necessary that he should be
following the accounting and auditing standards. His effort should be to be as objective as is
possible.
Fifth Clause
Whether or not in their opinion:
(i) the expenditure incurred during the year was for the purpose' of the company's
business; and
(ii) the business conducted, investments made and expenditure incurred during the
year were in accordance with the objects of the company.
The auditor must thoroughly read object clause of the Memorandum of Association of the
company and related provisions of the Articles of Association and ensure that the spirit of the
above clause is met. The purposes of the company business are found in the object clause of the
Memorandum of Association. The same clause also includes the details of business to be
undertaken, investments to be made and expenditure to be incurred.
Sixth Clause
Whether or not i n their opinion Zakat deductible at source under the Zakat and Ushr
Ordinance, 1980 (XVIII of 1980), was deducted by the company and deposited i n the Central
Zakat Fund established under Section 7 of that Ordinance.
There are two schedules attached to the Zakat and Ushr Ordinance, 1980. One deals with
compulsory deduction and the other one is in respect of voluntary, payment. The auditor must well
verse himself with the compulsory deduction of Zakat @ 2"% and after verification must ensure
that it was deducted and deposited in the Central Zakat Fund established under Section 7 ofthe
above Ordinance.
Auditors' Reports 374
The auditor's report is addressed to the shareholders of the. company. After it has been
signed and dated by the auditors, it is sent to the office of the company. According to legal
provisions of the Chartered Accountants Ordinance, 1961, every member of the Institute of
Chartered Accountants of Pakistan should designate himself as 'Chartered Accountant'. When the
auditor is satisfied that the balance sheet and profit and loss account are in order, he should give
a clean report containing answer in the aflirmative of the questions posed by the law. An
example of clean report is now given.
FORM 35A THE COMPANIES
ORDINANCE, 1984
[Section 255(3) and Rule 17-A] AUDITORS'
REPORT TO THE MEMBERS
(d) in our opinion *6 Zakat deductible at source under the Zakat and Ushr Ordinance,
1980, was deducted by the company and deposited in the Central Zakat Fund established
mider Section 7 of that Oirdinance.
Date........................... Signature
Place........................ Name(s) of Auditors
Notes
Where applicable:
*1. Substitute "income and expenditure account". *2.
Substitute "source and application of funds''.
*3. Where there is no change in the accounting policyfies) the portion "except
for the changes as stated in note(s).........................................with which we concur"
may be deleted.
*4. Substitute "surplus or (deficit)".
*5. Substitute "changes in source and application of fiinds".
*6. Where no Zakat is deductible, substitute "no Zakat was deductible at source under the Zakat
and Ushr Ordinance, 1980".
Where any of the matters referred to in the Auditors' Report is answered in the negative or with
a qualification, the report shall state the reason for such answers along with the factual position to the
best of the auditors' information.
In the case of a non-listed company reference to the statement of changes in finan-cial position or
source and application of funds and opinion thereon may be omitted.
The way an auditor should deal with qualification in his report is explained below:
1. Disclaimer
In a disclaimer of opinion, the auditor states that he is unable to form an opinion as to
whether the nnancial statements give a true and fair view. . ■
2. Adverse Opinion *
In an adverse opinion, the auditor states that in his opinion, the financial statements do not
give a true and fair view.
3. Subject to Opinion
In a "subject to" opinion, the -auditor disclaims an opinion on a particular aspect of the
financial statements which is not considered fundamental.
4. Except Opinion
In an "except" opinion, the auditor expresses an adverse opinion on a particular aspect of
the financial statements which is not considered fundamental. Overall position is tabulated
below:
Nature of Fundamental Material but not
Circumstances Fundamental
Uncertainty Disclaimer of Opinion Subjeet to........................
Disagreement Adverse Opinion Except..........................
Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Examples of Qualifications
Few instances of cmalifying clauses which an auditor might find necessary to insert in his
report on the accounts reported upon by him are as below:
Depreciation. The amount charged for depreciation on plant and machinery is,
in our opinion, insufficient to the extent of Rs...........................
No depreciation on fixed assets has been provided in the accounts, on the
ground that the whole of the assets of the company _ haw.- been efficiently
maintained out of the revenue. If depreciation would have been provided, it would
have amounted to Rs................
Lease-hold Property. The amount of lease-hold property is shown at original cost, although
half of the term for which the lease had been acquired has expired
Reserve f or bad and doubtf ul debts. In our opinion, the reserve for bad an
doubtful debts is inadequate by Rs. .......................
No provision has been made for the doubtful debts, although debts amounting to Rs.
. . . . . . . are statute-barred.
Investment The investments ofthe company have been valued at cost, which is
in excess of the present market value by a sum of Rs.............................
Stock-in-trade Stock-in-trade appearing in the balance sheet Rs................................., is an
estimated figure and is not supported by records or by physical stocktaking.
Provision for Taxation. No provision has been made for taxes payable to the
extent of Rs...................
Contingent Liability. There is a contingent liability in respect of bills
discounted Rs,..................which has not been disclosed in the accounts.
Trade Mark. We were unable to form an opinion as to the value of trade mark.
Liabilities. A sum of Rs......................representing liabilities for the accounts under
review has not been accounted for in the books.
ISA 23 deals with "Going Concern" concept, it assumptions, audit evidence and the e
impact on auditor's report. Relevant excerpts in this respect revised up to October 1989, are
reproduced below:
Introduction
1. InterTiatiorial Accounting Standard (IAS) 1, Disclosure of Accounting Policies, issued by
the International Accomiting Standards Committee Recognizes the going concern
assumption as one of the fundamental assumptions underlying the preparation of finaneial
statements. The going concern assumption is defined in IAS as follows (paragraph 7):
"The enterprise is normally viewed as a going concern, that is, as confirming in
operation for the foreseeable future. It i6 assumed that the enterprise has neither the
intention nor the necessity of liquidation or of curtailing materially the scale of its
operations."
2. International Standard on Auditing (TSA )1, Objective and Scope of the Audit of Financial
Statements, states (paragraph 3):
"The auditor's opinion helps establish the credibility of the financial
statements. The user, however, should not assume that the auditor's
opinion is an assurance as to the future viability ofthe entity......................"
3. The purpose of this Standard is to provide guidance to auditors in discharging their
responsibilities in situations in which the appropriateness of the going concern assumption
as a basis for the preparation ofthe financial statements is in question.
Financial Indications
a. Net liability or net current liability position.
b. Fixed-term borrowings approaching maturity without realistic prospects of renewal or
repayment, or excessive reliance on short-term borrowings to finance long-term assets.
c. Adverse key financial ratios.
379 Auditing; Principles and Procedures
Operating indications
j. Loss of key management without replacement.
k.. Loss of a major market, franchise, license, or principal supplier.
1, Labor difficulties or shortages of important supplies.
Other Indications
m. Noncompliance with capital or other statutory requirements.
n. Pending legal proceedings against the entity that may, if successful, result in judgments
that could not be met.
o. Changes in legislation or government policy.
6. The significance of such indications can often be mitigated by other factors. For example,
indications that an entity may be unable to make its normal debt repayments may be
mitigated by management's plans to maintain adequate cash flows by alternative means,
such as by disposal of assets, rescheduling of loan repayments, or obtaining additional
capital. Similarly, the loss of a principal supplier may be mitigated by the availability of a
suitable alternative source of supply.
Audit Evidence
7. When planning and performing audit procedures and in evaluating the results thereof, the
auditor should be alert to the possibility that the going concern assumption on which the
preparation of the financial statements is based may be subject to question. When such a
question arises, the auditor should gather sufficient appropriate evidence to confirm or
dispel the doubt regarding the entity's ability to continue in operation for the foreseeable
future, generally for
• a period not to exceed one year after the balance sheet date.
8. During the course of the audit, the auditor carries out audit procedures
. designed to obtain appropriate audit evidence as the basis for the expression of
his opinion on the financial stajten^snj&-When a question arises regarding the going
concern assumption, certain ofthese procedures may take on additional significance or it
may be necessary to'-employ additional procedures or to update information obtained
earlier. Procedures that are relevant in this
Auditors' Reports 380
the effect of any plans of management and other mitigating factors, he should decide
whether the questions raised regarding the going concern assumption have been
satisfactorily resolved.
12. If the auditor determines that he has obtained reasonable assurance that the going concern
assumption used for the preparation of the fmancial statements is appropriate, he should
express an unqualified opinion on the financial
statements.
13. If the auditor determines that the going concern assumption is appropriate because of
mitigating factors, in particular management's plans for future action, he should consider
whether such plans or other factors should be disclosed in the financial statements. If
disclosure considered necessary by the auditor is not made, he should qualify his opinion or
express an adverse opinion for lack of such disclosure.
14. If the auditor determines that the going concern questions are not resolved, he should
ensure there is adequate disclosure in the financial statements of the principal conditions
that raise doubt about the entity's ability to continue in op^ation in the foreseeable future.
The disclosure should:
• describe the principal conditions that raise doubt about the entity's ability to continue in
operation in the foreseeable future.
с state that there are doubts that the entity will be able to continue as a going concern and,
therefore, may be unable to realise its assets and discharge its liabilities in the normal
course of business.
» state that the financial statements do not include any adjustments relating to the
recoverability and classification of recorded asset amounts or to amounts and
classification of liabilities that may be necessary should the entity be unable to
continue as a going concern.
Provided the disclosure is considered adequate the auditor should not qualify his opinion
nor give an adverse opinion. If the auditor concludes that adequate disclosure is not made in
the. financial statements, he should qualify his opinion or express an adverse opinion for
the lack of such disclosure.
The auditor ie not precluded from issuing a disclaimer oi pinion for a going concern uncertainty.
382 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Appendix 12.1
AUDITOR'S REPORT TO
(Scope paragraph)
(Opinion paragraph)
In our opinion, the financial statements give a true and fair view of ('present fairly')
the financial position of. .......................at........................and the results of its operation for
the year then ended in accordance with............................: 3 (and comply with..........................4).
Without qualifying our opinion we draw attention to Note X in the financial statements. The
Company incurred a net loss of $... during the year ended December 31, 19XX and, as of that
date, the Company's current liabilities exceeded its current assets by $ . . . and its total liabilities
exceeded its total assets by
Provide suitable identification, such as by reference to page numbers or by identifying the individual statements.
or refer to relevant national standards or practices.
Indicate the relevant national standards or refer to International Accounting Standards. Refer to relevant statutes or law.
A uditors' Reports 383
$ .. . These factors, along with other matters as set forth in Note X, raise doubt that the Company
will be able to continue as a going concern,
AUDITOR
Date
Address
Appendix 12.2
Provide suitable identification, such as by reference to page numbers or by identifying the Individual statements.
*. Qr-refer to relevant national standards or practices.
3
Indicate the relevant national standards or refer to In! national Accounting Standards. * Hefer to relevant
statutes or law.
A uditors 'Reports 384
The auditor should review and assess the conclusions drawn from the audit evidence
obtained as the basis for the expression of his opinion on the fmancial information. This review
and assessment involves forming an overall conclusion as to whether;
(a) the financial information has been prepared using acceptable accounting-
policies, which have been consistently applied;
(b) the financial information complies with relevant regulations and statutory
requirements;
(c) the view presented by the financial information as a whole is consistent with
the auditor's knowledge ofthe business of the entity; and
(d) there is adequate disclosure of all material matters relevant to the proper
presentation of the financial information.
The audit report should contain a clear written expression of opinion on the financial
information. An unqualified opinion indicates the auditor's satisfaction in all material respects.
When a qualified opinion, adverse opinion or a disclaimer of opinion is given, the audit
report should state in a clear and informative manner all of the reasons therefor,
The auditor of the company is required to make a report on the company's affairs in support
of the directors' declaration of the solvency of the company. For this purpose he must perform
the following work:
Verification
Verify all assets and liabilities of the company as on the date of directors' declaration. Also
critically examine the accounts of the company since the close of the last financial year.
Report
He should submit his report on the company's affairs in support of a director's declaration
ofthe company's solvency. Suggested format is on the next page.
Introduction
1. International Standard on Auditing 1, Objective and Basic Principles Governing an
Audit, states (paragraphs 29 to 31):
"29. The auditor should review and assess the conclusions drawn from the audit evidence
obtained as the basis for the expression of an opinion on the financial
information. This review and assessment involves considering whether:
• the fmancial information has been prepared using acceptable
accounting policies, which have been consistently applied;
• the financial information complies with regulations and statutory
requirements relating to the preparation of financial statements;
386 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Dated........................19
The Directors
Dear Sirs,
We have obtained all the information and explanations we have required and, in our opinion,
balance sheet exhibits a true and fair view of the state of company's affairs, according to the best
of our information and the explanations given to us and as shown by the books ofthe company.
It will be seen from the accounts that the total habilities and total unsecured
debts were approximately Rs...........................................Against these, there were the
following assets:
Yours faithfully
auditor's satisfaction in ail material respects with the matters dealt with in
paragraph 29.
31. When a qualified opinion, adverse opinion or a disclaimer of opinion is given, the
audit report should state in a clear and informative manner all ofthe reasons
therefor."
2. The purpose of this Standard is to provide guidance to auditors on the form and
content of the auditor's report issued in connection with the independent audit
ofthe financial statements of any entity. Much ofthe guidance provided can be
adapted to audit reports on financial information other than fmancial
statements.
Title
4. An appropriate title, such as 'Auditor's Report', should be used. This help the reader to
identify the auditor's report and to easily distinguish it from reports that might be issued by
others, for example, by management.
Addressee
5. The report should be appropriately addressed as required by the circumstances ofthe
engagement and local regulations. The report is usually addressed either to the shareholders
or the board of directors of the entity whose financial statements are being audited.
388 Auditing; Principles and Procedures
Signature
11. The report should be signed in the name of the audit firm, the personal name
of the auditor, or both, as appropriate.
Auditors'Reports 389
Auditor's Address
12. The report should name a specific location, which is usually the city in which the auditor
maintains his office.
Date of Report
13. The report should be dated. This informs the reader that the auditor considered the effect on
the financial statements and on his report of events or transactions about which he became
aware that occurred up to that date.
Types of Opinions .
14. The opinion expressed in the auditor's report may be:
•
unqualified,
•
qualified,
•
adverse, or
•
disclaimer of opinion
It should be "clear which type of opinion is rendered. This can best be achieved by adopting
a degree of uroformity in the wording of each type of opinion. Accordingly, this Standard
includes suggested wording to express an unqualified opinion as well as qualifying phrases
when expressing a qualified opinion. The appendices include a suggested form of an
auditor's report which expresses an unqualified opinion and examples of other types of
opinions which incorporate the principles set forth in this Standard.
15. An unqualified opinion is issued when the auditor is satisfied in all material respects with
the matters dealt with in paragraph 29 of Objective and Basic Principles Governing an
Audit as quoted in paragraph 1 above. The auditor's report should express this satisfaction
in a clear and affirmative manner.
16. An unqualified opinion indicates implicitly that changes in accounting principles or in the
method of their application and the effects thereof have been properly determined and
disclosed in the financial statements.
17. An auditor may not be able to express an unqualified opinion when any of the following
circumstances exist and, in the auditor's judgment, the effect of the matter is or may be
material to the financial statements.
a . There is a limitation on the scope of his work; or
b. There is a disagreement with management in respect to the financial statements, for
example, whether a significant uncertainty has been adequately disclosed.
The circumstances described in a ) could lead to a qualified opinion or a disclaimer of
opinion. The circumstances described in b) could lead to a qualified opinion or an adverse
opinion. These circumstances are discussed
390 Auditing; Principles and Procedures
Limitation on Scope
22. A limitation on the scope of the auditor's work may sometimes be imposed by the client
(e.g. when the terms of the engagement specify that the auditor will not carry out an audit
procedure that the auditor believes is necessary). However, when the limitation in the terms
of a proposed engagement is such that the auditor believes he would need to issue a
disclaimer of opinion, he should not accept such a limited engagement as an audit
engagement. A statutory auditor should not accept such an audit engagement when the
\ limitation infringes on his statutory duties.
23. A scope limitation may be imposed by circumstances (e.g. when the timing of the auditor's
appointment is such that he is unable to observe the counting of physical inventories). It
may also arise when, in the opinion of the auditor, the client's accounting records are
inadequate or when he is unable to carry out an audit procedure that he believes is desirable.
In these circumstances, the auditor should attempt to carry out reasonable alternative
procedures to obtain sufficient audit evidence to support an unqualified opinion.
24. When there has been a limitation on the scope of the auditor's work that he concludes
prevents him from issuing an unqualified opinion, the auditor's
391 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
report should describe the limitation and the wording of his opinion should indicate that it
is qualified as to the possible adjustments to the financial statements that might have been
determined to be necessary had the Limitation not existed. As indicated in paragraph 20,
there may be circumstances when the possible effect of the limitation is so significant that
the auditor will decide to disclaim an opinion on the financial statements.
When the auditor decides to add a paragraph emphasizing a significant uncertainty this will normally adequately, serve users
of the financial statements. However, the auditor is not precluded irom issuing a disclaimer of opinion in situations involving
significant uncertainties.
Auditors'Reports 392
Appendix 12.3
The following is an unqualified report incorporating the principles set forth in this Standard.
AUDITOR'S REPORT TO......................................................................................................».......
We have audited the financial statements 1 in accordance with International Standards on
Auditing2.
In our opinion, the financial statements give a true and fair view of (or 'present
fairly') the financial position of.......................at..............■. .and the results of its operations
for the year then ended in accordance with..............................3 (and comply with....................4).
AUDITOR
Date
Address
Appendix 12.4
In our opinion............................
Without qualifying our opinion we draw attention to Note X to the financial statements. The
Company is the defendant in a lawsuit alleging infringement of certain patent rights and
claiming royalties and punitive damages. The Company has filed a counter action, and
preliminary hearings and discovery proceedings on both actions are in progress. The ultimate
outcome of the matter cannot presently be determined, and no provision for any liability that
may result has been made in the financial statements.
Provide suitable identification, such as by reference to page numbers or by identifying the individual statements.
Or refer to relevant national standards or practices ' - Indicate the relevant national standards or refer to International
Accounting Standards. . Refer to relevant statutes or law.
ззк A uditing: Principles and Procedures
Appendix 12.5
These examples incorporate the principles set forth in this Standard but are not intended to
suggest standard wording for particular circumstances.
Qualified Opinion-Disagreement on
Accounting Policies-Inappropriate
Accounting Method
On January 15, 19X2, the Company issued debentures in the amount of xxxxx for the
purpose of financing plant expansion. The debenture agreement
Auditors' Repvrts 394
restricts the payment of future'cash dividends to earnings after December 31, 19X1.
In our opinion, except for the omission of the 'information included in the
preceding paragraph, the financial statements.........................
Paragraph Expressing
Adverse Opinion
In our opinion, because ofthe effects of the matters discussed in the preceding paragraph,
the financial statements do not give a true and fair view of [or present fairly'] the financial
position of XYZ Company at December 31, 19X1, and the results of its operations for the
year then ended in accordance with International Accounting Standards.
Paragraph Expressing
Disclaimer of Opinion
Because of the significance of the- matters discussed in the preceding paragraph, we are
not in a position to, and do not, express an opinion on the fmancial statements.
One of the mandatory requirements [Section 234(3)] for listed companies is compliance of
such International Accounting Standards and other standards as are notified in the official
gazette by the Corporate Law Authority.
Except for IAS 3, 6, 15, and 22 other lASs have.been adapted for mandatory compliance by
the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan. The following chart shows the names of IAS:
Source: ПГАС Handbook 1992 Technical Pronouncements Inernatiohal Federation of Accountants, New York, 1992.
Text of each standards is available from the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan
and the Institute of Cost and Management Accountants. The International Accounting Standards
Committee, London, has printed IAS 1 to 29 in a bound volume.
The auditor must acquaint himself with the provisions of the above IASs and ensure
compliance.
AUDIT
UNDER OTHER
STATUTES
Apart from the audit Under the Companies Ordinance, 1984, an auditor is also required to
audit or certify the accounts under other statutes. The various types of work to be done by the
auditor under other statutes are discussed below:
The auditor should acquaint himself thoroughly with the relevant provisions of The
Cooperative Societies Act, 1925, affecting him and the preparation of accounts. The provisions
relating to audit are contained in Section 22 of the above Act. These are explained as under:
(1) The Registrar
shall by himself or by some person authorised by him in
writing, by general or special order in this behalf, audit the accounts of
every society at least once in every year. [Section 22(1)1
(2) The audit, as explained above, should include:
(i) an examination of overdue debts, if any,
(ii) the verification of cash balance and securities, and
(Hi) a valuation ofthe assets and liabilities of the society.
[Section 22(2)]
(3) The Registrar
or other person auditing the accounts of any society should
have free access to the books, accounts and vouchers of such society and
should be allowed verify its cash balances and securities. It is incumbent
upon the directors, managers and other officers of the society to furnish to
the Registrar or other person appointed to audit the accounts of a society,
all such information as to its transactions and working as the Registrar or
such other person may require. [Section 22(3)]
(4) The Registrar and every other person appointed to audit the accounts of a
society'have been vested with the following powers:
(i) to summon at the time of his audit any officer, agent, servant or member of the
society who. he has reason to believe, can give valuable information in regard to
any transaction of the society or the management of its affairs, or
Audit Under Other Statutes 398
Rem No.8 of the application form for issue of capital under the above Act requires a
disclosure of information in respect of 'Acquisition of assets of other companies'. Full details
ofthe assets of the Vendor Company in a situation where shares are being allotted on 'no cash
basis' for acquiring assets, with their value certified by a Chartered Accountant, or an Engineer or
Surveyor, as the case may be, should be furnished. The Auditor's Certificate should be on lines
indicated on the next page.
A certificate is required to be signed by an auditor and sent to the Controller of Capital
Issues in respect of capitalisation of profits.
A case is illustrated below:
Facts
The balance sheet of ABC Limited, a public company,, gives the following
information:
Particulars Amount (million Rs. )
Paid up capital (one million 10.00
shares of Rs.10 each)
Revenue Reserves 8.00
Profit and Loss Account (credit balance) 12.50
Provision for deferred tax 1.00
Long-term loans 56.00
Current liabilities 18.00
Fixed Assets at book value 90.00
Preliminary Expenses 0.50
Current Assets 15.00
In addition, the notes disclose contingent liabilities of Rs.1.5 million. /Required
Draft an Auditor's Certificate to be issued to the Controller of Capital Issues in
399 Auditing: Principles and
Procedures
connection with the proposed capitalisation of profit of Rs.5.00 million by the issue of bonus
shares.
THE CAPITAL ISSUES (CONTINUANCE OF CONTROL) ACT, 1947
AUDITOR'S CERTIFICATE
We have audited the Profit and Loss Account together with the Balance Sheet
. . . . and report that we have obtained all the
infoiTnation and explanations we. had required and in our opinion the following
statement exhibits a true and correct state of affairs of the Company.
Assets. ...... Rs. . , Liabilities.... Rs.
Machinery"'f Creditors" """"
(Book value less.depreciation . Loans and overdraft.
at Income-tax rate the
Income-tax should not imply
--
special depreciation rates).
Building and Land
(Book value less depreciation) " ' 'fax liability up to date of sale.
Unclaimed dividend.
Furniture and Fixture
(Book value less depreciation) Liabilities to employees ofthe
... Company, if any.
Stock
(Book value or market value Accrued expenses not paid.
whichever is lower)
Advances
(Considered Good) Accrued (interest not paid)
Deposits
(Considered Good) Other liabilities.
Investment ..
. (Considered Good)
Cash and Bank Balances
Other Assets
(The items to be specified)
Total Total
(1) Total Assets
(2) Total Liabilities
Net Total .. .. . .-, .■
also attached.
Place and Date Chartered Accountants
Audit Under Other Statutes 345 Solution
The amount of bonus shares to be issued should not exceed 25% of the paid up capital. The
following chart will help in obtaining permission for the issue of bonus shares:
Amount
Particulars (million Rs.)
Revenue Reserves 8.00
Profit and Loss Account (credit balance) 12.60
Less: Preliminary Expenses 0.50 12.00
Provision for deferred tax 1.00
21.00
Less: Contingent Liabilities 1.50
19.50
Lass: Proposed issue of bonus shares 5.00
14.50
Position of share capital will be as under: Paid
up capita! Proposed bonus shares
Since the net amount of accumulated profit and reserves (Rs.14.50 million) is more than
25% of total capital of Rs.15.00 million, bonus shares will be allowed to be issued.
The balance sheet, profit and loss account, revenue account and profit and loss
appropriation account of every insurer1 in respect of the insurance business transacted by him,
and in the case of any other insurer in respect of the insurance business transacted by him in
Pakistan shall be audited annually by an auditor, unless they are subject to audit under the
Companies Ordinance, 1984. The auditor has been invested with the powers of exercise of
functions vested in, and discharge the duties and subject to the liabilities and penalties imposed
on him by Section 255 ofthe Companies Ordinance, 1984.
In accordance with the regulations contained in Part I of the First Schedule annexed to the
Insurance Act, 1938, a balance sheet should be on the prescribed
This has been defined in sub-clause ( a X t i ) or sub-clause lb) of clause (91 of Section 2 of the Insurance Act, 1938.
401 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Form 'A' given in Part П of the above Schedule. The auditor should ensure that the balance sheet
is drawn up in accordance with this Form or as near thereto as circumstances admit.
The following Forms have been prescribed in the Act;
Particulars
Form
The Second Schedule: Part II
Form В Form С
Form DD
Form DTJD
Form DDDD
As a result of legal requirements, the Auditors' Report to the shareholders will ordinarily
take the following shape:
For special points, please refer bo Chapter of this book entitled, "Special Points in Different Classes of Audits".
Audit Under Other Statutes 403
(o) We have obtained all the information and explanation which we had required.
(6) In our opinion, the annexed Balance Sheet, Revenue Accounts, Prcfit and Loss Account
and Profit and Loss Appropriation Account are drawn up in conformity with the law.
(c) Such balance sheet exhibits a true and correct state of the company's affairs
according to the best of our information and the explanations given to us and as
shown by the books of the company.".
(d) In our opinion, the books of account have been kept by the company for the
year under report as required by Section 130 of the Companies Ordinance, 1984.
(e) We have verified the cash balances and investments by actual inspection or by
the production, of certificates or vouchers, and have also verified the securities
relating to the loans.
(f) No part of the assets of the Life Insurance Fund has been directly or indirectly
applied in contravention of the Insurance Act, 1938, relating to the application and
investment of Life Assurance Funds.
(g) All expenses of management incurred in respect of Life Assurance Business
and in respect of business other than the Life Assurance have been fully debited as
expenses in the respective Revenue Accounts.
Section 12A was inserted in the Insurance Act, 1938, by the Act of 1958 under Subsection
(1) of Section 12, the Controller of Insurance has been empowered to appoint every year an
auditor for conducting special audit, for making investigation and submitting such report as may
be prescribed. Proviso to sub-section lays down that the auditor or any of the auditors appointed
under Section 12A for any year of account shall not be the auditor or auditors employed by the
insurer for an audit under the Companies Ordinance, 1984, or under Section 12 of the Insurance
Act, 1938, for that year of Account.
404 A uditing: Principles and Procedure;
For enabling the auditor to perform his functions and duties under this section, the auditor
appointed under this section has been vested with the following rights under sub-section (2) of
the above section;
(1) Access of all such books of account, registers, vouchers, correspondence and
other documents ofthe insurer, and
(2) Requiring from the directors and officers of the insurer such information and
explanations as may be necessary for the performance of his functions and duties
under the above section.
... Sub-section (3) requires that every report should be prepared by an auditor or auditors in
quadruplicate to the Controller of Insurance who may take such action thereon in accordance
with the provisions ofthe Insurance Act, 1938.
Sub-section (4) lays down that the said auditor shall be paid by the insurer such fees as
may be prescribed and in presenting such fees regard shall be had to the size of the insurance
and the class or classes of business transacted by him. The Controller of Insurance has been
empowered to specify the time within which the fee payable shall be paid.
Under Rule 42 of the Insurance Rules, 1958, an auditor appointed for special Audit is
required to investigate and report on the following matters:
(1) Rule 42 ©
The compliance or otherwise by the insurer, of the requirements of sub-section (4) of
Section 3C of the Insurance Act, 1938, relating to payment of premium.
This sub-section requires that no insurer shall assume in Pakistan any risk in respect of
general insurance business unless and until the premium payable or such part thereof as may be
prescribed has been received by him or has been guaranteed to be paid by such person in such
manner and within such time as may be prescribed. Proviso to this sub-section requires that
nothing contained in the above sub-section shall apply to the insurance ofthe properties or
interests of the Central or a Provincial Government of such Government gives an undertaking to
pay the premium payable within such time and in such manner as may be prescribed.
(2) Rule 42 ( H )
The compliance or otherwise by the insurer, of the requirements of sub-section 5 of Section
3C of the insurance Act, 1938, relating to refund of premium and the amount or amounts of
refund outstanding.
The above sub-section (5) requires that any refund of premium which may become due to
the insured on account of the cancellation of policy of general insurance or alteration in its terms
and conditions shall be paid directly to the insured by a crossed or order cheque or by money
order and a proper receipt shall be obtained from the insured, and such refund shall in no case be
credited to the account ofthe agent.
Audit Under Other Statutes 405
provisions have been stated. Sub-section (4) requires the preparation of a statement, on the
prescribed form, showing the particulars of the various advances paid by every insurer and
outstanding against an employee, insurance agent or an employer of agents as on December 31
of every year and furnishing the same to the Controller of Insurance. Sub-section (6) specifies
that where any event occurs giving rise to circumstances the existence of which at the time of
the grant of any subsisting loan or advance would have made such grant a contravention of this
section such loan or advance shall, notwithstanding any contract" to the contrary, be repaid
within three months from the occurrence of such event, or within such further period as may be
allowed by the Controller of Insurance.
(6) Rule 42 (id)
The compliance or otherwise by the insurer of the requirement, of Section 32B of the Act
relating to employment of persons on salary-cum-cornmission basis and the employment of any
person without specific functions or without sufficient functions or work justifying the salary or
remmierationpaidtohim.
Provisions of Section 32B relating to managers etc. are:
(1) Notwithstanding anything to the contrary contained, in the Companies Ordinance,
1984, or articles of association of the insurer, if a company or in any contract or
agreement, no insurer shall after the expiry of one year from the oommencement of
the Insurance (Amendment) Act 1958, be directed or managed by or employ as
manager or officer or in any capacity, any person whose remuneration or any part
thereof takes the form of commission or bonus on the total insurance business or on
the total business of any class or sub-class of insurance business or on a part of any
class or sub-class of general insurance business transacted by the insurer.
(2) No person shall have any right whether in contract or otherwise, to any compensation
for any loss incurred by reason of the operation of any provision of this Section.
Provided that nothing in the sub-section (1) shall be deemed to prohibit:
(1) The payment of commission to an insurance agent or employer of agents in respect of
any insurance business procured by or through him.
(2) The employment of any individual in a clerical or other suterdinate capacity who as
an insurance agent, receives commission in respect of insurance business procured by
him.
(3) The employment as an officer of any individuaT who. receives commission in respect
of life insurance business procured by him in his capacity as insurance agent or as
employer of agents.
(4) The payment of a share In the profit of general insurance business.
(5) The payment of bonus in any year on a uriiform basis to all salaried
.." employers or any class of them by way of additional remuneration, such
Audit Under Other Statutes 407
bonus in the case of any employee not exceeding in amount the equivalent of his
salary for a period which in the opinion ofthe Central Government is reasonable
having regard to the circumstances ofthe case.
Broadly speaking, no manager or officer or any other person should be employed on
commission basis though there are several provisions which should be studied.
It appears that this will not apply to 1958 audits as the section specifies that no person
should be so employed after the expiry of one year after the commencement of the Insurance
(Amendment) Act, 1958, which means after 31.3.1959.
(7) Rule 42 (fit)
The compliance or otherwise of requirements of Sections 40 and 40A of the Act relating to
payment of convmission or remuneration.
Sections 40 requires:
(1) No insurer shall, after the expiry of six months from the commencement of this
Act, pay or contract to pay any remuneration or reward whatever by way of
commission or otherwise for soliciting or procuring insurance business in Pakistan to
any person except an insurance agent or a person acting on behalf of an insurer who
for the purposes of insurance business employs insurance agents.
(2) No insurance agent shall be paid or contract to be paid by way of commission
or as remuneration in any form an amount exceeding, in the case of life insurance
business, 40% of the first year's premium payable on any policy or policies effected
through him and 5% of the renewal premium payable on such a policy or in the case
of business of any other class 15% ofthe premium.
Provided that insurers, in respect of life insurance business only, may pay, during the
first ten years of their business to their insurance agents 50% of the first year's
premium payable on any policy or policies-effected through them and 6% of the
renewal premium on such policies.
(2A) Save as hereinafter provided, no insurance agent shall be paid or contract to be paid
by way of commission or as remuneration in any form any amount in respect of any
policy not effect through him.
Section 40A is in respect of limitation of expenditure on commission and requires:
(1) No person shall pay or contract to pay to an insurance agent, and no insurance agent
shall receive or contract to receive by way of commission or remuneration in any
form in respect of any policy of life insurance issued in Pakistan by an insurer after
31st day of March, 1958, and effected through aninsurance agent an amount
exceeding;. ...
( a ) Where the policy grants an immediate annuity or a deferred annuity
408 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Broadly speaking, these sections lay dowh the persons entitled to receive commission and
the rates of commission payable.
Only insurance agents or employers of agents are entitled to receive Mmmission. For
conditions of becoming an insurance agent or an employer of agents see Rules 18 to 23.
Roughly speaking, rates of commission are divided into policies taken out before 31.3.1958
(Section 40) and policies taken out after 31.3.1958 (Section 40A).
(8) Rule 42 (viii)
The compliance or otherwise of the requirements of Sections 42, 42A and 44A of the Act
relating to appointment or employment of persons without licences or certificates and also
payment of commission or claims in contravention of the said section.
Section 42 is reproduced below:
(1) The Controller of Insurance or an officer authorised by him in this behalf shall in the
prescribed manner and on payment of the prescribed fee which shall not be more than
Rs.3.00 issue to any individual making an application in the prescribed manner and
not suffering from any disqualifications hereinafter mentioned a licence to act as an
insurance agent for the purpose of soliciting or procuring insurance business.
(2) A licence issued under this section shall entitle the holder to act as an insurance agent
for any registered insurer.
(3) A licence issued under this section shall remain in force for a period of 12 months
only from the date of issue but shall if the applicant does not suffer from any of the
disqualifications hereinafter mentioned by renewed from year to year on payment of
the prescribed f=e which shall not be more than three rupees.
(4) Disqualifications are:
(a) that the person is a minor.
(b) that he is found to be of in sound mind by a court of competent
jurisdiction.
. (c) that he has been guilty of criminal misappropriation or criminal breach of trust or
cheating or forgery.
(d) that in the course of any judicial proceeding relating to any policy of insurance or
winding up of an insurance company or in the course of an investigation of the
affairs of an insurer it has been found that he has been guilty of or has knowingly
participated in or corrfined at any fraud, dishonesty or misrepresentation against
an insurer Or an insured.
(5) If it be found that an insurance agent suffers from any of the foregoing
disqualifications without prejudice to any other penalty to which he may
410 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
be b'able the Controller of Insurance shall and if the agent has knowingly contravened
any provision of this Act may cancel the licence.
(6) The authority which issued any licence under tins' section may issue a
duplicate licence to replace a licence lost...................
Text of Section 42A which governs employer of agents to hold certificates is given below:
(1) The Controller of Insurance or an officer authorised, by him in this behalf
shall, in the prescribed manner and on payment of prescribed fee, which shall not be
more-than Rs.50.00, issue to any person making an application, a certificate to act as
an employer of agents on behalf of an insurer for the purpose of procuring life
insurance business or general insurance business as the case may be if -
(a) in the case of an individual, who does not suffer from any of the
disqualifications mentioned in Section 42(4).
(b) in the case of a company or firm any of its directors or partners does not suffer
from any of the said cusqualifications.
(2)
A separate application shall be made and a separate certificate obtained for life
insurance business and general insurance business.
(3)
For the purpose of Sections 40 and 40A of this Act no employer of agents who
is certified to act as an employer of agents for life insurance business shall be deemed
to be employer of agents for general insurance business shall be deemed to be
employer of agents for life insurance business.
(4)
A certificate under this section shall entitle the holder thereof to act as an
employer of agents for any insurer. •
(5)
A certificate issued under this section shall remain in force a period of one
year only from the date of issue but shall on application made in this behalf be
renewed from year to year if —
(i) an application in the prescribed form for renewal of the certificate reaches the
issuing authority before expiry;
(ii) renewal fee Rs.50.0O;
(iii) any of the directors/partners does not suffer from any
disqualifications;
(iv) applicant has procured minimum business and complied with conditions.
(6) If any director/partner suffers from disqualification the Controller shall cancel
the certificate.
Section 44A deals with-the Insurance Surveyors to hold certificates, and is given below:.
"No person other than an insurance surveyor holding an appropriate certificate under
this section shall undertake the surveying,
Audit Under Other Statutes 411
(6) Ascertain that no claims have been paid before premiums have been received.
(7.) Ascertain that all premiums outstanding at any time due from agents or from insured
are covered by deposit/guarantee.
Notes
(1) Where premiums are covered by a guarantee on behalf of the insured, the premium
must be paid by the end of the subsequent month.
(2) In case of agents issuing policies and receiving premiums the agent must have a
guarantee with the insurer to the extent of the premiums received
by him in any period. The agent sends copies of policies issued by him to the insurer
at the end of the month and the insurer bills the agent for the total premium less
commission. But the agent must deposit premium with the company within 24 hours.
(3) In the case of upcountry cheques, the risk can be assumed from the'date of posting the
cheque (not the date of receipt) similarly in the case of remittance by Money Order.
(4) Annual insurances in the case of marine and full risk may be covered if an amount of
not less than ~ of premium payable has been paid or guaranteed.
(5) For other information regarding collection of premiums please see Insurance Rules 44
to 50.
Rule 42 (ii): Section 3CX5)
It is necessary to generally see 'that:
(1) There is a good reason for refunding.
(2) Amount has actually been refunded.
(3) Refund has been paid to the correct person.
The following checking should be done:
(1) Refunds of premium should be checked from premium register as well as from
cash book.
(2) Ascertain that all refunds are made by:
(a) Crossed Cheque, or
(fj) Order Cheque, or (c)
Money Order.
(3) Ascertain that refunds have been made direct to the insured. For this purpose,
it will be necessary to compare the signature of the insured on the receipt for refund
with his signature in the proposed form and various coirespondence etc. with the
insured.
(4) Ascertain that a proper receipt has been obtained from the insured for the
Audit Under Other Statutes 357
The Banking Companies Ordinance, 1962, was promulgated on June 7, 1362. The- auditor
should acquaint himself with the relevant provision of the above Ordinance affecting him and
the Accounts. To facilitate the matter, working index relating to accounts and audit is given as
Appendix 13.1,
Under Section 34 of the Ordinance, the following requirements have been laid down:
(1)
At the expiration of each calendar year, every banking company incorporated
in Pakistan, in respect of all business transacted by it, and every banking company
incorporated outside Pakistan, in respect of all business transacted through its
branches in Pakistan, shall prepare with reference to that year a balance sheet and
profit and loss account as on the last working day of the year in the forms set out in
the Second Schedule or as near there to as circumstances admit.2
(2)
The balance sheet and profit and loss account shall be signed:
(a) in the case of a banking company incorporated in Pakistan, by the
manager or the principal officer of the company and where there are more than
three directors of the company, by at least three directors, by all the directors,
and
(b) in case of a . banking company incorporated outside Pakistan by the
Manager or agent of the Principal office of the company in Pakistan and by
another officer nexxin seniority to the manager or agent.
(3) Apart from the fact that the proforma balance sheet of a banking company is
prescribed as Form 'A' annexed to the Second Schedule of the Ordinance, the
requirements ofthe Companies Ordinance, 1984, relating to the balance sheet and
profit and loss account of a company, in so far as they are not inconsistent with the
Ordinance, apply to the balance sheet or profit and loss account of a banking
company.
In accordance with the requirements of Section 35, the balance sheet and profit and loss
account of a banking company shall be audited by a person duly qualified under the Chartered
Accountants Ordinance, 1961, or any other law for the time being in force to be an auditor of the
companies. The provisions of Section 145 of the Companies Ordinance, 1984, dealing with the
powers, functions, duties, liabilities and penalties of an auditor also apply to the auditor of a
banking company. Based on sub-section (3)-of Section 35 Of the Ordinance read in conjunction
with sub-section (2) of Section 145 of the Companies Ordinance, 1984, an unqualified auditor's
report
Recommended for further reading: Statement of Standard Auditing Practices (SAP 1) entitled: Bank Reports for Audit
Purposes, issued by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan, December 1982, pp.1-8.
Forms 'A' and U' are the prescribed forms for the balance sheet and profit and loss account respectively.
416 A uditing: Principles and Procedures
(a) We have obtained all the information and the explanations which we have required
and found them to be satisfactory;
(b) The, transactions Gf the Bank which have come to our notice have been within the
powers of the Bank;
(c) In our opinion proper books of account as required by law have been kept by the
Bank so far as it appears from the examination of the books and proper returns
adequate for the purpose of audit have been received from all the branches ofthe
Bank;
(tfi Such Balance Sheet exhibits a true and correct view of the state of the Bank's affairs
according to the best of our information and the explanations given to us and as
shown by the books and records of the Bank;
(e) Such Profit and Loss Account shows a true balance of profit for the year ended
31st December, 19 ; and
(f) In our opinion, the Bank's Balance Sheet and Profit and Loss Account are
drawn up in conformity with the lav;.
(3) No premature retirement of the auditors would be allowed without the prior approval of
the State Bank of Pakistan.
The banking reforms in respect of 'Audit of Bank' were registered through the
Audit Under Other Statutes 417
Banking Companies (Amendment) Act, 1972. Based on this the provisions of Section 35 of the
Banking Companies Ordinance, 1962, have been substituted by new provisions ofthe same
section which are summarised below:
Section 35(1). It is now provided that the balance sheet and profit and loss account
prepared in accordance with Section 34 should be audited by a person who is duly qualified
under the Chartered Accountants Ordinance, 1961 or any other law for the time being in force, to
be an auditor of companies and is borne on the panel of auditors maintained by the State Bank
for the purposes of audit of banking companies.
Section 35(2). An auditor, appointed in accordance with above provisions, should hold
office for a period of three years and should not be removed from office before the expiry of that
period except with the prior approval of the State Bank of Pakistan.
Section 35(3). The State Bank of Pakistan may, from time to time, lay down guidelines for
the audit of banking companies and the auditors shall be bound to follow those guidelines.
Section 35(4). The powers, functions, penalties etc. as are provided in Section 255 of the
Companies Ordinance, 1984, apply to the auditor subject to the provisions of above sub-section
(3).
Section 3545). In addition to the matters which, under the aforesaid Act and guidelines laid
d6wn by the State Bank of Pakistan under the above sub-section (3), the auditor is required to
state in his report, he shall also state:
(а) Whether or not the information and explanations required by him have
been found to be satisfactory;
(б) Whether or not the transactions of the banking company which have come
to his notice have been within the powers of the banking company;
(c) Whether or not the returns received from branch offices of the banking company have
been found adequate for the purposes of his audit;
id) Whether the profit and loss account shows a true loss for the period covered by such
account; and
(e) Any other matter which he considers should be brought to the notice ofthe
shareholders of the banking company.
Based on Para 90(b) of Chapter 10 of the Exchange Control Manual (Third Edition, 1965),
Scheduled banks were authorised without prior approval of the State Bank of Pakistan to
approve loans, overdrafts and credit facilities against goods intended for export from Pakistan to
companies and business houses controlled by
418 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
persons resident outside Pakistan. It was decided that the above facility will also now be
available for purchase of raw material and for meeting other expenditure relating to the purchase
of raw material etc., directly related to the production of goods intended solely for export from
Pakistan.1 The facility has been allowed subject to the condition that the borrowing
company/firm should produce to his banker a certificate from its auditors as per specimen given
below, clearly certifying that the funds in question have been utilised solely for production of
goods which have been exported. The following certificate is required to be furnished by the
borrowing company/firm not later than twelve months from the date on which the loan has
actually been utilised:
AUDITORS' CERTIFICATE
period from.............................to...........................in terms of F.E. Circular No.75, dated
the 18th July, 1972, has been utilised by the former solely for the purchase of raw material and
for meeting other expenditure (as per broad details given in the annexure) in connection with the
production of goods which have been exported by the company as per details hereunder:
Description of goods Name of Country to FOB value CTF value
which exported
Auditors
The inserted sub-sections (10) and (11) of Section 23B of the above Ordinance require that
the Provincial Government, from a Panel of five persons (later reduced to three) who are
Chartered Accountants suggested by the collective bargaining agent, shall appoint one of such
persons to be an auditor for the persons of inspecting the accounts, record, premises and stores of
the factory on one occasion. It
Foreign Exchange Circular Nn.75, dated July 18, 1972, issued by the Senior Deputy Director, Exchange Control Department,
State Bank of Pakistan, Karachi.
A udit Under Other Statutes 419
is further provided that the fee of such auditor shall be determined by the Provincial
Government and paid by the management of the factory who shall afford him all faculties
necessary for the discharge of his functions.
Text of the inserted sub-sections (10) to (13) of Section 23B of the Industrial Relations
Ordinance, 1969, is given below:
"(10) The collective bargaining agent for an establishment which is a factory and number of
workers employed in it in any shift at any time during a year is fifty or more, may,
once during the period in which it is such a collective bargaining agent, apply to the
Provincial Government to nominate an auditor for the accounts of the factory relating
to the period ofthe firm only once and for that purpose to inspect the accounts,
records, premises and stores of the factory on one occasion.
(11)
An application under sub section (10) shall be accompanied by a Panel of five
persons Gater reduced to three) who are Chartered Accountants within the meaning of
the Chartered Accountants Ordinance, 1961 (X of 1961), and, on receipt of such an
application, the Provincial Government shall appoint one of such persons to an be
auditor for the purposes of that subsection.
(12)
The fee of an auditor appointed under sub-section (11) shall be determined
by.the Provincial Government and paid by the management of the factory who shall
also afford him all facilities necessary for the discharge of his functions.
(13)
This Section shall have effect notwithstanding anything contained in the
Companies Ordinance, 1984, or any other law for the time being in force or in any
agreement or contract or memorandum or articles of association.1
Rule 8 entitles an 'Accountant', if authorised in writing, to represent his client before the
Monopoly Control Authority of Pakistan in connection with any proceedings under the
Monopolies and Respective Trade Practices (Control and Prevention) Ordinance, 1970. The
word 'Accountant' has been defined in sub-rule (a) of Rule 2 ofthe above Rules to mean:
(1) a Chartered Accountant within the meaning of the Chartered Accountants
Orclinance, 1961 (X of 1961), or.
(2) an Industrial Accountant within the meaning of the Cost and
. Management Accountants Act, 1966 (XTV of 1966).
This amendment was effect through the Labour Law (Amendment! Ordinance, 1972, on April 13, 1972. .
420 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Through the Economic Reforms Order, 1972, the Government of Pakistan, took over 32
industries in Pakistan in early January 1972. The Government is exercising control and
managing the companies through their appointed managing agents. The Board of Industrial
Management has been constituted to exercise the overall control. This Board appoints auditors
for auditing the accounts of taken over industries. Under sub-section l e ) of Section 6 of the
Development of Industries (Federal Control) Act, 1972, it provides that the Board is empowered
to remove an auditor of an establishment and appoint another person to hold that office, or
appoint an auditor in addition to the auditor of an establishment, for such period and on such
remuneration payable by the establishment as the Board may determine.
Section 4 of the above Act lays down that the Act overrides the provision of the Companies
Ordinance, 1984.
Section 10 of the above Act provides that in the case of an establishment owned or
controlled by a company, the general meeting of the company before which balance sheet is laid,
shall not, if the Federal" Government by order in writing so directs, have the authority to refuse
to adopt the balance sheet, but nothing in this section shall be construed as to prevent any
shareholders from expressing his views on the financial affairs of the establishment and a record
of the proceedings of such meeting shall be forwarded to the Federal Government not later than
fifteen days of the meeting.
Section 24 of the above Act deals with the 'Accounts' and it is mentioned therein that the
corporation shall maintain its accounts in such manner as may be prescribed.
The main features of Section 25 which relate to the 'Audit1 are:
(1) The accounts of the corporation shall be audited by two auditors who are
Chartered Accountants within the meaning of the Chartered Accountants Ordinance
appointed by the Federal Government in consultation with the Auditor-General, on
such remuneration, to be paid by the corporation, as the Federal Government may fix.
(2) The Auditor-General has been empowered to give directions to the auditors in
regard to the extent and method of their audit subject to the provisions of the
Companies Ordinance, 1984, and to prescribe forms of accounts to be maintained by
the corporation consistent with the
Audit Under Other Statutes 421
LAG 24 deals with special purpose auditor's reports and its constituents are as under:
Two Forms have been annexed to the above Rules. Form I is in respect of matters to be
specified in the advertisement relating to invitation of deposits and Form П is a prescribed Form
for return of deposits with companies other than banking companies to be filed annually.
Clause Ш of Form I requires certification by the company auditor "A summarised fmancial
position of the company appearing in the two balance sheets immediately preceding the date of
the advertisement in the form prescribed therein". This is reproduced on the following page.
422 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Certificate' of Auditors in respect of Form П, i.e, Annual Return of Deposit to be filed with
the concerned Registrar Joint Stock Companies and a copy of the same to Ъе sent to the
Corporate Law Authority has been prescribed as under:
Dated..........................................................................................._______________
Place................................... Chartered Accountants
Audit Under Other Statutes 423
Introduction
■1. International Standard oh Auditing (ISA) 13, The Auditor's Report on Financial Statements,
provides guidance to auditors on the form and content of the auditor's report issued in
connection with the independent audit of an entity's financial statements 1 prepared in
accordance with the relevant national standards or International Accounting Standards.
Much of the guidance in ISA 13 can be adapted to auditor's reports on financial information
other than financial statements.
2. The purpose of this Standard is to provide guidance to auditors on the form and content of
an auditor's report issued in connection with the independent audit of financial information
other than an auditor's report on financial statements issued in accordance - with ISA 13.
Such reports are hereafter referred to as special purpose auditor's reports. In addition to the
guidance on special purpose auditor's reports in general, specific guidance is given in the
case of auditor's reports on:
•
Financial statements prepared in accordance with a comprehensive basis of accounting
other than relevant national standards or International Accounting Standards.
•
Specified accounts, elements of accounts, or items Of a financial statement (hereafter
referred to as reports on a component of financial statements).
•
Compliance with contractual agreements.
•
Summarized financial statements.
3. An auditor may be engaged to prepare a special purpose auditor's report other than those
covered by. this Standard (e.g. reports on non-financial information, such as newspaper
circulation statistics) or to prepare a single report which incorporates features of more than
one of the particular reports above. This
; Standard may provide useful guidance for many aspects of such engagements.
General Considerations
4. The extent of work to be performed in an engagement to give a special purpose auditor's
report will vary with the circumstances. Accordingly, before undertaking such an
engagement it is important that there be agreement with the client as to the exact nature
ofthe engagement and the form and content of the report to be issued.
The term 'financial statements', as defined in t he Preface to Statements of International Accounting Standards, covers
balanee sheets, income statements or profit and loss accounts, statements of cash flows, notes and other statements and
explanatory material which are identified as being part ofthe financial statements.
424 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
5. In planning his work, the auditor should have a clear understanding of the purpose for
which the information being reported' on is to be used, and who is likely to use it. To avoid
the possibility of the auditor's report being used for purposes for which it was not intended,
the auditor may wish to indicate in his report the purpose for which the report is prepared
and any restrictions on its distribution.
6. ISA 13 describes the basic elements which should be included in the auditor's report on
financial statements prepared in accordance with relevant national standards or
International Accounting Standards. These basic elements apply to all special purpose
auditor's reports unless otherwise stated. All special purpose auditor's reports should
include:
a. title,
b. addressee,
c. identification ofthe financial information audited,
d. a reference to auditing standards or practices followed,
e. an expression, or disclaimer, of opinion on the financial information,
f. signature,
g. the auditor's address, and
h. the date of his report.
A measure of unifoiTnity in the form and content of the auditor's report is desirable because it
helps to promote the reader's understanding. Therefore, in an auditor's unqualified report the
scope of the auditor's engagement and his opinion should be given in separate paragraphs.
7. In the case "of financial information to be supplied by clients to government authorities,
trustees, insurers and other entities there may be a prescribed form of auditor's report. Such
prescribed forms may not conform to the applicable professional reporting standards. For
example, the prescribed report g may require a certification of fact when an expression of
opinion is appropriate, * may require an opinion on matters outside the scope of the audit or
may omit g essential wording. When requested to report on financial information in a 3
prescribed format, the auditor should consider the substance and wording form of report and,
when necessary, should make appropriate changes, either by rewording the form or by
attaching a separate report.
8. When the information on which the auditor has been requested to report is based on certain
provisions of an agreement, the auditor needs to consider whether any significant
interpretations of the agreement have been made by management in preparing the
information. An interpretation is significant when adoption of another reasonable
interpretation would have produced a material difference in the financial information. The
.auditor should ensure ■ that the interpretation is clearly disclosed in the financial
information and
Audit Under Other Statutes 425
make reference to the note within the financial information that describes the interpretation.
opinion should state whether the component 'gives a. true and fair view of (or is presented
fairly'}... in accordance with' the basis indicated. Appendix II gives examples of auditor's
reports on components of financial statements.
audited financial statements from which they have been derived, for example, 'Summarized
Financial Information Prepared from the Audited Financial Statements for the Year Ended
December 31, 19X1'.
25- Summarized financial statements do not contain all the information necessary to 'give a true
and fair view of (or 'present fairly')... in accordance with' the basis indicated. Consequently
this or similar wording should not be used by the auditor when expressing an opinion on
summarized financial statements. Instead, the auditor when expressing an opinion on the
audited financial statements and state whether the summarized financial statements are
consistent with the audited financial statements from which they were derived.
26. In addition to the elements mentioned in paragraphs 5 and 6 [except for paragraph 6c) and
d], the auditor's report should include:
a. An indentification of the financial statements on which an audit has been performed
and from which the summarized financial statements were derived, with an indication
as to the auditing standards or practices followed in conducting the audit, such as by
reference to ISAs or to standards or practices established within a country.
b. A reference to the date of his report on the audited financial statements and to the
opinion given in that report.
c. An opinion stating whether the information in the summarized financial statements is
consistent with the financial statements from which it was derived When the auditor
has expressed a qualified or adverse opinion or disclaimer of opinion on the audited
financial statements, yet is satisfied with the presentation of the summarized fmancial
statements, he should state that, although consistent with the financial statements,
they were derived from financial statements on which such an opinion or &selaimer
of opinion was expressed.
d. A statement, or reference to the note within the summarized financial statements,
which indicates that for a better understanding of an entity's financial performance
and position, the summarized financial statements should be read in conjunction with
the entity's related audited financial statements.
Appendix IV gives examples of auditor's reports on summarized financial statements.
Audit Under Other Statutes 429
Appendix 13.1
We have audited in accordance with International Standards on Auditing 1 the income tax basis
financial statements2.
In our opinion, the financial statements give a true and fair view of (or 'present fairly 1) the
financial position of..... at.... and its revenues and expenses for the year then ended, on the basis
of accounting used for income tax purposes as described in Note X.
1
Or refer to relevant national standards or practices. .
^ Provide suitable identification, such as by reference to page numbers or by identifying the individual
statements.
1
Or refer to relevant national standards or practices.
2
Provide suitable identification, such as by reference to page numbers or by identifying the individual statements.
430 A uditing: Principles and Procedures
Appendix 13-2
Profit Participation
AUDITOR'S REPORT TO...............................................................................................................
We have audited in accordance with International Standards on Auditing 1 the schedule of Mr.
ABC's profit participation2 for the year ended December 31, 19X1.
We have been informed that the document that governs Mr! ABC's profit participation is the
employment agreement between Mr. ABC and XYZ Company dated June 1, 19X0. "
In our opinion, the schedule of profit participation gives a true and fair view of (or 'presents
fairly') Mr. ABC's participation in the profits of ... for the year ended December 31, 19X1, in
accordance with the provisions of the agreement referred to in the preceding paragraph.
Appendix 13.3
Separate Report
AUDITOR'S REPORT TO ............................................................................................................
1
or refer to relevant national standards or practices.
provide suitable identification, such as" by reference to page numbers or by identifying the individual statements.
3
indicate the relevant national standards or refer to Intuinational Accounting Standards. * refer to relevant
statutes or law. .
432 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Appendix 13.4
EXAMPLES OF REPORTS ON SUMMARIZED FINANCIAL
STATEMENTS
When an Unqualified Opinion Was Expressed on the Annual Audited Financial Statements
AUDITOR'S REPORT TO ....................................................................................................____
Date AUDITOR
Address
When a Qualified Opinion Was Expressed on the Annual Audited Financial Statements
AUDITOR'S REPORT TO...............................................................................................................
Date AUDITOR
Address
10
18 .
35
35
35 (3)
34(2)
Accounts
Accounts
Accounts, Authentication of Accounts, closing date
of Balance Sheet, form of Profit and Loss Account,
form of
Assets
Assets, Non-banking
Floating Charge, Prohibition on
Audit and Auditors . Audit
Auditors, qualifications, powers and duties of Audit report^ contents of
Authentication
Accounts, Authentication of
Balance Sheet
Date of Form 34(1)
of 34(1)&(3)
Brokerage
Restriction on 16
Capital
Authorised, subscribed and-paid-up,
minimum requirements of Capital of
foreign banking companies Capital (paid- 14
up) and Reserve, 13
minimum requirements of Unpaid-
Capital, prohibition on charge of 13
Commission
Restriction on 17
.Directors
Loan to 16
Restriction on lldMc)
16
Dividends. ■•
Restriction as to payment of 19,21 (1)
Investments ■
In other, companies, restriction on ......................... 23 (2), (3)
Loans
To-Directors, individual etc., restriction on 24
Powers
Transactions within the power of that Company 7, 9
J Profit and Loss Account
Formof .34(1)
Reserve
Minimum requirements of 21 Reserve and Paid-up Capital,
minimum requirements of 13
436 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
The basic difference between the audit of a company and that of other organisations is that
the duties of an auditor have been clearly defined under the Companies Ordinance, 1984,
whereas the duties in other cases is a. matter to be agreed upon between the auditor and his
client. The duties ofthe auditor may vary according to the terms of the contract. The extent of the
. work to be performed would depend upon the precise nature of the instructions received from
the client. It is advisable to obtain the instructions in writing while adopting the technique and
extent of checking and subsequent reporting thereon, the following considerations should merit
in the mind ofthe auditor; .
(1) The capacity in which he performed the work.
(2) Reliability and adequacy or otherwise of the records in relation to the
business.
(3) The obtainment or otherwise ofthe information and explanations.
(4) The
effect of the clients' instructions imposing material limitations on the
work to be undertaken. -. . .
Under the Partnership Act, 1932, it is not legally obligatory to get the accounts audited.
However, because of the inherent advantages of audit, most of the firms get their accounts
audited. The duties, powers, privileges and scope of the work to be done is mutually settled
between the auditor and the firm. It must be clear whether the work to be done is of auditing
nature or accountancy nature or of the nature of preparation of income-tax returns.
The procedure to be followed by a newly appointed auditor of a paitnership is explained
below:
1. Instructions. Definite instructions in writing as to the work to be
performed by him must be obtained. ' .'.
2. Partnership Deed. He should carefully peruse the paitnership deed and note the following
matters as to their treatment:
(a) Powers and duties of each partners.
(a) Capital contributed by each partner, his withdrawls, loans to or by the firm, interest on
capital or drawings.
(b) Sharing of profit and loss.
(c) Salaries, commission, provision for reserves and depreciation etc.
3. Amalgamation. If the business has been amalgamated, he should check the entries and
examine the basis of valuation of the business amalgamated.
4. Contracts. He should examine contracts entered into by the firm with the third parties.
5. Minutes. Minute book of partners should be inspected. Resolutions passed for approval
of accounts should be exanuned.
6. Goodwill The procedure for computing the amount of goodwill in the case of admission
of a new partner, retirement of a partner or on the death of the partner should be noted.
Some of the important legal decisions in respect of partnership accounts are discussed here:
1. Apfel vs. Annen Dexter & Co. (1926). The facts of the case were that the plaintiff brought
an action against the auditors that she was defrauded by her two sons who had acted as the
manager of the firm. It was argued that the auditor committed an act of negligence and failed to
uncover the fraud. A sum of 28,600 was claimed as damages.
The defendants (the auditors) argued that they were engaged to do the accounting work and
no audit was done by them. The certificate given was: "Prepared from the books of Mrs. Apfel
and in accordance therewith". The learned court gave the verdict that it was apparent from the
auditors' certificate that the nature of the work was that of accountancy and not auditing.
2. Maritime Insurance Co. Ltd. vs. William Fortune and Son. It was also held in this case
that the auditors were given material to prepare the accounts and not to audit them. They
(auditors) acted as accountants and therefore they were not responsible for the loss sustained by
plaintiff due to their alleged negligence.
3. Leech vs. Stokes and others (1937). In this case also the plaintiff argued that the
auditors were negligent ofthe performance of their duties. The defendants (auditors) pleaded not
guilty and stated that they were engaged "to prepare a report of profits for the Inspector of
Taxes" and that "there was no proper material, available for the preparation of a balance sheet"
It was held by the court that the defendants were not negligent in preparing a profit and loss
account from the material supplied to them and the instructions were given to them as to what
they were to do.
438 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
. The following are the advantages accruing from the audit of accounts to a sole trader:
1. Income Tex. — Audited accounts by the Chartered Accountants are generally accepted
by the Income-tax Officer and assessments are completed without too much difficulty and delay.
2. Proper Control. ~ The sole trader is assured that his accounts are properly maintained
and that he is not being defrauded by his employees. A regular audit also tends to keep the books
of accounts up to date.
3.. Comparison, — The audited version of accounts can be compared with the last year's
results and thus the sole trader can examine the material fluctuations in the figures and look into
the matter.
4. Estate Duty. — The audited accounts of a deceased are very useful and helpful to the
executors and administrators of such accounts for preparing the estate duty accounts.
Important advantages accruing to a firm getting the accounts audited are herein given:
1. Satisfaction o f Partners. — Generally, provisions exist in the partnership deed for
getting the accounts of a firm audited. To avoid the possibility of any dispute, audit is arranged
and it further indicates the agreement of all partners as the audited accounts are also signed by
them.
2. Reliance by outsiders. — Audited accounts and statements are generally relied upon the
outsiders in respect of the following:
(a) For income-tax assessment,
(o) For borrowing money.
(c) For obtaining additional capital.
(d) For securing compensations in the case of compulsory removal or business
Auditxif Sole Traders and Partnership Concerns 440
There is a difference in principle between the audit of a partnership firm and that of a
limited company, and that difference lies in the following directions:
(1) The audit of a partnership is not required by any law; it may be required by the
partners. The audit of the accounts of a company is made compulsory by the Companies
Ordinance, 1984.
(2) The partners may limit the scope of the audit, but in that case the auditor should
obtain a written statement from his clients giving the nature and extent of the work to be done by
him, so that there may not be any dispute in future. The position of the auditor of a private firm
and the fact that his duties are dependent upon agreement between the parties, have been
considered by the courts, and it has been held that, otherwise agreed, the auditor should carry out
a complete audit, and is only freed from that'responsibility where there is a specific agreement as
to the limitations of the work which he would be normally expected to perform.
In the case of a company, however, the rights and duties of the auditor are laid down by the
Companies Ordinance, and these cannot in any way be restricted by the company's articles or by
the company in general meeting, although such duties can be enlarged.
(3) The accounts of a partnership are to be kept in accoidance with the express
instructions of the partners and their partnership agreement. It is only when there is no agreement
of any kind between them that the relevant provisions of the Partnership Act, 1932, apply to the
keeping of accounts. The auditor of a company must, however, see that not only the provisions of
the company's memorandum and articles of association and the resolution of the company and of
the directors but also the provisions of law affecting the accounts of the company have been duly
complied with.
(4) The auditor of a partnership firm reports to the partners by whom he is appointed,
while the auditor of a company has to make his report to the members of the company even
though he may have been appointed by the directors or by the Federal Government.
441 Auditing: Principles and
Procedures
(5) The auditor of a partnership may be held liable only for negligence, if any, on his
part; whereas the auditor of a company may be liable not only for negligence but also for
misfeasance and certain other offences in relation to the affairs of the company.
ISAs
Reference may be made to the following:
1. ISA 2 dealing with Audit Engagement Letters.
2. ISA 24 dealing with Special Purpose Auditor's Reports.
While agreeing on the scope of work, guidance may be sought from the above.
DIVISIBLE
PROFIT
In the case of business owned by individuals and partners, the proprietors may ascertain
their profits in any way they like, because other parties are not interested therein. However, the
position with regard to the limited companies is quite different. Apart from present shareholders
of the company, there are other persons such as the prospective shareholders, debenture-holders,
creditors, employees etc., who are interested in this profit. Therefore, it is important that the
profit of the company should be properly ascertained, failing which the various parties would be
affected as under:
(1) If profits are understated, they result in depriving the present shareholders of their
dividends to which they are entitled. Further the market values of the shares also decline. .
- .-....„
(2) An exaggerated statement of the profits may result in an improper payment of
dividends.
(3) Dividends may be paid out through an overstatement of the profit. Thus dividends
may be paid out of capital of the company and it may become insolvent and ultimately go into
liquidation.
(4) An overstatement of the profits may result in increased remuneration payable to
managing agents, thereby causing a corresponding loss to the company.
The question of the < determination of the profits is of great importance. Its determination
affects several people in different walks of life, e.g., proprietors, income-tax authorities,
shareholders, directors etc. Consequently, it is a very important item in determining the^correct
profits of a concern. Authorities on the subject have defined the word "Profit" in different ways.
443 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Some of the basic complications which he in the determination of profits are listed below:
(1) How to value the assets at the close ofthe period?
(2) How should the liabilities be valued?
(3) Whether the previous losses must be written off before arriving at the correct profits?
(4) Whether or not it is necessary that reserves, special provisions for depreciation etc., be
provided for?
(5) The question of capital expenditure being treated as revenue expenditure and vice
versa, is to be given a careful consideration.
(6) A careful consideration should be given to those expenses the benefit of which may be
derived in the subsequent accounting period.
LEGAL PROVISIONS
Legal provisions governing dividends and manner and time of payment thereof are
contained in sections 248 to 251 of the Ordinance. Subjects covered include certain restrictions
on declaration of dividends, dividend to be paid only out of profits, dividends not to be paid
except to registered shareholders, period for payment of dividend.
In case the dividend after having been declared is not paid within the period specified, the
Chief Executive of the Company . shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may
extend to two (2) years and with fine which may extend to one million rupees.
In the following cases dividends will be considered to have been paid out of the profits:
(a) If any expenditure allocatable to revenue is charged to capital with a view to swelling
the profit ofthe company improperly.
(t>) If a company paid a dividend in spite of the fact that the profit and lose account
indicates the loss and there are no other undistributed profits.
(c) If a company distributes the^ sale-proceeds of one of its fixed assets.
The reasons as to why the Company Law prohibits the payment of dividend out of the
capital are briefly narrated below:
(i) The payment .of dividend out of the capital tantamounts to voluntary reduction
of capital without the permission of the court. Such an act is illegal under Section 961
(ii) If the payment of dividend out of capital is authorised by the memorandum or
articles of association, it is illegal, as it is ultra vires the Ordinance.
Directors who knowingly pay dividends out of capital are jointly arid severally liable to
make good the amount of such dividends to the company with interest.. Where, however, such a
payment had been made in the faith of a bona fide valuation of the assets of the company, which
subsequently proved to be an overestimate, the directors were not liable. The directors are also
entitled to rely,: in the absence of suspicious circumstances, on the accounts prepared by the
trusted officials of the company, even though such accounts proved to be incorrect. Moreover,
under Section 488, the court may relieve from liability a director who has been guilty of
negligence or breach of trust, but who, in the opinion of the court, .has acted honestly and ought
reasonably to be excused. If the shareholders know that a dividend is being paid out of capital,
the amount so paid may be recovered from them, and shareholders receiving dividend out of
capital with full knowledge of the facts cannot compel the directors to make good the amount of
such dividends.
The following considerations should weigh with the directors in recommending the
dividend:
(1) It is very desirable chat the dividend paid year after year should as far as
possible be urtiform.
(2) The present liquid resources of the company should be considered because it
would not be wise to pay the dividend although there may be sufficient profits, if such
payment is likely to reduce the working capital of the company below Its normal
requirements.
(3) The future financial needs of the company should not be over-looked.
Divisible Profit за»
(4) The rate of dividend in a really stable and wel] managed company is not
increased unless the directors have satisfied themselves that in ah probability a later
decrease will not become necessary.
(5) A reasonable proportion of the disposal of profits should be carried forward as
a precautionary measure.
(6) In a new company there need not be any hurry to start paying dividend and the
rate of the dividend should be fairly low in order to provide against any future
contingency.
(7) If the profit of a particular уегг does not justify the payment of the usual
dividend and if there is no certain hope of future improvement in the profits of the
company there should be nb hesitation in curtailing the dividend.
PAYMENT OF DIVIDEND
The following work should be done by the auditor in respect of ghfrcltiTig the payment of
dividend:
1. Articles to be seen. Ascertain that the dividend paid is in accordance with the rights attached
to the stock or share capital in question, by examining the memorandum and articles of
association of the company,
2. Profits are sufficient. Ascertain from the accounts of the company that the profits permitted
the dividends to be paid.
3. Minutes. Inspect the directors' or shareholders' minutes authorising the payment ofthe
dividend.
4. Bank account transfer. Check the transfer of the total amount of the dividend from the
general bank account to the dividend bank account.
- 5. Dividend warrants. Vouch the net dividend' column in the dividend book with the returned
endorsed warrants.
., 6. Bank reconciliation to be cheeked. Check the figures in the column with the dividend pass
book, and agree that total of the outstanding warrants with the balance shown by the pass book.
7.. Certificate to be obtained. Verify the balance of the dividend account by obtaining the
confirmation, of the bankers for balance in the bank account.
8. Verification of total dividend. See that the total of the 'gross dividend' column in the
dividend book represent the correct percentage of the dividend on the share capital on which it
is-paid, and that the income-tax at the prevailing rate accounts for the difference between the
gross and net dividend columns.
9. Arithmetical accuracy. Check the additions and cross additions of the dividend book.
Divisible Profit
8.
Balance to be tallied. Agree each year the balances of the old dividend bank accounts, by
seeing the returned endorsed warrants which have come in during the year, agreeing those still
outstanding with the balances on the accounts, and confirming such balances with the bankers.
.4
9.
Basis for payment. Ascertain that the amount appearing in the profit and loss account
includes the dividend (if any) which the directors propose to pay for the period, and that the basis
of payment with regard to income-tax is correctly described.
APPROPRIATION OF PROFITS
The power to decide how the profits of a company are to be disposed of is given by law to
the directors, because they are the persons who are responsible for the successful working ofthe
company. In a private business, the whole of the profits
448 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
may be withdrawn by the proprietors from the business, but in a limited сожежп» the
shareholders cannot claim that the entire available profitB should be distribute to them.
The directors also usually possess (by virtue of powers vested in them hy articles of
association) an absolute power for making appropriations, ЪеЗЪг= recoinmending the amount
of profits to be distributed among the shareholders, tc set aside out of the profits of the company
such sums as they think proper as a reserve or reserves which may be required for the purpose of
the company. The practice with regard to the disposal of profits of a company is, therefore, as
follows:
(1) Transfers to reserves, if any, are made by the directors with their own authority
without the consent of the shareholders, and such appropriations are shown in the
profit and loss account of the year out of whose profits they are made.
(2) Dividends to shareholders are to be legally recommended by the directors and are to
be finally approved by the shareholders in ordinary general meetings; and the
shareholders have no right to increase the amount of dividends recommended by the
directors, though they may reduce it if they so desire. In practice, however, the
dividends as recommended by the directors are never reduced by the shareholders^
because if they did so their own pockets would be touched.
The dividends proposed by directors out of the available profits of a particular year are
net recorded in the account of the year out of whose profits they are to be distributed,
because they are not a legal liability of the company until the ordinary general meeting
of the company has been held (and this is held during the r«xt year) and the curectors'
recommendations with regard to dividends have been formally approved by the
shareholders. Therefore, the dividends declared are recorded in the profit and loss
account of the next year; This is the old . method of accounting. But the modern
method of recording proposed dividends is to show the proposed appropriation for the
dividend in the current year accounts.
(3) The interim dividends, if any, are usually declared by the directors because they are so
authorised by the articles. Interim dividends-are, therefore, recorded in the profit and
loss account of the year, on account of whose profits they are distributed. "
(4) In a few companies in which the directors are not authorised by articles of association
even to transfer the reserves are recommended by the directors and are finally
approved by the shareholders in ordinary general meetings.
Divisible Profit
LEGAL CASES
In the absence of adequate statutory provisions on the subject of profit, difficulties have
arisen from, time to time in practice with regard to this question. The difficulties that have arisen
in the disputed cases are in respect of the true meaning of the term profits, i.e., what can be
legitimately included in profits available for dividends and what losses must be made good out
of those profits before they can be distributed. The question of divisible profit can be answered
after considering the following facts in the light ofthe case-law.
Capital Profits
Ordinarily capital profits are not available for distribution as dividends. However, they
could be distributed as dividends provided:
Past Losses
Based on sound financial policy, if there are past losses and profit has been made in the
current year, no dividend should be declared until the past losses have been wiped off:- J;
: The directors may, in the honest exercise of their discretion and subject to the articles of
association ofthe company, divide a profit arising in the period of account even though the losses
of period remain unabsorbed. •
In this respect the sound case-law from which guidance can be sought is described herein:
The Ammonia Soda Co. Ltd vs. Arthur Chamberlain and others (19Д8>. In the year 1910,
the company's profit and loss account showed a debit balance of 12,970.
Divisible Profit 451
For the purpose of the balance sheet issued by the company as on 31st July, 1911, the value of
the company's land was appreciated by 20,542, as a result of revaluation, and this helped to wipe
off the debit balance on the profit and loss account. The company made profits subsequent to
31st July, 1911, and paid dividends therefrom.
An action was brought by the plaintiff company against the defendants who were the
former directors of the company, seeking to make the directors liable to refund the dividends
already paid It was contended by the plaintiffs that the revaluation was not a genuine one, but
was made simply with a view to wiping off the past debit balance on the profit and loss account,
which should have been written off first out ofthe subsequent profits prior to the payment of
dividend.
It was held that a company may write up the value of its assets as a result of a bona fide
valuation and may distribute current profits without first making good the past losses.
Based on the judgment given in the-above case, it is clear that a company is not bound to
make good previous debit balance on the profit and loss account before dividing current profits.
The payment of dividend out of current profits, without making good past losses not necessarily
amount to payment of dividend out of capital. From the viewpoint of sound finance, it may seem
desirable to apply current year's profits in making up lost capital; but legally, if it is not So
applied and utilised in payment of a dividend, it will not amount to a reduction of capital. There
is thus no legal obligation to provide for lost capital out of current profits.
asset.
Until 1906 the balance sheets of the company contained an item of 140,000 for goodwill.
Between 1906 and 1917 various amounts were written off out of profits, and in 1917 the
goodwill had been written down to 51,000. In the meantime a reserve fund of 61,000 had been
built up out of profits, and in 1917 the goodwill account was eliminated from the balance sheet
by writing it off against the reserve fund, which was thus reduced to 10,000, the goodwill
disappearing altogether from the assets side of the balance sheet. In 1920 the reserve fund
amounted to 25,000, and there was also a sum of 33,000 balance of profits brought forward from
the previous year. The company then capitalised the reserve fund and 15,000 of the balance of
profits by issuing 4*0,000 1 bonus ordinary shares. In the two following years the company
made a loss of 20,060, and the debit balance of profit and loss account at 31st December, 1922,
was 20j504. In 1923 the company made a profit of 13,000. The preference dividends for'lB21,
1922 and 1923 were unpaid, and the directors, in their report for 1923, first pointed out that a
sum of 180,000 which might have been distributed in dividends had been retained in the business
by writing off the sum of 140,000 at which the goodwill had stood-originally in the balance
sheet, and by the issue in 1920 of 40,000 bonus 1 shares, and then recommended that the three
years' arrears of preference dividends up to 31st December, 1923, should be paid out of the
current year's profits, and that the debit balance of 20,504 should be carried to a suspense
account, and written off against a reserve of 40,000 to be created by writing to bank to reserve
40,000 out of the profits previously applied in writing off part of the goodwill.
As regards the first part ofthe motion, Russell, J., pointed out that it in no way depended on
the question of restoring the goodwill as an asset in the balance sheet and writing back profits to
reserve. The sole question was whether profit and loss was to be treated as a continuous account,
so that no dividend could be declared out of one year's profits until any debit to profit and loss in
respect of prior years had been made good. His lordship said that his point was covered by the
decision in Ammonia Soda Co. Ltd vs. Chamberlain (1918) 1 Ch. 226, and he, therefore, refused
to grant the injunction.
In dealing with the second part of the motion his lordship said that the point was not
covered by direct authority, had the company retained goodwill as an asset in. the balance*sheet,
and, instead of writing off its value out of profits, had carried those profits to a goodwill
depreciation reserved fund, it would have distributed those profits at any time to the extent by
which the amount of the reserve -fund exceeds the amount of actual depreciation. It was admitted
that the value of the goodwill was at least 40,000 and if, therefore, there had been 40,000 to the
credit of that reserve fund, the company could have distributed 40,000 of that reserve as profits.
The question was whether it made any difference that the company, instead of placing its profits
to reserve, had purported to apply them in writing off a corresponding amount of the value ofthe
goodwill. The answer to that Question
453 Auditing: Principles ami Procedures
depended on whether the company had finally and unreservedly capitalised those profits so as to
disentitle itself for ever from restoring them to reserve and treating them as profits. The accounts
which showed the particular method adopted had been approved each year by the shareholders at
the annual general meetings, but his lordship said that he was not satisfied that the shareholders
had thereby intended to bind themselves for all time to give up their claim to those profits, and to
treat them as capital only. In his opinion the shareholders might, if they thought fit, write back to
the profit account the 40,000 which was admitted to be the amount by which the depreciation
written off goodwill exceeded the proper requirements. There was no provision in the Companies
(Consolidation) Act, 1908, or in the constitution of the company, to prevent this course, which
was furthermore not prejudicial to creditors.
He, therefore, refused to grant this injunction also. The question raised in (2) [6) of the
motion did not fall for decision. . . .
Transfer to reserves
If the directors are authorised by the articles to make reserves, the profits available for
dividends are the profits remaining after such reserves have been set aside. Even if no such
power is contained in the articles, it has been held that the directors have the right to carry a part
of the profit to the next year and the shareholders cannot compel them to divide whole of the
profit (Burland vs. Earle, 1902).
The articles of association of a company must be seen to ascertain whether such a provision
exists or not.
of the first trading year between the pre-incorporation and post-incorporation period either
according to time or according to turnover. Where profits accrue more or less evenly throughout
the year, the time basis of apportionment is quite suitable, but in the case of fluctuating sales the
apportionment should be based on the turnover.
For example, a company incorporated on 15th February, 1966 takes over a business as from
1st January, 1965. The profits for the first years are Rs.60,000; the turnover from 1st January to
15th February, 1966, is Rs.75,000 and that for the remainder of the year is Rs.6,00,000; on the
basis of time the pre-incorporation profit is 3/24 of Rs.56,00,000 or Rs.7,500, but on the basis of
turnover it would be Rs.6,667 i,e, 75,000/ 6,76,000 of Rs.60,000.
. The appointment based entirely on time or on turnover cannot give an accurate result.
Therefore, whenever sufficient information is available, a combination of both time and turnover
should be used, whereby the gross profit for the year is apportioned between the two periods
according to turnover and the expenses on the basis of time or turnover whichever is more
appropriate according to the nature of the expenses. The reason for this differential treatment lies
in the fact that gross profit varies directly with the turnover, while expenses vary according to
other circumstances irrespective of the turnover in those periods. The items in the Profit and Loss
Account Should then be apportioned according to the' rules 6s mentioned below:
(1) Items such as directors' fees, auditors' fees, debentui-e interest, managing
agents' remuneration, etc., which relate solely to the post-incorporation period must be
charged thereto.
(2) Items such as partners' salaries, interest on capital, etc., which are applicable to
the pre-incorporation period, should be charged to that period.
(3) The remaining expenses are divided into two classes, namely, those that vary
according to time and those that vary with the turnover. These should then be charged
to the two periods on an appropriate basis.
(4) Should there by any expenses of a seasonal nature, these should be charged to
the period in which they have been incurred.
The balance of the profit earned prior to incorporation may be utilised in writing off
goodwill, or, if there be no goodwill, in writing off the fictitious e.g., preliminary expenses,
underwriting commission brokerage on shares, discount on share and debentures etc., or may be
carried forward as Capital Reserve not available for dividend.
The auditor should carefully consider the above guiding rule at the time of vouching and
verifying the pre- and post-incorporation profits of a company.
Divisible Profit 455
Capital Losses
Notwithstanding any Capital Loss, dividend may be paid out of current profits. Therefore,
it is not necessary to take into account the capital losses while deternuning the profits available
for distribution to shareholders. However, if it is proposed to pay a dividend out of realised
capital profits, capital losses must be made good.
(1) Cox vs. Edinburgh and District Tramway Co, Ltd — The company had switched over its
system from horse to cable traction and in this process had incurred a heavy loss of capital. The
court decided that such loss need not be made good before declaring dividends out of current
working profits.
(2) Verner vs. General & Commercial Investment Trust Ltd — The company was
established to acquire and hold investments and its holdings had in the subject of depreciation but
it had an excess of current income over the current expenditure out of which it was proposed to
pay a dividend, while ignoring the depreciation of investments. The Court of Appeal decided that
it was not necessary for the company to make good the loss of capital before paying the dividend.
Section 235 of the Ordinance deals with the treatment of surplus arising out of revaluation
of fixed assets. Salient features ofthe above section are given below:
1. Where a company revalues its fixed assets, the increase in, or sums added by writing up
of, the value of such assets as appearing in the books of accounts of the company shall be
transferred to an account to be called "Surplus on Revaluation of Fixed Account" and shown in
the balance sheet of the company after capital and reserves.
2. Except and to the extent actually realised on disposal ofthe assets which are revalued,
the surplus on revaluation of fixed assets shall not be applied to set off or reduce any deficit or
loss, whether past, current or future, or in any manner applied, adjusted or treated so as to add to
the income, profit or surplus of the-company, or utilised directly or indirectly by way of dividend
or bonus:
Provided that the surplus on revaluation of fixed assets may be applied by the company in
setting off or in diminution of any deficit arising from the revaluation of any other fixed
asset of the company.
3. The requirements of sub-sections (1) and (2) shall also apply to any amount representing
any increase in or addition to the value of any asset as a result of any revaluation of any fixed
assets done before the commencement of this Ordinance, howsoever described, to the extent of
the amount thereof appearing in the books of account ofthe company on such commencement.
456 ■ Auditing: Principles and Procedures
(а) A secret reserve is a reserve the existence of which is concealed from the
balance sheet. That is to say, there is a Surplus of assets over capital and liabilities
and that surplus is not disclosed. When there is a secret reserve, the actual Financial
position of the business is better than what is shown by its balance sheet.
The existence of a secret reserve is justified in the case of companies particularly banks,
insurance companies and other financial institutions, which depend for their success on public
confidence. Theoretically perhaps secret reserves may not be defended as the function of the
balance sheet is to show' the true financial position ofthe company; but in practice the necessities
of modem business demand the exercise of reasonable prudence on the part of those responsible
for the management of companies.
In some instance the existence of a secret reserve may be quite apparent from the balance
sheet, although not specifically disclosed upon it. This will be the case where a valuable assets
appears in the balance sheet at a nominal value.
(б) A secret reserve may be created: (i) by providing too much depreciation on
fixed assets or by writing down an assets altogether; (ii) by undervaluing floating
assets such as stores, stocks or investments; (Hi) by making excessive provision for
bad debts, outstanding liabilities and contingencies; (iv) by overstating liabilities; or
( v ) by charging capital expenditure to revenue.
(c) The existence of secret reserves is beneficial to the company and its members, because:
(i) they are a source of strength to the company and enable it in times of depression to preserve
its credit and maintain dividends and so to avoid violent fluctuations in the market prices of its
shares; and (ii) profit can be concealed from trade rivals thereby promoting the interests of the
company.
On the other hand, secret reserves are open to objection on the ground that (i) the published
accounts ofthe company become misleading and the shareholders and the public cannot obtain
therefrom a full knowledge of its affairs; in) losses arising out of bad management may be
concealed from shareholders; and (iii) improper practices on the part of directors and managing
agents of a company are made possible, e.g., manipulation of profits for the sake of fraudulent
dealings in shares.
457 Auditing: Principle} and Procedures
id) The auditor's duty in connection with secret reserves is a difficult one, and the Royal
Mail Steam Packet Company case decided in 1931 has thrown upon him a greater responsibility
in this respect. Where secret reserves exist, the auditor should thoroughly examine the whole
question and refer to the company's articles to ascertain that the directors have the power to.
make reserves. If he is satisfied that the existence of a secret reserve is necessary in the interest
of the company, that it is being utilised properly for the benefit of the company as a whole, and
that amount involved is not considerable, he may not report oti its existence.
But if secret reserves are not justified by the nature of the company's business or they are
being improperly used by the management or they being drawn upon for paying dividends or for
meeting losses without disclosing the fact in the published accounts, it is his obvious duty to
report the matter in detail to the shareholders.
SINKING FUND
A Sinking Fund is a reserve created out of profits and usually invested outside the business
in readily marketable securities and shares. The object is to establish this fund for providing
definite Periodic sum at a definite date for the purpose of repayment of liability or replacing a
wasting assets.
Accumulated Sinking Fund grows each year with the aid of periodical contribution and
interest. It is built up by setting aside a Certain yearly and half yearly instalments out of profit
and by investing it at compound interest outside the business in order to produce a required sum
at the end of a given period.
When money is needed for repaying the liability or replacing the assets, the investments are
sold out and out ofthe sale proceeds, the liability is repaid or the new. asset is purchased. This
amount cannot be used for paying a dividend to shareholders.
LIABILITIES OF AN
AUDITOR
The auditor must oMain instructions in writing from, his client in the case of a private
concern relating to the scope of his duties so that he may not be held responsible for work which
he never undertook to perform. If the auditor does not faithfully comply with the instructions
and performs his work in a manner so as to result in negligence and consequential loss to the
client, he may be held responsible for it. If he fails to perform his duties as laid down in the
agreement whieh was entered into between him and his client, he may be sued under the
Contract Act, 1872.
relieved from liability has been declared void by Section 194. However, the court may
relieve an auditor of liability for negligence, or misfeasance if it is proved that he
acted honestly and reasonably.
?4) If the auditor fails to perform his job with reasonable care and skill and consequently
his client suffers a loss due to his negligence, he is liable to make good the loss on an
action being taken against him by the company .
(5). Action against the auditor for negligence can be taken any time during the life-time of
the company Some of the leading decided cases in which the auditor has been held
liable for damages on account of negligence are:
1. Newton vs. Birmingham Small Arms Co. Ltd. (1906). The defendant company passed
special resolution to alter the company's articles of association whereby the auditors of the
company were authorised to examine the . internal reserves and to see that the disclosure of such
reserves was prohibited to be indicated to the shareholders,
It was held that provisions in the Articles of the company limiting the powers of the
auditors were ultra vires.
2. Armitage vs. Brewer and Knott (1932). The facts of the case are that Miss Harwood, the
book-keeper, had embezzled a large sum of money by manipulating the wages sheets. She was in
charge of the books, vouchers, wages sheets and other documents. There was no system of
internal check. The auditors were appointed to conduct a continuous and a detailed audit. The
charge against them was that they failed to exercise reasonable care and skill in the course of
examination of documents, e.g., wages sheets, that is, they failed to vouch and verify book
entries. The auditors put forth the defence that the frauds could not have been detected by the
exercise of ordinary and reasonable care.
The case was decided in favour- of the plaintiff and the auditors were ordered to pay
damages amounting to 1,259 to the plaintiff.
3. Arthur E. Green and Co. vs. The Central Advance and Discount Corporation Ltd.
(1920). The firm of auditors (Plaintiffs) claimed their fees due to them by the defendants. There
was a counter suit by the defendants, a money lending company, claiming damages from their
auditors in not providing sufficie*nt amount for bad and doubtful debts and consequently
inflating profits whereby more commission on profit was paid to the manager. Furthermore,
some of ihe debts were time-barred, and the auditors did not point out this to the 'hareholdeis.
The defendants, thus, contended that the auditors were negligent in the performance of their duty
and therefore liable for damages.
The plaintiffs' plea was that although some of the debts were time-barred, they did not point
out this fact as from past experience they found that the customers did pay the time-barred debts.
It was held that the auditors were negligent in the performance of their duty in not pointing
out to the shareholders regarding the insufficient provision for bad and
460 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
doubtful debts..
4. Leeds Estate Building and Investments Co. vs. Shepherd (1887). The articles of association
of the company provided that, the directors were to be paid bonuses in proportion to the dividends
paid and that both dividends and bonuses were to be paid out of'profits. The articles further:
provided that the auditor of the company was to state whether in his opinion the balance sheet was
a full and fair balance sheet, properly drawn up so as to exhibit a true and correct view of the state
of the company's affairs.
. The company (established in 1862) made no profit except in the year 1876, and went into
liquidation. During the course of liquidation proceedings, it was discovered that the company had
made no profits, and that by including fictitious items, it was shown that the company had made
profits and therefore dividends were declared and bonuses paid. The articles of the company were
not shown to the auditor.
. The auditor was sued for damages. The defence put forth by the auditor was that he was
unaware of the existence ofthe Articles of Association and that the actions was time-barred by the
Law of Limitation.
It. was argued by the liquidator that the'auditor was negligent in the performance of his
duties. Had he referred to the Articles, he Could have seen that the directors were to be paid bonus
in. proportion to the dividends paid. In this case there were no profits and hence no dividends or
bonuses to directors could be paid. Moreover, the balance sheet did not exhibit a true and correct
view of the state of the company's affairs. ■
It was held that the auditor was liable to pay damages. He ought to haye seen what
exceptional duties were cast upon him. Ignorance of the provisions of the Articles was no excuse
to relieve him of any responsibility. In regard to the plea of Law of Limitation, relief was given to
some extent.
<ч5. London Oil Storage Co. vs. Seear, Hasluck & Co. (1904). The auditors failed to verify
petty cash in hand which amounted to. 796, but actually only 30 were physically in hand. The
clerk of the auditor compared the petty cash with the accounts where it was shown as 796, but he
failed to verify the actual petty cash in hand, andvdifference of 766 had been misappropriated.
It was argued on behalf of the company that had the auditor verified the petty cash in hand,
the fraud would have been detected.
The defence put forth by the auditor was that it was mainly due to the negligence on the part of the
directors by keeping such large sums of money with the petty, cashier and in not checking the
petty cash book from time to time that the : fraud had been committed and, therefore, the directors
were responsible for the damage and not the auditors.
Liabilities ofan Auditor 461
Lord Alverstone, C. J., while delivering judgment held that it was not valid argument to say
that the directors were guilty of negligence and hence the auditors were free from their liahility.
His Lordship said that by omitting to verify petty cash in hand, the auditors committed a breach
of duty and hence were liable to pay damages. But only nominal damages of five guinea as were
awarded as the directors were considered to be also guilty of gross negligence and were a
contributory cause of the loss.
6У Irish Woollen Co. vs. Tyson and others (1900). In this case, the accounts of the
company had been manipulated and falsified in the foUowing respects:
7. In Re S.P. Catterson & Sons Ltd. (1937, 81 Acct L.R.62) where considerable defalcations
by a servant of the company had not been revealed, by the audit, the auditors were acquitted of
liability for negligence on the ground that they had pointed out to the directors that the system of
recording certain sales was unsatisfactory, and had recommended improvements, but these
recommendations were not adopted. Mr, Justice Bennett, in reviewing the responsibility of the
auditors, stated that the primary responsibility for the accounts of a company is with the directors
and in this case they were not a satisfactory team. He stated, "I have no doubt as to where the
primary responsibility for finding out the defalcations of this man spicer lies. It lies upon the
shoulders of the man whose duty it was as a director of this company to collect from spacer the
cash that he received. If that man had done his duty in any degree at all, the frauds could not
have been perpetrated in the way in which they were perpetrated." He came to the conclusion
that the auditor was an honest man trying to do his duty, and that in view of all facts of the case
and the audit notes, the applicant had quite failed to satisfy him that there was any negligence in
respect of the matters charged.
After a company has gone into liquidation, misfeasance proceedings can be instituted
against the auditor by:
(1) The hquidator, or
(2) The creditor, or
(3) A contributory of the company.
The term 'misfeasa..ce' means breach of duty involving the company in a loss. Under
Section 412, when a company is in liquidation, its past and present directors, promoters,
managing agents and auditors are liable to make good all losses sustained by the company on
account of negligence of duty or breach of trust if misfeasance proceedings are initiated against
him within the prescribed time. Some of the leading decided cases in this respect are explained
below:
1. City Equitable Fire Insurance Co. Ltd. (1924), - In this case the Official Receiver as
liquidator4 sued the directors and auditors in respect of alleged misfeasance.
The following claims were made against the auditors:
(a) That in the balance sheets sums due from Ellis & Co. (Stock-brokers) and
Mansell (the company's General Manager) were misdescribed by being included under
"Loans at call or short notice Loans." Part of the debt of Ellis & Co. was described as
"Cash at bank and in hand."
(b) That in fact the sums actually due from Ellis & Co. were larger than were so
included.
Auditing: Principles and Procedures
(e) That some ofthe company's securities were in the custody of Ellis & Co., and the
auditors failed to detect and report to the shareholders that these had been pledged by
that firm to third parties.
In the Court of Appeal Mr. Justice Romer's judgment was upheld. Lord Justice Sargant
described the duty of an Auditor as "verification and not detection."
Lord Justice Warrington said: "The duty of an Auditor is to verify the facts which it is
proposed to state in the balance sheet and to verify them using ordinary and reasonable care and
skill."
As a matter of fact, the auditors were protected by an Article of the company indemnifying
the directors, auditors and officers of the company against damages incurred in carrying out their
duties unless incurred by wilful neglect.
2. London and General Bank Ltd (1895). — Held that an: Auditor is guilty of misfeasance
who, whendissatisfied with the accounts of a company, does not plainly draw attention to the
grounds for his dissatisfaction in his report.
This was an appeal by one of the auditors against a judgment by Vaughan Williams by
which the auditors were declared liable for the payment by the company of certain dividends out
of capital, it having been decided by the Court of Appeal in the previous action in connection
with this hquidation that the auditor of a limited company is an officer of the company and
therefore liable for misfeasance proceedings. The auditor had neglected to' bring-to the notice of
the shareholders that the assets shown in the balance sheet of the company were over-valued
leading to a payment of dividends out of capital.
The auditor was ordered to pay the amount of a dividend, wrongfully paid, with interest.
3. The Kingston Cotton Mills Company Ltd. (1896). — The facts ofthe case are that the
accounts of the company had been falsified by its manager by overvaluation of stock-in-trade for
a number of years and thus profits were inflated and consequently dividend was paid out of
capital.
The auditor of the company was charged of negligence for having relied upon stock sheets
are prepared by the officers of the company, which were signed by the manager of the company.
The contention of the auditor was that there was nothing to arouse his suspicion and that he
relied upon, the stock sheets which were signed by a reasonable official ofthe company viz., the
manager. He further pleaded that while he signed the balance sheet he put the remark "as per
manager's certificate".
It was held that it was no part of the auditor's duty to take stock and that in the absence of
suspicious circumstances he could not be regarded guilty of negligence for having accepted the
certificates of responsible official of the company.
Liabilities ofanAuditor 464
■ 4, Republic of Bolivia Exploration Syndicate Ltd (1913). — The company was incorporated
in March, 1907, and had no special Articles of its own and, therefore, Table A ofthe Companies
Act applied. Thus the directors had no power to enter into contract with the company but they did
so and payments were made to them by the -company under these contracts^ The company went
into liquidation and the liquidator took out summons against the auditors for having committed
negligence or misfeasance or breach of trust for having certified certain payments in respect of
commission and profit-Costs which payments were alleged to be ultra vires. The alleged wrongful
payments were as under;
(a) Payment for commission (not to a director) for placing shares, for 338.10s.
(i)) Payment of profit-costs to a Solicitor-Director for 160.
(c) Payment to a director not accounted for by him amounted to 36.
As regards (a), the auditor did not point out such a payment in his report ofthe fust year, but
with regard to the balance sheet of the second year he stated "Cc^nnnssion paid for obtaining
subscribed for shares, 338.10s." But no qualification was appended to the auditor's certificate.
No question regarding the payment was raised in the first meeting. In the second meeting an
objection was raised to such a payment. The auditor admitted that the Companies Act did not
permit such a payment but the memorandum of company so and the matter was not pursued any
further by the shareholders.
^5. Westminster Road Construction and Engineering Co. Ltd (1932).— The auditors did not
point out to the Shareholders that the work in progress was a overstated and the liabilities were
understated. Hence profit shown as 3,458 while actually they amounted to 297. Therefore the
dividend was paid out of the capital.
It was held that the duty of the auditor was to see that no invoice pertaining to the period
under review was omitted. If he did not do so, he failed to perform his duty and was, therefore,,
guilty of misfeasance.
In regard to the valuation of "Work-in-progress" it was held that the duty of the auditor was
"to check the figures at which work-in-progress was brought into balance sheet."
The auditors were found guilty of misfeasance and were ordered to refund the amount of
dividend with interest to the company.
An auditor may be guilty of a criminal offence under the following sections the ■ summary
of which follows:
465 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
The contention of the auditor was that the auditor need not disclose the fact that the Secret
Reserves had been utilised in order to augment the profit of the lean years, and that if he did so
the object of creating secret reserves would be frustrated. It was further argued that as a matter of
fact secret reserve is created to fall upon in lean years, especially in banking, financial and
insurance companies where there is the question of public confidence. Hence, if the auditor did
not disclose the fact that secret reserve was being utilised to augment the profit, he was not .
guilty of a criminal offence. But now it is a settled fact that if Secret Reserves are utilised, such a
fact must be disclosed.
The position of the auditor relating to the secret reserve is very delicate. If he does not
disclose the fact that secret reserve has been utilised to augment profits, he will be guilty of
issuing a false statement or certifying an incorrect balance sheet. On the other hand, if he
discloses the fact, the object of creating secret reserve is frustrated.
In this case the accused were acquitted in the criminal case against them. However, the
auditor who had committed a breach of duty in connection with the accounts of the company
was made liable under civil liabilities to pay damages for the dividends which were paid out of
capital. The lesson drawn from this case is that if excessive reserve is created or where there is a
suspicion that such a reserve will be improperly utilised it would be the same way, if excessive
amount is drawn upon such reserve to conceal losses, the shareholders must be informed of the
fact. Of course, each case will have to be considered on its own merits.
At times it so happens that an auditor in the course of his duties and in his audit report finds
it necessary to criticise the actions of officers of a company or the other undertaking, he should
submit his report in a manner which may not result in exposing him to action on grounds of
defamation.
The audit report is considered as a privileged document. It is not likely to result in Hability
for libel, provided the following ingredients are in it:
(1) It does not misstate facts.
(21 It is not actuated by malice.
(3) It does not go beyond what is relevant to its subject.
(4) The statement made is bona fide.
The following two cases are of interest in this connection;
1. Lawless vs. The Anglo-Egyptian Cotton and Oil Co. Ltd (1869). The plaintiff worked- as
a manager of the factories of the company and the auditors of the company appended to their
report the following statement:
Liabilities ofan Auditor 467
"The shareholders will observe that there is a charge for 1,306 for . deficiency of stock
for which the manager is responsible. His accounts have been badly kept, and have
been rendered to us very irregularity."
The directors after getting the said audit report printed, circulated it to the shareholders. The
plaintiff brought an action for libel against the company. It was found that there was no evidence
of malice for the Jury.
2. Weld Blundel vs. Stephens (1920). The plaintiff claimed damages against the defendant
for breach of duty or negligence in the performance of his duty in the capacity of accountant or
auditor. In the course of certain investigations by the defendant into the affairs of a company in
which Mr. Weld Blundell was interested, the latter wrote a letter of instruction which contained
defamatory matter relating to two individuals connected with the management ofthe company.
The contents of the letter came to the knowledge of the individuals concerned apparently owing
to the letter having been taken to the offices, of the company by the partner of Mr. Stephens and
lost there. A libel action was brought by the individuals named in the letter against Mr. Weld.
Blundell, the client, and the action cost the latter 1,689 in damages and costs. The-client then
brought an action against the accountant, and the jury in "the lower court returned a verdict in
favour of Mr. Weld Blundell, awarding him 650 damages. It was said that the letter out of which
the action arose was written and published on a privileged occasion but the jury found that it was
written and published with malice in the legal sense. They also found that the defendant
neglected his duty in regard thereto. In the King's Bench Division the decision went in favour of
the defendant, but on appeal the decision was in favour of the plaintiff, with -nominal damages
only; finally, in the House of Lords judgment was in favour of the plaintiff, was damages of 650
and costs.
When two auditors are appointed to audit the accounts of a concern and to submit a report
on the accounts, each is jointly and severally liable, unless the contrary is clear from the terms of
the appointment.
An honorary auditor cannot relieve himself of liability on the plea that the agreement
between him and his client was not supported by consideration and hence it was. void. It is
generally believed in the profession that if he wishes to relieve himself of the liability, he should
not commence the work.
468 A uditing: Principles and Procedures
The auditors were not found negligent, and the question whether the insurance company had the
right to claim damages from the auditor was not settled.
5. Ultramares Corporation vs. Touche, Niven and Co. (1931). In the above case, a banker
advanced loan to the company on the strength ofthe audited balance sheet of a company. The
lender lost the money as the balance sheet showed the firm to be financially sound when in fact it
was insolvent. The auditor through negligence had failed to discover falsification and fictitious
debtors. Subsequently the banker sued the auditor for damages. The case was however
compromised. But late Justice Cardozo created the concept that gross negligence resulted in
constructive or technical fraud and if fraud is present, a right of action for damages is open to
anyone who suffered because he relied upon the auditors' report. In order to establish fraud.there
need be no contract between the auditor and the third parties whom the auditor has never seen
and whom he does not know.
6. Derry vs. Peek (1889). It was held that if a third party wanted to hold the auditor liable
for damages in tort, it should prove the following;
(o) That the statement or balance sheet signed by the auditor was materially untrue;
(6) That the auditor knew that the statements etc. were untrue;
(c) That the statements etc. were made with an intent that a third party should act on it;
i d) That the third party did act upon such statement etc., and consequently suffered loss.
7. Hedley Byrne & Co. Ltd vs. Heller and Partners Ltd, (1963). Before entering into a
transaction with X, the plaintiffs sought a reference as to X's standing from X's bankers. The
bankers provided the reference, but stated therein that they accepted no responsibility for its
accuracy. The reference proved to be misleading and the bankers had been negligent. The
plaintiffs suffered loss and sued the bankers for damages for negligence.
The House of Lords held that (1) the bankers could be held liable for negligence contained
in a reference, but (2) the disclaimer of liabihty in the reference exonerated them from liability
on the particular facts of the case.
The principles involved relating to third party liability are summarised below:
1. There has to be negligence on the part of the person preparing the document.
2. The third party must suffer financial loss.
3. The financial loss must arise solely due to the reliance by the third party on the
negligency prepared document.
4. The document must be prepared in full knowledge of the purpose.
470 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Several cases dealing with third party liabilities have been summarised earlier. One of the
recent case is that of Jeb Fasteners Ltd, vs. Marks Bloom & Co. Its most significant aspect is the
finding ofthe existence of a legal duty of care owed by auditors to a stranger at the time of the
audit.
A commentary contributed by Clifford Baxter and published in Accountancy (August 1981,
pp.98-100) is reproduced below:
and unknown to the auditor at the time of audit. There have been such cases in England,
America, Canada and New Zealand, and they will be mentioned in the course of argument below.
On the basis of such authorities, the legal advice which the, above-mentioned (hypothetical)
negligent accountant would have received up to the end of 1980 (and prior to the High Court
decision which prompted this article) would have been a source of comfort to both him and his
professional indemnity insurer. That advice would have indicated that it is a basic principle of
English law that the mere fact that a man is injured by another's negligent act does not, of itself,
give the injured person a cause of action against, the wrongdoer, and it is an essential preliminary
to maintaining an action in negligence for the plaintiff to show that he was owed a duty of
care.by the defendant.
Although the leading duty of care case, Donoghue vs. Stevenson [1932] AC562 based the
existence of such a duty on the test of reasonable foresight, this has not been applied to negligent
auditors. For social policy reasons, and in particular the fear of placing an unlimited liability on
accountants and encouraging a multiplicity of actions against them, the courts of England and
other English-speaking jurisdictions have sought to restrict those to whom a negligent accountant
is liable.
The origin of this social utility rationale (an expression applied in American cases) derives
from the famous American judgement of Chief Justice Cardozo in Ultramares vs. Touche [1931]
174 NE 441: 'If Lability for negligence exists, a thoughtless slip or blunder, the failure to detect a
theft or forgery beneath the cover of deceptive entries may expose accountants to a liability in an
indeterminate amount for an indeterminate time to an indeterminate class. The hazards of a
business conducted on these terms are so extreme as to enkindle doubt whether a flaw may not
exist in the impliaation of a duty that exposes to these consequences. '
, Consequently, in this" case, an accountant who had negligently prepared and certified a
balance sheet was held not liable to a stranger unidentified at the time of the audit, and whose
purpose in relying on the accounts was likewise unknown. The English counterpart of the
Ultramares case was Candler vs. Crane Christmas & Co. [1951] 2'KB 164. There, the majority
ofthe Court of Appeal held that the plaintiff's action against a negligent accountant must fail on
the broader proposition (applicable at that time, but since altered — see below) that pecuniary
loss, caused by careless misstatements, were not actionable in negligence.
TJenning L.J. (as he then was) dissented from this general proposition holding that
accountants 'owe the duty, of course, to their employer or client, and also I think, to any third
person to whom they themselves show the accounts, or to whom they know their employer is
going to show the accounts so as to induce him to invest money or to take some Other action on
them. I do not think, however, the duty can be extended still further so as to include strangers of
whom they have heard nothing and to whom their employer without their knowledge may choose
to show their accounts. Once the accountants have handed the accounts to their employer, they
are not, as a rule, responsible for what he does with them without their knowledge or consent,' .
472 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
The House of Lords, in Hedley Byrne vs. Heller and Partners Ltd [1964] AC
465, overruled the majority decision in the above case, holding that, in some
circumstances, negligent misstatements are actionable. However, their Lordships
specifically declined to base liability on the ordinary Dqnoghue vs. Stevenson
principle of reasonable foresight because of the prospect - of the indeterminate
liability of. defendants, and the multiplicity of actions,. such a course would
engender. In the words of Lord Pearce: 'Words . . . are dangerous and can cause vast
financial damage : . . If the mere hearing or reading of words were held to create
proximity, there might be no limit to the persons to whom the Speaker or writer
would be liable/ ..
negligently prepared in that some sales and purchases had been omitted — there had
been a failure to make provision for interest due on the company's over drawn
account, and there was a valuation of stock at a figure in excess of cost of
approximately 13,500. Consequently, whereas the certified trading and profit and loss
account had shown a net profit of 11, the reality was a loss in excess of 13,000. .
4. Judgement would be given for the defendant auditors, but by reason one of the fact that
on the evidence before the court, the plaintiff would have acted no differently and
would still have gone ahead with the takeover even had the true position of the
accounts been known to him. Thus, on the facts, the defendants' negligence was not
the cause of the plaintiff s loss.
The most significant aspect of the Jeb Fasteners decision is, of course, the finding of the
existence of a legal duty of care owed by auditors to a stranger at the time of the audit, and half
of the judgement is devoted to this one issue.
Mr. Justice Woolf, in so finding, derived, considerable support from a recent House of
Lords authority (not concerning accountants and whose facts bore no relationship to the case in
hand) in Anns vs. Merton Borough Council [1978] AC 728, where it had been held that: (i) to
establish that a duty of care arises in a particular situation, it is not necessary to bring the facts of
that situation within those of already decided cases in which a duty of care has been held to
exist; (II) prima facie, a duty of care arises if, as between defendant and plaintiff, there is a
sufficient relationship of proximity or neighbourhood such that, in the reasonable contemplation
of the former, carelessness on his part may be likely to cause damage to the plaintiff; (Hi ) that
prima facie position will stand unless there are any policy considerations which ought to
negative, reduce or limit the scope ofthe duty, or the class of person to whom it is owed, or the
damages to which a breach of it may give rise.
After citation of a recent authority on solicitors' negligence in Ross vs.
Counters 11979] 3 WLR 605, and the dissenting judgement of Cooke J. in the New
Zealand Court of Appeal case of Scott Group Ltd. vs. McFarlane, supra, Mr. Justice
Woolf went on to consider the liability of auditors; the appropriate test for
establishing whether a duty of care exists.is whether the defendant auditors knew,
or reasonably should have foreseen at the time the accounts were audited, that a
person might rely on those accounts for the purpose of deciding whether or not to
take over the company, and therefore, could suffer loss if the accounts were
inaccurate. :■■ ■ :
This approach was said to place a h'mit on those entitled to contend that there had been a
breach of a duty owed to them by auditors. First, they must have relied on the accounts; and,
second, they must have done so in circumstances where either the auditors knew that they would,
or ought to have known, that they might so rely.
If the situation was One whereit would not be reasonable for the accounts to be
475 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
relied on, then, in the absence ofthe auditors' express knowledge, the auditor would be under no
duty. In any event, there was a limit to the period for which audited accounts can be relied on.
The longer the period which elapses prior to the accounts being relied on, from the date on
which the auditor gave his certificate, the more difficult it will be to establish that the auditor
ought to have foreseen that his certificate would, in the circumstances', be relied on.
return of companies and the financial reports which are a component thereof, to be filed at the
Companies Registry, to be available for public inspection at a nominal fee) is based on the belief
that the public should be given financial iranrmation about companies in which they are
prospective investors or creditors, then it would seem axiomatic, since the Jeb Fasteners
decision, that a negligent auditor will be liable in damages to any member of the public who
carries out the appropriate search at the Registry in order to ascertain the financial position of a
particular company, and in reliance upon recent unqualified accounts found there, pursues a
transaction with that company, sustaining loss as a result.
In those circumstances, the defendant auditors will no longer be able to escape liabihty with
the plea that they did not owe the plaintiff a duty of care since they did not know of his existence
at the time of their audit, or his prospective transaction in relation to the company.
Again, an auditor who is aware of the financial difficulties of the company whose accounts
are being audited, and of the fact that the company is going to need financial support from
outside, will be treated by the courts as being in a position whereby he ought to have realised that
his accounts could be relied on (until such time as a further audit was performed) by the
commercial firms of whom the company would look for financial assistance.
This was the position in the Jeb Fastener case, and the court confirmed that in those
circumstances the fact that the defendant auditor did not then know who precisely would provide
the financial support, or what form that financial support would take, was an insufficient factor
to exclude the duty of care.
In the course of judgment Re Kingston Cotton Mi l l Company Limited, Lord Justice Lopes
gave utterance to this phrase — 'an auditor is a watchdog and not a bloodhound'. The auditor,
like the watchdog, is employed to protect the interests of those who appointed him. While he
would be entitled to assume that trusted servants of the company were honest, he could only rely
upon their statement provided he took reasonable care and used his normal skill. In adopting the
attitude of watchdog, he would not be exonerated from his responsibilities if he took everything
for granted. He must perform his duties with the normal degree of skill and care. In case of
suspicions he must thorougldy investigate into the matter and assume the role of a detective, also
he is not expected to have a suspicious mind unless the ebrumstances of the case aroused his
suspicions.
However, the law is restricted from imposing upon an auditor responsibilities which the
circumstances of his office would not warrant. He is not likely to be held reliable resulting from
a fraud which could not be uncovered by the application of normal skill and reasonable
examination of the books of accounts produced to him. However, an auditor must not be a
sleeping watchdog.
SPECIAL POINTS IN
DIFFERENT CLASSES OF
AUDITS
BANK
1. Internal Check. Ascertain the adequacy of internal check system. In considering the
efficiency of the system, the auditor should hear in mind the following;
(a) The duties of clerks should be frequently changed.
(fcO No ledger clerk should be permitted to make entries in any book from which ledger
postings are made.
(c) All unusual entries and transfers should be authorised by a responsible official.
2. Banking Companies Ordinance, 1962. Acquaint yourself with the provisions of the
above Ordinance affecting the accounts and audit matters.
3. Attendance at the close of Business. The auditor should attend the bank at the financial
closing date and physically check cash in hand, foreign currency notes, cheques, drafts etc. on
hand; Travellers' cheque register. Bills in hand should be scrutinised and explanations for
overdue bills should be obtained; gold ornaments against which loans were given should be
physically checked.
4. Accounts. See that profit and loss account and balance sheet are drawn up according to
the requirements ofthe Banking Companies Ordinance, 1962.
5. Branches. See that certified branch returns in the case of country or foreign branches
have been correctly incorporated in the Head Office Books.
BRANCHES
1. System, Examine the system of accounting maintained by the branch or branches and
ascertain that uniform system of accountancy is employed by all the branches.
2. Certification. See that the returns from the branches are certified by the branch
manager or by a responsible official.
3. Returns' Incorporation. See that branches' returns are properly incorporated in the head
office books; conversion into home currency should be made in accordance with the set rules in
the case of foreign branches; if the goods supplied to branches are at market prices (proforma
invoices are being sent), it should be seen that proper adjustments are made to arrive at the
correct profit or
loSS. • ! ■ ■ ' ■ '
4. Debtors. Obtain a certified schedule of branch debtors and scrutinise it noting doubtful
accounts.
5. In Transit Ascertain that goods and cash in transit have been incorporated in the books
of account.
6. Attention. Proper attention should be given to the question of depreciation, reserves for
bad and doubtful debts, repairs and renewals, assets and liabilities.
Special Points'in Different Classes of Audits 479
BRICK COMPANY
BUS COMPANIES
1. Purchase of buses. See agreement with the sellers; enquire into the nature of purchase
(eg., instalment sale or hire-purchase) and see that interest payable with the instalment is
charged off to revenue.
2. Verification. Verify closing balance of stock of stores, petrol, tyres, tubes
etc.
3. Expenses. See that a proper system of payment of salaries, wages (to engineers, clerks,
drivers, conductors etc.), and purchase and issue of petrol, tyres, tubes, parts etc. exists.
.. 4. Repairs and Renewals. If the repairs and renewals are of variable nature, it is advisable
that repairs and renewals reserve is maintained; see that all repairs after proper certification by
the engineer are debited to revenue. a
5. Depreciation. See that adequate depreciation on the value of motors and buses is being
provided in the accounts.
6. Income, Study the method of collection of fares from passengers; compare the
conductors' way bills with traffic book and test check entries with the passengers' receipts;
vouch the receipts from advertisements with the returns from the agents and examine the
relevant contracts.
CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS
1. Rules and Regulations. Study Rules and Regulations particularly in respect of accounts
and auditing matters.
2. Accounts. See that the accounts are drawn up in accordance with the regulations.
3. Funds. See that funds earmarked for specific purposes have been dealt with
accordingly.
4. Assets and Liabilities. Vouch day to day and normal expenses with supporting
documents; verify purchase of instruments and physically examine them if they are available or
alternatively obtain, a certificate direct from the bank.
480 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
1. Income. Vouch - receipts of donation and subscriptions with supporting evidence; vouch
investment income from investments register; vouch receipt of rents from properties (if any)
with tenancy agreements, rent roll etc.
5. Minutes. Check minutes book of the trustees of Managing Committee for important
payments.
1. Internal Check. Examine the system of internal check and verify the daily receipts of
tickets for reserved and unreserved seats.
2. Liabilities. See that all liabilities in respect of purchase of materials, advertising posters
etc. have been accounted for.
3. Capital Expenditure. Verify allocation between revenue and capital and scrutinise items
lying in capital expenditure. The total cost of each production should be spread over the income
of such production.
CLUBS
with a list of members and counterfoil carbon copy receipts. Ensure that life memberships are
spread over a number of years; See that subscriptions received in advance or arrears are properly
appropriated and accounted for; Enquire into the system of supplying meals, refreshments,
drinks etc. to the members and vouch the receipts of cash.
5. Minutes. Examine minute book.
COLLIERIES
1. Liabilities. See that all liabilities under any contracts for supplies are reflected in
accounts.
2. Capital Expenditure Scrutinise capital expenditure incurred on:
(a) Construction of surface railway lines
(b) Underground tramways
(c) Workmen's residential accommodation
(a) Plant and other assets . . ■.
(e) Pit-Sinking
If wagons have been bought on liire-purchase basis, see that the instalments have been
correctly apportioned between, capital and revenue; Ascertain that adequate depreciation has
been charged in accounts on fixed assets; satisfy that correct allocation has been made between
revenue and capital.
3. ■ Development Expenditure. The" above expenditure will ordinarily be
distributed over the period during which such expenditure is expected to be
remunerative.
4. Short Workings. These would be shown as assets in the balance sheet; The question of
recouping short working out of future royalties should also be looked
into.-
5. Minimum Rent. Inspect necessary lease and agreements and look into the question of
minimum rent and royalties.
6. Unsold Stock. Examine the basis of valuation of unsold stock; if the selling price is less
than the cost, it would be sold at the realisable value.
7. Wages. Examine the actual system applicable in respect ofthe preparation of wage
sheets and subsequent payments.
8. Sales. Verify sales with sale agents accounts, contracts with railway authorities and
other consumers; and enquire into the rates charged.
9. Comparison, Compare the total quantity of output and the cost of output per ton.
Compare with the figures of previous year and obtain satisfactory explanations for any material
fluctuations.
Special Points in Different Classes of Audits 482
CONTRACTORS
(including controcting companies, buildings, engineers,
shipbuilders etc.)
1. Cost Accounts System. The auditor should ascertain the system of dealing with wages
and expenditure on stores, materials etc., and treatment of indirect expenditure and test its
efficiency.
2. Work i n Progress Value. He should verify the items of the schedule showing how the
value has been arrived at in respect of work-in-progress. Value of this should be compared with
the latest available architect's, surveyor's or engineer's certificates.
3. Contract Ledger. Careful consideration should be given to the question of liabilities to
sub-contractors. The contract ledger for the succeeding period should be examined to see
whether any expenditure has been incurred in respect of contracts treated as completed at the end
of the previous year, and that if such expenditure has been incurred, provision was made for it at
the date of balance sheet.
4. Wages. He should examine carefully the system of internal control in relation thereto.
Wages sheets should be tested exhaustively. He should pay surprise visit at the sites when wages
are being paid.
5. Claims. Claims by the contractor arising out of prolonging the contract by the customer,
the impossibility and difficulties of obtaining essential materials and stores etc., should be
carefully looked into.
6. Profit on Uncompleted Contracts. The conservative principle is not to take any profit
until completion, but where profit is taken into account, the auditor should examine the method
by which the estimated figure is arrived at, and see that ample margin is allowed for
contingencies.
7. The provision of IAS 11 should be read in terms of application to contractors.
DOCTOR
1. Income.. Check, the amount of visiting fees received and examine the system of
recording visits. Vouch the amount received from sale of prescriptions with the patients register
and ensure that an efficient check is done on compounders
483, Auditing: Principles and Procedures
EDUCATIONAL
1. Constitution. Ebtamine the rules, regulations, trust deeds, charters etc. (whichever is
applicable) relating to accounts, audit and matters in respect of management.
2. Budget Procure a copy of sanctioned budget and peruse it.
3. Income. Vouch receipts on. account of fees etc., with counterfoil carboncopy receipts and
register of students; examine authority for writing off irrecoverable fees; fees outstanding or paid in
advance must be adjusted and accounted for; Ascertain the .system of recovery of fines and extras
e.g. examinationfees, duplicate copies of diplomas, hostel rent, electricity charges etc., and their
treatment in accounts; vouch the income of landed property, endowments, securities etc.
4. Expenditure. See that proper distinction between capital and revenue has been
maihtaiHed; examine the internal check system regarding the purchase of pmrisiohs,- linen etc. for
the boarding-house and test its adequacy; see that a donation for a particular purpose is spent
specifically for it; vouch capital expenditure in the usual manner but examine the sanction; check
payments of salaries.
5. Verification. Verify closing stock of linen, fVrrrdture, stationery outstanding assets,
liabilities, balances of bank and cash.
6. Investments. See that investments representing prize endowment funds are kept apart and
not mixed up with ordinary investments.
7. Government Grants. Check Government grants with correspondence and see that it is
utilised only for the purposes for which it has been given.
8. Accounts. See that annual accounts prepared for submission to governing body are in
accordance with the Rules and are signed by the head of institution.
Special Points m Different Classes of Audits 484
10. Check and examine share capital account and payments of dividends.
EXECUTORS' ACCOUNTS
1. Examine the will of the deceased noting provisions affecting the executors' accounts.
2. Examine Estate Duty Affidavits and the supporting schedules to ascertain the assets and
liabilities of the decreased.
3. See that the correct amounts of estate duties and other death duties have
been paid.
4. Verify income of all investments.
5. Vouch purchase and sale of securities, real property etc.
HOSPITALS
1. Income. Vouch receipts with counterfoil carbon copy receipts; Donations and
subscriptions should be vouched with correspondence, register of subscribers, counterfoil carbon
copy receipt and any available documentary evidence; vouch receipt of rent, dividend etc. in the
usual manner.
2. Expenditure, See that/the grants from Government or local authorities are properly
spent; voucl 'purchase of linen, furniture medicines, provisions, salaries. All other payments
should be vouched with available documentary evidence.
485 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
3. Ref und of Income Тол. Any income-tax deducted at source on interest on securities
received should be exarnined for refund, if the hospital is exempt from the payment of income
tax under the provisions of Income Tax Ordinance, 1979.
HOTELS
1. Internal Check. Test the system of internal check in force regarding the ordering,
receipts and payments of provisions, wines, stores etc., the receipt of cash and the accounting
thereof by the waiters and cashiers and quantity records of wines, spirits, provisions and other
stores; see that the system ensures that all charges incurred by visitors are duly debited to them
in the 'Day Book' or 'Personal Ledger'.
2. Cellar Accounts. Examine the system of keeping the cellar accounts in respect of
receipt and issue of wines and spirits shown to be on hand by periodical stocktaking and
compare it with the quantities shown in the cellar records.
3. Vouching. Check receipts from visitors from the cash book, vouch bar and billiard room
receipts. Verify purchase invoices and check their allocation. See that salaries and wages are
properly certified Scmtinise all items of capital expenditure.
4. Depreciation. Ascertain that adequate depreciation on hotel plant, furniture, fittings and
fixture has been charged in accounts.
5. Valuation Exaniine the accuracy of the method of valuing stocks of food stuff, wine,
linen, napery, plates, cutlery, kitchen utensils, etc.
6. Stocks. Check the system of ordering, receiving and paying for provisions and wine;
See that a system of sound nnancial control exists over stocks and stores. Compare the
inventories of stocks actually taken with the stock ledger by way of tests.
IMPORTING HOUSE
1. Internal Check. Examine the system of internal check and test its adequacy and
efficiency.
Special Points in Different Classes of Audits 486
As a result of legal requirements, the Auditors' Report to the shareholders will ordinarily take
the following shape:
2. Income. Vouch premium received with counterfoils of the receipt book, new policies
and renewal policy register; verify that total outstanding premium receivable has been accounted
for in books, vouch receipts of interest and dividends in investments and rents. See that accrued
interest is accounted for.
3. Expenses. Vouch commission payable to agents, noting that it does not exceed the rates
prescribed by the Insurance Act, 1938. See that unpaid commission as at the closing date has
been debited in the accounts and charged off to the revenue; surrenders should be checked with
the policies duly endorsed and returned
487 A uditing: Principles and Procedures
LANDED ESTATES
1. Estates. For acquisitions see conveyance deeds and solicitors' bills of costs; for
leaseholds see leasehold agreements; for sales see corresponding sale-deeds.
2. Rent Income Vouch collection of rent; Tally arrears of rent with the list. Inspect leases
or agreements with tenants. See that outstanding rents are carried forward to the next year.
3. Expenses. Vouch municipal taxes, insurance etc. and scrutinise repairs to buildings.
4. Soles of Produce Adjacent to Building or Land, See that sale proceeds are properly
brought on and recorded and outstanding amount of sale of produce is properly brought into the
accounts.
5. General. Enquire into property unlet; vouch miscellaneous receipts (sale of timber,
livestock etc.); Enquire into the method of paying wages, ordering, receiving and paying for
materials.
Special Points in Different Classes ofAudits 488
.1, Orders Received Check the orders received and see that on despatch of goods the
necessary particulars are entered in the VPP Register from the copies of invoices.
2. Cash Received Check cash received through the post office end the date of receipt in
the VPP Register. Trace the daily total of cash entered into the Cash Book.
3. Returns. Scrutinise the VPP Register in respect of any parcels returned and ensure that
it is taken into stock.
4. Outstanding Amount. Examine the VPP Register in respect of which payments have not
been received. All goods in transit at the date of balance sheet but subsequently returned should
be included in stock at cost less reasonable depreciation for damages in transit.
MINING COMPANY
1. Obtain a clear idea ofthe nature of operation, viz., heating of minerals or washing of
minerals.
1. Enquire into the system and ensure that takings are controlled and checked via the taxi-
meter.
1. System of Issue. Enquire into the system of issue of paper to newspapers, news-agents
and subscribers and the system of returned newspapers^
2. Receipte. Vouch the receipts on account of subscription and advertisement charges; see
that the unexpired subscription or advertisement charges already paid are reflected in the balance
sheet.
3. Payments. Payments made to contributions should be vouched.
4. Depreciation. Examine the basis on which depreciation of plant and machinery, motors,
carts etc. is calculated and ensure that it is adequate.
. 5. Liabilities. Ensure that all outstanding expenses are accounted for
especially in respect of accounts due to contributors; enquire whether any libel or
other actions are pending against the newspaper, in respect of which necessary
provision is to be made. Enquire whether there is a Uability in connection with
competitions in which prizes are offered. If so, see that it is provided for in the
accounts. '■ -
1. Carry out a general examination of the returns from the oil field, certified by the local
officials.
2. Give a careful consideration to the rates of depreciation applied to well-casing,
derricks, engines, boiler and other plant and machinery on the field.
3. Enquire into the system of apportioning expenses between capital and revenue.
4. Obtain a reconciliation of oil output and sale and scrutinise it.
PARTNERSHIP ACCOUNTS
1. Ascertain the exact nature and scope of work with reference to the
appointment details.
2. See partnership deed and carefully note the following:
(a) Period covered.
C6) Capital provided by each partner.
(c) Method of determining the annual profits.
(d) The proportion in which the profits or losses are shared among the partners.
490 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
PUBLISHERS
RAILWAY COMPANIES
1. Constitution, Study Special Act of the Assembly and note provisions affecting the
accounts, audit and management.
2. Internal Check. Enquire into the system of internal check and internal audit and test its
adequacy.
Special Points in Different Classes of Audits 491
1. Traf f i c Receipts. Check entries relating'to traffic receipts with monthly traffic
summary book and see that it is certified by the Station Masters as to its accuracy; Test check
monthly summaries in respect of passengers, goods, minerals and other receipts. Trace the
amounts shown on returns of cash remitted by the stations with entries in the subsidiary cash
books and then into the main cash book.
3. Capital Expenditure. Ascertain that allocation between capital, and revenue is being
done on correct basis; verify the capital expenditure with the certificates of engineers arid other
responsible officials.
4. Revenue Expenditure. Test check major items of revenue expenditure with the oiiginal
vouchers.
5. Verify. Securities, inventories of stocks and stores, outstanding traffic accounts,
outstanding liabilities, and fixed assets.
6. Liabilities. See that the unearned amount in respect of unexpired periods of season
tickets is duly carried forward; see that interest on all loans or debentures is duly provided in
accounts; verify redemption of loans or debentures.
7. Comparison. Compare the items of the Revenue Account with the figures of previous
year and obtain satisfactory explanations for material fluctuations.
8. Final Accounts. See that the Final Accounts are prepared in the form required by the
Statutes.
REGISTERED SOCIETY
The audit ofthe accounts of a registered society is not made compulsory by the Societies
Registration Act, 1860, but it may be required by the rules of the society. Where it is so
required, the auditor is to be appointed by the govermng body.
In auditing the accounts of a society, the auditor should proceed as follows:
(1) Read carefully the society's memorandum of association and the. rules; and note the
provisions relating to accounts and audit.
(2) Peruse the minute book of the govermng body in order to vouch the transactions of
the society.
(3) Vouch the cash book and other accounts in the usual way.
(4) Verify the assets and liabilities of the society.
The audit report must be addressed to the governing body of the society, and it may be
worded as follows:
492 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Gentlemen,
I have audited the balance sheet ofthe X Education Society as on June 30,19
. , . and its income and expenditure account of the year ended on that date. I have received all the
information and explanations that I had required. The balance sheet exhibits a true and fair view
of the state of affairs of the society and the income and expenditure account shows a true and fair
view of the excess of income over expenditure, according to the best of my information and
explanations given to me. and as shown by the books ofthe Society.
RETAIL STORES
' 1.' Cash Sales. Carbon copy of the cash memos should be checked with the abstracts
prepared by each salesman. Their totals should be traced into the Cash Book.
2. . Credit Sales. Carbon copies of bills should be checked with the sales journal.
2. Purchases. Invoices for purchase of goods should be checked and allocations to various
departments should be verified.
3. Stock Valuation. In cases where departments are charged with goods at selling price, or
at a stipulated percentage above cost, the auditors should ensure that stocks of such departments
are reduced to cost before incorporating the value of stock in the final accounts. .
RUBBER PLANTATIONS
1. . Properties. Verify the properties with reference to the title deeds and other
documents and by study of the above documents ascertain the terms and conditions.
2. Capital Expenditure. Scrutinise carefully all items of capital expenditure;
Ensure that proper allocation has been made between capital and revenue; see that
the expenses in the nature of maintenance and cultivation of areas and expenses
relating to the manufacture of rubber charged off to the revenue.
3- Quantitative Reconciliation' Obtain a quantitative reconciliation starting
Special Points in Different Classes of Audits 493
with opening balance adding to it production and deducting sales including losses of screening
etc., and finally terrmnating with closing figure.
4. Allocations. See that the general basis of allocation of expenditure between capital and
revenue is in proportion to the ratio that the acreage of the areas in bearing and that of areas not
in bearing, bear to the total acreage of Estate.
5. Stock Valuation. Examine the basis of valuing stock of rubber on hand at the date of
closing.
6. Advances. See that adequate provision is made in respect of irrecoverable advances to
workmen.
7. Monthly Summary. Examine the monthly summary of the Estate Manager's transactions
and trace it to the journal entry.
SHIPPING COMPANIES
1, Internal Check. Enquire into the system of internal check and test its
adequacy and efficiency.
2. Voyage Account. See that a separate account is kept for each voyage;
Examine each voyage account to see that all expenses relating to each voyage are
properly charged to it; see that this amount is credited with its legitimate freight
and passage money; ensure that at the end of voyage, each voyage account is
credited with the value of stores in hand and it is debited to the succeeding voyage
account. Ascertain that all outstanding liabilities in respect of each voyage are
reflected in the accounts; See that insurance premium attributable to each voyage is
properly charged to such voyage account.
3.. Ships. See that a separate ledger is maintained for each ship and adequate depreciation
is written off during the year.
4. Foreign Exchange Look into the question as to how the foreign exchange transactions
have been dealt with the books.
5. Insurance Fund See that it is kept on a proper level and corresponding amount is
specifically invested.
6. Capital Expenditure. Scrutinise the capital expenditure; See that repairs and renewals
are charged off to revenue and any heavy amount spent on overhauling a vessel may be spread
oyer a reasonable number of voyages.
7. Unearned Money. Ascertain that unearned moneys received on account of return
passages not utilised are properly carried forward.
8. Scrutiny. Scrutinise agents' accounts, statements received from insurance brokers,
tradesmen and average adjusters and for repairs and reconditions and ensure that they are duly
incorporated in accounts.
494 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
STOCK BROKER
1. Check jobbers' ledgers and enquire into accounts not settled at settlement
date.
2. Check posting to client ledgers and check schedule of balances.
3. Examine bought and sold continuation books.
4. Trace posting of stamps and interest to general ledger.
5. Examine dividend account.
6. Verify client's own investments and those held on behalf of clients.
SUGARCANE COMPANY
1. Internal Check. Examine the system of internal check in operation at mill and
agricultural farm.
2. Farm. See that farming operations are adequately supervised; vouch farm expenditure
and receipts; verify records of cane grown on company's own farm and use in factory; verify
farm assets, e.g. land,- livestock, implements etc.
3. Advances. Check advances to cultivators against supply of sugarcane.
4. Old Outstandings. See that irrecoverable outstanding are written off.
5. Light Railway or Tramways. Vouch the expenses.
6. Expenses. Vouch excise duty, cane cess and dead season expenses.
7. Contingent Liabilities. These should be noted at the foot of the balance sheet.
WATER COMPANY
1. Constitution. Study and note provisions in respect of share capital, debentures and
limitation of dividends, accounts, audit and management.
2. Water Rental Ledger. Test check with the certified property valuation list.
3. Consumers' Ledger. Test check postings; vouch allowances, irrecoverables, written off
and arrears carried forward; check apportionment of amount paid in advance.
4. Metered Consumption Check with meter readers' books.
5. Expenditure, Examine analysis of expenditure.
BUSINESS
INVESTIGATIONS
INVESTIGATION DEFINED
An investigation involves enquiry into the facts behind the books and accounts, into the
technical, financial and economic position of the business or its organisation. It is a searching
enquiry into the accounts of a concern with a particular object in view. It involves limited or
extended scope of work depending upon the purpose for which it is conducted and the terms
mutually agreed between an investigating accountant and his client.
OBJECTS OF INVESTIGATION
An investigation ofthe accounts of a business may be necessary in many cases. However, the
following are the principal objects for which investigations are-usually undertaken on behalf of;
(1) A person who intends to buy an established business.
(2) A company which proposes to purchase a business as a going concern and
requires a certificate of the past profits of such business for insertion in its prospectus.
(3) A person who intends to join an established business as a partner.
(4) A person who is approached by the proprietor of a business for a loan.
(5) A proprietor where fraud is suspected.
(6) The proprietor of a business where there are abnormal fluctuations in profits.
(7) The Central Government where it is alleged that a company is being
. . mismanaged, as provided in the Companies Ordinance 1984.
(8) The proprietor of a business where he has to submit a return required by
the Government under control regulations.
44i) Auditing: Principles and Procedures
The work of investigation is a highly technical one and requires a considerable amount of
knowledge and experience. Senior members ofthe accountancy profession with vast experience
generally undertake this work. Qualities required to be possessed by an investigating accountant
are: tact, patience, quick understanding, character, searching ability, ability to state candid facts
without fear or favour, sound knowledge of accountancy and auditing, vast experience of
professional field. Where it is desired he should obtain professional valuer's certificate for
market value of fixed and other assets.
SCOPE OF INVESTIGATION
1. Scope, The Investigating Accountant must obtain clear instructions in writing in respect
of object of investigation, period to be covered {if any) imposed upon the extent of his enquiry,
special points to be dealt with and so on. Having obtained this information he should then
proceed to do his job and decide the extent of his work.
2. Findings. The Investigating Accountant must arrive at his findings on the basis of the
work done, rather than jump to conclusions without substantiating them. He must preserve his
working papers so that when he is called to explain the matter, he is able to furnish the desired
information. Certain types of investigations may' give rise to a legal action, and the investigating
accountant may be called to give evidence in civil or criminal proceedings. In such
circumstances, the need to preserve working papers cannot be over-emphasised.
3. Report Contents. The contents of his report will depend upon the facts of the case and
will differ depending upon the object of investigation, r^uirements of his clients etc. But it
should generally cover the following:
The report should be written in such a clear style and language as is not interpretable to
several meanings.
Business investigations 498
Some of the leading cases heard in the courts relating to the position of the Accountant who
undertook to carry out investigation are described below:
1. Calmer vs. Merrett, Soh and Street (1914). The plaintiff wished to invest money in a
particular company of which the defendants were the auditors. A few months earlier, the auditors
prepared the first accounts of the company indicating a profit. It was subsequently discovered
that it was due to a large over-valuation of stock that the plaintiff asked him to prepare up to date
accounts to ascertain the current position before he'made the proposed investments. As the time
was short (around three days being available) the plaintiff agreed that an approximate statement
of affairs would serve his purpose. Consequently detailed audit was not carried out. The plaintiff
made the decision to invest on the basis of the profit reflected by the said approximate statement
of affairs. Subsequently several errors were discovered which ultimately resulted in a loss of over
1,900 to the plaintiff. The jury assessed the damages at 250.
2. Rex vs. Bishirgian and others (1936). The defendants were charged with a criminal
offence under Section 84 of Larceny Act, 1861 in respect of making a false statement in a
prospectus with the intention of inducing persons to become shareholders in a company. The
important falsity in the prospectus was - the omission of any reference to certain facts, viz — that
the businesses acquired were involved in very heavy commitment for the forward purchase of
pepper. The case was against the directors of the Company and not against the Accountant. It is
however of interest to the Accountants who are asked to give a certificate for inclusion in the
prospectus.
3. Short and Campion vs. Brackett (1904). The defendant was sued for fees in respect of
services rendered in preparing certain , accounts from his books to determine the amount of the
profit and goodwill. After the completion of the work, the defendant discovered that one of the
clerks was deficient in his accounts. It was argued that the failure of the plaintiff to discover that
had resulted in a loss to him. However, the court did not accept his view and he was ordered to
pay the fees. It was held that an Accountant making an investigation of accounts for an mcoming
partner is entitled to assume that the books were correct.
TYPES OF INVESTIGATIONS
The procedure involved in carrying out major types of investigations is herein explained.
Misappropriation of Cash
Book debts and advances should be circularised under his control and supervision and
direct confirmations should be obtained. The confirmations
Business Investigations 499
obtained should be cheeked with closing balances and all cases where differences are found,
should be scrutinised carefully and investigated further. Lists of bad debts should be obtained
and cases be examined to ensure that they are in fact bad and thus written off.
The system of internal control in respect of cash receipts should be critically studied.
Probing into the loopholes obtaining in the internal control relating to cash sales should be done.
The possibilities of misappropriation of cash by 'teeming and lading' should be looked into and
steps discussed in the chapter of 'Internal Control' in this respect should be practically1 followed.
Full vouching of all cash receipts and all payments must be done intelligently. In the case of
cancelled or spoilt, receipts, originals must be seen. Special attention should be given to the
checking of serial number of all supporting numbers establishing the correctness of entries
recorded as receipts and payments.'
Receipt of cash on account of unusual receipts (sale of waste materials, bad debts
recovered, allowances received etc.) should be looked into. Generally collection of amount
against the foregoing receipts is reflected in accounts and misappropriated amount.
All the bank transactions should be carefully checked and all cash collections may be
traced into the bank statements. All outstanding items. in the bank reconciliation should be
enquired into and then subsequent realisations, noted. Arithmetical accuracy of all books
recording details of receipts and expenditure should be carefully verified.
(1) Enquire into the reason as to why the additional finance is required.
(2) Ascertain the channels in which the loans will be utilised.
(3) Find out whether any party in the past has refused to give the loan. If so,
discuss the reasons.
(4) Determine the true value (cost or market whichever is the less) and consider
whether security offered is sufficient to cover the loan requested for.
(5) Ensure that the statement of assets and liabilities is prepared to ascertain the
net value of the assets and is delivered to the lender.
502 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
(1) Note the ratio of current liabilities to hquid resources (Acid Test Ratio).
(2) Study the normal earning capacity of the borrower by scrutinising the profit and loss
account for the past few years. There are greater chances of loan being repaid in time
if the earning capacity of the borrower is satisfactory.
(3) Make enquiries about the credit worthiness of the borrower.
Purchase of a controlling interest in
the share capita! of a limited
company
The investigating accountant may be asked to investigate the accounts and records of the
company before deciding to give an offer for the purchase of controlling interest in the share
capital of a limited company carrying on considerable manufactujing and trading activities. The
steps to be taken in carrying out the above investigations are:
1. Obtain a copy of memorandum and articles and carefully study .matters such as
objects, share capital and rights of different classes of shares, borrowing power, appointment and
remuneration of directors and any special powers.
2. Audited Accounts. Procure copies of audited accounts for the past five years. Scrutinise
the auditors' report to ascertain whether they contained any qualifications or not.
3. Trading, Profit and Loss Account. Prepare tabulated statement generally called 'analysis
of working'. Percentages to turnover of the different items of expenditure in Trading, Profit and
Loss Account should be worked out.
4. Balance Sheet. Synopsis of the balance sheets should be prepared in a tabulated
manner, as per the following details:
Xb) Cost o f Sale. Study critically the percentage in different years of the cost Of the
sales to sales.
.(c) Stocks. Find out the basis on which stocks and work in progress have been valued.
i d) Gross Profit Ratio. Ascertain the percentages of gross profit to turnover. Enquire
into material variations from year to year and compare them, if possible, with
those of similar other businesses.
(e ) Depreciation. Verify that adequate depreciation was provided in the books.
i f ) Bad Debts. Note the trend of the amounts written off during the last five years.
(g ) Abnormal Items. Take note of any abnormal item of non-recurring nature.
(ft) Taxation, Note the effect of any changes in the taxation of profits which may have
taken place and ensure that adequate provision has been made in the accounts in
respect of taxation.
i i ) Dividend Study the past dividend policy.
6. Scrutiny of Balance Sheet.
(a) Capital. Study the capital structure and the gearing ratio.
(b) Debentures. Ascertain their nature, conditions, rate of interest, terms of
redemption and whether a sinking fund for the redemption exists.
(c) Secured Liabilities. Look into any other secured liabilities and note, the nature of
security offered as a cover against them.
' i d) Current Ratio. Ascertain the current ratio (current assets compared to current
liabilities) and enquire into any marked fluctuations. Pay special attention to the
liquid position at the latest date.
is) Investments. Note the values at which they appear in the balance sheet and
compare with market value.
i f ) Intangible. Examine the nature and amount of any assets such as
good-will, patents, trade marks, copyrights, preliminary expenses,
commission or brokerage on shares and discount on the issue of the
shares.
ig) Ratio o f Fixed to Current Assets. Study the relationship between the
fixed and current assets.
7. Important Matters. The following matters should also be carefully investigated:
(a ) Future Prospects of the Business. Note contracts and orders on hand, any future
commitment for capital expenditure etc.
504 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Section 263 of the Ordinance provides a means of investigation into the affairs of a
company by inspectors appointed by the Corporate Law Authority.
On the conclusion ofthe investigation, the inspectors are required to send their report to the
Authority, a copy to the Registrar, a copy to the company, and a copy to the applicants for
investigation.
Powers o f Inspector. All pej-sons, who are or have been officers of the company, are
required to produce to the inspector all books and documents in their custody relating to the
company. An inspector may examine on oath any such person in relation to the company's
business: If any person refuses to produce any book or document or to answer any question
relating to the affairs of the company, he shall be liable to a fine.
Method of Investigation. The procedure to be followed by the inspector will be determined
by the terms of .his instructions, but in any case the following are the points to which he should
give his special attention:
*
1. Cost of management, i.е., remuneration paid to directors, managing agents and other
responsible officials ofthe company.
2. Any -direct or indirect interest of directors and managing agents in any concern with
which the company has business dealinps.
3. Loans given to directors and other officers of the company, interest charged thereon and
whether with or without security.
4. ' Important contracts entered into by the company, then- terms, the persons
with whom they are made, and whether such persons arerinany way connected with
the company's management,
5. Fixed capital expenditure incurred on behalf of the company and whether this has been
profitable-.
6. Expenses incurred in carrying on the business of the. company and whether there has been
sufficient control over them.
■;' 7- . Investment of the company's funds and whether it has been made in the best interests of
the company.
505 Audmrg: Principles and Procedures
When examining a set of comparative trading and profit and loss accounts of a business
with a view to interpreting the figures appearing therein, attention should be paid to the matters
given below:
1. Sales. It is obvious that the fatal disease in the business world is declining of sales. The
sooner this element of weakness is detected the better as otherwise the whole business may
encounter some danger.
2. Stocks. Accumulating stocks point to the need for investigation not only into the sales
policy of the business but also into its purchasing policy. Needless to say how essential it is for
the health of a business that the capital should not be locked up unnecessarily in stock, and the
control of the rates of stock turnover is perhaps the most important element that the capital
should not be locked up unprofitably in stock, and in the success of a business.
3. Percentage of gross profi t on turnover. This acts as a check upon stock, record of
purchases, sales and returns, direct expenditure, methods of production, efficiency of plant, and
leakages.
4. ■ Expenses. This causes of variations in expenditure may indicate the
advisability of disbanding a particular department, replacing an obsolete machine
or effecting economies in other directions.
Business Investigations 506
5. Depreciation and Reserves. The depreciation and reserves policy pursued would
indicate prudent or imprudent conduct of the business.
5. Percentages of Net Profit. The trend of the percentage of net profit on turnover and on
the capital employed in the business should be noted. If possible, it should also be compared
with that of other business of a similar nature.
Through Eighth Schedule annexed to the Companies Ordinance, 1969, Section 21 of the
Securities and Exchange Ordinance, 1969, was amended as per following redeeming features:
1. The Federal Government may, on its own motion or on representation of not
less than one fifth in number of the members of the Stock Exchange or, in the case of
business or any transaction mentioned above, on the representation of the Stock
Exchange or any person interested in or affected by such business or transaction, at
any time by order in writing, cause an enquiry to be made by any person appointed in
this behalf into the affairs of, or dealings in, any Stock Exchange, or the dealings,
business or any transaction in securities by any broker, member, director or officer of
a Stock Exchange.
2. Where any enquiry has been undertaken every past or present member,
director, manager or other officer of the Stock Exchange to which the enquiry relates,
and every other person who has had any dealing in the course of his business with
such stock exchange or with the director, manager or officer thereof, shall furnish such
information and documents in his custody or power or within his knowledge relating
to or having a bearing on the subject matter of the enquiry as the person conducting
the enquiry may require.
3. Where the Federal Government has directed that any of its powers and
functions shall be exercised or performed also by any specified authority,' such
authority may, by notification in the official gazette, direct that any of the said powers
and functions may, subject to such limitations, restrictions or conditions, if any, as it
may from time to time impose, be exercised or performed by any officer ofthe
authority specified by it.
507 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
AUDITING CASE
LAW
S зa
-а
оо 2с
а) в
Pо
* „g
to
оф (« J- и
13 *
5 to
•Я
о
11
w. & &
5g •J- 4J
2 3 5
Я
D о
5 S
divid
Of
accou
—
+3 ( |
!г„ я
Р
Я С +J
ш"я
ll а о
J3
Я Б 'I
£ л о -d Р
U
а С
aid
|
Ill
■ о -ej £ е Р. с
111
55о
е
■
О
<4 (3 tr
■'_| щ щ Я О о Я
|«аS )
ада о 'to &
a и -Й 35
0) ■ > Ш
я to а> aj e
ш
уь я
Т
З
й Я ft
О) ее
о СО со
ID
Е
а В
я
G д
9? с
с
оя о 1
я
f
O
Hi
5t
-о
S
<
<Р 2
Auditing: Principles and Procedures
у
&в ш
м я > 5. Р
Ф v-
ад
о
a
I.
в I
i d
яя 1
. (Я
4) Q И
-С ■а <о
с я
fSo toI 'Л
Q * С р 3!
CD
■Е
о
а S
EQ
1м я
Л
со ft Q3
л Ф
OS
м
о
Ш
.-С
я
С
1» П
"
я
0Q о ■
•я
в
аз,£>
W о
Г- Я
•о «
Б О 4
to
р <
св 1 -3
Auditing Case-Law 511
33 я
а, я
О
II
Й- 8
ПЯ
-i -t т-^
•—I
са JD
Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Auditing Case-Law 513
+? tj
тз
«ae
e
2 11
c
o
l-
H
1
e
n
g1
■
-
U
I
A uditing: Principles and Procedures
*£
о тз v to
0) tn
а! -о
2
«a 3 "О
to о я g > Я си с
О
^Q
S *-
II
2
й Й
о -5
■
.2 тз SI
дС
2 ~-
S .3
£
д
£ t* '
■3 Ё1'3". S
л
4 < =
з ь 8 я
я
tU
оо
^30 X
ю S
30
я
а
О
О
£a
3
! аЙ
*5 "IS
>Я
51
а Я
Л
— 1) _ Jj
— 'Л
Auditing Case-Law
12 Si
и
о
^ to
Лз 3£
3
о
J
Ё9
ts is
■Я IS
-о
> О, « ° "
Sf
"I ■2- < &
■и о.
О
1 i
—i
■а Ф
1
( оу"Яaе 3» я м
оо
Я ев о en
to CO
йчЗ
■ГС СП
■ шсS»=.
в -jпtoо .
1 11 *о с
bф
=> X3Я ■
V о
и
&•«, j£ ч а о
о
я ,aЯairs. ■3 §
а rn "53
> 1inteSh
м -S
9 £ ■ e.» -S g "О
и S я
"i. .£ *J a
u Й *
и 5Г йЙ h
о ц я К
"йей
О is 1
Из a га
1 I?
<я
I §3 И
й
со О ш ъ § э*
si
S а> t*4
О)
& с Q
Ия
а №а
О 0)
ST
Auditing: Principles and Procedures
3f о 1
>-J ffl
"I И
to to
О (0
II а T3
■ о -а.
JI II
s JTl £ 3
I
i * ■2 ^
о en о cn см
(Л СП
--1 Ы)
-«ёЙ
.1 со а)
0
я
щМ
3
.S §
a,
о
II
94
si
U5
За
I
11
ад Р
Auditing Case-Law 517
.Sg2S
"8
■5
I CO
я
C
D
я
!
10
о tu ,
111
If 1 J o "
2Su •73
ft 4-1
с *
1 I
1"
11 s
Ш
I
50 я ;
i
E
a? d *3*
ft
ш Ш с
a- tN
Я a
«• я ;
ii £ зд
S
SB
я
5i 3 ! 0
я О
О
«i 6
о
L
518 A uditing: Principles and Procedures
С S.*7} е
. 11 с
t
o
1
1
I
a
Ш
Auditing Case-Law 519
a
)
(У 1
•и
■a
2 s
г О
о
о
С a
s
П J8
S 1$
о
с -3 tjID Ф
5га
•8* со £
to ч- В
m Э *
*СС
С Ьв
1
3 га о С
£ |
I со
С
■л
520 A uditing: Principles and Procedures
I
ED f
I■ 1 si
-а о
-S
а
. и
1
§
1
Auditing Case-Law 521
"Я
Ц
a
в
I
1м
■a
c
d
а
5
5
S
си
■О
Сa а
й о
о со
к
g .
"3 о Э>
'rt И
О EQ ш
к со
522 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
t A % - jS л i
9 £ -Д о й Л
ВЛ^X
■Й В тЗ
d g Э
с
о
>■ о о»
j3
О, Я тЗ
& *й
j3
3 й о
с а>
о « Л тЗ
13
523 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
о. э
-эта
Auditing Case-Law 524
I3 - i°
о ей •a ™ § ё
в*
3и s.
e 1« § J й
ьВ
HI g
f t
s
*
> 03 « -S -&
a)
£
Ii 2 -A eJ
gal
2*
4
1
О Ун
IS
III
Я
а
я
5
тг
т >
е
С
О
с
л
л
d
я£ ,I
*1 D
CO
■a CO
■a ill I
со о 1
11 О
CO
in
■ff a
3£
Auditing Case-Law 525
я P.
«t я - *
si t
о
о с
о ч
а с
з о
фс
Ii IP
ill
lis |1
иJ
51 II
I& о
1* и
1 я £
<Л О
3£
526 Auditing; Principles and Procedures
1
3
о
a
1
J
Ф —
С ш
Oj Я
—
J )
Ю
Я£ t
ос
COMPUTER AND THE
AUDITOR
Introduction
The purpose of this Guideline is to provide additional guidance necessary to comply with
these basic principles when an audit is conducted in an electronic data processing fEDP)
environment. For purposes of International Standards on Auditing, an EDP environment exists
when a computer of any 'type or size is involved in the processing by the entity of financial
information of significance to :the audit, whether that computer is operated by the entity or by a
third party.
The overall objective and scope of an audit does not change in an EDP environment.
However, the Use of a computer changes the processing and storage of financial information and
may affect the organisation and procedures employed by the entity . to achieve adequate internal
control. Accordingly, the procedures followed by the auditor in his study and evaluation of the
accounting system and related internal controls and the nature, timing and extent of bis other
audit procedures may be affected by an EDP environment. Separate International Auditing
Guidelines will give further guidance on auditing procedures appropriate to an EDP
environment.
The auditor should also have sufficient knowledge of EDP to implement the auditing
procedures, depending on the particular audit approach adopted.
Planning
The auditor should gather information about the EDP environment that is relevant to the
audit plan, including information as to:
1. How the EDP function is organised and the extent of concentration or
distribution of computer processing throughout the entity.
2. The computer hardware and software used by the entity.
3. Each significant application processed by the computer, the nature of the
.processing (eg., batch, on-line), and data retention policies.
4. Planned implementation of new applications or revisions1 to existing
applications.
When considering his overall plan the auditor should consider matters, such as:
1. Determining the degree of reliance, if any, he expects to be able to place on the EDP
controls in his overall evaluation of internal control. - 2. Planning how, where and when
the EDP function will be reviewed including scheduling the work of EDP experts, as
applicable.
Audit Evidence
An EDP environment may affect the application of compliance and substantive
Computer and the Auditor -529
SUPPLEMENTS TO ISA 6
The three supplements to ISA 6, Risk Assessment and Internal Control-; are reproduced
below:
This Statement is issued as a supplement to ISA 6, Risk Assessment and Internal Control. It
does not form a part of ISA 6 or Addendum 1 to ISA 6, EDP Characteristics and Considerations,
and is not intended to have the authority of an ISA.
This Statement forms part of a series intended to help the auditor implement ISA 6 and
Addendum 1 to ISA 6 by describing various EDP environments and their effect on the
accounting system and related internal controls and on audit procedures.
Introduction
1. The purpose of this Statement is to help the auditor implement ISA 6 and Addendum 1 to
ISA6 by describing microcomputer systems used as stand-alone work-stations. The
Statement describes the effects of the microcomputer on the accounting system and related
internal controls and on audit procedures.
Microcomputer Systems
2. Microcomputers, often referred to as 'personal computers' or 'PCs,' are economical yet
powerful self-contained general puipose computers consisting typically of a processor,
memory, video display unit, data storage unit, keyboard and connections for a printer and
communications. Programs and data are stored on removable or non-removable storage
media.
3. Microcomputers can be used to process accounting transactions and produce reports that
are essential to the preparation of financial statements. The microcomputer may constitute
the entire computer based accounting system or merely a part of it.
4. Generally, EDP environments in which microcomputers are used are different from other
EDP environments. Certain controls and security measures that are used for large computer
systems may not be practicable for microcomputers. On the other hand, certain types of
internal controls need to be emphasized due to the characteristics of microcomputers and
the environments in which they are used.
Microcomputer Configurations
5. A microcomputer can be used in various configurations. These include:
• A stand-alone workstation operated by a single user or a number of users at different
items;
• a workstation which is part of a local area network of microcomputers; and e a
workstation connected to a central computer.
6. The stand-alone workstation can be operated by a single user or a number of users at
different times accessing the same or different programs. The programs and data are stored
in the microcomputer or in close proximity and,
Computer and the Auditor 531
generally, data are entered manually through the keyboard. The user of the stand-alone
workstation who processes accounting applications may he knowledgeable about
programming and typically performs a number of functions, (i.e. entering data, operating
application programs and, in some cases, writing the computer programs themselves). This
programming may include the upe of third-party software packages to develop electronic
spreadsheets or database applications.
7. A local area network is an arrangement where two or more microcomputers are linked
together through the use of special software and communication lines. Typically, one of the
microcomputers will act as the file server which manages the network. A local area
network allows the sharing of resources such as storage facilities and printers. Multiple
users, for example, can have access to information, data and programs stored in shared
files. A.local area network may be referred to as a distributed sy stem.
8. Microcomputers can be linked to central computers and used as part of such systems, for
example, as an intelligent on-line workstation or as part of a distributed accounting system.
Such an arrangement may be referred to as an on line system. A microcomputer can act as
an intelligent terminal because of its logic, transmission, storage and basic computing
capabilities.
9. Since control considerations and the characteristics of the hardware and software are
different when a microcomputer is linked to other computers, such environments are
described in other Supplements to ISA 6. However, to the extent that a microcomputer
which is linked to another computer can also be used as a stand-alone workstation, the
information in this Statement is relevant.
Characteristics of Microcomputers
10. Although microcomputers provide the user with substantial computing capabilities, they
are small enough to be transportable, are relatively inexpensive and can be placed in
operation quickly. Users with basic computer skills can learn to operate a microcomputer
easily since many operating system software and application programs are 'user-friendly'
and contain step-by-step instructions. Another characteristic is that operating system
software, which is generally supplied by the microcomputer manufacturer, is less
comprehensive than that found in larger computer environments; e.g. it may not contain as
many control and security features, such as password controls.
11. Software for a wide range of microcomputer applications can be purchased from third-
party vendors to perform (e.g. general ledger accounting, receivable accounting and
production and inventory control). Such software, packages are typically used without
modification of the programs. Users can also develop other applications with the use of
generic software packages, such as electronic spreadsheets or database, purchased from
third-party vendors.
532 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
10. The operating system software, application programs and data can be stored on and
retrieved from removable storage media, including diskettes, cartridges and removable hard
disks. Such storage media, owing to its small size and portability, is subject to accidental
erasure, physical damage, misplacement or
- theft, particularly by persons unfamiliar with such media or by unauthorized
■ users. Software, programs and data can also be stored on hard disks that are
:
not removable,- ~,
•
application development and documentation standards;
•
standards of report format and report distribution controls;
•
personal usage policies;
•
data integrity standards;
•
responsibility for programs, data and trror correction, and
•
appropriate segregation of duties.
Physical Security — Equipment
16. Because of their physical characteristics, microcomputers are susceptible to
theft, physical damage, unauthoi'ized access or misuse. This may result in the
loss of information stored in the microcomputer, for example, financial data
vital to the accounting system.
17, One method of physical security is to restrict access to microcomputers when
not in use by using door locks or other security protection during non-business
hours. Additional physical security over microcomputers can be established, for
example, by;
.• locking the microcomputer in a protective cabinet or shell;
•
using an alarm system that is activated any time the microcomputer is
disconnected or moved from its location;
•
fastening the microcomputer to a table; or
•
installing a locking mechanism to control access to the on/off switch. This may
not prevent microcomputer theft, but many be effective in controlling unauthorized
use.
20. Depending on the nature of the program and data files, it is appropriate to keep current
copies of diskettes, cartridges and hard disks in a fireproof container, either onsite, offsite
or both. This applies equally to operating system and utility software and backup copies of
hard disks.
effective means of program and data*ecurity is to remove diskettes and cartridges from the
microcomputer and place them in custody of the users responsible for the data or the file
librarians.
27. An additional access control for confidential or sensitive information stored on non-
removable storage media is to copy the information to a diskette or cartridge and delete the
files on the nonremovable storage media. Control over the diskette or cartridge can then be
established in the same manner as over other sensitive or confidential data stored on
diskettes or cartridges. The user should be aware that many software programs include an
'erase' or 'delete' function, but that such a function may not actually clear erased or deleted
files from the hard disk. Such functions may merely clear the file name from the hard disk's
directory. Programs and data are in fact removed from the hard disk only when new data
are written over the old files or when special utility programs are used to clear the files.
programs are developed and maintained at one place rather than by each user dispersed
throughbutan entity. ,'
40. In certain circumstances, however, the auditor may- decide to take a different approach.
These circumstances may include microcomputer Systems that process a large number of
transactions when it would be cost-effective to perform audit" work on the data at a
preliminary date. For example, an entity processing a large number of sales transaction on a
stand-alone microcomputer may establish- control procedures which reduce control risk;
the auditor may decide, on the basis оЩ^и preliminary review of controls, to develop an
audit approach which includes testing of those controls on which he intends to rely.
41. The following are examples of control procedures that an auditor may consider when he
intends to rely on internal accounting controls related to stand-alone microcomputers:
a. Segregation of duties and balancing controls:
• - Segregation of functions as listed in paragraph 36.
• Rotation of duties among employees.
• Reconciliation of system balances to general ledger control accounts.
•
Periodic review by management of the processing schedule and reports which
identify individuals that used the system.
b. Access to the microcomputer and its files:
• Placement of the microcomputer within sight of the individual
responsible for controlling access to it.
• The use of b y locks on the computer and ternimals-
•
The use of passwords for access to the microcomputer's programs and data files.
■ Restriction on the use of utility programs.
c. Use of third-party software: ■
•
Review of application software prior to purchasing, including functions,
capacity and controls.
•
Adequate testing ofthe software and the modifications to it prior to use.
•
Ongoing assessment of adequacy of the software to meet user requirements.
INTERNATIONAL STATEMENT ON AUDITING issued as Supplement'2
to International Standard on Auditing (ISA) 6 (February 1989) EDP
Environments — On-line Computer Systems
This International Statement on Auditing was approved by the International Auditing
Practices Committee in October 1988 for publication in February 1989.
The auditor should understand arid consider the characteristics of the EDP
Computer and the Auditor 539
environment because they affect the design ofthe accounting system and related internal
controls, the selection of internal controls upon which he intends to rely, and the nature, timing
and extent of his procedures.
This Statement is issued as a supplement to ISA 6, Risk Assessment and Internal Control. -
It does not form a part of ISA 6 or Addendum 1 to ISA 6, EDP Characteristics and
Considerations, and is not intended to have the authority of an ISA.
This Statement forms part of a series intended to help the auditor implement ISA 6 and
Addendum 1 to ISA 6 by describing various EDP environments and their effect on the
accounting system and related internal controls and on audit procedures.
Introduction
1. The purpose of this Statement is to help the auditor implement ISA 6 and Addendum 1 to
ISA 6 by describing On-line computer systems. The Statement describes the effects of an
on-line computer system on the accounting system and related internal controls and on
audit procedures.
order, the product code is validated by the main computer and the result of the
validation is displayed on the terminal screen. -
Intelligent terminal - used for the functions of the basic keyboard and screen with
the additional functions of validating data within the terminal, maintaining
transaction logs and performing other local processing. In the above sales order
example, the correct number of characters in the product code is verified by the
intelligent terminal and existence of the product code master file is verified by
the main computer.
Microcomputers - used for all of the functions of an intelligent
terminal with additional local processing and storage capabilities.
Continuing the above example, all verification of the product code
may be performed on the microcomputer. ■-
b. Special Purpose Terminals, such as; .•'
'.- • Point of sale devices - used to record sales transactions as they occur . and to
transmit them, to the main computer. On-line cash registers and optical scanners
used in the retail trade are typical point of sale devices.
• Automated teller machines - used to initiate, validate, record,' transmit and
complete various banking transactions. Impending on the design of the system,
certain of these functions are performed by the automated teller machine and
others are performed on-line by the
. ..' main computer.
5. Terminal devices may be located either locally or at remote sites. Local terminal devices are
connected directly to the computer through cables, whereas remote terminal devices require
the use of telecommunications to link them to the computer. Terminal devices may be used
by many users, for different purposes, in different locations, all at the same time. Users may
he within the entity or outside, such as customers or suppliers. In such cases application
software and data are kept on-line to meet the needs of the users. These systems also require
other software, such as access control software and software which monitors on-line
terminal devices,. .
6. In addition to the users of these systems, programmers may use the on-line capabilities
through terminal devices to develop new programs and maintain existing programs.
Computer supplier personnel may also have on-line access to provide maintenance and
support services.
On-line/Batch Processing
9. In a system with on-line input and batch processing, individual transactions are entered at a
terminal device, subjected to certain validation checks and added to a transaction file that
contains other transactions entered during the period. Later, during a subsequent processing
cycle, the transaction file may be validated further and then used to update the relevant
master file. For example, journal entries may be entered and validated on-line and kept on a
transaction file, with the general ledger master file being updated on a monthly basis.
Inquiries of, or reports generated from, the" master file will not include transactions entered
subsequent to the last master file update.
On-line I inquiry
11. On-line inquiry restricts users at terminal devices to making inquiries of master flies. In such
systems, the master files are updated by other systems, usually on a batch basis. For
example, the user may inquire ofthe credit status pf a particular customer, prior to accepting
an order from that customer.
17. Programmers may have on-line access to the systems that enables them to develop new
programs and modify existing programs. Unrestricted access provides the programmer with
the potential to make unauthorized changes to programs and obtain unauthorized access to
other parte of the system. The extent of this access depends on the requirements of the
system. For example, in some systems, programmers may have access only to programs
maintained in a separate program development and maintenance library; whereas, in
emergency situations which require changes to programs that are maintained on-line,
programmers may be authorized to change the operational programs. In such cases, formal
control procedures would be followed subsequent tc the emergency situation to ensure
appropriate authorization and documentation of the changes.
each on-line transaction. Such reports often document the source of a transaction
(terminal, time and user) as well as the transaction's details.
19. Certain EDP application controls are particularly important to on-line
processing. These include:
• Pre-processing authorization — permission to initiate a transaction, such as the use of
a hank card together with a personal identification number before making a cash
withdrawal through an automated teller maehine.
• Terminal device edit, reasonableness and other validation tests — program.- med
routines that check the input data and processing results for
completeness, accuracy and reasonableness. These routines may be performed on an
intelligent terminal device or on the central computer.
• Cut-off procedures — procedures which ensure that transactions are processed in the
proper accounting period. These are particularly necessary in systems which have a
continuous flow of transactions. For example, in on-line systems where sales orders
and shipments are being recorded through the use of on-line terminal devices in
various' locations, there is a need to coordinate the actual shipment of goods,
inventory relief and invoice processing.
• File controls — procedures which ensure that the correct data files are used for on-
line processing.
• Master file controls -— changes to master files are controlled by procedures similar to
those used for controlling other input transaction data. However, since master file data
may have a pervasive effect on processing results, more stringent enforcement of
these control procedures may be necessary.
• Balancing — the process of establishing control totals over data being submitted for
processing through the on-ljne terminal devices and comparing the control totals
during and after processing to ensure that complete and accurate data are transferred
to each processing phase.
21. Risk of fraud or error in on-line systems may be reduced in the following
circumstances:
• If on-line data entry is performed at or near the point where transactions originate,
there is less risk that the transaction will not be recorded.
• If invalid transactions are corrected and re-entered immediately, there is less risk that
such transaction will not be corrected and re-submitted on a timely basis.
• If data entry is performed on-line by individuals who understand the nature of the
transactions involved, the data entry process may be. less prone to eiTors than when it
is performed by individuals unfamiliar with the nature of the transactions.
• If transactions are processed immediately on-line, there is less* risk that they will be
processed in the wrong accounting period.
22. Risk of fraud or error in on-line computer systems may be increased for the following
reasons:
• If on-line terminal devices are located throughout the entity, the opportunity for
unauthorized use of a terminal device and the entry of unauthorized transactions may
increase.
• On-line terminal deviees may provide the opportunity for unauthorized uses such as:
— modification of previously entered transactions or balances;
— modification of computer programs; and
— access to data and programs from remote locations.
• If on-line processing is interrupted for any reason, for example, due to faulty
telecommunications, there may be a greater chance that transactions or files may be
lost and that the recovery may not be accurate and complete.
• On-line access to dr.ia and programs through telecommunications may provide greater
opportunity for access to data and programs by unauthorized persons.
23. On-line computer systems may also have an effect on internal controls. The characteristics
of on-line computer systems, as described earlier in this Statement, illustrate some of the
considerations influencing the effectiveness of controls in on-line computer systems. Such
characteristics may have the following consequences:
• There may not be source documents for every input transaction.
• Results of processing may be highly summarized; for example, only totals, from
individual online data entry devices can be traced to subseqaeni
processing.
546 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
•
The on-line computer system may not be designed to provide printed reports; for
example, edit reports may be replaced by edit messages displayed on a terminal
device screen.
25. Procedures carried out during the planning stage may include:
•
The participation on the audit team of individuals with technical proficiency in on-line
computer systems and related controls.
•
Preliminary determination during the risk assessment process of the impact of the
system on the audit procedures. Generally, in a well-designed and controlled on-line
computer system, it is likely that the auditor will place greater reliance on internal
controls in the system in determining the nature, timing and extent of audit
procedures.
26. Audit procedures performed concurrently with on-line processing may include compliance
testing ofthe controls over the on-line applications. For example, this may be by means of
entering test transactions through the on-line terminal devices or by the use of audit
software. These tests may be used by the auditor either to confirm his understanding of the
system or to test controls such as passwords and other access controls. The auditor would
be advised to
Computer and the Auditor 547
review such tests with appropriate client personnel and to obtain approval prior to
conducting the tests in order to avoid inadvertent corruption of client records.
27. Procedures performed after processing has taken place may include:
•
Compliance testing of controls over transactions logged by the on-line system for
authorization, completeness and accuracy.
•
Substantive tests of transactions and processing results rather than tests of controls,
where the former may be more cost-effective or where the system is not well-designed
or controlled.
•
Re-processing transactions as either a compliance or substantive procedure.
28. The characteristics of on-line computer systems may make it more effective for the auditor
to perform a pre-implementation review of new on-line accounting applications than to
review the applications after installation. This pre-implementation review may provide the
auditor with an opportunity torequest additional functions, such as detailed transaction
listings, or controls within the application design. It may also provide the auditor with
sufficient time to develop and test audit procedures in advance of their use.
Introduction
1. The purpose of this Statement is to help the auditor implement ISA 6 and Addendum 1 to
ISA 6 by describing data base systems. The Statement describes the effects fo a database
system on the accounting system and related international controls and on audit procedures.
Database Systems
2. Database systems are comprised principally of two essential components -- the database
and the data base management system (DBMS). Database systems interact with other
hardware and software aspects of the overall computer system.
3. A database is a collection of data that is shared and used, by a number of different users for
different purposes. Each user- may not necessarily be aware of all the data stored in the
database or of the ways that the data may be used for multiple purposes. Generally,
individual users are aware only of the data that they use and may view the data as computer
files utilized by their applications.
4. The software that is used to create, maintain and operate the database is referred to as
DBMS software. Together with the operating system, the DBMS facilitates the physical
storage of the data, maintains the interrelationships among the data, and,makes the data
available to application programs. Usually, the DBMS software is supplied by a
commercial vendor.
5. Database systems may reside on any type of computer system, including a microcomputer
system. In some microcomputer environments, database systems are used by a single user.
Such systems are not considered to be databases for the purposes of this Statement. The
contents of this Statement, however, are applicable to all multiple user environments.
Data Sharing
7. A database is composed of data which are set up with defined relationships and are
organized in a manner that permits many users to use the data in different application
programs. Individual applications share the data in the database for different purposes. For
example, an inventory item unit cost maintained by the database may be used by one
application program to produce a cost of sales report and by another application program to
prepare an inventory valuation.
Computer and the Auditor 549
Data Dictionary
10. A significant implication of data sharing and data independence is the potential for the
recording of data only once for use in several applications. Because various application
programs need to access this data, a software facility is required to keep track of the
location of the data in the database. This software within the DBMS is known as a data
dictionary. It also serves as a too) to maintain standardized documentation and definitions
of the database environment and application systems.
Database Administration
11. The use of the same data by various application programs emphasizes the importance of
centralized coordination of the use and definition of data and the maintenance fo its
integrity, security, accuracy and completeness. Coordination is usually performed by a
group of individuals whose responsibility is typically referred to as 'database
administration'. The individual who heads this function may be referred to as the 'database
administrator'. The database administrator is responsible generally for the definition,
structure, security,
. : operational control and efficiency of database, including the definition of the rules by which
data are accessed and stored.
12. Database administration tasks may also be performed by individuals who are pot part'of a
centralized database administration group. Where the tasks of database administration are
not centralized, but are distributed among existing organizational units, the different tasks
still need to be coordinated.
programs;
•
data ownership;
•
access to the database; and
•
segregation of duties.
Data Ownership
18. In a database environment, where many individuals may use programs to input and modify
data, a clear and definite assignment of responsibility is required from the database
administrator for the accuracy and integrity of each item of data. A single data owner should
be assigned responsibility for defining access and security rules, such as who can use the
data (access) and what functions they can perform (security). Assigning specific
responsibility for data ownership helps to ensure the integrity of the database. For example,
the credit manager may be the designated "owner" of a customer's credit limit and would
therefore be responsible for determining the authorized users of that information. If several
individuals are able to make decisions affecting the accuracy and integrity of given data, the
likelihood increases of the data becoming corrupted or improperly used.
19. User access to the various elements of the database may be further controlled
through the use of authorization tables. Improper implementation of access procedures can
result in unauthorized access to the data in the database.
Segregation of Duties
21. Responsibilities for performing the various activities required to design,
implement and operate a database are divided among technical, design, administrative and
user personnel. Their duties include system design, database design, administration and
operation. Maintaining adequate segregation of these duties is necessary to ensure the
completeness, integrity and accuracy of the database. For example, those persons
responsible for modifying personnel database programs should not be the same who are
authorized to change individual pay rates in the database.
24. Alternatively, risk of fraud or error may be increased if database systems are used without
adequate controls. In a typical non-database environment, controls exercised by individual
users may compensate for weaknesses in general, EDP controls. However, in a database
system, this may not be possible, as inadequate database administration controls cannot
always be compensated for by the individual users. For example, accounts receivable
personnel cannot effectively control accounts receivable data if other personnel are not
restricted from modifying accounts receivable balances in the database.
• the DBMS and the significant accounting applications using the database:
• the standards and procedures for development and maintenance of application
programs using the database;
• the database administration function;
• job descriptions, standards and procedures for those individuals responsible for
technical support, design, administration and operation of
the database;
• the procedures used to ensure the integrity, security and completeness of the financial
information contained in the database; and
• the availability of audit facilities within the DBMS.
27 During the risk assessment process, in determining the extent of reliance on internal controls
related to the use of databases in the accounting system, the auditor may consider' how the
controls described in paragraphs 17-21 are used in the system. If he subsequently decides
to rely on these controls, he would design and perform appropriate compliance tests.
28. Where the auditor decides to perform compliance or substantive tests related to the database
system, audit procedures may include using the functions ofthe DBMS (see paragraph 23)
to:
• generate test data,
• provide an audit trail;
• check the integrity of the database;
• provide access to the database or a copy of relevant parts of the database
554 Auditing; Principles and Procedures
Audit Software
Audit software consists of computer programmes used by the auditor, as part of his auditing
procedures, to process data of audit significance from the entity's account-ing system It may
consist of package programmes, purpose-written programmes, and utility programmes.
Regardless of the source ofthe programmes, the auditor should substantiate their validity for
audit purposes prior to use.
1. Package programmes are generalised computer programmes designed to perform data
processing functions which include reading computer files, selecting information,
performing calculations, creating data files and
Computer and the Auditor 555
Test Data
Test data techniques are used in conducting audit procedures by entering data fair., a
sample of transactions) into an entity's computer system, and comparing the results obtained
with predetermined results. Examples of such uses are:
1. Test data used to test specific controls in computer programmes, such as on-line
password and data access controls.
2. Test transaction selected from previously processed transactions or created by the
auditor to test specific processing characteristics of an entity's computer system. Such
transactions are generally processed separately from the entity's normal processing.
3. Test transactions used in an integrated test facility where a "dummy" unit (eg., a
department or employee) is established, and to which test transactions are posted
during the normal processing cycle.
When test data is processed with the entity's normal processing, the auditor should ensure
that the test transactions are subsequently eliminated from the entity's accounting records.
Uses of CAATs
CAATs may be used in performing various auditing procedures, including:
1. Tests of details of transactions and balances — for example, the use of audit software
to test all (or a sample) of the transactions in a computer file.
2. Analytical review procedures • for example, the use of audit software to identify
unusual fluctuations or items.
3. Compliance tests of general EDP controls — for example, the use of test
. data to test access procedures to the programme libraries.
4. Compliance tests of EDP application controls — for example, the use of test
data to test the functioning of a programmed procedure. _-.
556 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Tsivng
Certain computer files, such as detailed transaction files, are often retained ■aly for a short
time, and may not be available in machine-readable form when required by the auditor. Thus, the
auditor will need to make arrangements for the
558 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
retention of data required by him, or he may need to alter the timing of hie work which requires
this data.
Where the time available to perform an audit is limited, the auditor may plan to use a :
CAAT because it will meet his time requirement better than other procedures.
Using CAATs
The major steps to be undertaken by the auditor in the application of a CAAT are to:
(a) Set the objective ofthe CAAT application.
(fc) Determine the content and accessibility of the entity's files.
(c) Define the transaction types to be tested.
(d) Define the procedures to be performed on the data.
(e) Define the output requirements.
(f) Identify the audit and computer personnel who may participate in the design and
application of the CAAT.
(?) Refine the estimates of costs and benefits.
(ft) Ensure that the use ofthe CAAT is properly controlled and documented
(i) Arrange the administrative activities, including the necessary skills and computer
facilities.
(j) Execute the CAAT application.
( k ) Evaluate the results.
Procedures carried out by the auditor to control audit software applications may include;
(a) Participating in the design and testing ofthe computer programmes.
(o) Checking the coding ofthe programme to ensure that it conforms with the detailed
programme specifications.
(c) Requesting the entity's computer staff to review the operating system instructions to
ensure that the software will run in the entity's computer installation.
(d) Running the audit software on small test files before running on the main data files.
(e) Ensuring that the correct files were used — for example, by checking with external
evidence, such as control totals maintained by the user.
(/) Obtaining evidence that the audit software functioned as planned — for example,
reviewing output and control information.
(g) Establishing appropriate security measures to safeguard against manipulation of the
entity's data files.
The presence of the auditor is not necessarily required at the computer facility during the
nmning of a CAAT to ensure appropriate control procedures. However, it may provide practical
advantages, such as being able to control distribution of the output and ensuring the timely
correction of errors — for example, if the wrong input file were to be used.
Procedures carried out by the auditor to control test data applications may include:
(a) Controlling the sequence of submissions of test data where it spans several processing
cycles.
(b) Performing test runs containing small amounts of test data before submitting the main
audit test data.
(c) Predicting the results of the test data and comparing it with the actual test data output,
for the individual transactions and in total.
(d) Confirming that the current version of the programmes was used to process the test
data.
(e) Obtaining reasonable assurance that the programmes used to process the test data
were used by the entity throughout the applicable audit period.
When using a CAAT, the auditor may require the cooperation of the entity's staff who have
extensive knowledge of the computer installation. In such circumstances, the auditor should have
reasonable assurance that the entity's staff did not improperly influence the results ofthe CAAT.
560 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Documentation
The standard of working papers and retention procedures tor a CAAT should be consistent
with that on the audit as a whole. It may be convenient to keep the technical papers relating to
the use of the CAAT separate from the other audit working papers.
The working papers should contain sufficient documentation to describe the CAAT
application, such as:
(a) Planning
1. CAAT objectives.
2. Specific CAAT to be used.
3. Controls to be exercised.
4. Staffing, timing and cost.
(o) Execution
1. CAAT preparation and testing procedures and controls.
2. Details ofthe tests performed by the CAAT.
3. Details of input, processing and output.
4. Relevant technical information about the entity's accounting system,
such as computer file layouts.
(c) Audit Evidence
1. Output provided.
2. Description of the audit work performed on the output.
3. Audit conclusions.
(d) Other
Recommendations to entity management.
In addition, it may'be useful to document suggestions for using the CAAT in future years.
2. The application of audit procedures to ensure the proper functioning ofthe CAAT
and validity of the entity's data.
(b) In cases where smaller volumes of data are processed, manual methods may be more
cost effective.
(c) Adequate technical assistance may not be available to the auditor from the entity, thus
making the use of CAATs impracticable.
(d) Certain audit package programmes may not operate on small computers, thus
restricting the auditor's choice of CAATs. However, the entity's data files may be
copied and processed on another suitable computer.
562
Auditing: Principles and Procedures
GLOSSARY OF
TERMS
as of October 1991
Glossary of terms as of October 1991 related to ТРАС in their Handbook 1992 is as under:
Accounting Estimate — An approximation of the amount of an item in the absence of a precise
means of measurement.
Accounting System — The series of tasks in an entity when transactions are processed as a means
of maintaining financial records. Such a system should recognize, calculate, classify, post,
swrrmarize and report transactions.
Addressee — (See auditor's reports).
Adverse Opinion — (See auditor's reports).
Agreed-Upon Procedures — An engagement consisting of procedures of an audit nature which
the auditor and client have agreed upon in order to meet the client's needs for particular
information.
Analytical Procedures — The analysis of significant ratios and trends including the resulting
investigation of unusual fluctuations and items.
Annual Report — A document which an entity usually issues on an annual basis which includes
its nnancial statements and the auditor's report.
Assertions — The representations by management that are embodied in the financial statements.
There are seven classifications of financial statement assertions, existence; rights and
obligations; occurrence; completeness; valuation; measurement; and presentation and disclosure.
Existence — The control exists, or an asset or liability exists at a given date.
Rights and Obligations — A right is an asset of the entity and an obligation is a liability of
the entity, at a given date.
Occurrence — A transaction or event took place pertaining to the entity. " Completeness —
There are no unrecorded assets, liabilities or transactions. Valuation — An asset or liability
is recorded at an appropriate carrying тате.
564 Auditing: Principles and Procedures
Computation — The checking of the arithmetical accuracy of source documents and accounting
records or of performing independent calculations.
Confirmation — A response to an inquiry to corroborate information contained in the accounting
records. -
Control Environment — The overall attitude, awareness and actions of directors and
management regarding control and its importance in the entity. The factors reflected in the
control environment include management's philoBophy and operating style, the entity's
organizational structure and methods of assigning authority and responsibility and management's
control system, including the internal audit function, the functions of the board of directors,
personnel policies and procedures, and external influences.
Control Procedures — Those policies and procedures in addition to the control environment
which management has established to provide reasonable assurance that specific entity
objectives will be achieved. Generally, they are; procedures related to the proper authorization of
transactions, segregation of duties, design and use of adequate documents, safeguards over
assets, and independent checks on performance.
Control Risk — The risk that misstatement that could occur in an account balanee or class of
transactions and that could be material individually or when aggregated with misstatements in
other balances or classes, will not be prevented or detected on a timely basis by the system of
internal control.
Database — A collection of data that is shared and used by a number of different users for
different purposes.
Date of the Report — (See auditor's reports).
Detection Risk—The risk that an auditor's procedures will not detect a misstatement that exists in
an account balance or class of transactions that could be material, individually or when
aggregated with misstatements in other balances or classes. The level of detection risk relates
directly to the auditor's procedures.
Disclaimer ofOpin'.^n —(See auditor's reports). "
Documentation — The working papers prepared or obtained by the auditor and retained, in
connection with the performance of the audit.
EDP Application Controls —■ The specific controls over the relevant accounting applications
maintained by the computer. The purpose of EDP application controls is to establish specific
control procedures over the accounting applications in order to provide reasonable assurance that
all transactions are authorized and recorded, and are processed completely, accurately and on a
timely basis.
EDP Environment— The environment when a compute'- of any type or size is involved in the
processing by the entity of financial information of significance to the audit, whether that
computer is operated by the entity or by a third party.
Glossary of Terms 567
service to the organization- It is a control which functions by examining and evaluating the
adequacy and effectiveness of other controls.
Materiel Weaknesses — The weaknesses in internal control that could have a material-effect on
the financial statements.
Materiality — The magnitude or nature of a misstatement (including an omission) of financial
information either individually or in the aggregate that, in the light of surrounding
circumstances, makes it probable that the judgment of a reasonable person relying on the
information would have been influenced or one's decision affected, as a.result of the
misstatement.
Misstatement — A mistake in financial information which could arise from errors andfraud. -—
Modified Report — (See auditor's reports).
Non-sampling Risk — The risk that the auditor will make errors such as using inappropriate
sampling techniques or auditing procedures that may produce and incorrect inference from the
sample.
Observation — The looking at a processor procedure being performed by others. : Opinion
Paragraph — (See auditor's reports).
Predecessor Auditor — An auditor who was previously the auditor of an entity and who has been
replaced by another (successor) auditor.
Principal Auditor — An independent auditor reporting on the financial statements of an entity
using the work of another independent auditor with respect to the financial statements of one or
more divisions, branches, subsidiaries or associated' companies (components) included in the
financial statements of the entity.
Projection — The prospective financial information prepared on the basis, of hypothetical
assumptions about future events arid management actions which are not necessarily expected to
take place. Such information illustrates the possible consequences as of the date the information
is prepared if the events and actions were to occur and is commonly referred to as a 'what if
scenario.
Prospective Financial Information— The financial information which relates to events and
actions that have not yet occurred and may rot occur.
Qualified Opinion — (See auditor's reports).
Quality Controls — The policies and procedures adopted by a firm to provide reasonable
assurance that all audits done by the firm are being carried out in accordance with the Objective
and Basic Principles Governing an Audit, as set but in International Standard on Auditing (TS A)
1.
Related Party -— The parties are considered to be related if one party has the ability to control
the other party or exercise significant influence (participation in the financial and operating
policy decisions of an enterprise, but not control of those
Glossary of Terms 569
policies) over the other party in making financial and operating decisions. „ ■
Related Services — The reviews, agreed-upon procedures and compilations.
Representations by Management — A document the auditor includes in the working papers as
evidence of management's representations by summarizing oral discussions with management, or
by obtaining written representations from management. The written representations can take the
form of a representation letter from management, or a letter from the auditor outlining the
understanding of management's representations, duly acknowledged and confirmed by
management.
Reviews — An engagement consisting primarily of procedures that involve inquiry and
analytical procedures. The specific objective of the engagement is to give the auditor an
appropriate basis for stating whether anything has come to the auditor's attention as a result of
the review that causes the auditor to believe that the information does not give a true and fair
view (or 'is not presented fairly') in accordance with the basis of accounting indicated (negative
assurance).
Sampling Risk—The risk that the sample will not be representative of the population.
Scope Paragraph — (See auditor's reports).
Signature — (See auditor's reports).
Special Purpose Auditor's Report—-A report issued in connection with the independent audit of
financial information other than an auditor's report on financial statements issued in accordance
with ISA 13. Auditor's reports on: financial statements prepared in accordance with a
comprehensive basis of accounting other than relevant national standards or International
Accounting Standards; specific accounts, elements of accounts, or items of a financial statement
(reports on a component of financial statements); compliance with contractual agreements;
summarized financial statements.
Subsequent Events — The significant events occurring after the balance sheet date which may
have a material effect on the financial statements. Two types of events can be identified: a) those
that provide further evidence of conditions that existed at the balance sheet date and b) those that
are indicative of conditions that arose subsequent to the balance sheet date.
Substantive Procedures — The tests designed to obtain evidence as to the completeness,
accuracy and validity of the data produced by the accounting system. They are of two types: tests
of details of transactions and balances, and analysis of significant ratios and trends including the
resulting investigation of onusual fluctuations and items.
Successor Auditor ■— An auditor who replaces the previous (predecessor) auditor.
System o f Internal Control — The plan of organization and all the methods and procedures
adopted by the management of an entity to assist in achieving
570 A uditing: Principles and Procedures
management's objective of ensuring, as far as practicable, the orderly and efficient safeguarding
of assets, the prevention and detection of fraud and error, the accuracy and completeness of the
accounting records, and the timely preparation of reliable financial information. The individual
elements of the system of internal control are referred to as internal controls and are collectively
known as internal control.
Tests o f Control — The tests performed to obtain evidence about the effectiveness of the design
ofthe accounting and internal control systems and to obtain evidence of the operating
effectiveness of the policies and procedures applied.
Tolerable Misstatement — The maximum error in the population that the auditor would be
willing to accept and still conclude that the result from the sample has achieved the audit
objective.
Unqualified Opinion — (See auditor's reports).
Working Papers — The auditor's record of the plarining and performance of the audit, the
supervision and review of the audit work, and providing evidence of the audit work performed to
support the auditor's opinion.
INDE
X
Audit of firJBnH»! etatemerits, scope of, statements, 240, 241, 331 Auditor's report
236, 273* 279 Audit evidence, 30, 31, on revised Financial
237, 250, 324, statements example of, 174 Auditor,
466 appointment of, 60, 290 Auditor, compliance
Audit evidence, appropriate of, 47 Audit procedures, 81 Auditor, disqualification of,
evidence, suffering of, 47 Audit note-book, 292 Auditor, duties of, 293 Auditor,
definition of, 64 Audit office, organisational independence of, 293 Auditor, qualification
set up of, 57 Audit planning, 44, 236,466 of, 292 Auditor, qualities required in, 4
Audit programme, definition of, 61 Audit Auditor, powers of, 293 Auditor, status of,
programme, developing of, 45 Audit 298 Auditor, memorandum of, 301 Auditor,
programme, advantage of, 62 Audit criminal liabilities for, 407 . Auditor, labilities
programme, limitations of, 62 Audit of, 401 Auditor, liabilities for misfeasance,
programme, preparation of, 61 Audit 405 Auditor, liabilities for libel, 409 Auditor,
programme, specimen of, 64 Audit to a firm, liabilities for negligence, 401 Auditor report,
advantage of, 382 Audit to a sole traders, form of, 321 Auditor report to members, in
advantage case of
of, 382 Audit sampling, 115, 241 Audit bank, 319 Auditor report to shareholders,
software, consists of, 491 Audit, conduct of, in case
31 Audit, casting of, 23 Audit, definition of, 1 of banfe, 360 Auditor report to shareholders,
Audit, final of, 33 / Audit, inherent limitations submission of, ЗШ Auditor report', special
of, 11 Audit, interim, 33 Audit investigation, purpose of, 365 Auditor to third parties,
points Of, 437 Audit under other statutes, type liabilities of,
of. 342 Audit, objects of, 5, 25, 116 Audit, 411
origin of, 1 Audit, operation of, 23 Audit Auditor, using the work of, 37 Auditor work,
procedures, Audit procedures, affecting of, 25 scope of, 311 Authorisation for complete
Audit, recurring, 34 Audit, scope of, 26 verification of, 159
Audit, special points in different classes, 419
Audit, test checking of, 62:
Audit, ticking of, 23
Audited accounts, working papers of, 65
Auditing differentiated from
accounting, 2 Auditing profession in
Pakistan, history
of, 14,18.
Auditing, iundamental principles of, 15
Auditing, principles of, 1 Auditing,
techniques of, 15 Auditor articles of, 302
Auditor and the computer, 15 Auditor
appointed by private concern, liability of, 401
Auditors, certificate of, 366 Auditor and
partnership accounts,
procedures of, 379 Auditor-experience of,
493 Auditor lien, 297 Auditor's reports, 310,
313, 325 Auditor'* reports, basic elements of,
332 Auditor's report, dating of, 170, 171
Auditor's reports, event upto the date
of, 170, 241 Auditor's reports, general
matters of,
261;
Auditor's reports, introduction of, 306
Auditor's reports, inspection of, 297 Auditor's
reports, reading of, 297 Auditor's reports,
signature on, 297 Auditor's reports, special
purpose of,
242,273 Auditor's reports on financial
Index 573
Authorisation for purchase of, 137 audit of, 424 Commission, errors of, 6
Authorisation for sale, 140 Commission received, checking of, 124
В Commission, underwriting, 209 Contractual
Bad debts dividend, 124 agreements report on, 371 Computer assisted
Balances, list of, 146 audit techniques, 491 CAATs, description of,
Balance sheet, events occurring after 491 Comparative trading profit and loss
the date of, 169 Bank balance, 219 accounts, interpretation of, 449
Bank charges, vouching of, 131 Balance Compensatory errors, 6 Competence and
with agents, ascertain the skills, 5 Compile financial information,
reason, 220 Bank report for audit engagement to, 284
purposes, Components, audit of, 35
standard request for, 162 Bank Computation, 50
reconciliation statement, checking Computer assisted audit techniques,
of, 148 . 240, 252, 491 . Computer assisted audit
Bank statements, audit of, 148 techniques,
Bank, audit of, 420 controlling of, 496 Computer assisted
Bank, internal check, 420 audit techniques,
Basic principles of auditing, summary description of, 492 Computer assisted
of, Basic principles reporting, 286, audit techniques,
247,279,283, 284, 285 Bills payable, uses of, 492 Computer and the auditor,
checking of, 134 Bills payable book, 466 Computer system, on-line, 477 Computer
vouching of, 145 Bills payable, schedule of, knowledge, 493 Conduct of auditing,
197 Bills receivable book, vouching of, 145 planning of, 247 Confidentially, 28, 28Д 285
Bills receivable dishonoured, Contractor, audit of, 425 Contractual
examination of, 134 Book agreements, compliance
debts, schedule of, 214 Branches of with, 275 Considerations, reporting
book, audit of, 421 Brick company, of, 40 Contingent liabilities, 164,181,199
audit of, 422 Bus companies, audit Contingent, assets, 220 Continuous audit,
of, 422 Business investigations, advantages tsf, 31 Continuous audit,
437 concepts of. 31
С
Capital, 190
Capital and liabilities, 190 Capital
expenditure, 128 Capital losses, 397 Capital
profit, 392 Capital, interest paid out of, 206
Capital work in progress, 203 Cash and other
balances, verification of, 218
Cash book, credit side of, 148 Cash book,
debit side of, 148 Cash book, vouching of,
122, 125 Cash, embezzlement of, 8 Cash-in-
transit, 219 Cash purchases, 126 Cash
received from debtors, checking of, 122
Cash sales, 122
Cash, misappropriation of, 441 Cast, 148,
Cast and postings, 138, 141, 143, 144 Casual
vacancy, 291 CAATs, uses of, 493,
Considerations in the use of, 494 CAATs,
availability of, 494 Charges, fixed, 159
Charges, floating, 159 Charitable institutions,
audit of, 422 Checking, trial balance, 7
Cinema and theatres, audit of, 423 Client's
business, 44 Club, audit of, 423 Collieries,
574 A uditing: Principles and Procedures
Organisational sfaucture, 105 Overall scrutiny of, 227 Profit, appropriation of,
objective and stope of, 283, 284 Overall plan, 390 Profit, concept of, 384 Profit, difficulties
development of, 45 Ownership, verification in the determination
of, 155 of, 386
On-line computer system on the
P accounting system, effecting of, 481
Packages and empties, stock of, 213 On-line computer system on audit procedures,
Packages programme, function of, 416 effect of, 483
Partners payment drawings, On-line/batch processing, 479
entitlement of, 135 Partnership accounts, On line down loading/uploading . processing,
audit-of, 432 Partnership audit, types of, 381 480
Partnership concerns, audit of, 379 On line/inquiry, 479
Partnership firm contracted with audit On line/memo update, 479
of limited company, audit of, 383 Patents, Online/real time processing, 478
description of, 205 Payments side, vouching Profit, prior to incorporation, 396
of, 125 Performance of organisation, Program and data security, 481
appraisal Progress of audit, records of, 67
of. 77 Prospectus and auditor, 302
Performed agreed upon procedures, Publishers, audit of, 433
engagement to, 283 Petty cash book, Purchase contracts, checking of, 137
vouching of, 135 Petty cash ttansactions, Purchase ledger, audit of, 146
88 .■ Physical existence, 154 Physical Purchase returns book, vouching of, 142
security-equipment, 471 Physical security Purchase, inflation of, 139
non-removable media, Purchases, 89
471 - r\irchases book, vouching of, 136 Purchases
Physical security removable media, 471 invoices, checking of, 136, 138
Piece-work records, checking of, 127 Plant Purchases suppression, 138
and machinery, acquisition of,
129,203 Pledge, Q
159 Postal sales, 90 Qualifications, examples of, 322 Quality of
Population, 116 audit work, control of, 238 Queries, audit, 64
Postage expenditure, incurrence of, 133 Quantity of stocks, verification of, 211 ■
Preliminary assessment, review of, 102
Preliminary expenses, 206 R
Previous years audited accounts, examination Railway companies, audit of, 433 Railway
of, 61 sidings, expenses of, 203 Receipts and
Previous years audited reports, examina-tion payments account, abstract of, 307
of, 61 Receipts side, vouching of, 122 Record,
Principal, duties of, 42 inspection of, 49
Principal, obligations of, 42
Principle, errors of, 6
Procedures, analytical review, 25
Procedures, compliance of. 25
Procedures, substantive of, 25
Profession, basic characteristics of, 40
Professional competence, 4, 28
Professional conduct, 40
Professional misconduct, chartered
accountants of, 69, 72 Professional
misconduct, members of,
69,70,71. Professional misconduct,
students ofthe
institute, 73 Profit and loss account,
scrutiny of, 227 Profit and loss appropriation
account,
Index 579
Recoverable claims, details of, 217 components of, 370 Reports on financial,
Rectification entries, checking of, 146 smnmarized of,
Registered society, audit of, 436 Related 371
internal control of audit, Reports on contractual agreements,
evaluation of, 238 Related internal control compliance with, 371 Reports on
of audit, study components of financial
of, 238 statement example of, 374 Reports on
Related parties, definition of, 166 Related summarized financial
parties, existence of, 166 Related parties, statement, example of, 376 Selection,
transactions with, 168, , 263 random, 119 Selection, haphazard, 119
Related parties, transactions, examining Selection, systematic, 119 Share capital of
identified, 168 limited company,
Reliance on analytical review procedures, purchase of, 445 Share transfer audit, 193
extent of, 185 Shares and debentures, commission on,
Rents received, checking of, 123 207
Report, contents of, 314 Shipping companies, audit of, 436
Report, dating of, 271 Sinking fund, 400
Representation by management as audit Skills and competence, 283, 285
evidence, 175 Small business computer environments,
Representation by management, docu- using CAATs of, 498 Small business,
mentation of, 176 internal control of, 103 Software and data
Representation letter, 175 integrity, 473 Software and data back-up, 474
Reserve, 194 Sole traders, audit of, 379 Special audit, 347
Responsibility, division of, 40 Retail stores, Standards, overview of, 236 Special purpose
audit of, 435 Revenue account, verification of, auditor's reports, 367 Standard request for
226 Risk and assurance, 117 Risk assessment banker's,
and internal control, . 93,467 objectives of, 219 Statistical records, use
Routine checking, vouchers of, 112 Rubber of, 92 Statutory books and auditor, 304
plants, audit of, 435 Statutory report, certification of, 306 Stock-
in-trade, examination of, 210 Stock-in-trade,
s value of, 169 Stock broker, audit of, 437
Sales, 91 Stock in transit, value of, 212 Stores and
Sales book, vouching of, 139 Sales spare parts, inventory of, 209 Stores, checking
contracts, terms of, 140 Sales invoices, of, 91 Straffii cation, 119
checking of, 139, 141 Sales ledger, audit Student, duties and obligations of, 42
of, 147 Sales order, execution of, 139
Sales over the counter, 91 Sales returns
book, vouching of, 144 Sales, allocation
of, 140 Sales, inflation of, 142 Sales,
suppression of, 141 v . Salaries, payment
of, 128 Sampling risk, assessing of, 121
Sample results, evaluation of, 120
Sample, design of, 116 Sample, selection
of, 119 Schedule I, 69
Schedule П. -72
Schedule Ш, 73
Scrutiny, 147
Secret reserve and auditor, 398
Secret reserve, over depreciation of, 326
Securities, sale of, 124
Segment information, 57
Securities to the public, offering of, 1 ?3
Reports on financial statement,
580 Auditing: Principles and Procedures.