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Power System Stability and Control by Prabha Kundur PDF
Power System Stability and Control by Prabha Kundur PDF
P,, reactive power is
supplied to the line from both ends.sec. 6.1 Transmission Lines 225
F5=1.0 pu Eyz1.0
7km
Ps Qs Pr Oe
B = 0.0013 rad/km
06 1 = 800 km 600 km
Qs/Poy Qn = -Os 400 km
| 04
300 km
0.2F 2 = 200 km 300 km 200 km
02/ 04 / 06 08
v \. \
7=400km 600 km 800 km
Figure 6.11 Terminal reactive power as a function of
power transmitted for different line lengths
Transmission lines can be operated with varying load and nearly constant
voltage at both ends, if adequate sources of reactive power are available at the two
ends.
6.1.10 Effect of Line Loss on V-P and Q-P Characteristics
In the analysis of transmission line performance presented so far, we have
neglected line losses. We will now examine the effect of line resistance on Vp-P and
Qs-Pp characteristics by considering a 300 km, 500 KV line having the following
parameters:
R = 0.028 Qhkm xp = 0.325 O/km be = 5.20 us/km
© = 0.000057 nepers/km B= 0.0013 rad/km226 AC Transmission Chap. 6
The line is assumed to supply a radial load of unity power factor, with the sending
end voltage Ey maintained constant at 1.0 pu.
The relationships between Vz and Pg and between Qs and Pp are shown in
Figure 6.12, with and without the line resistance included, The values of Pp and Q,
plotted are normalized values with 1.0 pu equal to P, (1,008 MW).
We see from Figure 6.12(a) that the effect of the line resistance is to reduce
the maximum power that can be transmitted by about 8.5%.
The lower portion of the Qs-P, curves shown in Figure 6.12(b) corresponds
to the upper portion of the Vg-Pz characteristics, where the receiving end voltage Vz
is closer to rated value, The high values of Qs in the upper portion of the Qs-Pp curve
are due to the high values of line current (hence high X7* line loss) corresponding to
the lower portion of the Vg-Pz curve. We see that the effect of line resistance on the
computed value of Qs in the normal lower portion is significant only when Pa exceeds
P,.
6.1.11 Thermal Limits
The heat produced by current flow in transmission lines has two undesirable
effects:
* Annealing and gradual loss of mechanical strength of the aluminium conductor
caused by continued exposure to temperature extremes
. Increased sag and decreased clearance to ground due to conductor expansion
at higher temperatures
‘The second of the above two effects is generally the limiting factor in setting
the maximum permissible operating temperature. At this limit, the resulting ‘line sag
approaches the statutory minimum ground clearance.
The maximum allowable conductor temperatures based on arinealing
considerations are 127°C for conductors with high aluminum content and 150°C for
other conductors.
The allowable maximum current (i.¢., the ampacity) depends on the ambient
temperature and the wind velocity. The thermal time constant is on the order of 10
to 20 minutes. Therefore, distinction is usually made between continuous rating and
limited time rating. Depending on the pre-contingency current, temperature and wind
velocity, the limited time rating may be used during emergencies. As an example, the
230 kV line whose parameters are given in Table 6.1 has summer and winter
emergency ratings of 1,880 A and 2,040 A, respectively. These are design values
based on extreme values of ambient temperature, wind velocity, and solar radiation.sec. 6.1 Transmission Lines 227
1.0 pu Vp
ar
ee ee
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
1,008 MW
_ Without line loss
With line loss
PRIP,
“0 0.5 1.0 15 2.0
(a) Va-Pp characteristic
Qs!Po
_/ Without line loss
Corresponding to lower
part of Vg-P,, curve
Corresponding to upper
part of Va-Pp curve
’S With line loss
P,/P,
Tg erences
0.5 1.0 15 2.0
(b) Os-Pp characteristic
Figure 6.12. The Vj-Pp and Ox-Pp characteristics of
a 300 km, 500 kV line supplying a radial load228 AC Transmission Chap. 6
6.1.12 Loadability Characteristics
The concept of “line loadability” is useful in developing a fuller understanding
of power transfer capability as influenced by voltage level and line length. Line
loadability is defined as the degree of line loading (expressed in percent of SIL)
permissible given the thermal, voltage drop, and stability limits, This concept was first
introduced by H.P. St. Clair in 1953 [11]. Based on practical considerations and
experience, St. Clair developed transmission line power-transfer capability curves
covering voltage levels between 34.5 kV and 330 kV and line lengths up to 400 mi
(approximately 645 km). These curves, known as St. Clair curves, have been a
valuable tool for transmission planning engineers for quickly estimating the maximum
line loading limits. This work was later extended in reference 12 by presenting an
analytical basis for the St. Clair curves so as to be able to cover higher voltage levels
(up to 1,500 kV) and longer line lengths (600 mi or 960 km).
Figure 6.13 shows the universal loadability curve for overhead uncompensated
transmission lines applicable to all voltage levels. The curve, which is based on the
results presented in reference 12, shows the limiting values of power that can be
transmitted as a function of line length. Three factors influence the limiting values of
power: thermal limit, voltage drop limit, and the small-signal or steady-state stability
limit. In determining the loadability curve, it is assumed that the maximum allowable
voltage drop along the line is 5% and that the minimum allowable steady-state
stability margin is 30%. Referring to Figure 6.14, the percent steady-state stability
margin is defined as
or + P, ‘max damit
Percent stability margin = —~p *i
max
As shown in Figure 6.14, for a 30% stability margin, the load angle 5 is 44°. The
calculation of stability limit includes the effects of the equivalent system reactances
at the two ends of the line. In reference 12, the system strength at each end is taken
to be that corresponding to 50 kA fault duty which represents a well-developed
system.
Since the resistances of extra-high voltage (EHV) and ultra-high voltage
(UHV) lines are very much smaller than their reactances, such lines closely
approximate a lossless line. Since the parameter is practically the same for all
overhead lines, the loadabilities expressed in per unit of SIL are universally applicable
to lines of all voltage classes.
As identified in Figure 6.13, the limits to line loading are governed by the
following considerations:
* Thermal limits for lines up to 80 km (50 mi)
© Voltage drop limits for lines between 80 km and 320 km (200 mi) long
. Stability limits for lines longer than 320 kmSec. 6.1 Transmission Lines 229
3.0
25
2.0
Line load limit in pu of SIL
a
0 160 320 480 640 800 960 km
0 100 200 300 400 500. 600 mi
Line length
@® 0-80 km: Region of thermal limitation
@ 80-320 km: Region of voltage drop limitation
@® 320-960 km: Region of small-signal (steady-state) stability
limitation
Figure 6.13 Transmission line loadability curve
For lines longer than 480 km (300 mi), the loadability is less than SIL. The
loadability limits can be increased by “compensating” the lines.
Alternative forms of line compensation and consideration that influence their
selection are discussed in Chapter 11.
The universal loadability curve discussed here provides a simple means of
visualizing power-transfer capabilities of transmission lines. It is useful for developing
conceptual guides to line loadability and preliminary planning of transmission
systems. However, it must be used with some caution. Large complex power systems
require detailed assessment of their performance and consideration of additional
factors that influence their performance.230
Es£8 Epo?
Xs Line Xp
(a) System model
5
ak
<
S
a
&
at
0° 44° 90° 180°
(b) Power-angle curve
AC Transmission Chap. 6
Xg = Sending end source
reactance
Xg = Receiving end source
reactance
Source short circuit current
= 50 kA
For 30% stability margin:
Phimix =
5
Figure 6.14 Steady-state stability margin calculation
Effect of using bundled conductors
Bundled conductors are commonly used on EHV lines to control the voltage
gradient at the surface of the conductors and thus avoid unacceptably high radio noise,
audible noise, and corona loss.
The use of bundled conductors decreases the self geometric mean distance.
Hence, it has an added advantage of reducing the characteristic impedance Ze by
decreasing the series inductance and increasing the shunt capacitance of the line. The
reduction in Z, is on the order of 10 to 20%. Consequently, SIL or natural load
increases, thus contributing to the increase in loadability.geo. 6.2 Transformers 231
6.2 TRANSFORMERS
Transformers enable utilization of different voltage levels across the system.
From the viewpoints of efficiency and power-transfer capability, the transmission
voltages have to be high, but it is not practically feasible to generate and consume
wer at these voltages. In modern electric power systems, the transmitted power
undergoes four to five voltage transformations between the generators and the ultimate
Consumers. Consequently, the total MVA rating of all the transformers in a power
system is about five times the total MVA rating of all the generators.
In addition to voltage transformation, transformers are often used for control
of voltage and reactive power flow. Therefore, practically all transformers used for
bulk power transmission and many distribution transformers have taps in one or more
windings for changing the turns ratio. From the power system viewpoint, changing the
ratio of transformation is required to compensate for variations in system voltages.
Two types of tap-changing facilities are provided: off-load tap changing and under-
load tap changing (ULTC).' The off-load tap-changing facilities require the
transformer to be de-energized for tap changing: they are used when the ratio will
need to be changed only to meet long-term variations due to load growth, system
expansion, or seasonal changes. The ULTC is used when the changes in ratio need
to be frequent; for example, to take care of daily variations in system conditions. The
taps normally allow the ratio to vary in the range of £10% to 215%.
Transformers may be either three-phase units or three single-phase units. The
latter type of construction is normally used for large EHV transformers and for
distribution transformers. Large EHV transformers are of single-phase design due to
the cost of spare, insulation requirements, and shipping considerations. The
distribution systems serve single-phase loads and are supplied by single-phase
transformers.
When the voltage transformation ratio is small, autotransformers are normally
used. The primary and secondary windings of autotransformer are interconnected so
that the power to be transformed by magnetic coupling is only a portion of the total
power transmitted through the transformer. There is thus inherent metallic connection
between the primary side and secondary side circuits; this is unlike the conventional
two-winding transformer which isolates the two circuits,
Autotransformers are usually Y connected, with neutrals solidly grounded to
minimize the propagation of disturbances occurring on one side into the other side.
It is a common practice to add a low-capacity delta-connected tertiary winding. The
tertiary winding provides a path for third harmonic currents, thereby reducing their
flow on the network, It also assists in stabilizing the neutral. Reactive compensation
is often provided through use of switched reactors and capacitors on a tertiary bus
| Under-load tap changing is also referred to by other names such as on-load tap changing
(OLTC) and load tap changing (LTC).232 AC Transmission Chap. 6
(see Chapter 11).
As compared to the conventional two-winding transformer, the autotransformer
has advantages of lower cost, higher efficiency, and better regulation. These
advantages become less significant as the transformation ratio increases; hence,
autotransformers are used for low transformation ratios (for example, 500/230 kV),
In interconnected systems, it sometimes becomes necessary to make electrical
connections that form loop circuits through one or more power systems. To contro]
the circulation of power and prevent overloading certain lines, it is usually necessary
in such situations to use phase-angle transformers. Often it is necessary to vary the
extent of phase shift to suit changing system conditions; this requires provision-of on-
load phase-shifting capability. Voltage transformation may also be required in addition
to phase shift.
The transformer is a well-known device. The basic principle of its operation
is covered in standard textbooks [2,5,7]. References 2 and 8 provide information
related to physical realization of various types of transformers and their performance
characteristics. Here, we will focus on representation of transformers in stability and
power-flow studies.
6.2.1 Representation of Two-Winding Transformers
Basic equivalent circuit in physical units:
The basic equivalent circuit of a two-winding transformer with all quantities
in physical units is shown in Figure 6.15. The subscripts p and s refer to primary and
secondary quantities, respectively.
The magnetizing reactance X,,, is very large and is usually neglected. For
special studies requiring representation of transformer saturation, the magnetizing
reactance representation may be approximated by moving it to the primary or the
secondary terminals and treating it as a voltage-dependent variable shunt reactance.
Per unit equivalent circuit:
With appropriate choice of primary and secondary side base quantities, the
equivalent circuit can be simplified by eliminating the ideal transformer. However,
this is not always possible and the base quantities often have to be chosen
independent of the actual turns ratio. It is therefore necessary to consider an off-
nominal turns ratio.
From the equivalent circuit of Figure 6.15, with X,,, neglected, we have
(6.54)
(6.55)gec. 6.2 Transformers 233
Ideal
transformer
Z, = RytiXy 3 Z, = Ry+iX,
R,, R, = primary and secondary winding resistances
X,, X, = primary and secondary winding leakage reactances
n,n, = number of turns of primary and secondary winding
Xnp = magnetizing reactance referred to the primary side
we
Figure 6.15 Basic equivalent circuit of a two-winding transformer
Let
Zo = Zp at nominal primary side tap position
Z,g = Z, at nominal secondary side tap position
yg = primary side nominal number of turns
ng = secondary side nominal number of turns
Expressing Equations 6.54 and 6.55 in terms of the above nominal values,
(6.56)
(6.57)
Here, we have assumed that both leakage reactance and resistance of a
transformer winding are proportional to the square of the number of tums. This
assumption is generally valid for the leakage reactance, but not for the resistance.
Since the resistance is much smaller than the leakage reactance and since the deviation
of the actual turns ratio from the nominal turns ratio is not very large, the resulting
approximation is acceptable. For convenience, we will assume that both primary and
secondary windings are connected so as to form a Y-Y connected three-phase bank.234 AC Transmission Chap. 6
With the nominal number of turns related to the base voltages as follows:
n, y,
oo Ypbase
neo Vsbase
and
Vobase = 2; rase pbase? Vsbase ~ Zsrase§sbase
Equations 6.56 and 6.57 in per unit form become
(6.58)
¥, =
(6.59)
where the superbars denote per unit values, with ¥,, ¥,, ip» i equal to per unit values
of phasor voltages and currents, and
‘ps
a, = 72 (6.60)
"0
a= (661)
Neo
The per unit equivalent circuit representing Equations 6.58 and 6.59 is shown
in Figure 6.16.
|
Figure 6.16 Per unit equivalent circuitsec. 6.2 Transformers 235
standard equivalent circuit:
The equivalent circuit of Figure 6.16 can be reduced to the standard form
shown in Figure 6.17, where 7 is the per unit turns ratio:
(6.62)
ns Nyolts
and
Z, = Is Zyo*Z0)
nye = (6.63)
=| | ZorZo)
Ideal Zz
® nil et ®
—
= ° J.
Yp Ye Ys
Figure 6.17 Standard equivalent circuit for a transformer
The equivalent circuit of Figure 6.17 is widely used for representation of two-
winding transformers in power flow and stability studies. The IEEE common format
for exchange of solved power flow cases uses this representation [13].
We see from Equation 6.63 that Z, does not change with 7. Therefore, if the
tap is on the primary side, only # changes.
If the actual turns ratio is equal to #,9/n,. then n=1.0, and the ideal
transformer vanishes. When the actual turns ratio is not equal to the nominal turns
ratio, 71 represents the off-nominal ratio (ONR).
The equivalent circuit of Figure 6.17 can be used to represent a transformer
with a fixed (or off-load) tap on one side and an under-load tap changer (ULTC) on
the other side. The off-nominal turns ratio is assigned to the side with ULTC and Z,
has a value corresponding to the fixed-tap position of the other side, as given by
Equation 6.63.236 AC Transmission Chap. §
Equivalent x circuit representation [14]:
In digital computer analysis of power flow, it is not convenient to represent an
ideal transformer. We will therefore reduce the equivalent circuit of Figure 6.17 to the
form of a x network of Figure 6.18(a).
From Figure 6.17, the terminal current at bus p is
(6.64)
where
(6.65)
e(e-DY,
(b) Equivalent x circuit
Figure 6.18 Transformer representation with ONRSec. 6.2 Transformers 237
‘The corresponding terminal currents for the x network shown in Figure 6.18(a)
are
,0,-¥,)+y9¥,, (6.66)
7, = ¥,0,-¥,)+y,¥, (6.67)
Equating the corresponding admittance terms in Equations 6.64 and 6.66, we have
y, = AY, =F, (6.68)
a
and
Y (6.69)
Similarly, from Equations 6.65 and 6.67,
y= A-oF, (6.70)
‘The equivalent = circuit with parameters expressed in terms of the ONR and
transformer leakage impedance is shown in Figure 6.18(b).
Consideration of three-phase transformer connections
The standard equivalent circuit of Figure 6.17 represents the single-phase
equivalent of a three-phase transformer. In establishing the ONR, the nominal turns
tatio (t,9/n,g) is taken to be equal to the ratio of line-to-line base voltages on both
sides of the transformer irrespective of the winding connections (Y-Y, A-A, or Y-A).
For Y-Y and A-A connected transformers, this makes the ratios of the base voltages
equal to the ratios of the nominal turns of the primary and secondary windings of
each transformer phase. For a Y-A connected transformer, this in addition accounts
for the factor V3 due to the winding connection.
In the case of a Y-A connected transformer, a 30° phase shift is introduced
between line-to-line voltages on the two sides of the transformer. The line-to-neutral
voltages and line currents are similarly shifted in phase due to the winding
connections. As we will illustrate in Section 6.4, it is usually not necessary to take
this phase shift into consideration in system studies. Thus, the single-phase equivalent
circuit of a Y-A transformer does not account for the phase shift, except in so far as
the phase shift of voltages due to the impedance of the transformer.238 AC Transmission Chap. 6
Example of modelling two-winding transformers
‘As an example, let us consider a 60 Hz, two-winding, three-phase transformer with
the following data:
MVA rating : 42.00 MVA
Primary (HV) nominal voltage : 110.00 kV
Secondary (LV) nominal voltage 228.40 kV
Winding connections (HV/LV) Y/A
Resistance + Ryg*R,p=0.00411 pu on rating/phase
Leakage reactance : X9+Xj9"0.1153 pu on rating/phase
Off-load tap changer on HV side 24 steps, 2.75 kW/step
Under-load tap changer on LV side : 42.84 kV in 16 steps
Let us examine the condition when the LV winding is initially at its nominal position,
and the HV winding is manually set two steps above its nominal position, ie., at 115.5 kV.
The parameters of the standard equivalent circuit (Figure 6.17) with the ONR on the LV
(ULTC) side and values expressed in per unit of the transformer rated values are as follows:
Initial off-nominal turns ratio:
=~ _ 284 110
m= 284 10. 9.95238
28.4 115.5
Per unit equivalent impedance:
1155 ¥¥6,904114j0.1153)
110
= 0.00453+j0.12712 pu
Maximum per unit tums ratio:
nae = ote = 1.04762
Minimum per unit turns ratio:
— = = 0.85714
Per unit tums ratio step:
-_ 284 110
—— = 0.0059524
16x28.4 115.5sec. 6.2 Transformers 239
Now, if the common system voltage and MVA base values are
Primary system voltage base 15.0 kV
Secondary system voltage base
System MVA base
the corresponding per unit parameters of the equivalent circuit are as follows:
Initial off-nominal tums ratio:
0.95238 284 15 _ 9.99567
28.4110
Per unit equivalent impedance:
Zz i 110)? 100
Z, = (0.00453+j0.12712){ 110)" 100
«=O / (Ts 42
= 0,009868 +j0.27692
Maximum per unit turns ratio:
= 1,04762284 115. _ 1.99524
28.4 110
Minimum per unit turns ratio:
Fn = 0.85714284 15. - 0.89610
nde 28.4 110
Per unit turns ratio step:
ai = 0,005924284 115. - 9.096193
28.4 110
The equivalent x circuit (Figure 6.18) parameters representing the initial tap position
are as follows:
1
>” Fz,” 0:99567(0.009868-+j0.27692)
= 0.12908-3.62226
=(1 -({—1 1
Y= (E+). = anaes passer poeNeejORTeD
a 0.99567 }0.99567(0.009868 + 0.27692)
= 0.00056 -0.01575240 AC Transmission Chap. 6
y, = f1-2)b aos TORRE OTT
3 n)Z, 0.99567 ) 0.009868 +j0.27692
= -0,00056 + 0.01568
® y,=0.12908 -/3.62226 ©
0.00056
¥,=0.00056 -
+j0.01568
-j0.01575
6.2.2 Representation of Three-Winding Transformers
Figure 6.19 shows the single-phase equivalent of a three-winding transformer
under balanced conditions. The effect of the magnetizing reactance has been
neglected, and the transformer is represented by three impedances connected to form
a star. The common star point is fictitious and unrelated to the system neutral.
Figure 6.19 Equivalent circuit of a three-winding transformer
The three windings of the transformer may have different MVA ratings.
However, the per unit impedances must be expressed on the same MVA base. As in
the case of the two-winding transformer equivalent circuit developed in the previous
section, off-nominal turns ratios are used to account for the differences between the
ratios of actual turns and the base voltages. The values of the equivalent impedances
Z,, Z, and Z, may be obtained by standard short-circuit tests as follows [1]:sec. 6.2 Transformers 241
N
0
leakage impedance measured in primary with secondary shorted and
tertiary open
Z» = leakage impedance measured in primary with tertiary shorted and
secondary open
Z, = leakage impedance measured in secondary with tertiary shorted and
primary open
With the above impedances in ohms referred to the same voltage base, we have
Zp, = Z,*Z,
Zy = 2,2, (6.71)
Zy = 2,-%,
Hence,
1
eh Zu)
1
3 Sp Za Zp) (6.72)
z, = 4@,+2,-Z,.)
2 ‘pt “st “ps:
In large transformers, Z, is small and may even be negative.
Example of modelling three-winding transformers
We will consider a 60 Hz, three-winding, three-phase transformer with the following
data:
MVA rating : 750 MVA
High/low/tertiary nominal voltages + $00/240/28 kV
Winding connections (H/L/T) 2 Y/Y/A
Measured positive-sequence impedances in pu on transformer MVA rating and
nominal voltages at nominal tap position:
Zu, = 0.0015 +/0.1339
Zz = 0+j0.1895
Zp. = 0+j0.3335
ULTC at high voltage side: 500450 kV in 20 steps.242 AC Transmission Chap. §
Neglecting the magnetizing reactance, the equivalent star circuit with ULTC a
nominal tap position is
®. op Zt a, ©
Zr
®
Faw Fer «4. 099754j0.13895
Z,
tLe
pb PLT “TH = 0.00075-j0.00505
= -0.00075 +j0.19455
Equivalent delta circuit with parameters in pu on transformer MVA rating and nominal
voltages:
DL = Ly 62 yZy'Z,Z_
= -0.02535 +0.0002914
Zi, = © = 0.0020+40.1303
Z,
_=_ ,
Zp = = = 0.0011+j0.1824
Zy
-0.7859-j 4.9029gec. 6.2 Transformers
243
Equivalent delta circuit with parameters in pu on system MVA base of 100 MVA and voltage
bases (HILT) of 500/220/27.6 kV:
2
| = 0.00032+j0.02067
2
= 0.00015 +j0.02504
2
) = ~0.10784-j0.6728
"a = 509
njy = 249276 _ 1.07532
220 28.0
jy ~ 390276 _ g.og571
500 28.0
ULTC data:
D 550 500 220
= 2 = 1.00833
‘tmax "500 500 240
1 450 500 220
= RO aeO = 0.8250
"nmin = “500 500 240
nf, = 1:00833-0825 _ 9.99917
20
1 550 500 27.6
= ————-— = 1.08429
‘itmax “500 500 28.0
njppin = 292500276 _ g gg7i4
500 500 28.0
Anj, = 08429-08814 g1014
20244 AC Transmission Chap. 6
We should recognize that the ULTC action at the high-voltage side changes the ONRs mj, and
nj: these two ONRs cannot be adjusted independently.
The three branches of the delta equivalent circuit can each be represented by an
equivalent circuit as shown in Figure 6.18,
‘The equivalent 7 circuits representing the initial ULTC tap position are as follows,
HLL branch:
ee ee
1 TT Zp, 0:91667(0.00032 +j0.02067)
= 0.81687 -/52.76457
1 1
» =(+ah, - (sateen 1} 81887 18228457
Nn -
= 0.074258- 4.79657
+1) «(rapes heonst mam
oT Jziy ( 091667/0.00032% j0.02067
= -0.06807+/4.39687
® y,-0.81687 -j52.76457 ©
y9-0.074258 y=-0.06807
~j4.19657 4+j4.39687
L-T branch:
4. 1
Wey
MipZjz _1.07532(0.00015+,70.02504)
= 0.22247-j37.13748
1 fol ,
s|—-l = | ——— -1 (0.22247 -j37.13748)
% )p (Tossa \ »
= -0.01558 +j2.60127
y, = {1-4 = fr)
3 ne |Z, 1.07532 } 0.00015 +j0.02504
ar) Zi
= 0.01676 -j2.79719gec. 6.2 Transformers 245
©, y= 0.22247 -j37.13748 ®
yy =-0.01558 y;=0.01676
4j2.60127 1 j2.79719
H-T branch:
ye 2 - tO _
1 ayZig — 0-98571(-0.10784-j0.67280)
= ~0,23564+j1.47010
1 1
=|—-1ly, = ~1|(-0.23564+) 1.47010)
% ( h (osesri Je J »
ar
= -0,00342+ 0.02131
y, = {1--L LE = fr-__)}___t
3 he | Zi 0.98571 ) -0.10784-70.67280
= 0,00337-0.02101
® y,2=-0.23564 +/1.47010 ®
¥p=-0.00342
+0.02131
¥5=0.00337
-j0.02101
6.2.3 Phase-Shifting Transformers [14]
A phase-shifting transformer can be represented by the equivalent circuit
shown in Figure 6.20. It consists of an admittance in series with an ideal transformer
having a complex turns ratio, i=nZ. The phase angle step size may not be equal at
different tap positions. However, equal step size is usually used in power flow and
transient stability programs.246 AC Transmission Chap. 6
ne: 1 y,
®
i. Ideal @ Is
Figure 6.20 Phase-shifting transformer representation
By definition:
v,
2 = nla = n(cose+jsine) 62)
, -
= a,+jb,
where o: is the phase shift from bus p to bus q; it is positive when ¥, leads f,. Since
there is no power loss in an ideal transformer,
af, = 3,0 (6.74)
(6.75)
Substituting for %, fom Equation 6.73, we get
A
o-
a,-jb,| a,+jb, ”
(6.76)
= ally (atid
From Equation 6.75,
i= ~@,-ib)i,Sec. 6.2 Transformers 247
substituting for i, from Equation 6.76 gives
Y, 7 ss
appr] (6.71)
s
Combining Equations 6.76 and 6.77, we obtain the following matrix equation relating
the phase-shifter terminal voltages and currents
(6.78)
We see that the admittance matrix in the above equation is not symmetrical, that is,
the transfer admittance from p to s is not equal to the transfer admittance from s to
p. Therefore, a m equivalent circuit is not possible.
If the turns ratio is real (i.¢., a=” and b,=0), the model reduces to the
equivalent 7 circuit shown in Figure 6.18(b).
Example of modelling a phase-shifting transformer
Let us consider a three-phase, two-winding phase shifter with the following data:
MVA rating 2300 MVA
Primary/secondary base voltages 240/240 kV
Resistance per phase 20
Leakage reactance per phase 20.145 pu
Phase-shift range and steps 1 440°, 36 steps
System voltage base
(primary/secondary) : 220/230 kV
System MVA base : 100 MVA.248 AC Transmission Chap. §
Leakage reactance in pu on system voltage and MVA base:
X, = 01453100, (240)?
300"
230,
= 0.05263 pu
Off-nominal turns ratio:
n = 240,230 «1 0454s
220 240
Phase-shift angle limits:
Spay = 40°
Gt, = 40°
The impedance of the transformer changes with the phase-shift angle. The following table
(provided by the manufacturer) gives values of the impedance multiplier as a function of the
angle,
Angle in degrees ‘+40 £29.5 £25.1 420.6 0
Impedance multiplier 1.660 1.331 1.228 1.144 10
The admittance matrix of Equation 6.78 representing the phase shifter is
As an illustration, we will determine the elements of the admittance matrix for two values of
a.
(a) a0;
y-2-_1_
«7X, 7.05263gec. 6.2 Transformers 249
‘The turns ratio of the ideal phase shifter is
a,+jb, = n(cosa+jsina)
= 1.0455(cos0+jsin0) = 1.0455+j0
‘The corresponding admittance matrix Y, is
. 17.3844 18.1745
s | 18.1745 ~719.0006
(b) _@ corresponding to the 10" step:
aw = 8,40 = are
36
‘The tums ratio is
a,+jb, = n(cos1.11° + jsin11.11°)
= 1.02585 +0.20147
‘The phase-shifter leakage reactance at this value of o. by interpolation is
11,1101.144-1.0)
X, = |Lo+
206
«0.05263
= 0.05672
Hence,
= 17.6305
The admittance matrix Y,, with a, +jb,=1.02585 +j0.20147 and ¥_=/17.6305, is
-j16.1310 (-3.2499+j 16.5479)
(3.2499 + 16.5479) -417.6305250 AC Transmission — Chap. §
6.3 TRANSFER OF POWER BETWEEN ACTIVE SOURCES
We will now examine factors influencing transfer of active and reactive power
between two sources connected by an inductive reactance as shown in Figure 6.2),
Such a system is representative of two sections of a power system interconnected by
a transmission system, with power transfer from one section to the other.
We have considered a purely inductive reactance interconnecting the two
sources. This is because impedances representing transmission lines, transformers, and
generators are predominantly inductive. When the full network is represented by an
appropriate model for each of its elements and then reduced to a two-bus system, the
resulting impedance will be essentially an inductive reactance. The shunt capacitances
of transmission lines do not explicitly appear in the model shown in Figure 6.21; their
effects are implicitly represented by the net reactive power transmitted. Analysis of
transmission of active and reactive power through an inductive reactance thus gives
useful insight into the characteristics of ac transmission systems.
Referring to Figure 6.21, the complex power at the receiving end is
om
= PrtiQy = Egl
cosé +jE, sind ~E,
ix
EsZ5 EpZ0
Ss POs T Se-P at +1Qp
(a) Equivalent system diagram
= load angle
= power factor angle
8
$
(b) Phasor diagram
Figure 6.21 Power transfer between two sourcesSec. 6.3. Transfer of Power between Active Sources 251
Hence,
(6.79)
(6.80)
Similarly,
Py = (6.81)
2
Q, = Es-EsE,cosb (6.82)
x
Equations 6.79 to 6.82 describe the way in which active power and reactive power are
transferred between active parts of a power network. Let us examine the dependence
of active power and reactive power transfer on the source voltages by considering
separately the effects of differences in voltage magnitudes and angles.
(a) We will look first at the condition with 5=0. Equations 6.79 to 6.82 become
Pe =
and
_ ExEs-Ep)
* Xx
_ Es(Es-Ex)
Os
The active power transfer is now zero. With Es>Ep, Qs and Qp are positive, that is,
reactive power is transferred from the sending end to the receiving end. The
corresponding phasor diagram is shown in Figure 6.22(a). With EsYou might also like