Course Introduction: Collection and Presentation of Data The Frequency Distribution Graphical Presentation of Data

Course Introduction
 Introduction
 Collection and Presentation of Data
 The Frequency Distribution
 Graphical Presentation of Data
*Property of STI J0018

Introduction
Statistics – branch of mathematics that deals with the

theory and method of collecting, organizing, presenting,
analyzing, and interpreting data
Statistical data – quantitative or any kind of numerical
data such as figures on sales, ages, tax returns,
population, births, deaths, and many more
Data gathering – includes gathering of information
through interviews, questionnaires, objective
observations, experimentations, psychological tests and
other methods

Introduction
Descriptive Statistics
–refers to the collection, organization, presentation,
computation, and interpretation of data in order to
describe the samples under investigation
–its purpose is to tell something about a particular group
of observation and does not try to draw inferences or
implications regarding the population

Introduction
Descriptive Statistics
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Introduction
Inferential Statistics
–a statistical tool that seeks to give information or
inferences or implications pertaining to the populations
by studying its representative samples

Introduction
Distinction between Descriptive Statistics and Inferential
Statistics
Example 1 Total Precipitation in the resort area of Laguna Lake during the
month of July recorded for the past 30 years
Any value describing the data, such as the average precipitation for July
during the past 30 years or the driest July in the past 30 years, is a value in the
field of descriptive statistics.
If the average precipitation for July in this area was 3.3 cm during the past 30
years; the next July, expect between 3.2 and 3.4 cm of rain (we are
generalizing and thereby placing ourselves in the field of inferential statistics)
http://fromalaskatobrazil.files.wordpres
s.com/2012/06/quilotoa-laguna.jpg

Introduction
Distinction between Descriptive Statistics and Inferential
Statistics
Example 2 Academic records of the graduating classes during the
past 5 years at a college show that 72% of the entering freshmen
eventually graduated. The numerical value, 72%, is a descriptive
statistic. If you are a member of the present freshman class and
conclude from this study that your chances of graduating are better
than 70%, you have made a statistical inference that is subject to
uncertainty.
http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_PNWPx
vREDPU/SpoiZ8aMoCI/AAAAAAAAJ
9s/2BcMYPgG3Wk/s400/IMG_704
0+copy.jpg

Introduction
Population – the totality of objects, individuals, or

reactions, which have common observable characteristics
Examples teachers of a particular school, employees of a
company, books published by a publishing house,
manufactured articles in a certain film
Sampling – method of getting a small but representative

cross-section of a population
Sample – a finite number of objects chosen from
population. This is used to give inferences on the
population from which it was drawn

Introduction
Variable
–an observable characteristic or phenomena of a person
or object whereby the members of the group or set vary
or differ from one another
–has the capacity of taking different values representing a
certain category
–considered raw data or materials gathered by a
researcher or investigator for statistical analysis usually
expressed by the symbols X, Y, Z, etc.
Examples weight, height, sex, year level, age, IQ,
achievement test scores, etc.

Introduction
Discrete and Continuous Variables
Discrete variable – variables that can be obtained
through counting
Examples number of deaths, births, students, and
marriages at any given time
Continuous variable – a variable which may assume any
of an infinite number of values, and can be associated
with points on a continuous line interval
Examples age, height, weight, temperature, volumes,
areas, time, etc.

Introduction
Dependent and Independent Variables

Independent variable – variables controlled by the
experimenter/researcher, and expected to have an effect
on the behavior of the subjects
Dependent variable – some measure of the behavior of
subjects and expected to be influenced by the
independent variable

Introduction

Example 1 To predict the value of fertilizer on the growth
of plants, the independent variable is the amount of
fertilizer used; while the dependent variable is the
growth of plants
http://media.tractorsupply.com/is/image/TractorSupplyCompan
y/learn_the_facts_about_fertilizer_1?$360$

Introduction
Example 2 To predict or foresee the students’ academic
achievement in mathematics, the independent variables
are study habits, intelligence quotient, interest, attitudes,
and socio-economic status. On the other hand, the
dependent variable is the students’ academic
achievement in mathematics
http://writingassignmenthelp.com/wp-
content/uploads/2013/04/0511-0908-2515-
5709_Boy_Doing_Math_Homework_clipart_image3.jpg
Introduction
Sigma Notation
Σ (uppercase sigma) – refers to “total” or “to take the
sum”
If x is a variable, which represents a set of measurements,
then Σ x means to get the sum of all the measurements
from the first to the last

Introduction
Forms of Summation Notation
1.Summation of n Variables:
n
 x i  x1  x2  x 3    x n
i 1
Example Given x1 = 10, x2 = 8, x3 = 21, x4 = 7, x5 = 1, x6 =

18, and x7 = 4, evaluate the following summations:
7 5 7
a.  xi c.  xi e.  xi
i 3
i 1 i 2
6 4
b.  xi d.  xi
i 3 i 1

Introduction
2.Summation of a constant:
n
 c i  c1  c2  c 3    c n  nc
i 1
Example Evaluate the following summations.

4 6 4 7
a. 8 b. 5 c. 68
i 1 i 2 i 1 i 3

Introduction
3.Summation of a constant and a variable:
n n
 (c  x i )  nc   x i
i 1 i 1
4 4 4
Example 1  (8  y i )  4(8)   y i  32   y i
i 1 i 1 i 1
6 6
Example 2  (mi  c)   mi  6c
i 1 i 1

Introduction
4.Summation of two variables:
n n n
 (x i  y i )   x i   y i
i 1 i 1 i 1
Example Evaluate the following given that x1 = 3, x2 = 6, x3

= 1, x4 = 7, x5 = 7, y1 = 3, y2 = 4, y3 = 2, y4 = 4, and y5 = 3
3 4 5
a.  (x i  y i ) b.  (x i  y i ) c.  (x i  y i )
i 1 i 2 i 1

Introduction
5.Sum of the squares of the variables:
n
 i 1 2
x 2
 x 2
 x 2
   x n
2
i 1
Example Evaluate the following given that x1 = 3, x2 = 6, x3

= 1, x4 = 7, x5 = 7, y1 = 3, y2 = 4, y3 = 2, y4 = 4, and y5 = 3:
4 4 5 3
a.  xi 2
b.  yi 2
c.  i  i
x
i 2
 y22
i 1
i 1 i 2

Introduction
6.Square of the sum of variables:
2
 n

 i 
2
x  ( x 1  x 2    x n )
 i 1 
Example Evaluate the following summation given x1 = 3,
x2 = 4, x3 = 1, x4 = 5, and x5 = 2:
2 2
 5
2  3
2
a.  x i  b.  x i 
 i 1   i 1 

Introduction
7.Sum of the product of a variable:
n
 (x i  y i )  x 1  y 1  x 2  y 2    x n  y n
i 1
4
Example Evaluate  (x i  y i ) given x1 = 3, x2 = 1, x3 = 7,
i 1
x4 = 1, y1 = 1, y2 = 0, y3 = 2, and y4 = 3

Introduction
8.Sum of the products of a constant and a variable:
n
 cx i  cx 1  cx 2    cx n
i 1
 c( x 1  x 2    x n )
n
 c x i
i 1
Example If x1 = 6, x2 = 7, x3 = 10, x4 = 1, and c = 4, evaluate

4
 cx i
i 1

Introduction
Rounding Numbers
The general principles or rules in rounding off numbers
are listed below:
a.If the last digit or the digit that you are going to drop is
less than 5, drop it and keep the digit before it unchanged
Example 7.723 = 7.72
b.If the last digit or the digit which you are going to drop
is more than 5, the preceding digit is increased by 1
Example 8.628 = 8.63

Introduction
Rounding Numbers
The general principles or rules in rounding off numbers
are listed below:
c.When the number ends in 5 preceded by an odd
number, this digit is increased by 1
Example 12.835 = 12.84
d.When the number ends in 5 preceded by an even
number, this number is retained
Example 8.8265 = 8.826

Introduction
Seatwork
1.Evaluate the following notation if x1 = 4, x2 = 2, x3 = 10,
x4 = 5, x5 = 7, y1 = 2, y2 = 3, y3 = 5, y4 = 5, and y5 = 8.
5 3 3 4
a. 3 x i b.  (x i  y i ) c. 2 x i   x i 2
i 1 i 1 i 1 i 1
5
2.Write  (x i  y i )in its expanded form.

i 3
3.Round off the following numbers as indicated.

a. 4.32156 to the nearest tenth d. 0.05534 to the nearest tenth
b. 4.35761 to the nearest e. 6987.34651 to the nearest
hundredth thousandth
c. 34.12156 to the nearest f. 735.1970 to the nearest
thousandth hundredth

Collection and
Presentation of Data
Parameter – any numerical value describing a
characteristic of a population
Statistic – any numerical value describing a characteristic
of a sample
Qualitative and Quantitative Data
Qualitative data – categorical data, which takes the form
of categories or attributes such as sex, course, year level,
race, religion, etc.
Quantitative data (or numerical data) – obtained from
measurements like heights, weights, ages, scores,
temperatures, IQ, and other measurable quantities

Collection and
 Nominal Scale – used only for identification or
classification purposes
Example
Qualitative Variable Categories
Gender Male, Female
Mass Communication Advertising, Broadcasting,
Major Journalism, Public
Relations
Human personality Extrovert, introvert

Collection and
 Ordinal Scale – does not only classify items, but also
give the order or ranks of classes, items, or objects
Example
Qualitative Variable Categories
Student class designation Freshman, Sophomore,
Junior, Senior
Product classification Unsatisfied, Neutral,
Satisfied, Very Satisfied
Album rating ⋆, ⋆⋆, ⋆⋆⋆, ⋆⋆⋆⋆,
⋆⋆⋆⋆⋆
Student grades 1.0, 1.25, 1.5, 2.0, etc.

Collection and
 Interval Scale – used to classify order and differentiate
between classes or categories in terms of degrees of
differences
Example Temperature (in °C or °F), Angles (in ° or in
radians)
 Ratio Scale – differs from interval scale only in one
aspect: it has a true zero point (complete absence of
the property being measured)
Example Weight (in pounds or kilograms), Age (in
years or days), Salary (in Philippine Peso)

Collection and
Sampling techniques – utilized to test the validity of
conclusions or inferences from the sample to the
population
Random sample – refers to a limited number of
individuals chosen from the population
Sampling Techniques
Simple Random Sampling – a process of selecting n
sample size in the population via random numbers or
through lottery
Stratified Random Sampling – the process of subdividing
the population into subgroups or strata and drawing
members at random from each
subgroup or strata
Collection and
Sampling Techniques
Systematic Random Sampling – a process of selecting
the kth element in the population until the desired
number of subjects or respondents is attained
Cluster Sampling – a process of selecting clusters from a
population which is very large or widely spread out over a
wide geographical area

Collection and
Methods of Collecting Data
Direct or Interview Method – a
face-to-face encounter between
the interviewer and the
interviewee http://www.abetterinterview.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/flatter-interviewer.jpg
Indirect or Questionnaire Method

– unlike direct method, this
method utilizes questionnaires to
obtain information http://imgs.sfgate.com/blogs/images/sfgate/techchron/2011/03/24/FBQuestions2600x
450.JPG

Collection and
Registration Method – the method of gathering
information which is governed by laws
http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-3H6PZ4rkGhM/UETCHuki58I/AAAAAAAABS4/LQuS5g-
__aU/s1600/prc+license.jpg
http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-IX3vIumZl5I/T4_q-
AgPfPI/AAAAAAAAAq0/YsIu5R0HJVo/s1600/img183.jpg
Collection and
Observation Method – utilized
to gather data regarding
attitudes, behavior, values,
cultural patterns, and other
characteristics of the samples
under investigation http://thumbs.dreamstime.com/x/child-observing-butterfly-8906266.jpg
Experiment Method – used to

determine the cause and effect
relationship of certain
phenomena under controlled
conditions
http://www.auhb.net/images/experiment.gif
Collection and
Methods of Presenting Data
Textual Method – presents the
collected data in narrative and
paragraphs forms
Tabular Method – presents the
collected data in a table which are
orderly arranged in rows and
columns for an easier and more
comprehensive comparison of http://registrarism.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/unistats-latin.jpg
figures http://www.cdn.sciencebuddies.org/Files/493/9/project_sample_research_paper.gif

Collection and
Methods of Presenting Data
Graphical Method – presents the collected data in visual
or pictorial form to get a clear view of data (e.g.
histogram, pie chart, bar graph, pictograph, line graph)
http://www.mathsisfun.com/data/images/histogram.gif http://0.tqn.com/d/spreadsheets/1/0/Y/H/-/-/pie_chart.gif https://whites-geometry-

wiki.wikispaces.com/file/view/Ogive.JPG/33607653/O
give.JPG

http://www.sectorfej.net/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/messy-clothes.jpg

The Frequency
Distribution
Frequency Distribution – grouping of data into categories
showing the number of observations in each of the non-
overlapping classes
Raw data – data collected in original form
Range – difference of the highest value and the lowest
value in a distribution
Class limits – the highest and lowest values describing a
class
Class boundaries – the upper and lower values of a class
for group frequency distribution whose values has an
additional decimal place more than the class limits and
end with the digit 5
The Frequency
Distribution
Interval – the distance between the lower class boundary
and the upper class boundary; denoted by the symbol i
Frequency (f) – the number of values in a specific class of
a frequency distribution
Relative frequency (rf) – the fraction/part of the
frequency in a class to the total number of values, the
sum of the relative frequencies in a frequency
distribution is 1

The Frequency
Distribution
Cumulative frequency (cf) – the sum of the frequencies
accumulated up to the upper boundary of a class in a
frequency distribution
Midpoint – the point halfway between the class limits of
each class and is the representative of the data within
that class

The Frequency
Distribution
Constructing a Grouped Frequency Distribution
Flappy Bird Scores after 50 Games
6 8 9 12 18
10 8 17 14 20
9 7 17 14 15
16 11 16 14 16
13 10 18 13 20
7 6 12 9 19
14 11 19 12 13
9 7 10 13 12
15 13 11 16 14
15 18 13 16 8
The Frequency
Distribution
Steps in Constructing the Grouped Frequency Distribution
1. Arrange the raw data in ascending or descending order
6 9 12 14 16
6 9 12 14 17
7 10 13 14 17
7 10 13 15 18
7 10 13 15 18
8 11 13 15 18
8 11 13 16 19
8 11 13 16 19
9 12 14 16 20
9 12 14 16 20

The Frequency
Distribution
2. Determine the classes
• Find the highest and lowest value
• Find the range
• Determine the number of classes
• Determine the class interval

The Frequency
Distribution
2. Determine the classes.
• Select a starting point for the lowest class limit
• Set the individual class limit
• Set the class boundaries in each class. To obtain the
class boundaries, subtract 0.5 from each lower
class limit and add 0.5 to each of the upper class
limit

The Frequency
Distribution
3. Tally the raw data
Class Limits Class Boundaries Tally
5–7 5.5 – 7.5 ||||

8 – 10 7.5 – 10.5 ||||–||||
11 – 13 10.5 – 13.5 ||||–||||–|||
14 – 16 13.5 – 16.5 ||||–||||–|||
17 – 19 16.5 – 19.5 ||||–||
20 – 22 19.5 – 22.5 ||

The Frequency
Distribution
4. Convert the tallied data into numerical frequencies
Class Class Frequency
Limits Boundaries
5–7 5.5 – 7.5 5
8 – 10 7.5 – 10.5 10
11 – 13 10.5 – 13.5 13
14 – 16 13.5 – 16.5 13
17 – 19 16.5 – 19.5 7
20 – 22 19.5 – 22.5 2

The Frequency
Distribution
5. Determine the relative frequency. It can be found by
dividing each frequency by the total frequency
Class Frequency Relative
Limits Frequency
5–7 5 0.1
8 – 10 10 0.2
11 – 13 13 0.26
14 – 16 13 0.26
17 – 19 7 0.14
20 – 22 2 0.04
Total 50 1

The Frequency
Distribution
6. Determine the cumulative frequencies. The
cumulative frequency can be found by adding the
frequency in each class to the total frequencies of the
classes preceding that class.
Class Frequency Cumulative
Limits Frequency
5–7 5 5
8 – 10 10 15
11 – 13 13 28
14 – 16 13 41
17 – 19 7 48
20 – 22 2 50

The Frequency
Distribution
7. Determine the midpoints. The midpoint can be found
by getting the average of the upper limit and lower
limit in each class
Class Frequency Midpoints
Limits
5–7 5 6
8 – 10 10 9
11 – 13 13 12
14 – 16 13 15
17 – 19 7 18
20 – 22 2 21

Graphical Presentation
of Data
Stem-and-Leaf Plot
Stem – the leading digit or digits, placed in the first
column
Leaf – the trailing digit, placed at the second column

of Data
Constructing a Stem-and-Leaf Plot
1.Divide each measurement into two parts: the stem and
the leaf
2.List the stems in the column, with a vertical line to their
right
3.For each measurement, record the leaf portion in the
same row as its corresponding stem
4.Order the leaves from lowest to highest in each stem

of Data
Example
18 37 47 53 61 Stem Leaf
19 38 48 54 62 1 8 9
24 39 48 54 63 2 4 7 8 9
27 39 48 55 64 3 1 4 6 6 7 8 9 9
28 40 49 56 66 4 0 2 4 5 6 6 7 8 8 8 9 9
29 42 49 57 67 5 0 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8 8 9
31 44 50 58 68 6 0 1 2 3 4 6 7 8
34 45 51 58 70 7 0 4 7
36 46 51 59 74
36 46 52 60 77

of Data
Histogram – focuses on the frequency of each class and
sacrifices whatever information was contained in the actual
observations
Constructing a Histogram
1.Find the midpoints of each class
2.Draw and label the x-axis and y-axis
3.Represent the frequency on the y-axis and the
midpoints on the x-axis
4.Use the frequency to represent the height and draw the
vertical bars

of Data

of Data
Frequency Polygon – a graph that displays the data using
points which are connected by lines
Constructing a Frequency Polygon
1.Find the midpoint of each class
3.Represent the frequency on the y-axis and the
midpoints on the x-axis
4.Connect adjacent points with line segments. Draw a
line back to the x-axis at the beginning and end of the
graph

of Data

of Data
Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Ogive) – a graph that
displays cumulative frequencies for the classes in a
frequency distribution
Constructing a Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Ogive)
1.Find the cumulative distribution of the data set
Class Limits Class f cf
Boundaries
5–7 5.5 – 7.5 5 5
8 – 10 7.5 – 10.5 10 15
11 – 13 10.5 – 13.5 13 28
14 – 16 13.5 – 16.5 13 41
17 – 19 16.5 – 19.5 7 48
20 – 22 19.5 – 22.5 2 50

of Data
Constructing a Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Ogive)
3.Represent the frequency on the y-axis and the upper
class boundaries on the x-axis
4.Connect adjacent points with line segments

of Data
Bar Graph – similar to a histogram. The
bases of the rectangles are arbitrary
intervals whose centers are the codes.
The height of each rectangle represents
the frequency of that category http://www.enchantedlearning.com/math/graphs/bargraph/gifs/example4.GIF
Pie Chart (Circle Graph) – a circle divided

into portions that represent the relative
frequencies (or percentages) of the data
belonging to different categories http://0.tqn.com/d/spreadsheets/1/0/Y/H/-/-/pie_chart.gif
Time Series Graph – represents data that

occur over specific period of time under
observation
*Property of STI J0018 http://www.mathsteacher.com.au/year10/ch16_statistics/10_timeseries/Image5859.gif
of Data
Pictograph (Pictogram) – It is a
combination of the attention-
getting quality and the accuracy of
the bar chart. Appropriate pictures
arranged in a row (sometimes in a
column) present the quantities for http://www.mathsisfun.com/data/images/pictograph.gif
comparison
Scatterplot – used to examine
possible relationships between two
numerical variables. The two
variables are plot in x-axis and y-
axis
http://www.stat.yale.edu/Courses/1997-98/101/scatex.gif
of Data
Guidelines
1.The graph/chart should include a title
2.The scales for all axes should be included
3.The scale on the y-axis should start at zero
4.The graph/chart should not disfigure the data
5.The x-axis and y-axis should be properly labeled
6.The graph/chart should not contain unnecessary
decorations
7.The simplest possible graph/chart should be used for
any data set

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Course Introduction

*Property of STI J0018

Statistics – branch of mathematics that deals with the

*Property of STI J0018

*Property of STI J0018

*Property of STI J0018

*Property of STI J0018

*Property of STI J0018

Population – the totality of objects, individuals, or

Sampling – method of getting a small but representative

*Property of STI J0018

*Property of STI J0018

*Property of STI J0018

Dependent and Independent Variables

*Property of STI J0018

Dependent and Independent Variables

*Property of STI J0018

*Property of STI J0018

Example Given x1 = 10, x2 = 8, x3 = 21, x4 = 7, x5 = 1, x6 =

*Property of STI J0018

Example Evaluate the following summations.

*Property of STI J0018

*Property of STI J0018

Example Evaluate the following given that x1 = 3, x2 = 6, x3

*Property of STI J0018

Example Evaluate the following given that x1 = 3, x2 = 6, x3

*Property of STI J0018

*Property of STI J0018

*Property of STI J0018

Example If x1 = 6, x2 = 7, x3 = 10, x4 = 1, and c = 4, evaluate

*Property of STI J0018

*Property of STI J0018

*Property of STI J0018

2.Write  (x i  y i )in its expanded form.

3.Round off the following numbers as indicated.

*Property of STI J0018

*Property of STI J0018

Human personality Extrovert, introvert

*Property of STI J0018

*Property of STI J0018

*Property of STI J0018

*Property of STI J0018

Indirect or Questionnaire Method

*Property of STI J0018

Experiment Method – used to

*Property of STI J0018

http://www.mathsisfun.com/data/images/histogram.gif http://0.tqn.com/d/spreadsheets/1/0/Y/H/-/-/pie_chart.gif https://whites-geometry-

*Property of STI J0018

*Property of STI J0018

*Property of STI J0018

*Property of STI J0018

*Property of STI J0018

*Property of STI J0018

*Property of STI J0018

5–7 5.5 – 7.5 ||||

*Property of STI J0018

*Property of STI J0018

*Property of STI J0018

*Property of STI J0018

*Property of STI J0018

*Property of STI J0018

*Property of STI J0018