BASIC PRINCIPLES OF WIND ENERGY CONVERSION

1. The Nature of Wind

The circulation of air in the atmosphere is caused by the non-uniform heating of
the earth’s surface by the sun. The air immediately above a warm area expands, it
is forced upward by cool, denser air which flows in from surrounding areas
causing wind.
The nature of the terrain, the degree of cloud and the angle of the sun in the sky are
all factors which influences this process.
In general, during the day the air above the land mass tends to heat up more rapidly
than the air over water. In coastal regions this manifests itself in a strong onshore
wind. At night the process is reversed because the air cools down more rapidly
over the land and the breeze therefore blows off shore.
Despite the wind’s intermittent nature, wind patterns at any particular site remain
remarkably constant year by year. Average wind speeds are greater in hilly and
costal area than they are well inland. The winds also tend to blow more
consistently and with greater strength over the surface of the water where there is a
less surface drag.

2. The Power in Wind

Wind possesses energy by virtue of its motion. Any device capable of slowing
down the mass of moving air, like a sail or propeller, can extract part of the energy
and convert is into useful work.
There are three factors determine the output power generated from the wind mill,
they are
(1) The wind speed
(2) The cross section of wind swept by rotor, and
(3) The overall conversion efficiency of rotor, transmission system and generator
or pump.
No device, however well-designed, can extract all of the wind’s energy because the
wind would have to be brought to a halt and this would prevent the passage of
more air through the rotor. The most that is possible is for the rotor to decelerate to
whole horizontal column of intercepted air to about one-third of its free velocity.
A 100% efficient aerogenerator would therefore only be able to convert up to a
maximum of around 60% of the available energy in wind into mechanical energy.
A well-designed blades will typically extract 70% of the theoretical maximum, but
losses incurred in the gear box, transmission system and generator or pump could
decrease overall wind tubine efficiency to 35% or less.

The nature of wind

The wind is the vertical and horizontal motion of air masses in the atmosphere. Global
winds are caused by pressure differences, due to the non uniform heating of the Earth
surface by solar radiation. The different pressure zones are due to the vertical movement of
the air. For example, at the Equator the strong solar radiation warms the ground surface.
The air in contact with the ground surface gets warmer an lighter, rising up, generating a
low pressure zone. At cold places, for examples the poles, the air is falling generating
(relatively) high pressure zones (Figure 2.1). Usually high pressure zones are characterized
by good weather conditions while low pressure zones are more rainy.

The difference in pressure between geographical areas gives rise to a pressure gradient
force. The pressure gradient force is perpendicular to the isobar lines, hence the air mass
start the motion in the opposite direction of the pressure gradient. This large scale motion
is also influenced by the Earth rotation which causes, among others, the Coriolis force. For
example, a particle of air moving from the latitude 1 towards latitude 2 (figure 2.2, valid for
northern hemisphere) have a velocity component parallel to the equator which is greater
than the same velocity component of the particles at the latitude 2. This determine that the
moving air particle is leading the other particles. For an external observer this looks like
that the particle turns right. A particle moving in the other direction (from latitude 1
towards latitude 2) will be lagging the other particles at latitude 1, hence it is, again,
turning right respect to the direction of motion (Figure 2.2).
Wind power
Wind power or wind energy is the use of air flow through wind turbines to provide
the mechanical power to turn electric generators and traditionally to do other work, like milling
or pumping. Wind power is a sustainable and renewable alternative to burning fossil fuels, and
has a much smaller impact on the environment.
Wind farms consist of many individual wind turbines, which are connected to the electric power
transmission network. Onshore wind is an inexpensive source of electric power, competitive with or in many
places cheaper than coal or gas plants

Advantages
The advantages of wind energy are more apparent than the disadvantages. The main
advantages include an unlimited, free, renewable resource (the wind itself), economic
value, maintenance cost, and placement of wind harvesting facilities. First and
foremost, wind is an unlimited, free, renewable resource. Wind is a natural occurrence
and harvesting the kinetic energy of wind doesn't affect currents or wind cycles in any
way. Next, harvesting wind power is a clean, non-polluting way to generate
electricity. Unlike other types of power plants, it emits no air pollutants or greenhouse
gases. The wind turbines harmlessly generate electricity from wind passing by. Wind
energy is far more ecofriendly than the burning of fossil fuels for electricity.
Currently, the United States, along with other countries, remains dependent on fossil
fuels imported from unstable and unreliable nations. [1] Strains on supply (of fossil
fuels) are likely to increase the prices of fossil fuel resources and leave the US
economy exposed to international market volatility. Wind power has the ability to free
the US from the figurative economic bondage of fossil fuels. Once turbines and
energy centers have been installed, the cost of maintaining turbines and generating
wind power is next to nothing. Another advantage of wind power is the ability to
place turbines wherever necessary. After performing research and finding areas that
have adequate wind, experts may place the turbines in desired areas. These areas are
usually unpopulated (offshore wind turbines, for example). [1] In fact, offshore winds
tend to blow harder and more uniformly than on land, providing the potential for
increased electricity generation and smoother, steadier operation than land-based wind
power systems. Fig. 1 shows offshore wind turbines harvesting energy.

OR

1. Wind Energy Is Renewable & Sustainable

Wind energy itself is both renewable and sustainable. The wind will never run out, unlike
reserves of fossil fuels (such as coal, oil, and gas.) This makes it a good choice of energy
for a sustainable power supply.

2. It’s Also Environmentally Friendly

Wind energy is one of the most environmentally friendly energy sources available today.
This is based on the simple reason that wind turbines don’t create pollution when
generating electricity.

Most non-renewable energy sources need to be burnt. This process releases gases such as
carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) into the atmosphere. These gases are known to
contribute to climate change. In contrast, wind turbines produce no greenhouse gases when
generating electricity.

3. It Can Reduce Fossil Fuel Consumption

Generating electricity from wind energy reduces the need to burn fossil fuel alternatives
such as coal, oil, and gas. This can help to conserve dwindling supplies of the earth’s
natural resources. As a result, they will last longer and help to support future generations.

4. Wind Energy is Free

Unlike most non-renewable energy sources, wind energy is completely free. Anyone can
make use of the wind and it will never run out. This makes wind energy a viable option for
generating cheap electricity.
5. It Has A Small Footprint

Wind turbines have a relatively small land footprint. Although they can tower high above the
ground, the impact on the land at the base is minimal. Wind turbines are often constructed
in fields, on hills or out at sea. At these locations, they pose hardly any inconvenience to the
surrounding land. Farmers can still farm their fields, livestock can still graze the hills and
fishermen can still fish the sea.

6. Both Industrial & Domestic Wind Turbines Exist

Wind turbines aren’t just limited to industrial-scale installations (such as wind farms.) They
can also be installed on a domestic scale. As a result, many landowners opt to install
smaller, less powerful wind turbines. This can help to provide a portion of a domestic
electricity supply. Domestic wind turbines are often coupled with other renewable energy
technologies. You can often find them installed alongside solar panels and geothermal
heating systems.

7. Wind Energy Can Provide Power For Remote Locations

Wind turbines can play a key role in helping to bring power to remote locations. This can
help to benefit everything from small off-grid villages to remote research facilities. It might
be impractical or too expensive to hook such locations up to traditional electricity supplies.
In these cases, wind turbines could have the answer.

Disadvantages of Wind Energy

We’ve had a look at the advantages, so now let’s take a look at the disadvantages of wind
energy. Wind energy has a number of drawbacks and cons, with the NIMBY (not in my
backyard) factor playing a large role.

1. The Wind Fluctuates

Wind energy has a similar drawback to solar energy in that it is not constant. Although wind
energy is sustainable and will never run out, the wind isn’t always blowing. This can cause
serious problems for wind farm developers. They will often spend a significant amount of
time and money investigating whether a particular site is suitable for wind power.

For a wind turbine to be efficient, it needs to have an adequate supply of wind energy. For
this reason, we often find wind turbines on top of hills or out at sea. In these locations, there
are fewer land obstacles to reduce the force of the wind.
2. Installation is Expensive

Although costs are reducing over time, wind turbines are still expensive. First, an engineer
must carry out a site survey. This may involve having to erect a sample turbine to measure
wind speeds over a period of time. If deemed adequate, a wind turbine then needs to be
manufactured, transported and erected on top of a pre-built foundation. All of these
processes contribute to the overall cost of installing wind turbines.

When we take the above into account for offshore wind farms, the costs become much
greater. Installing structures out at sea is far more complex than on land. Some companies
have even commissioned bespoke ships capable of transporting and installing wind turbines
at sea.

3. Wind Turbines Pose A Threat to Wildlife

We often hear that wind turbines pose a threat to wildlife – primarily birds and bats.
However, researchers now believe that they pose less of a threat to wildlife than other
manmade structures. Installations such as cell phone masts and radio towers are far more
dangerous to birds than wind turbines. Nevertheless, wind turbines still contribute to
mortality rates among bird and bat populations.

4. Wind Turbines Create Noise Pollution

One of the most common disadvantages of wind turbines is the noise pollution they
generate. You can often hear a single wind turbine from hundreds of meters away. Combine
multiple wind turbines with the right wind direction and the audible effects can be much
greater. This issue is one of the biggest impacts of wind energy.

Noise pollution from wind turbines has ruined the lives of many homeowners. Although
steps are often taken to install them away from dwellings, they do sometimes get built too
close to where people live. This is why new wind farms often come up against strong public
objection.

5. They Also Create Visual Pollution

Another common drawback of wind turbines is the visual pollution they create. Although
many people actually like the look of wind turbines, others don’t. These people see them as
a blot on the landscape. This, however, tends to come down to personal opinion. As we
build more wind farms, public acceptance is becoming more common.

OR

Disadvantages
 The two major disadvantages of wind power
include initial cost and technology
immaturity. Firstly, constructing turbines and
wind facilities is extremely expensive. The second disadvantage is technology
immaturity. [1] High cost of energy can, in part, be addressed directly with technology
innovations that increase reliability and energy output and lower system capital
expenses. Offshore wind energy produces more energy than onshore wind energy, but
costs much more to establish. The primary costs of wind turbines include construction
and maintenance. [1] New technology is needed to lower costs, increase reliability and
energy production, solve regional deployment issues, expand the resource area,
develop infrastructure and manufacturing facilities, and mitigate known
environmental impacts. Therefore, one may argue that implementation of wind energy
must be delayed until technological advancements are made. Other disadvantages
include:

 Aesthetic impact: Many people are concerned with the visual effects that wind
turbines have on the beautiful scenery of nature. They believe that giant wind
turbines distract viewers from the beautiful surroundings. Fig. 2 shows just how
big wind turbines can be.
 Wildlife: Wind turbines may be dangerous to flying animals. Many birds and
bats have been killed by flying into the rotors. Experts are now conducting
research to learn more about the effects that wind turbines have on marine
habitats.
 Remoteness of location: Although this may be an advantage (placing wind
turbines in desolate areas, far away from people), it may also be a disadvantage.
The cost of travel and maintenance on the turbines increases and is time
consuming. Offshore wind turbines require boats and can be dangerous to
manage.
 Noise: Some wind turbines tend to generate a lot of noise which can be
unpleasant
 Safety at Sea: In the darkness/at night it may be difficult for incoming boats to
see wind turbines thus leading to collisions.

Environmental Impacts of Wind Power

Harnessing power from the wind is one of the cleanest and most sustainable
ways to generate electricity as it produces no toxic pollution or global warming
emissions. Wind is also abundant, inexhaustible, and affordable, which makes
it a viable and large-scale alternative to fossil fuels.
Despite its vast potential, there are a variety of environmental impacts
associated with wind power generation that should be recognized and
mitigated.

Land Use
The land use impact of wind power facilities varies substantially depending on
the site: wind turbines placed in flat areas typically use more land than those
located in hilly areas. However, wind turbines do not occupy all of this land;
they must be spaced approximately 5 to 10 rotor diameters apart (a rotor
diameter is the diameter of the wind turbine blades). Thus, the turbines
themselves and the surrounding infrastructure (including roads and
transmission lines) occupy a small portion of the total area of a wind facility.

A survey by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory of large wind facilities

in the United States found that they use between 30 and 141 acres per
megawatt of power output capacity (a typical new utility-scale wind turbine is
about 2 megawatts). However, less than 1 acre per megawatt is disturbed
permanently and less than 3.5 acres per megawatt are disturbed temporarily
during construction . The remainder of the land can be used for a variety of
other productive purposes, including livestock grazing, agriculture, highways,
and hiking trails . Alternatively, wind facilities can be sited on brownfields
(abandoned or underused industrial land) or other commercial and industrial
locations, which significantly reduces concerns about land use .

Offshore wind facilities require larger amounts of space because the turbines
and blades are bigger than their land-based counterparts. Depending on their
location, such offshore installations may compete with a variety of other ocean
activities, such as fishing, recreational activities, sand and gravel extraction,
oil and gas extraction, navigation, and aquaculture. Employing best practices
in planning and siting can help minimize potential land use impacts of
offshore and land-based wind projects.

Wildlife and Habitat

The impact of wind turbines on wildlife, most notably on birds and bats, has
been widely document and studied. A recent National Wind Coordinating
Committee (NWCC) review of peer-reviewed research found evidence of bird
and bat deaths from collisions with wind turbines and due to changes in air
pressure caused by the spinning turbines, as well as from habitat disruption.
The NWCC concluded that these impacts are relatively low and do not pose a
threat to species populations .
Additionally, research into wildlife behavior and advances in wind turbine
technology have helped to reduce bird and bat deaths. For example, wildlife
biologists have found that bats are most active when wind speeds are low.
Using this information, the Bats and Wind Energy Cooperative concluded that
keeping wind turbines motionless during times of low wind speeds could
reduce bat deaths by more than half without significantly affecting power
production . Other wildlife impacts can be mitigated through better siting of
wind turbines. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services has played a leadership role
in this effort by convening an advisory group including representatives from
industry, state and tribal governments, and nonprofit organizations that made
comprehensive recommendations on appropriate wind farm siting and best
management practices .

Offshore wind turbines can have similar impacts on marine birds, but as with
onshore wind turbines, the bird deaths associated with offshore wind are
minimal. Wind farms located offshore will also impact fish and other marine
wildlife. Some studies suggest that turbines may actually increase fish
populations by acting as artificial reefs. The impact will vary from site to site,
and therefore proper research and monitoring systems are needed for each
offshore wind facility .

Public Health and Community

Sound and visual impact are the two main public health and community
concerns associated with operating wind turbines. Most of the sound
generated by wind turbines is aerodynamic, caused by the movement of
turbine blades through the air. There is also mechanical sound generated by
the turbine itself. Overall sound levels depend on turbine design and wind
speed.

Some people living close to wind facilities have complained about sound and
vibration issues, but industry and government-sponsored studies in Canada
and Australia have found that these issues do not adversely impact public
health . However, it is important for wind turbine developers to take these
community concerns seriously by following “good neighbor” best practices for
siting turbines and initiating open dialogue with affected community
members. Additionally, technological advances, such as minimizing blade
surface imperfections and using sound-absorbent materials can reduce wind
turbine noise .

Under certain lighting conditions, wind turbines can create an effect known as
shadow flicker. This annoyance can be minimized with careful siting, planting
trees or installing window awnings, or curtailing wind turbine operations
when certain lighting conditions exist

Water Use
There is no water impact associated with the operation of wind turbines. As in
all manufacturing processes, some water is used to manufacture steel and
cement for wind turbines.

Life-Cycle Global Warming Emissions

While there are no global warming emissions associated with operating wind
turbines, there are emissions associated with other stages of a wind turbine’s
life-cycle, including materials production, materials transportation, on-site
construction and assembly, operation and maintenance, and decommissioning
and dismantlement.

Estimates of total global warming emissions depend on a number of factors,

including wind speed, percent of time the wind is blowing, and the material
composition of the wind turbine. Most estimates of wind turbine life-cycle
global warming emissions are between 0.02 and 0.04 pounds of carbon
dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour. To put this into context, estimates of
life-cycle global warming emissions for natural gas generated electricity are
between 0.6 and 2 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour and
estimates for coal-generated electricity are 1.4 and 3.6 pounds of carbon
dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour