Structural and Tectonic Controls of Basin Evolution in

Southwestern Gondwana During the Phanerozoic

A. J. Tankard J. Skarmeta
Tankard Enterprises ENAP
Calgary, Alberta, Canada Santiago, Chile

M. A. Uliana H. Santa Ana

ASTRA ANCAP
Buenos Aires, Argentina Montevideo, Uruguay

H. J. Welsink F. Wiens
Perez Companc Geo Consultores
Neuquén, Argentina Asunción, Paraguay

V. A. Ramos M. Cirbián
Universidad de Buenos Aires
Buenos Aires, Argentina O. López Paulsen
YPFB
Santa Cruz, Bolivia
M. Turic
YPF
Buenos Aires, Argentina G. J. B. Germs
JCI Research Unit
Randfontein, South Africa
A. B. França

E. J. Milani M. J. De Wit
Petrobras/Nexpar University of Cape Town
Curitiba, Brazil Rondebosch, South Africa

B. B. de Brito Neves T. Machacha

Universidade de S. Paulo Geological Survey Department
São Paulo, Brazil Lobatse, Botswana

N. Eyles R. McG. Miller

Department of Geology NAMCOR
University of Toronto Windhoek, Namibia
Scarborough, Ontario, Canada

Abstract

T he continental lithosphere of southwestern Gondwana, comprising the southern part of South America
and southern Africa, was largely assembled before the end of the Proterozoic. Geologic studies indicate
that the basement anisotropy that controlled the development of Phanerozoic basins was established by
Neoproterozoic–Early Cambrian tectonism. This tectonism reactivated the older terrane boundaries or cut
across them. The backbone linking the system of Pan-African and Brasiliano basins was a system of northeast-
trending structures. There were four areas of pronounced Neoproterozoic–Early Cambrian basin subsidence in
the study area: the Chiquitanas trough in Bolivia, the Puncoviscana basin in Argentina, the Dom Feliciano-
Ribeira basins in Brazil, and the Damara-Nama basin complex of southern Africa.

Tankard, A. J., M. A. Uliana, H. J. Welsink, V. A. Ramos, M. Turic, A. B. França, E. J. Milani, B. B. de Brito 5

Neves, N. Eyles, J. Skarmeta, H. Santa Ana et al., 1995, Tectonic controls of basin evolution in southwestern
Gondwana, in A. J. Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H. J. Welsink, Petroleum basins of South America: AAPG
Memoir 62, p. 5–52.
6 Tankard et al.

The Phanerozoic basins developed largely along these Pan-Gondwana trends, their stratigraphy recording
periodic changes in tectonic behavior. Large volumes of terrigenous clastic sediments accumulated in the
Paleozoic Chaco-Tarija, Paraná, and Cape-Karoo basins. Major depositional hiatuses at the end of the Ordovi-
cian and the end of the Devonian are attributed to reorganization of stress fields and basin inversion. In
Argentina and Bolivia, these events are called the Ocloyic and Chañic orogenies, respectively. The succeeding
Permian–Carboniferous basins had an extensional component of subsidence. Tectonically formed relief is
believed to have initiated the various centers of Gondwana glaciation. Widespread inversion of Paleozoic
depocenters in the Late Permian and Early Triassic is expressed in the Cape-Ventana fold belt and the western
Pampean ranges. Inversion marks the transition to Mesozoic extension. There were two styles of Mesozoic
extension. In the first, a Basin and Range type of extension resulted from orogenic collapse during the
Triassic–Early Jurassic. Major offsets of the extensional tracts were accommodated by the preexisting northeast-
trending structures. In contrast, Late Jurassic–Cretaceous extension was controlled by northwestward-
diverging shear zones related to fragmentation of Gondwana, opening of the Atlantic Ocean, and trench roll-
back along the Pacific margin of South America. The climax of the Andean orogeny in the late Cenozoic
overprinted and reactivated these earlier trends.
The petroleum prospectivity of the South American basins is due largely to their composite form, multiple
intervals of Paleozoic and Mesozoic source rocks, and the modification or formation of structural traps in the
Tertiary. Clastic reservoirs and inversion structures are common.

Resumen

L a litósfera continental del extremo sudoeste de Gondwana que comprende la parte meridional de
Sudamérica y el sur de Africa fue ensamblada mayormente antes del fin del Neoproterozoico. Diversos
estudios geológicos señalan que las heterogeneidades del basamento que controlaron el desarrollo de las
cuencas fanerozoicas de dicha región fueron impuestas por el tectonismo del Proterozoico tardío y el Cámbrico
temprano. Ese tectonismo reactivó antiguas zonas de sutura o eventualmente se transmitió através de ellas. El
esqueleto que vinculó a este sistema de cuencas del Pan-Africano y Brasiliano se relaciona con una serie de
estructuras de orientación noreste. Dentro de la región en estudio hay cuatro áreas que registran pronunciada
subsidencia durante el Neoproterozoico tardio-Cámbrico temprano: la fosa Chiquitanas en Bolivia, la cuenca
Puncoviscana en Argentina, las cuencas Dom Feliciano-Ribeira en Brasil, y el complejo de cuencas Damara-
Nama de Africa meridional.
Las cuencas fanerozoicas se desarrollaron principalmente a lo largo de los lineamientos pan-gondwánicos, y
su estratigrafía registra cambios periódicos en el comportamiento tectónico. En el Paleozoico las cuencas Chaco-
Tarija, Paraná, y Cabo-Karoo acumularon grandes volúmenes de sedimentos clásticos. El desarrollo de hiatos
importantes hacia el fin del Ordovícico y del Devónico es atribuido a fenómenos de reorientación del campo de
esfuerzos y a inversión de las cuencas. En Argentina y Bolivia esos hiatos son referidos a las orogenias Oclóyica
y Cháñica, respectivamente. Las cuencas permo-carboníferas desarrolladas a continuación, registran un compo-
nente de subsidencia extensional. Se estima que varios de los focos de glaciación gondwánica iniciaron su
actividad a partir de altos topográficos inducidos tectónicamente. La inversión regional de los depocentros del
Paleozoico durante el Pérmico tardío y Triásico temprano es ostensible en el cinturón del Cabo-Ventana y en las
Sierras Pampeanas Occidentales. Dicha inversión marcó una etapa de transición a las condiciones de extensión
que dominaron al Mesozoico. Es posible reconocer dos estilos de extensión mesozoica. Al principio la extensión
asumió un estilo Basin-and-Range, derivado del colapso orogénico que tuvo lugar durante el Triásico y Jurásico
temprano. Variaciones en la ubicación de las áreas sometidas a extensión fueron compensadas a lo largo de
estructuras preexistentes de orientación noreste. De manera contrastante, la extensión jurásico-cretácica fue
controlada por zonas de cizalla divergentes hacia el noroeste, relacionadas a la fragmentación de Gondwana, a
la apertura del Océano atlántico, y a subducción retrocedente sobre el margen pacífico de Sudamérica. En el
Cenozoico tardío el clímax de la orogenia Andina se sobreimpuso y reactivo a las estructuras precedentes.
La prospectividad petrolera de las cuencas de Sudamérica se relaciona principalmente con su carácter
compuesto, con intervalos múltiples de rocas generadoras paleozoicas y mesozoicas, y con la modificación o
generación de trampas estructurales en el Cenozoico. Los reservorios clásticos y las estructuras de inversión son
rasgos muy frecuentes.
 Structural and Tectonic Controls of Basin Evolution in Southwestern Gondwana 7

Figure 1—Southwestern
Gondwana showing the distribu-
tion of Neoproterozoic-Phanero-
zoic basins. The Paraná, Chaco,
and Chaco-Paraná basins origi-
nally formed a continuous basin
complex that was dismembered
by Mesozoic extension and
erosion. Regional cross sections
and seismic lines are identified
with their figure numbers. BH,
Boomerang Hills; CH, Chiqui-
tanas; DB, Damara belt; DF,
Dom Feliciano; GB, Gariep belt;
GC, Ghanzi-Chobe belt; KL,
Kalahari Line; PB, Paganzo
basin; 1, Otuquis well; 2, Masetl-
heng Pan-1 well. (Data from
Miller and Schalk, 1980;
Schobbenhaus et al., 1981;
Visser, 1984.)

INTRODUCTION This paper examines basin evolution in southwestern

Gondwana and attempts to demonstrate the linked
Southwestern Gondwana consisted of a collage of
nature of basin development. Interpretation is based on a
fault-bounded terranes that had accumulated around the
literature review, as well as on a large amount of previ-
Archean cratons, mostly before the end of the Protero-
ously unpublished surface and subsurface data,
zoic (Hartnady et al., 1985; De Wit et al., 1988; Unrug,
including wells and reflection seismic. Space does not
1992). The continental lithosphere was then deformed
allow an exhaustive survey of the literature. Instead, we
intermittently for at least 200 m.y. in the Neoproterozoic
hope that the diverse authorship will contribute a
and early Paleozoic. These Pan-African–Brasiliano events
breadth generally not available in the literature.
are expressed in a clastic- and carbonate-filled suite of
This is a first attempt to synthesize an enormous area.
sedimentary basins and associated intrusive rocks that
We realize that detailed paleostress measurements reveal
stretch across southern Africa, Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay,
large-scale variations across a continent (e.g., Zoback and
Uruguay, and northern Argentina (Figure 1). Field
Zoback, 1980). This is probably inherent in Gondwana as
studies and exploration reflection seismic data show that
well, but there is insufficient paleostress data for rigorous
the Phanerozoic basins have repeatedly exploited preex-
analysis. We have taken the approach of estimating the
isting Neoproterozoic–Early Cambrian lineaments. For
effects of mean stress directions.
example, the Paleozoic Chaco-Tarija, Paraná, and Cape-
Azimuths given in this paper refer to a palinspastic
Karoo basins seem to have been tectonically linked
arrangement in which Africa is rotated relative to South
(Figure 1). They contain similar records of deposition
America. Present-day north arrows are shown for both
and subsidence and similarly exploited older crustal
continents.
zones of weakness.
8 Tankard et al.

Figure 2—Crustal architecture of

southwestern Gondwana. The
distribution and stratigraphy of
the Paleozoic basins (Visser,
1984; França et al., 1995; YPF,
proprietary reports) suggest that
this continental plate was largely
assembled by the earliest
Paleozoic. The rheology of the
terranes and their mechanical
boundaries influenced the distrib-
ution of Phanerozoic basins
(compare with Figure 3). The
composite Namaqua province
consists of the Bushmanland,
Gordonia, and Rehoboth terranes.
AC, Aconquija lineament; AMC,
Amazonia craton; CC, Congo
craton; KL, Kalahari line; LA, Luis
Alves craton; LB, Las Breñas;
NNMB, Namaqua-Natal mobile
belt; PB, Puncoviscana belt;
SCCB, southern Cape conduc-
tivity belt; SFC, São Francisco
craton; TL, Tandilia lineament;
TVL-PL, Tantalite valley
line–Pofadder lineament zone; ZF,
Zoetfontein fault. (Data from
Hartnady et al., 1985; Joubert,
1986; Ramos, 1988; Petrobras,
proprietary reports.)

PROTEROZOIC CRUSTAL EVOLUTION Mesoproterozoic basement is preserved in the Alto

Paraguay, Rio de la Plata, and Namaqua tectonic
The crustal evolution of southwestern Gondwana is
provinces (Figure 2). The Namaqua province is a high-
expressed in a mosaic of tectonic provinces and accre-
grade region that abuts the Kaapvaal craton (Tankard et
tionary terranes arranged around the Archean cratons
al., 1982) along the Kalahari line, which has a
(Figure 2). Several authors have interpreted the distribu-
pronounced gravity and magnetic signature (Hutchins
tion of mafic and ultramafic rocks and intracratonic
and Reeves, 1980; Corner, 1991). Abrupt crustal and
orogenic belts as the sutures that weld together the
lithospheric thickness changes occur across the Kalahari
various lithospheric blocks (Almeida et al., 1976; Cordani
line (De Wit et al., 1992) that may have influenced later
and Brito Neves, 1982; Hartnady et al., 1985; Joubert,
basin development. The Namaqua province comprises a
1986; Ramos, 1988; Unrug, 1992). The cratonic areas
diverse assemblage of terranes separated by mafic rocks
consist of several discrete crustal blocks of Archean–
and tectonized belts (Figure 3) (Thomas et al., 1993). This
Mesoproterozoic age that were probably allochthonous.
Bushmanland-Richtersveld terrane was accreted to the
These include the Amazonian, São Francisco, Luis Alves,
Kaapvaal craton about 1300 Ma (Joubert, 1986). The
Rio de la Plata, Congo, and Kalahari cratons. The
suture between the Gordonia and Bushmanland terranes
Archean Amazonian, São Francisco, and Kaapvaal
is a line of mafic rocks at least 1200 Ma that forms the
cratons have well-developed tectonic boundaries
Tantalite Valley line (TVL) along the Pofadder shear
(Hartnady et al., 1985; Ramos, 1988; De Wit et al., 1992).
zone. However, the number of terranes and their
Elsewhere the contacts are obscured by intracratonic
detailed thermotectonic history is still unresolved and
cover sequences such as the Chaco, Paraná, and Karoo
subject to much debate (Harris, 1992). The end of this
basins. Figure 3 shows the relationship among Phanero-
Mesoproterozoic orogenesis and stabilization of the
zoic basins, major structural trends, and potential field
Namaqua terranes enlarged the Kaapvaal craton into the
data. In South America, steep gradients are attributed to
Kalahari craton.
late Phanerozoic reactivation of terrane boundaries.
 Structural and Tectonic Controls of Basin Evolution in Southwestern Gondwana
The Alto Paraguay terrane and Rio de la Plata craton
may have been tectonically linked to the Namaqua
province in the Mesoproterozoic (Figure 2). Figure 3
compares the Bouguer gravity characteristics of the Rio
de la Plata and Alto Paraguay terranes. The latter is a
broad gravity low where the Phanerozoic Paraná basin is
uncompensated at a subcrustal level. The northwest-
trending transition is interpreted as a terrane boundary
or shear zone (Figure 2) (Ramos, 1988). Along the coast of
eastern Uruguay, this lineament is closely associated
with mafic rocks (Brito Neves and Cordani, 1991).
Toward the northwest, the Rio de la Plata–Alto Paraguay
shear zone bifurcates around the Guaporé craton of
Bolivia, a tectonic extension of the Amazonian craton
(Almeida et al., 1976). The southern margin of the
Guaporé craton was affected by two Mesoproterozoic
orogenies: the San Ignacio orogeny at about 1300 Ma and
the Sunsas-Aguapei mobile belt at 950 Ma (Litherland
and Bloomfield, 1981; Litherland et al., 1989; Unrug,
1992). These events were broadly contemporaneous with
Bushmanland-Kaapvaal coupling (Joubert, 1986),
suggesting tectonic linkage. Outliers of Proterozoic
basement are exposed in the Andean belt as the
Arequipa-Antofalla massif (as old as 1918 Ma) (Ramos,
1988; Unrug, 1992).
9
Figure 3—Potential field data sets and major
structural trends that define the basement
framework of southwestern Gondwana. South
American contours are Bouguer gravity;
Botswana data are magnetic. Steep gradients
are attributed to younger reactivation of old
terrane boundaries which are based on field
studies (compare with Figure 2). Note the
following: (1) The Kalahari magnetic anomaly
(KL) probably marks the edge of the Archean
Kaapvaal craton. (2) Steep Bouguer gradients
separate the Alto Paraguay and Rio de la Plata
cratons. The Paraná basin is associated with
negative Bouguer values, whereas the Chaco-
Paraná basin is a condensed cover above
normal crustal thicknesses without significant
variations (Wiens, 1995). Pronounced
northeast trends characterize the Paraná
basin. (3) The Chaco basin of Bolivia overlies
thinned crust. The Boomerang-Chiquitanas
transcurrent fault coincides with a distinct
gravity boundary, to the north of which the
Bouguer anomalies are typical of shield areas
(E. Ebner, 1993, personal communication). (4)
Near the Andes, the Bouguer gravity drops
significantly because there is no isostatic
correction. AC, Aconquija lineament; AP, Alto
Paraguay craton; BF, Boomerang fault; CH,
Chiquitanas front; Gord, Gordonia terrane; KL,
Kalahari line; LB, Las Breñas fault, LO, Lomas
de Olmedo structural trend; NC, Ncojane
basin; NO, Nosop basin; RP, Rio de la Plata
craton; SCCB, southern Cape conductivity
belt; TB, Trans-Brasiliano structure. (Data from
Hutchins and Reeves, 1980; Miller and Schalk,
1980; Visser, 1984; Hartnady et al., 1985;
Salfity, 1985; Joubert, 1986; Pitts et al., 1992;
Petrobras, proprietary reports.)
Magnetic, gravity, and magnetotelluric data record
the possible southern margin of the Namaqua province
beneath the Cape fold belt, where the southern Cape
conductivity belt (SCCB) coincides with the Beattie
magnetic anomaly (De Beer, 1983; Pitts et al., 1992). This
margin is modeled as a southward-dipping structure
containing dense material such as serpentinized mafic
and ultramafic rocks attributed to ophiolite accretion.
The Saldania complex of metasedimentary and
magmatic rocks (Malmesbury, Kango, and Kaaimans
groups) abutting the SCCB margin of the Namaqua
province has been attributed to Neoproterozoic accretion
(Hartnady et al., 1985). The SCCB-Beattie lineament may
have a counterpart on the conjugate Argentinian margin
where it is broadly colinear with the Tandilia trend and
its associated mafic rocks (Figure 2) (Ramos, 1988; Brito
Neves and Cordani, 1991).
The Pampeanas terrane was joined to the Rio de la
Plata terrane in the Neoproterozoic along a westward-
dipping suture marked by mylonitized ultramafic bodies
with magmatic arc affinities (Ramos, 1988). In Bolivia,
this suture is believed to form the eastern margin of the
Izozog arch (Figure 2), implying that Pampean basement
underlies the Chaco basin. Geobarometry of metamor-
phic parageneses suggests as much as 15 km of colli-
10 Tankard et al.

sional uplift in the eastern Pampeanas terrane (Gordillo,

1984). Collision of the pre-Cordillera terrane with the N
gua ia
Pampeanas resulted in delamination and imbrication of -
Ar a
B
the crust (Cominguez and Ramos, 1991). The Sierra de

P a r a g u ay
TB
Valle Fértil fault system at the contact is a major crustal Tu c
P l aa v a c
structure that was repeatedly reactivated throughout the tf o a
rm

Phanerozoic (Baldis et al., 1982; Fielding and Jordan,

1988). The structure of the Pampeanas and pre-Cordillera na

a
is controlled by northeast- and northwest-striking faults

sc
Pu n c o vi
(Baldis et al., 1984; Salfity, 1985). Emplacement of the JF
Chilenia-Patagonia terrane complex largely completed
the construction of southwestern Gondwana. Ramos LF RB

(1988) and Dalla Salda et al. (1993) have commented on

Mesoproterozoic basement forming the Patagonia D
F

terrane.
When the Pampeanas, pre-Cordillera, and Chilenia-
Patagonia terranes were joined is contentious. For

fts
Ri
example, De Wit and Ransome (1992) believe that part of sib
the Patagonia terrane may have been sutured during the No
Cape orogeny in the middle Paleozoic. The eastern OL
MA
Sierras Pampeanas preserves a 1200-km-long belt of Damara
magmatic rocks with a 700–600 Ma age range (Ramos, Gariep
1988). Blanketing stratigraphic relationships suggest that
the pre-Cordillera and Pampeanas were already in KL
Saldania

N
contact by the earliest Paleozoic, although large amounts
of right-lateral displacement may have affected these
blocks in the Paleozoic (Aceñolaza and Toselli, 1988). The
stratigraphic and deformational records (e.g., Ocloyic
and Chañic events) provide no evidence for distin-
R
guishing between initial accretion of the Chilenia terrane
and transpressional inversion of an amalgamated exten- R’

sional complex. Likewise, a middle Paleozoic age for

suturing of the Patagonia terrane has been inferred from
the Somuncura batholith. However, Rapela and Kay
(1988) argue that there is no evidence of a suture and that
the siliceous character of the Somuncura batholith is
atypical of subduction. Riccardi and Rolleri (1980)
describe the Bahia La Lancha suture of southern
Patagonia, which they attribute to a Carboniferous-age
collision.
The present study examines the stratigraphic relation-
ships, paleogeographies, and tectonic framework of
southwestern Gondwana and suggests that these major
terranes were largely joined by the end of the Protero-
zoic. This interpretation does not preclude significant
reorganizations throughout the Phanerozoic.
In summary, when results from either side of the
Atlantic are combined, they demonstrate a unity in the
pattern and timing of basement construction. The
systematic pattern of terrane accretion imposed a first-
order northwest-trending structural grain, as well as a
secondary intraterrane structural fabric (e.g., Harris,
1992). Northwest and northeast trends are common in
the Gordonia-Rehoboth, Alto Paraguay, and Pampeanas
terranes. Neoproterozoic–Phanerozoic basin develop-
ment reflects the relative strengths of the lithosphere. The
Gordonia-Rehoboth-Alto Paraguay lithosphere formed
major depocenters, as did the northern Pampeanas
terrane. The Archean cratonic nucleii, including the
Guaporé, Rio de la Plata, and Kaapvaal cratons, were
generally positive elements. A conspicuous set of
Figure 4—Distribution of major outcrop belts of Neopro-
terozoic (Riphean–Vendian) rocks. In Namibia, early
Damara extension created the east-west oriented Nosib
rifts. The Matchless belt is a 350-km-long volcanic-plutonic
belt attributed to Nosib extension which culminated in
separation and formation of oceanic-like crust (Breitkopf
and Maiden, 1987; Stanistreet et al., 1991). In eastern Brazil,
mafic and granitic intrusions in the Dom Feliciano and
Ribeira belts are associated with northeast-trending struc-
tures (e. g., Braun et al., 1991). Counterparts of these rocks
in Bolivia form the Tucavaca platform. Extensional
processes were ubiquitous. B, Boomerang; DF, Dom
Feliciano; JF, Jacutinga fault; LF, Lancinha-Cubatão fault
zone; MA, Matchless amphibolite; OL, Okahandja
lineament; RB, Ribeira belt; TB, Trans-Brasiliano
lineament.
northeast-striking strike-slip faults or accommodation
zones that cut across terrane boundaries was a major
control of basin development. Only in the Late Jurassic
and Cretaceous did the Proterozoic sutures directly
control tectonism. It is as if fragmentation of south-
western Gondwana in the late Mesozoic attempted to
dismantle the Proterozoic construction.
 Structural and Tectonic Controls of Basin Evolution in Southwestern Gondwana
PAN-GONDWANA TECTONIC
FRAMEWORK
The Pan-African and Brasiliano belts form a network
of Neoproterozoic–Cambrian basins and orogenic
systems which span the African and South American
continents (Kröner, 1977; Almeida et al., 1981; Miller,
1983; Brito Neves and Cordani, 1991; De Wit and
Ransome, 1992). They record a complex structural and
metamorphic history and several episodes of deformation
that surround the cratons. This Pan-Gondwana episode
was initiated about 960 Ma ago and locally persisted
through Early Cambrian time (Miller, 1983; Brito Neves
and Cordani, 1991). Table 1 summarizes the Riphean–
Cambrian stratigraphy and its distribution. Age and
stratigraphic relationships, however, are generally poorly
constrained, and basin development was probably
diachronous. Gresse and Scheepers (1993) review the
Pan-African geochronology of southern Africa in detail.
The principal Pan-African–Brasiliano depocenters are
located along prominent intracratonic structural belts.
Forming the core is a system of northeast-trending linea-
ments and shear zones associated with the São Francisco,
Ribeira, Dom Feliciano, and Gariep belts (Figures 1, 4).
The Trans-Brasiliano lineament and northeast-directed
Bouguer gravity trends emphasize this fabric in the São
Francisco basin (Braun et al., 1991; Brito Neves and
Cordani, 1991). In Bolivia, the Chiquitanas front is a
shear zone that diverges along the edge of the Guaporé
craton (Litherland et al., 1989). Likewise, the inland
branch of the Damara belt occurs between the Congo
and Kalahari cratons (Figure 4). The Puncoviscana belt of
northwestern Argentina lies along the western edge of
Neoproterozoic Gondwana.
An aeromagnetic survey in Botswana (Figure 3) shows
a considerable depth to magnetic basement west of the
Kalahari anomaly (Hutchins and Reeves, 1980). This
geology was tested with acquisition of 20-sec reflection
seismic data in the Nosop-Ncojane basin (Geologic
Survey Department, 1987–1988, proprietary seismic data).
A very thick succession of well-defined and persistent
reflectors (Figures 5, 6) confirm basin depths in excess of
15 km. The Masetlheng Pan exploration well (Figure 1)
recovered late Riphean palynomorphs at 2 sec (~4000 m)
beneath a Nama section (A. Knoll, 1994, personal commu-
nication). Hall et al. (1990) have shown that the basin-
forming structures have a long history of repeated reacti-
vation, and they interpret the Kalahari magnetic anomaly
as an old fault system. Hall et al. (1990) estimate crustal
thickness to be about 40 km. Refraction seismic data
record a similar crustal thickness beneath the northern
Damara cover (42 km) (Green, 1983).
The various Pan-African and Brasiliano basins shared
broadly similar patterns and timing of basin develop-
ment and deformation, reflecting tectonic linkage. The
initial stages of basin evolution were extensional or
transtensional and locally culminated in creation of
oceanic-type crust. After a period of rift abandonment,
widespread contraction, shearing, and associated
magmatism closed this Pan-Gondwana cycle.
11
Riphean Extension
Extensional subsidence was ubiquitous in the Riphean
(Figure 4). The Damara succession of Namibia was
initially deposited in a suite of disconnected rift basins
between the Congo and Kalahari cratons. Alkaline
magmatism dates this intracratonic rifting at 830–730 Ma
(Miller, 1983). These Nosib rift basins were almost 7 km
deep in places (SACS, 1980). By late Nosib and Swakop
time (Table 1), partial breakup of the Khomas trough is
believed to have created a narrow band of oceanic floor
reflected in the 350-km-long strip of Matchless serpenti-
nite, gabbro, and metabasite (Figure 4) with its MORB-
type geochemical affinities (Finnemore, 1978; Miller,
1983; Breitkopf and Maiden, 1987), pillow lavas (Sawyer,
1981), and pelagic sedimentary rocks (Miller, 1983;
Stanistreet et al., 1991). Other conspicuous rock types
include the Chuos (Nosib) and Numees diamictites.
Postrift thermal subsidence created a broad epeiric
basin above the previous rifts, resulting in a blanket of
carbonate platform and argillaceous sediments. A
postrift Swakop succession up to 15 km thick accumu-
lated above the northern Damara rift. The loci of upper
crustal extension (rift stage Khomas trough) and lower
crustal extension (postrift stage northern Damara
Swakop cover) were offset, suggesting that extension
may have been accommodated by intracrustal detach-
ment (see Kusznir and Egan, 1989; Henry et al., 1990).
The Gariep belt (Figure 4) is essentially a coastal
continuation of the Damara and preserves a similar
geologic history, including an extensional phase
dominated by alluvial fans. In the west, allochthonous
ophiolite terranes are juxtaposed at a major fault
(Hartnady et al., 1985; Von Veh, 1990). The Gariep has
affinities with the highly tectonized Dom Feliciano–
Ribeira conjugate margin of Brazil (Almeida et al., 1981;
Porada, 1989; Braun et al., 1991; Brito Neves and
Cordani, 1991; Stanistreet et al., 1991; Unrug, 1992).
The São Francisco and Paraná basins of Brazil appear
to have followed a similar pattern of basin evolution
between about 730 and 560 Ma (Braun et al., 1991). (In
this paper, we use the term Paraná basin to refer to its pre-
Ordovician genetic precursors as well as its Paleozoic
depocenters.) The São Francisco basin contains the
Bambui Group, a variable assemblage of terrigenous
clastics and calcareous rocks (Table 1) (Dardenne, 1978).
Initial sedimentation of coarse alluvial clastics occurred
along northeast-trending structures (e.g., Sete Lagoas
Formation) (Braun et al., 1991; Brito Neves and Cordani,
1991). Similar northeastward structural trends were also
important in the Riphean Paraná basin (Brito Neves and
Cordani, 1991; Petrobras proprietary reports).
In Bolivia, the Chiquitanas front forms the wrench
margin of the Guaporé craton. It formed by reactivation
of the older San Ignacio (1300 Ma) and Sunsas (950 Ma)
belts (Litherland et al., 1989). The stratigraphic column of
the Chiquitanas margin consists of three groups (Table
1): (1) the Boqui extensional margin, on which the
Tucavaca platform of (2) Corumbá carbonates and (3)
Tucavaca fine-grained terrigenous clastics were
deposited. The Boqui consists of as much as 2000 m of
12 Tankard et al.
Table 1—Comparative Vendian–Cambrian Stratigraphy
(Data from SACS, 1980; Almeida et al., 1981; Germs, 1983; Miller, 1983; Litherland et al., 1989; Braun et al., 1991; Brito Neves and Cordani, 1991; J. Salfity, 1993, personal
communication, França et al., 1995.)
channelized arkoses attributed to alluvial deposition.
About 1700 m of limestones with clastic interbeds were
drilled in the Otuquis well (Figure 1) (YPFB, proprietary
report). Outcrop geology along the Sierras Chiquitanas
and seismic reflection data show that pre-Chaco sedi-
mentation occurred in rift basins (Figure 7). Seismic data
show hundreds of meters of throw on the rift-bounding
faults, some of which had a component of oblique slip
movement.
Glacial diamictites in the Bolivian Boqui Formation
(Lopez, 1982) and the Brazilian Puga and Jequitaí forma-
tions may be counterparts of the Chuos of Namibia
(Alvarenga and Trompete, 1992).
In summary, Riphean extension was widespread and
lasted 180 m.y. or more, during which the thickest
Neoproterozoic sediments accumulated. Coarse terrige-
nous sediments marked the climax of rifting, but were
superseded by finer grained clastics and carbonates. The
Chiquitanas and inland branch of the Damara notwith-
standing, a pervasive northeast-trending structural fabric
was a major influence on basin development. This is
shown by field studies as well as Bouguer gravity trends
in South America (Braun et al., 1991). Interior belts of
flysch, volcaniclastic materials, and bimodal suites of
volcanics and calcalkaline granitoids (850–500 Ma) are
associated with these lineaments and shear zones: Trans-
Brasiliano lineament, Dom Feliciano, Ribeira, and Gariep
(Braun et al., 1991; Unrug, 1992). The Matchless metaba-
site in the inland Damara extensional tract is interpreted
as a sliver of oceanic crust (Kukla and Stanistreet, 1991),
although paleomagnetic data would appear to preclude
formation of a wide ocean basin (McWilliams and
Kröner, 1981) such as the “Adamastor ocean” of
Hartnady et al. (1985).
(foldout, opposite)
Figure 5—GSD deep seismic reflection profile 9493. Unin-
terpreted (top) and interpreted (bottom) sections showing
Ghanzi thrusts rooted in pre-Nama basement. The shallow
reflectors above 4 sec are horizontal, implying little flexural
deformation in front of the Ghanzi-Chobe thrust belt.
P, inferred base of Proterozoic; B, reflective lower crust.
See Figure 10 for location.
(foldout, reverse side)
Figure 6—GSD deep seismic reflection profile 9492. Unin-
terpreted (top) and interpreted (bottom) sections showing
a considerable thickness of layered rocks, normal faults,
and apparent structural inversion which has produced
reverse offsets of reflectors. Masetlheng Pan-1 is projected
onto this profile. The well was drilled to 2 sec. Nama sedi-
mentary rocks occur at 0. 87–1. 34 sec, with upper Riphean
below that (A. H. Knoll, 1994, personal communication). N,
base of Nama; P, inferred base of Proterozoic; B, reflective
lower crust (reflector “e” of Hall et al., 1990). See Figure 1
for location.
Structural and Tectonic Controls of Basin Evolution in Southwestern Gondwana 13
14 Tankard et al.
 Structural and Tectonic Controls of Basin Evolution in Southwestern Gondwana
Transtensional processes appear to have been
important, locally resulting in considerable crustal atten-
uation and even creation of small pull-apart type oceanic
basins (e.g., Miller, 1983; Breitkopf and Maiden, 1987;
Brito Neves and Cordani, 1991; Stanistreet et al., 1991).
There is no evidence for a larger scale Wilson cycle.
However, this remains a lively debate (see Miller, 1983).
A possible analog for these tectonic associations is the
west Peruvian trough (McCourt, 1981) or the Cariaco
trench of Venezuela.
Vendian–Early Cambrian Orogenesis
By late Riphean time, the basins were subjected to
widespread contraction, except for the Puncoviscana belt
at the edge of the continent. Two structural trends, north-
eastward and approximately northward, accommodated
much of the contraction in Brazil and Namibia. Together
these created linear tracts of transtensional basins. Reacti-
vation of older structures by compression influenced
sedimentation in the foreland basins. Mixed clastic and
carbonate deposition characterized this interlude, while
magmatism persisted along many of the structures.
Deposition of the Mulden sediments started at about
650 Ma (Table 1) (Miller, 1983). These deposits were
deformed at 600 Ma (Lombard et al., 1986) and are thus
older than the lower Nama Group.
The Nama Group is a synorogenic cover sequence
that is relatively undeformed except along its margins,
notably in the Naukluft klippe complex. It is covered by
15
Kalahari sands in Botswana. The Nama spans about 50
m.y. from 580 to 530 Ma and is thus synorogenic
(Kaufman et al., 1993). Crystallinity measurements on
white micas suggest that temperatures in the upper
Nama may have exceeded 200°C.
The classic Nama section in Namibia is divided into
three packages (Germs, 1983; Gresse and Germs, 1993).
The Kuibis and Schwarzrand subgroups consist of mixed
limestones and terrigenous clastics. Arkosic sandstones
and mudstones of the Fish River Subgroup cap this
succession. Phycodes pedum near the top of the
Schwarzrand is believed to mark the Proterozoic–
Cambrian transition (Germs, 1974, 1983) at approxi-
mately 540 Ma (Kaufman et al., 1993).
The geometry of the Nama foreland basin resulted
from flexural adjustment to the load applied by the
Damara mountain belt and reactivation of foreland struc-
tures. Figures 8 and 9 show the relationship of Nama
stratigraphy to basement-involved faults. The principal
faults were derived from 1:1,000,000 geologic maps
(Miller and Schalk, 1980). Northeast- and northwest-
trending faults predominate. Although many of these
faults were active during the middle Paleozoic (Münch,
1974), considerable evidence suggests a Damara-age
origin (Miller, 1980). On a regional scale, the geometries
of unconformity-bounded sequences and the distribu-
tions of stratigraphic units reflect basement structure
(Figure 9). For example, onlapping Kuibis stratigraphy
was folded and deeply eroded during the inversion of
the Koedoelaagte arch in earliest Nomtsas time (~590
16 Tankard et al.
Figure 8—Outcrop of Vendian–Cambrian Nama strati-
graphy and major faults. Isopach geometry and paleocur-
rent azimuths for the Stockdale Formation (Fish River
Subgroup) broadly match the present structural
framework, suggesting sedimentation and structural
linkage in these Pan-African basins. (Modified after Miller
and Schalk, 1980; Germs, 1983.) See Figure 1 for location.
Ma) (Gresse and Germs, 1993, their figure 3). Unconfor-
mities within the succession were eroded deeply along
the basin margins or across prominent basement highs
such as the Osis ridge or Koedoelaagte arch. Lower Fish
River isopachs and paleocurrent azimuths (Germs, 1983)
match the structural framework (Figure 8), suggesting
that these faults were active during sedimentation.
Basement-controlled faulting has also localized patch
reef buildups along the margin of the Witputs
depocenter (Figure 10A) (Germs, 1983).
In the Nosop-Ncojane basin of Botswana, deep
seismic data show insignificant flexural deformation at
Nama levels (0.9–1.3 sec) (Figure 5). In contrast, the
strike-oriented seismic profile (Figure 6) shows reactiva-
tion and gentle inversion of pre-Nama normal faults.
Masetlheng Pan was drilled on a structural culmination
created by inversion. There is a prominent intra-
Schwarzrand unconformity (GSD proprietary report)
that broadly coincides with the uplift across the Osis and
Koedoelaagte arches in basal Nomtsas time (Gresse and
Germs, 1993). Hall et al. (1990) have interpreted the
Kalahari magnetic anomaly along the eastern margin of
the Nosop-Ncojane basin as an ancient fault system.
Figure 10A shows the distribution of probable Nama
counterparts in the southwestern part of South Africa.
Germs and Gresse (1991) have equated the Vanrhyns-
dorp Group with the Nama; folds and thrusts verge
northeastward. Farther south, the Franschhoek and
Klipheuwel formations accumulated in northwest-
striking fault-bounded rift basins. Both have thick accu-
mulations of angular conglomerates, sandstones,
mudstones, and calc-alkaline detritus (De Villiers et al.,
1964) attributed to alluvial fan, debris flow, and lahar
deposition. The conglomerates are abundant near highly
sheared and mylonitized granites. These facies associa-
tions and mylonitized faults suggest a transtensional
pull-apart basin setting. Similar structural styles charac-
terize the Vanrhynsdorp basin (Gresse, 1986).
Damara orogenesis closed the Khomas trough, culmi-
nating in the Nama foreland basin and Naukluft nappe
complex (Hartnady, 1978, measured 78 km of nappe
Figure 9—Nama basin fill. The
Osis ridge is attributed to
contractional uplift of a
basement horst. See Figure 8 for
location. (Modified after Germs
and Gresse, 1991.) OR, Osis
ridge; KA, Koedoelaagte arch.
 Structural and Tectonic Controls of Basin Evolution in Southwestern Gondwana 17

N
NA MIB I A BO TS WANA

94
GC

93

KL
MA
MP 2 ZF
NN 4
9
V 9

Z NO S O P
NA M A
BA S IN BA S IN
OR
T

W
K
SO U T H AFRI CA

KF

R’
VAN R H Y N SD O R P
R
Nam a O ut cr op
BA S IN
20 s e c Se is mi c
Pa tch R ee f
Exp lo ra tio n We ll 0 km 500
KH
Oi l Se e p
WF CF
0 km 500
M

A B

Figure 10—Pan-African geology and interpretation. (A) Map showing principal faults and basins of Neoproterozoic–
Cambrian age (after Miller and Schalk, 1980; Visser, 1984). Nama depocenters: K, Karas, W, Witputs; Z, Zaris. G-C, Ghanzi-
Chobe thrust belt; KF, Kheis fault zone; KL, Kalahari line; KH, Klipheuwel basins; M, Malmesbury; MA, Matchless amphibo-
lite; MP, Masetlheng Pan-1 well; NN, Naukluft nappe complex; OR, Osis ridge; T, Aquitaine Tses-1 well; V, Artnell Vreda-281
well; ZF, Zoetfontein fault. (B) Tectonic interpretation of the late Pan-African basins. CF, Kango fault; WF, Worcester fault;
large arrows, maximum horizontal paleostress inferred from fault slips.

transport). Deep seismic data show little flexural defor-
mation in front of the Ghanzi-Chobe belt, although reac-
tivation of northwest-oriented structures did occur
(Figures 5, 6).
On the basis of these interpreted stratigraphic and
structural relationships, Figure 10B attempts to recon-
struct the late Pan-African tectonic setting for the western
part of southern Africa. Geologic maps (Miller and
Schalk, 1980) show that the inferred northeast-trending
accommodation zones were not necessarily through-
going but rather formed en echelon strands in which
displacement was relayed from one zone to the next.
Reactivation of basement structures is typical of foreland
basin subsidence. Balkwill et al. (1995) and Mathalone
and Montoya (1995) show the seismic expression of such
structures in the Andean foreland basin. The interpreta-
tion shown in Figure 10B implies that the maximum
principal compressive stress σ1 was oriented toward the
northwest (see Hoffmann, 1984). The northwest-trending
faults were either parallel or at a low angle to the axis of
maximum compressive stress and were thus not suscep-
tible to large amounts of reactivation (e.g., gentle Masetl-
heng inversion). The orientation with respect to σ1 of the
intrabasinal Osis ridge suggests that it was contractional
in origin, possibly as an uplifted basement horst.
Figure 11 shows the distribution of upper Brasiliano
stratigraphy and its structural context in the southern
part of South America. In the São Francisco and Paraná
basins, northeast-oriented structural trends were ubiqui-
tous. Important examples are the Trans-Brasiliano,
Jacutinga, Lancinha-Cubatão, and Blumenau-Soledade
fault zones (Zalán et al., 1991). Associated with these
fault zones are a secondary set of north-northeast
trending faults. (Note that the palinspastic arrangement
18 Tankard et al.

Figure 11—Neoproterozoic–Early
Cambrian tectonic reconstruc-
VENDI AN - CAMBR IA N tion in which contraction and
structural inversion modified
N earlier Pan-African–Brasiliano
BF
TB paleogeography (see Figure 4).
CH
The conjugate Alto Paraguay and
Rehoboth terranes (Figure 2)
TON
IC supported similar patterns of

GF
CA CRA O RE
C subsidence and alluvial sedimen-
ET tation. The northeast-trending
OF
structures cross-cut the older
PF JF terrane boundaries and were a
major control of Phanerozoic
RI B E I RA
AC LB
TC LF basin development. AC,
LA
Aconquija lineament; BF,
Boomerang fault; BS, Blumenau-
BS
Soledade fault; CA, Apa craton;
DOM NO
FEL
ICIA CH, Chiquitanas front; DB,
Damara belt; ET, El Toro
lineament; GB, Gariep belt; GF,
Goiânia belt; JF, Jacutinga fault;
DB R
KL, Kalahari line; LA, Luis Alves
M
A R’
craton; LB, Las Breñas; LF,
Lancinha-Cubatão fault; MA,
Matchless amphibolite; NB,

N
NB

GB Nama basin complex; OF,

GH
AN Ocloyic fault; PF, Puna fault; TB,
ZI
BE - C H Trans-Brasiliano lineament; TC,
VB LT O B
E Tebicuary craton; VB, Vanrhyns-
KL
dorp basin; ZF, Zoetfontein fault.
ZF (Data from Miller and Schalk,
1980; Schobbenhaus et al., 1981;
U. Ve n dia n - L. C am br ia n
Cla stic s Brito Neves et al., 1984; Visser,
Rip he a n - Ven d ian Cla s tic s 1984; Salfity, 1985; Chebli et al.,
an d C ar b o na te s 1989; Pezzi and Mozetic, 1989;
Ve nd ia n - C amb r ia n P lu ton s Willner et al., 1987; Litherland et
an d B a sic Ig ne o us Ro c k s al, 1989; Braun et al., 1991; Brito
Pe tr ol eu m E xp lo r atio n Neves, 1991; Zalán et al., 1991;
Well s
França et al., 1995; Wiens, 1995;
Oil S ee p
Petrobras, proprietary reports.)

in Figure 11 shows Africa rotated with respect to South
America, so that the Paraná north-northeast trends are
parallel to the northwest extensional azimuths of the
Nama basin in Figure 10.) These fault zones and the
cross-cutting trends encapsulate the Ribeira and Dom
Feliciano belts and their syntectonic calc-alkaline
magmatic rocks (Bernasconi, 1987; Braun et al., 1991;
Brito Neves and Cordani, 1991).
Late Brasiliano rifts developed along these cross-
cutting structural trends in the Paraná basin. They
appear to be associated mainly with Alto Paraguay
basement (compare Figures 2, 3, 11), possibly a counter-
part of the Rehoboth terrane which underlies the Nama
depocenters (Figure 2). The Itajai cycle is represented by
half-grabens and transpressional foreland basins filled
with conglomerates, sandstones, and rhyolites (Macedo
et al., 1984; Rostirolla et al., 1992). Brito Neves and
Cordani (1991) interpret the rifts as pull-apart basins that
they relate to northeast-oriented wrench tectonics.
The development of these pull-apart basins with felsic
to intermediate magmatism (545 Ma) is attributed to
releasing bends along the shear systems, while contem-
poraneous Brasiliano folding occurred at restraining
bends. The Trans-Brasiliano and Ribeira–Dom Feliciano
magmatic provinces are associated with this left-lateral
shear regime. These lineaments consist of anastomosing
deep shear systems containing mylonitic belts up to 2 km
wide (Almeida and Hasui, 1984).
These regional stress fields reacted with the Chiqui-
tanas-Boomerang suture in a right-lateral transpressional
sense. Deposition was restricted to a thin blanket of
Tucavaca argillites. Nevertheless, the Chiquitanas shear
zone (the San José wrench fault of Sempere, 1995)
relayed strain between the Brasiliano-age belt of the
Peruvian Andes (Dalmayrac et al., 1980), the Puncovis-
cana belt of the Puna and eastern Cordillera of
Argentina, and the Paraná basin.
The Pampeanas and pre-Cordillera terranes of north-
western Argentina were dissected by northwest- and
northeast-trending faults (Baldis et al., 1984; Salfity, 1985)
that were repeatedly reactivated throughout the
Phanerozoic. Here the Puncoviscana belt accumulated
 Structural and Tectonic Controls of Basin Evolution in Southwestern Gondwana
several kilometers of flysch sediments in a set of exten-
sional basins (Figures 1, 11) (Omarini and Baldis, 1984;
Jezek and Miller, 1987). Aceñolaza and Durand (1986)
date these rocks as Vendian to mid-Cambrian. Facies
relationships show that the Ocloyic and Puna faults
behaved in a normal sense during deposition of the
Lerma Group and were dissected by the El Toro and
Aconquija lineaments (J. Salfity, 1993, personal commu-
nication) (Figure 11). Syntectonic and posttectonic grani-
toids (489–530 Ma) were emplaced in the closing orogeny
when the passive margin sediments were folded (Willner
et al., 1987). Puncoviscana counterparts occur in the
southern sub-Andean foothills of Bolivia and appear to
continue northward to the Peruvian Andes where
basement ages of about 600 Ma are recorded (Dalmayrac
et al., 1980).
Interpretation
Pan-African–Brasiliano events established the broad-
scale tectonic framework that guided the evolution of
Phanerozoic successor basins until the Cretaceous. (We
use the term successor basin to emphasize the structural
inheritance of a basin.) There is an overall simplicity in
the way these basins evolved, probably because they
were geodynamically linked. In their early history, these
basins were mostly extensional (Figure 4) and consider-
able thicknesses of sediments were deposited. From late
Riphean through Early Cambrian time, compressive
deformation altered the paleogeography (Figure 11). An
important consideration is that the apparent linkage
throughout Pan-African–Brasiliano evolution precluded
continental-scale ocean opening and closing between
South America and Africa. However, there is speculation
that rifting and seafloor spreading between Laurentia
and Gondwana preceded the Famatinian orogeny of
northwestern Argentina (Dalla Salda et al., 1992; Dalziel
et al., 1994).
The tectonic backbone of this system comprised a
suite of northeast-oriented lineaments and shear zones.
Associated crustal attenuation locally resulted in creation
of small pull-apart oceanic basins, such as the Khomas
trough, and possibly some of the Dom Feliciano and
Ribeira magmatic belts, which are believed to have had
magmatic arc affinities (e.g., Brito Neves and Cordani,
1991). The latter also contains a complex system of
nappes and thrust slices. Likewise a plutonic arc is asso-
ciated with the Trans-Brasiliano structure. Elsewhere,
dilation at releasing bends is associated with acid to
intermediate volcanics and granitoids. Transtension
along the Paraná shear zones is reflected in a parallel set
of rifts.
The Chiquitanas-Boomerang suture appears to have
functioned as an accommodation zone that relayed strain
from the Puncoviscana belt near the active boundary of
Gondwana to the continental interior (Litherland et al.,
1989). Daly et al. (1989) have suggested that the
northeast-striking branch of the Damara was linked to
the Mozambique belt in a similar way.
A curiosity of the Nama basin is that oil occurs in
brecciated Kuibis sandstones along a fault zone on the
19
farm Heigums No. 105 (Figure 11). These oils are in close
association with black Kuibis limestones. The oil is
dominated by acyclic isoprenoids and is slightly biode-
graded. The predominance of the C29 steranes and their
abundance relative to the C28 steranes, absence of C30
4-desmethylsteranes, and the presence of methyl
steranes are characteristic of Neoproterozoic–early
Paleozoic oils. Furthermore, the low ratio of pristane to
phytane, the high abundance of long-chain acyclic
isoprenoids and gammacerane, and the presence of
8,14-secohopanes are indicative of carbonate source rock
deposited under highly anoxic conditions (M. Fowler,
1991, personal communication). The sample is mature
and at the peak of oil generation. This Kuibis seep appar-
ently influenced drilling of Tses-1 by Aquitaine in 1971
and Vreda-281 by Artnell Exploration in 1963–64. Both
dry wells drilled Nama sections (Lawrence, 1989).
In the Etosha basin of northern Namibia, oils have
been sourced from Vendian limestones and are slightly
biodegraded (McKirdy et al., 1983). In terms of biomarker
distributions, however, the Etosha and Nama oils are
distinctly different from each other. Gas seeps in the São
Francisco basin and oil and gas seeps in the Corumbá
limestones near the Bolivia-Brazil border are also known
(Dardenne, 1978; Braun et al., 1991; França et al., 1995).
PALEOZOIC SUCCESSOR BASINS
The Phanerozoic basins evolved by exploiting much
of the preexisting structural fabric. There are several clear
examples (Figure 12). First, the old Puncoviscana belt of
northwestern Argentina hosted a variety of basin types,
for example, Permian–Carboniferous pull-apart basins
(Fernandez-Seveso and Tankard, 1995) and Cenozoic tilt
block basins (Fielding and Jordan, 1988). Second, the
Bolivian Chaco basin subsided along the Boomerang-
Chiquitanas transcurrent shear system that is expressed
in a distinct Bouguer gravity boundary (Figure 3). Third,
the northeast-oriented lineaments and shear zones in
Brazil largely controlled Cambrian–Ordovician depocen-
ters (França et al., 1995).
The principal Paleozoic depocenters were the Chaco-
Tarija basin, the Paraná basin, and the Cape-Karoo basin
(Figure 1). Depth to basement below the sub-Andean
fold and thrust belt of the Chaco basin is at least 12 km.
The Cape and Karoo basins accumulated up to 9 km of
sediment in a fault-controlled trough. In contrast, the
Chaco-Paraná basin consists of a condensed cover
sequence above normal thicknesses of crust; positive
Bouguer trends show no significant variations in crustal
thickness (Figure 3) (Wiens, 1995). During the Paleozoic,
the Chaco, Chaco-Paraná, and Paraná basins formed a
continuous basin complex that was later dismembered
by Mesozoic extension.
Figure 13 compares the stratigraphic columns for the
principal depocenters. Overall, there was a common
pattern of stratigraphic evolution, at least through the
Triassic. Some events are diachronous, reflecting the
nature of basin evolution as well as the vagaries of bio-
stratigraphic analysis.
20 Tankard et al.

Figure 12—Cambrian–Ordovi-
cian paleogeography in which
CAMBRI AN - ORDOV IC IA N structural inheritance has
guided basin evolution. Uplift
N BF (inversion) along the Sierras
CH Pampeanas created a high
CH AC O that separated early Paleozoic
basins on either side of it.
Subsidence was most
KF
PU N A
pronounced east of this high
P UN C O

(Ventana-Cape basin complex)

and adjacent to the
V IS

PAR A NA
Boomerang-Chiquitanas shear
C AN A

PF zone (Chaco basin; see

Figure 3). Northeast-trending
LB
rift basins were important in
Brazil. BF, Boomerang fault;
CH, Chiquitanas front; KF,
Khenyani fault system; LB,
Las Breñas fault; LI, Lincoln
structure; PF, Puna fault; SG,
LI
Sierra Grande. (Data from
Visser, 1984; Pezzi and
Mozetic, 1989; França et al.,
1995; Petrobras, proprietary
reports; YPF, proprietary

N
VE N TA N A

reports.)

SG

Pla tfo rm C la st ics

De p oc en te r C la stic s
CA PE
Ca rb on a tes
Faja E ru pti va de la P un a
Gr an ito ids

Vo lca ni cs

Northeast-Oriented Structural Trends
Northeast-trending structures were an important
control on basin formation. They are particularly well
documented in the Paraná basin from outcrop studies
and petroleum exploration (Figure 12).
In South Africa, a prominent northeast-southwest
(reoriented relative to South America) sidewall is
inferred in the western part of the Cape basin (Figures
10, 12). (Sidewall refers to the lateral termination of a rift
segment against a transfer fault; Gibbs, 1984.) The
evidence for this structure includes the following: (1) The
distribution of Pan-African faults suggests a major offset
(Figure 10). (2) The shape of the Ordovician–Devonian
Cape basin, its isopachs, and provenance and paleocur-
rent studies reflect this geometry (Rust, 1973, his figures
4–8; Theron and Loock, 1988, their figures 8, 10, 13). (3)
The distribution of uppermost Cambrian–Ordovician
braidplain deposits constrains the eastern and western
edges of the rift basins (Rust, 1967, p. 84). (4) Thermal
alteration indices (TAI) from 24 samples of Devonian
shales collected along the length of this structure were
mostly in excess of 4, implying high heat flows and
incipient mineral metamorphism (W. A. M. Jenkins, J. N.
Theron, J. Utting, 1993, personal communications). TAI
values as high as this commonly reflect heat associated
with fault dilation or igneous intrusion (W. A. M.
Jenkins, 1993, personal communication). (5) The shape of
the Permian–Triassic Cape fold belt is attributed to
basement topography (Söhnge, 1983, his figure 1; De
Beer, 1990). Cobbold et al. (1992) have attributed the
pattern of folding in the western branch of the Cape fold
belt, stretching lineations, and striations on fault planes
to right-lateral shear on this northeast-trending structure.
This northeast-oriented crustal structure is believed to
have accommodated differences in structural style
between a broadly subsiding southern Cape trough and
a tract of extensional basins to the west (Figure 10). Strati-
graphic data (Rust, 1973; Theron and Loock, 1988)
suggest that a similar sidewall must have bounded the
western edge of the tract of extensional basins. The
structure of the Ventana basin and Sierra de la Ventana
 Structural and Tectonic Controls of Basin Evolution in Southwestern Gondwana
Figure 13—Phanerozoic stratigraphic column and interpre-
tation. AB, Andean batholith; AV, Andean cordilleran
volcanics; BG, Botswana gabbro; CA, Chon Aike-Tobifera
suite; CG, Cape granite suite; CH, Choiyoi complex; EB,
Etendeka basalts; KB, Kuboos-Bremen intrusive suite;
Pak-Ced, Pakhuis and Cedarberg formations; PB, Central
Patagonia batholith; PF, Paraná flood basalts; SB,
Somuncura batholith; SE, Stormberg extrusives; TUC,
Tucavaca Group. (Data from SACS, 1980; Dingle et al.,
1983; Hiller and Theron, 1988; Rapela and Kay, 1988;
Theron and Loock, 1988; Hiller, 1992; N. Hiller, 1993,
personal communication; Milner et al., 1992; Gresse and
Scheepers, 1993; Turner et al., 1994; França et al., 1995;
YPFB, proprietary reports).
of eastern Argentina also reflects a long history of struc-
tural inheritance (Martínez, 1989). Basement rocks show
northeast-trending ductile shear zones with retrograde
metamorphism that guided Permian–Triassic deforma-
tion (Cobbold et al., 1986, 1992; Rossello and Massabie,
1992).
The Lincoln structure (Figure 1) is a small pull-apart
basin that was probably colinear with the Blumenau-
Soledade fault zone of the eastern Paraná basin (Figure
12). Figure 14 shows the seismic expression of this
northeast-oriented transtensional structure.
21
The intracontinental extensional basins were formed
as offset and isolated depocenters that were probably
linked tectonically by the small-displacement wrench
faults or accommodation zones striking northeast.
Nelson et al. (1992) describe basement faults of this type
as compartmentalization faults. The regional interrela-
tionships between major structural trends and basin
development are shown in Figure 15. Transects A and B
are approximately orthogonal to the general Paleozoic
plate edge. Figure 15C is a transverse cross section that
emphasizes basin geometry with respect to accommoda-
tion zones and intervening arches.
In summary, the northeast-trending accommodation
zones were an important component of basin evolution.
The various depocenters were able to develop as inde-
pendent rift segments while the accommodation zones
maintained tectonic linkage. Figure 16 attempts to recon-
struct this tectonic framework.
Early Paleozoic Basins
The earlier Pan-African–Brasiliano episode responded
to a fundamental reorganization of stress fields, as
evidenced by the change from widespread extension to
contraction in latest Riphean times. In contrast, the transi-
tion to the Paleozoic Gondwana basins appears to have
been more orderly and gradational (Figures 11, 12, 17).
The Cape basin is believed to have evolved by
exploiting preexisting zones of weakness (De Villiers,
1956; Le Roux, 1983; Söhnge, 1983; De Beer, 1990). In the
western part of the basin, transition from the Klipheuwel
stratigraphy was locally marked by an angular unconfor-
mity (Figure 13), but elsewhere was conformable (Vos
and Tankard, 1981). Whereas the Klipheuwel sediments
are immature and mudstone rich, the basal Cape
sediments consist of mature conglomerates and sand-
stones deposited in braidplain environments (Rust, 1967;
Vos and Tankard, 1981). The succeeding stratigraphy,
including enormous thicknesses (up to 2000 m ) of quartz
arenite, was deposited in a broad, slowly subsiding sag
basin which nevertheless remained extensional (Rust,
1967, 1973; Vos and Tankard, 1981; De Beer, 1990; De
Wit, 1992).
The Cape and Karoo successions are thickest (9 km)
(Cole, 1992) adjacent to a significant crustal anomaly
recorded in magnetic, gravity, and magnetotelluric data
acquired across the Cape fold belt (De Beer, 1983; Pitts et
al., 1992). The 30-km-wide Beattie magnetic anomaly is
modeled as a southward-dipping body located at least 7
km beneath the surface. Hälbich (1992) has interpreted
this anomaly as a southward-dipping intracrustal
detachment. The southern Cape conductivity belt is
colinear with the Tandilia lineament of Argentina
(Figure 2), which Brito Neves and Cordani (1991)
interpret as a rift.
The Paraná basin initially evolved by reactivation of
old northeast-oriented structures that were associated
with immature continental clastics containing
interbedded andesitic and rhyolitic volcaniclastic
material (460–510 Ma). According to Almeida et al. (1981)
these “Castro cycle” deposits are postorogenic molasse
22 Tankard et al.

Figure 14—Migrated line 300. Uninterpreted (top) and interpreted (bottom) sections showing basin-forming characteristics of
northeast-striking lineaments. The Lincoln structure is a narrow pull-apart basin showing an early rift–postrift couplet of
probable Cambrian–Ordovician age, a conspicuous erosional unconformity separating this lower Paleozoic section from a
thick Carboniferous–Permian succession, and Cretaceous extensional reactivation, including 130-Ma Serra Geral volcanics.
During the Late Jurassic–Cretaceous, the northeast-striking lineaments were reactivated extensionally. Extensional subsi-
dence of the Salado basin took advantage of these trends; rift and sag stages are present. Stratigraphic interpretation of the
Lincoln basin is based on seismic correlation with the Camilo Aldao well 150 km to the northwest. See Figure 1 for location.
(Interpretation by L. Groenewoud; courtesy of Norcen International Ltd. and Pluspetrol S.A.)

that mark the transition from the Brasiliano paleogeog-
raphy to the cratonic cover sequence at the initiation of
the Paraná basin (Figure 13). The Paraná basin sensu
stricto is attributed to postrift thermal subsidence in the
Late Ordovician (Zalán et al., 1991) which formed an
enormous gulf open to the west. This episode is equated
with the Tacsarian extension of Bolivia characterized by
thick, shallow marine quartz arenites.
The early Paleozoic margin of southwestern
Gondwana lay along the western edge of the Pampeanas
terrane, west of which the pre-Cordilleran terrane
supported a seaward-facing carbonate platform
(Mpodozis and Ramos, 1989). On the basis of
reprocessed vibroseis data, Snyder et al. (1990) have
attributed early Paleozoic structural styles to extensional
and contractional processes. The Sierra de Valle Fértil
fault system is also a major crustal feature that was
repeatedly reactivated throughout the Phanerozoic
(Baldis et al., 1982; Fielding and Jordan, 1988).
An enormous episutural trough subsided along the
Arequipa-Pampeanas suture of western Bolivia, accumu-
lating over 10,000 m of terrigenous clastics from the
Cambrian to Devonian (Dalmayrac et al., 1980; Willner et
al., 1987). In northwestern Argentina, igneous and sedi-
mentary rock assemblages are attributed to a Neopro-
terozoic–early Paleozoic passive margin (Gonzalez
Bonorino and Gonzalez Bonorino, 1991). The Faja
Eruptiva de la Puna of Méndez et al. (1972) (Figure 12) is
a magmatic complex of Middle Ordovician age (Lork
and Bahlburg, 1993). This magmatic complex and associ-
ated flysch are interpreted as fore-arc (Coira et al., 1982;
Knüver and Reissinger, 1982; Spalletti et al., 1989) to
back-arc–foreland (Bahlburg, 1990) in origin. There is
evidence that intermittent magmatism (Knüver and
Reissinger, 1982) and marginal orogens associated with
compressional and oblique-slip processes characterized
this Pacific margin until the Early Permian (Gonzalez
Bonorino, 1991; Sempere, 1995).

(text continues on p. 29)

 Structural and Tectonic Controls of Basin Evolution in Southwestern Gondwana 23

CHI LE PA GA N Z O SIER R A S CHACO - PARANA BASIN NO RT H PARANA BASI N

TRENCH BA S IN PA MPE A N AS BAS IN
C C-P PC Tr K
T K
SL T P
V
P
P
C
C
NA A T A T
ZC
A
PL
AT
E
A
OU T EN IQ UA KA R O O KAL AHARI GHANZ I -
SWART BERG BAS IN V C P
BA S IN O
BAS IN CHO BE
K PC
SL O P
R
C
O-D

B
B
Secti o n A SCC Sec ti o n B
CH A C O - PA R A N A CA M I LO A LD AO CAP E KA R O O
BA S IN AR C H BAS IN BAS IN
D

T SL O P
P K T K O
C K V
C T C
C S
C O

0 km 200

C VE X 20

Figure 15—Regional tectonostratigraphic cross sections. (A) and (B) Orthogonal to the edge of the continent. (C) Transect
cross cutting northeast-trending structures. See Figure 1 for locations. (Data from Le Roux, 1983; Visser, 1984; Cole, 1992;
França et al., 1995; GSD and YPF, proprietary reports.)
24 Tankard et al.

Figure 16—Schematic block

diagram of early Paleozoic
basin development in which
isolated rift segments are
linked by northeast-striking
accommodation zones.

Figure 17—Devonian paleo-

DEVONI A N geography. The widespread
distribution of the lower
N Paleozoic cover suggests that
basement geology was estab-
lished by the earliest Paleozoic.
CHACO
The Puna-Pampeanas arch has
the form of a giant pop-up
structure (see Figure 22). G,
Grande basin; V, Ventana basin.
(Data from Baldis et al., 1989;
PUNA

França et al., 1995; Petrobras

and YPF, proprietary reports.)
- PAM PEAN A
H RC

Pla tfo rm & B a sin

Ma rg in s
CAPE
De p oc en te r
Structural and Tectonic Controls of Basin Evolution in Southwestern Gondwana 25
26 Tankard et al.
Structural and Tectonic Controls of Basin Evolution in Southwestern Gondwana 27
28 Tankard et al.
 Structural and Tectonic Controls of Basin Evolution in Southwestern Gondwana
The north-directed Puna structures interacted with
the Boomerang-Chiquitanas transcurrent shear to create
a deep Phanerozoic basin (Figures 2, 3, 12, 17). Seismic
sections in Figures 18–21 show the stratigraphic relation-
ships and structural styles of this Chaco basin. Along the
Boomerang margin, extensional basement fault blocks
and a basal Silurian detachment form a stepwise
geometry, above which Andean-age folds have
developed as a series of ramp-flat associated structures
(Figure 18). Pre-Cretaceous erosion has stripped the
Carboniferous sequence south of the Enconada well and
has cut deeply into the Devonian sequence in the area of
the hingeline, creating their wedge-shaped geometries.
In Figure 19 the entire structural envelop is the result of
basement structures and small rifts that are located
beyond the influence of Andean compression.
The Chaco basin (Figure 17) is a westward-thickening
wedge of Phanerozoic sedimentary rocks, mostly of
terrigenous origin. The succession consists of several
unconformity-bounded sequences, each with a distinct
tectonic overprint. Depth to basement below the sub-
Andean fold and thrust belt is at least 12 km. The Izozog
arch (Figure 2) is a northwestward-plunging basement
uplift. Isopach reconstructions show that the Devonian
depocenter spanned the area of the arch.
During Tertiary Andean compression, uplift of the
Izozog arch resulted in erosion of much of the Paleozoic
section. Figure 20 is a regional seismic line that shows the
most eastern Andean structure (Aimiri) adjacent to the
foreland basin and Izozog arch. Sequence boundaries are
essentially parallel in the Paleozoic section, indicating
that the arch was largely inactive. Figure 21 shows the
variety of structural styles in the Andean deformation
front, where the principal levels of detachment were the
Silurian Kirusillas and the Devonian Los Monos shales.
The Phanerozoic stratigraphy and its dispersal
patterns reflect the evolving early Paleozoic tectonic
environment of the Chaco-Tarija basin. During the
Cambrian–Ordovician, the westward-thickening wedge
was built by sediments derived from the craton. The
Silurian–Devonian was characterized by sedimentation
from an orogen in the west that Ramos (1988) and
Forsythe et al. (1993) attribute to Silurian docking of the
Arequipa terrane.
29
Figure 22—Cross section
showing interpreted evolution
of Puna arch. Transpressional
uplift created a giant pop-up
structure, especially during the
Ocloyic and Chañic orogenies.
Early Carboniferous
Somuncura extension reacti-
vated the previous transpres-
sional structures. See Figure 1
for location. (Modified after Mon
and Salfity, 1995.)
Figures 12 and 17 show the distributions of the
Cambrian–Ordovician and Devonian basins, respec-
tively. In South America, petroleum exploration
mapping has shown that the lower Paleozoic cover
sequence is widespread and constrains the age of
accretion of the Patagonia terrane. Furthermore, the
Sierra Grande fold belt (Figures 12, 17) consists of
Silurian quartz arenites, mudstones, and oolitic iron-
stones that were deposited in a platform environment
(Cortés et al., 1984; Ramos and Cortés, 1984).
An important Phanerozoic structure is the south-
southeast trending Puna-Pampeanas arch system (Figure
17). Mon and Salfity (1995) describe the geology of this
basement high in northwestern Argentina where it
formed on Brasiliano-age structures (Figure 22). In
Argentina, this arch separates basins on either side of it,
much as the Bocono system separates the Maracaibo and
Barinas basins in Venezuela (Giraldo and Osuna, 1994).
The Puna-Pampeanas arch has the characteristics of a
giant pop-up structure (Mon and Salfity, 1995, their
figure 6) due to oblique-slip processes along the Pacific
margin (Gonzalez Bonorino, 1991; Sempere, 1995) and
intraplate transpressional processes. This basement high
may also have had a counterpart south of the Cape basin
(Rust, 1967; Ryan, 1967; De Beer, 1983; Visser, 1987a,b).
Visser describes middle Paleozoic Gondwana iceflow
directions toward the north.
The Late Ordovician–earliest Silurian Ocloyic orogeny
was focused not only on the Puna-Pampeanas arch (Mon
and Salfity, 1995) but was more widespread as evidenced
by a regional unconformity (Figure 13). Hälbich (1983a)
has described soft sediment disharmonic folding associ-
ated with the Pakhuis diamictites and Cedarberg shales
in the Cape basin; he attributes this intraformational
folding to slumping into the tectonically deepened
Cedarberg trough. A Ashgillian–early Llandovery age
(Cocks et al., 1970; Berry and Boucot, 1973) suggests a
correlation with the Ocloyic diastrophism. The
Pakhuis–Cedarberg interval is equivalent to the
Cancañiri–Kirusillas succession of Bolivia (see Sempere,
1985) (Figure 13 ).
The Devonian paleogeography (Figure 17) was char-
acterized by shallow epeiric seas and cosmopolitan
Malvinokaffric invertebrate faunas (Boucot, 1971;
30 Tankard et al.

Copper, 1977). Intermittent subsidence in the Cape basin Carboniferous–Permian Basins

resulted in stacking of five shoal water depositional
sequences of the Bokkeveld Group (Tankard and Barwis,
1982; Theron and Loock, 1988). The thickness of the
Bokkeveld Group in the Cape trough varies up to 4000 m
(Theron and Loock, 1988). Conversely, Ponta Grossa
deposits in the Paraná basin are generally less than 500 m
thick. According to Zalán et al. (1991), northwest-
oriented normal faults compartmentalized the Paraná
basin. This interpretation finds support in the pre-
Cordillera, where northeast-trending shear faults had a
right-lateral sense of displacement (Baldis et al., 1989). In
the Chaco basin, the Devonian section was originally
more than 4000 m thick before it was eroded deeply by
Tertiary uplift of the Izozog arch.
Inversion of these early Paleozoic basins in the Late
Devonian and earliest Carboniferous is attributed to the
Chañic orogeny. This event is marked by a widespread
unconformity. Renewed glaciation was associated with
this Late Devonian orogenesis in the Titicaca region of
Bolivia (Caputo, 1985).
During the Devonian, underfilled shallow marine
basins were ubiquitous. In contrast, the succeeding
Carboniferous–Permian basins were generally overfilled
and characterized by mixed terrigenous continental envi-
ronments, periodic marine incursions, and development
of the Gondwana glaciation in several phases. (The
concept of underfilled and steady-state stages is
discussed by Covey, 1986.)
The Karoo basin of South Africa is famous for its rich
mammal-like reptile biota (Tankard et al., 1982). The
Karoo is generally separated from the Cape succession
by a significant unconformity (Figure 13). Late Carbonif-
erous Dwyka iceflow directions indicate topographic
relief south of the flysch trough. There are also thick
accumulations (up to 3000 m) of Ecca sediments in this
trough. Submarine fan deposits and deltaic sediments
also support a southern provenance (Kingsley, 1977;
Ryan and Whitfield, 1979; Wickens, 1992). This southern
highland may have been a continuation of the Puna-

Figure 23—Carboniferous–
Permian paleogeography.
Right-lateral transpression
emphasized the Puna-
Pampeanas arch, along which
transtensional depocenters
formed. These stress fields
resulted in normal sense reac-
tivation of the northeast-
trending structures. Late
Carboniferous–Permian
postextensional subsidence
resulted in broad, shallow
epicontinental seaways in
which bituminous shales accu-
mulated. Note offsets of
highlands, especially between
Karoo and Kalahari basins. BF,
Boomerang fault; BL, Bahia La
Lancha suture; CH, Chiqui-
tanas front (San José fault);
GF, Guapiara fault; I, Irati
Formation; KF, Khenyani fault;
KL, Kalahari line; LB, Las
Breñas fault; MR, Mokoro rift;
P, Patquía Formation; WH,
White Hill Formation; ZF, Zoet-
fontein fault. (Data from Reyes,
1972; McLachlan and
Anderson, 1973; Anderson and
McLachlan, 1979; Van Vuuren
and Cole, 1979; Riccardi and
Rolleri, 1980; Visser, 1987a;
Pezzi and Mozetic, 1989;
Fernandez-Seveso and
Tankard, 1995; França et al.,
1995; Petrobras and YPF,
proprietary reports.)
 Structural and Tectonic Controls of Basin Evolution in Southwestern Gondwana
Pampeanas arch of Argentina (Figure 23). Although
tenuous, isopach and structural contour maps
(McLachlan and Anderson, 1973; Van Vuuren and Cole,
1979) suggest that during Dwyka–Ecca time, the Karoo
basin may have been compartmented by northeast-
oriented structures (Wickens et al., 1992) (Figure 23).
The Carboniferous–Permian Claromeco basin on the
conjugate margin of Argentina has a similar southwest-
facing asymmetry (Figure 23). Paleocurrents in the Tunas
Formation are from the Puna-Pampeanas highland along
the southwestern margin of the basin (Lopez-Gamundi
et al., in press a). These authors suggest a genetic linkage
with the Karoo basin. The relationship of the Claromeco
basin to the fringing highland probably has significance
for the southern Karoo basin.
On its northern side, the Karoo basin thins deposition-
ally across the Kalahari craton and is separated from the
Kalahari basin of Namibia and Botswana by a highland
(Figure 23) (Visser, 1987a). In the latter, a major hiatus
separates the Cambrian Nama from the uppermost
Carboniferous stratigraphy. Extensional reactivation of
Damaran structures created a suite of rift basins along
the Damara-Ghanzi and Limpopo belts, local transpres-
sional folding notwithstanding (Münch, 1974). Isopachs
of the Kalahari basin (Visser, 1987a) conform closely to
the outline of the Nosop basin complex and its bounding
Kalahari fault (Figures 1, 23). The Masetlheng Pan explo-
ration well encountered Upper Carboniferous (Kasi-
movian–Gzelian) glacial and varved restricted marine
shales above Cambrian red beds (GSD, proprietary
reports). Similar pollen and spore assemblages occur in
the coal measures of the middle Zambezi valley (Utting,
1978). The orientation of the Mokoro rift of eastern
Botswana to the Zoetfontein fault (Green et al., 1980)
suggests a right-lateral translation of the latter (Figure
23). The actual onset of extension may be slightly older.
The Masetlheng Pan well intersected a thick gabbro sill at
3600 m within the Witvlei section (Gariep equivalent). It
yielded a K-Ar age of 333 ± 17 Ma (middle Carbonif-
erous) (GSD, proprietary report).
Tectonic uplift associated with Gondwana glaciation
resulted in a 45-m.y. hiatus in the Paraná basin where
Westphalian–Artinskian Itararé sedimentary rocks
overlie the Devonian Ponta Grossa (Figure 13) (Gravenor
and Rocha-Campos, 1983; Eyles and Eyles, 1993; Eyles et
al., 1995). Great thicknesses of Devonian strata were
eroded by Gondwana glaciation. The Itararé Group
comprises stacked glacigenic depositional sequences that
record stepwise deepening of the basin across major
northeast-oriented faults. This structural relief separated
the Paraná and Kalahari basins (Figure 23). Glaciers
spreading westward into the Paraná basin were
grounded on this highland (J. N. J. Visser, 1993, personal
communciation).
The fault-controlled subsidence characteristic of the
lower Itararé Group progressively diminished and was
gradually replaced by regional subsidence that created a
broad epeiric basin. The style of Permian sedimentation
changed progressively through the sheetlike Chapéu do
Sol rain-out deposit and the coal-bearing Rio Bonito
deltaic sequence. It culminated in the Upper Permian
31
bituminous shale-limestone drape of the Irati Formation,
which has total organic carbon (TOC) values as high as
20%. As fault activity decreased and the sag basin
gradually widened, an epicontinental seaway linked the
Karoo basin in the southeast (Eyles, 1993, his figure 16.9).
The Irati Formation of Brazil and the White Hill
Formation of South Africa are contemporaneous. They
are important because they contain the aquatic reptile
Mesosaurus, once crucial supporting evidence for conti-
nental drift (Du Toit, 1927).
The Carboniferous–Permian basins of northwestern
Argentina and Bolivia (Figure 23) resulted from
compressional, transtensional, and oblique-slip processes
related to the adjacent Pacific margin (Lopez-Gamundi et
al., 1989; Rapalini, 1990; Gonzalez Bonorino, 1991; Mon
and Salfity, 1995; Sempere, 1995; Fernandez-Seveso and
Tankard, 1995). Northwest-trending en echelon folds in
northern Chile have been attributed to dextral transcur-
rent movement (Breitkreuz, 1991). Like the Paraná basin,
these basins have a history of Early Carboniferous exten-
sional subsidence that gradually diminished through the
Permian (Caminos, 1979). The Devonian succession is
locally folded and metamorphosed and is separated
from the Carboniferous by an unconformity attributed to
the Chañic diastrophism of the Late Devonian–earliest
Carboniferous (Archangelsky et al., 1986; Mon and
Salfity, 1995).
The Paganzo basin formed across the Pampeanas,
pre-Cordillera, and Chilenia terranes of northwestern
Argentina (Figure 23). It consists of the Guandacol, Tupe,
and Patquía unconformity-bounded sequences
(Fernandez-Seveso and Tankard, 1995). The Guandacol
accumulated in isolated pull-apart basins created by
right-lateral wrench tectonics. It is characterized by rapid
stacking of alluvial sediments adjacent to basin-
bounding faults, massive synsedimentary deformation,
and glaciolacustrine sedimentation of Visean age. The
overlying Tupe and Patquía sequences (Westphalian–
Permian) reflect gradual cessation of fault-controlled
subsidence as the various depocenters were yoked
together in a regional downwarp (Fernandez-Seveso and
Tankard, 1995). The Upper Permian Patquía Formation
contains restricted marine and lacustrine bituminous
shales of Irati–White Hill age.
This Paganzo basin is linked to the Chaco-Tarija basin
of northern Argentina and Bolivia via a system of
diverging strike-slip faults. Mon and Salfity (1995)
describe transpressional uplift of the Puna arch during
the Chañic event and Early Carboniferous Somuncura
extensional subsidence (Figure 22).
The Carboniferous–Permian succession in Bolivia is
only half as thick as the Paganzo succession (1000 and
2000 m, respectively) and may reflect a northward-
diverging transcurrent fault system (Fernandez-Seveso
and Tankard, 1995). The Lower Carboniferous Machareti
Group is a counterpart of the Guandacol and stratigraph-
ically similar. The Mandiyuti Group is equivalent to the
Tupe. Deeply incised paleovalleys of the Tarija and
Escarpment formations have been mapped from the
dense grid of reflection seismic data (Figures 19, 20, 24).
These paleovalleys are typically 500 m deep and several
32 Tankard et al.
kilometers wide. Internally they consist of stacked
channel sandstones and mudstones. The network of
paleovalleys is believed to have drained northward and
northwestward into Tupambi (Machareti Group)
transtensional basins. Their orientation matches the
extensional trend, suggesting a tectonic control of
glaciofluvial processes.
Interpretation
The form of the Paleozoic basins was largely
controlled by Brasiliano structural inheritance. In the
early stages of subsidence (Cambrian–Ordovician), the
northeast trends were repeated (e.g., Figure 14).
Gradually the fine detail of fault-controlled subsidence
was abandoned, and subsidence and sedimentation were
more uniform through the Ordovician, culminating in
the Late Ordovician Ocloyic orogeny and regional
unconformity. This pattern of postorogenic extensional
subsidence and succeeding regional sag was repeated in
the Silurian–Devonian and was in turn terminated by the
Chañic diastrophism (Figure 13). Only the first-order
tectonic trends persisted, such as the Puna-Pampeanas
arch and the Boomerang-Chiquitanas transcurrent shear.
The gradual change to more uniform styles of subsidence
may reflect relaxation of extensional stresses (Bally and
Snelson, 1980). The northeast-southwest orientation of
Figure 24—Carboniferous paleo-
valleys of the Escarpment
Formation, Chaco basin, Bolivia,
based on a dense grid of seismic
data. These paleovalleys
possibly fed into transtensional
basins. The Boomerang-
Tucavaca erosional edge is
Mesozoic. SC, Santa Cruz de la
Sierra. (Data from Vargas and
Suárez, 1980; Suárez, 1986;
YPFB, proprietary reports.)
dextral transcurrent movement in the pre-Cordillera
(Baldis et al., 1989) and the northwest-southeast normal
fault subsidence in the Paraná basin (Zalán et al., 1991)
suggests that the direction of principal extensional stress
(σ3) in the Devonian was toward the southwest.
A similar history characterized Carboniferous–
Permian paleogeography. Extension was widespread in
the Carboniferous, as exhibited by the Paganzo, Chaco,
Paraná, Claromeco, Karoo, and Kalahari basins.
Transtensional subsidence in the Paganzo and Chaco
basins was consistent with reactivation in a normal sense
of the northeast-oriented structures in the Paraná basin,
implying an extensional stress field (σ3) directed toward
the northwest. The Claromeco basin is believed to have
originated as a post-Chañic intracontinental rift (López-
Gamundí and Rossello, 1992) (Figure 23). A similar
response apparently occurred in southern Africa where
the Kalahari fault (Visser, 1987a; Hall et al., 1990) and
trans-Karoo trends (McLachlan and Anderson, 1973; Van
Vuuren and Cole, 1979) also affected isopach thicknesses.
Middle Carboniferous extension also explains granitoid
emplacement in the western Pampean ranges (311 Ma)
(Cingolani et al., 1993) and a thick gabbro sill in
Botswana (333 Ma) (GSD, proprietary reports). Through
the Late Carboniferous–Permian, the extensional basins
widened and coalesced as fault-controlled subsidence
decreased (Polansky, 1970; Fernandez-Seveso and
 Structural and Tectonic Controls of Basin Evolution in Southwestern Gondwana
Figure 25—Backstripped tectonic and basement subsi-
dence curves for Paganzo (Fernandez-Seveso and
Tankard, 1995), Paraná (Oliveira, 1987), and western Cape-
Karoo basin (Cloetingh et al., 1992). The steep Paganzo
curves are typical of strike-slip processes (Christie-Blick
and Biddle, 1985).
Tankard, 1995). This regional subsidence reached its
acme during the Late Permian with accumulation of
widespread drapes of bituminous calcareous shales:
White Hill, Irati, Patquía, and Vitiacua formations
(Figure 23).
The subsidence curves shown in Figure 25 summarize
the Carboniferous–Permian subsidence history for the
Paganzo, Paraná, and Cape-Karoo basins. The Paraná
33
and Cape-Karoo curves show similar patterns of subsi-
dence; both have two episodes of tectonic subsidence. In
marked contrast, the Paganzo basin is characterized by
rapid subsidence typical of a transtensional basin
(Christie-Blick and Biddle, 1985).
Compressional events appear to have been most
pronounced along the Puna-Pampeanas arch. The Late
Ordovician–earliest Silurian Ocloyic foldbelt (Mon and
Hongn, 1991) is associated with a widespread unconfor-
mity (Figure 13). Disharmonic Cedarberg folding in the
Cape basin (Hälbich, 1983a) may be contemporaneous.
The latest Devonian–earliest Carboniferous Chañic
orogeny (Bahlburg et al., 1987; Bell, 1987) was also
important. This geology may also explain the Claromeco
and southern Karoo troughs as foreland basins that
resulted from transpressional deformation along a
southern highland (Figure 23). This highland, the North
Patagonia-Chadileufu-Pampeanas basement complex of
López-Gamundí et al. (in press b), formed a drainage
divide between basins on either side. Caminos et al.
(1988) infer progressive uplift through the late Paleozoic.
The basement arch complex appears to divide, and
resulted in separation of, the Paraná, Kalahari, and Karoo
basins (Figure 23).
Uplift of the Puna-Pampeanas arch resembled a giant
pop-up structure, on either side of which basins formed,
including the Tepuel, San Rafael, Chaco-Paraná, and
Claromeco basins (Figure 23). In this respect, the arch
and its flanking basins may be similar to the modern
Bocono fault system of Venezuela, the outward
vergences of which face the Maracaibo and Barinas
basins on either side (Giraldo and Osuna, 1994).
Tectonic arching had important climatic effects which,
in turn, strongly influenced the stratigraphy and sedi-
mentology of flanking basins. Localized uplift has been
implicated as a causative mechanism for Gondwana
glaciation, whereby small ice covers may have triggered
regional cooling. It should be noted that the Late Ordovi-
cian–earliest Silurian Ocloyic orogeny and the Late
Devonian–Early Carboniferous Chañic orogeny
coincided with Gondwana glaciations. Amos (1972) and
Eyles (1993) attribute the expansion of these ice sheets to
topographic relief created by tectonism. This also
explains the earlier development of glacial conditions in
the Paganzo basin (Visean) than in the Paraná basin
(Westphalian–Sakmarian), because the pre-Cordillera
was the focus of the Chañic deformation and strike-slip
tectonics. The synchroneity of Paleozoic sea level
changes and history of glaciation appears to reflect
tectonic behavior.
Finally, this interpretation has significance for the
petroleum geology of the area. The Devonian and
Permian paleogeographies are attributed to postexten-
sion regional subsidence and development of broad,
epicontinental seaways. Both periods were characterized
by organic-rich shales deposited in anoxic bottom water
settings. Of the Devonian Bokkeveld, Ponta Grossa, and
Los Monos formations, only the Los Monos of Bolivia is a
prolific hydrocarbon source rock. The Upper Permian
bituminous shales in the White Hill, Irati, Patquía, and
Vitiacua formations also reflect restricted marine circula-
34 Tankard et al.

Figure 26—Triassic–Early
Jurassic extensional paleo-
TRI AS S IC - EAR LY J URAS S I C geography. Permian–Early
Triassic contraction is included
N to show the relationship of
Triassic extension to the
preceding orogenesis. BL,
Bariloche; CFB, Cape fold belt;
CU, Cuyo basin; GF, Gastre
fault system; IG, Ischigualasto
basin; MB, Molteno depocenter;
NQ, Neuquén basin; SG, Sierra
Grande; SP, Sierra Pintada; SS,
Sierra Septentrionales; SV,
Sierra de la Ventana. (Data from
IG
Coira et al., 1975; Bianchi, 1984;
Tr
Uliana et al., 1989; Zalán et al.,
1991; Cobbold et al., 1986,
1992; França et al., 1995; Wiens,
CU 1995; YPF, proprietary reports.)
SP

Tr

NQ
SV

SS

Tr

N
BL

SG

Tr

CF
B

Rif t Ba si n s ,
Ma i nl y Cl a st ic Fi ll

MB Th in Cr at o ni c Co v er
Str uc t ura l I nv e rs i on
La te Pe rm ia n - Ea rl y Tri as s i c
Ex te ns i on a l Fa ul ts
Tr Tr an s fe r Fau l ts

tion and high TOC values. None of these Permian source
rocks are known to have sourced significant accumula-
tions, although the Permian Ene Formation is one of the
most important source rocks in Peru. In the Chaco basin
of Bolivia, the Carboniferous paleovalley sandstones
(Tarija and Escarpment formations) are a major explo-
ration play. Glacigenic lithologies of the Itararé
Formation in the Paraná basin are a major gas play,
whereas the most encouraging oil shows occur in the
Permian Rio Bonito sandstone.
OROGENY AND MESOZOIC BASINS
An entirely new style of basin development began in
the late Paleozoic when many of the earlier Paleozoic
basins were inverted in a series of discontinuous intra-
continental foldbelts (Figure 26) (Cobbold et al., 1986).
The 2500-km-long San Rafael orogen flanked the Pacific
margin of Chile and Argentina (Azcuy and Caminos,
1986; Llambias and Sato, 1990; Mpodozis and Kay, 1990)
and became the locus of intense magmatic activity
(Caminos et al., 1988). Postorogenic extension followed
two paths. North-northwest trending rift basins formed
along the fringes of southwestern Gondwana during the
Triassic and Early Jurassic. Late Jurassic–Cretaceous
extension was linked to northwest-directed shear
couples that preceded Atlantic opening; overall these
basins developed inboard of the earlier Mesozoic
extension (Uliana and Biddle, 1988; Uliana et al., 1989).
The final important stage of basin evolution resulted
from Cenozoic Andean contraction and local inversion of
the Mesozoic basins.
Permian–Triassic Orogenesis
The late Paleozoic orogens were intracratonic and
formed a set of isolated segments (Cobbold et al., 1986,
1992) that were associated with northeast-trending faults
and lineaments (Figure 26) in a way that suggests the
latter may have functioned as accommodation zones.
The distribution and probable tectonic linkage of the
 Structural and Tectonic Controls of Basin Evolution in Southwestern Gondwana
preinversion extensional basins is reconstructed in
Figure 16. (By structural inversion, we mean the reactiva-
tion in a reverse sense of basin-forming extensional
faults; see Williams et al., 1989.)
The Cape fold belt is 900 km long and up to 380 km
wide. It consists of a southern branch and an orthogonal
western branch, both of which developed contemporane-
ously (De Beer, 1990). On the basis of whole rock Ar-Ar
step-heating analyses and stratigraphic considerations,
Hälbich (1983b) suggests an Early Permian–Middle
Triassic age range for this orogeny, although these dates
are poorly constrained. According to Hälbich, the onset
of deformation postdates Dwyka sedimentation.
A voluminous literature relates the style of Cape
deformation to inherited basement structures of Pan-
African age (e.g., De Villiers, 1956; Hälbich, 1983b; Le
Roux, 1983; Söhnge, 1983; De Beer, 1990; De Wit, 1992).
The southern branch is folded about axes subparallel to
old basement structures. Folds are most intense close to
high-angle basement faults where upright to nearly
isoclinal recumbent folds occur. Folds verge northward
toward the craton.
The southern branch of the Cape fold belt meets the
western branch in a zone of syntaxis, which Söhnge (1983)
attributed to interaction with a block-faulted basement;
Ransome and De Wit (1992) have attributed these charac-
teristics to microplate tectonics. Elements of the western
branch include north-trending open folds near the
syntaxis, a prominent north-trending monocline along the
eastern margin of the belt, and folds that diverge toward
the northwest (Söhnge, 1983, his figure 1) where they
coincide with older Klipheuwel rifts (De Beer, 1990).
The overall geometry of the Cape fold belt, its paral-
lelism to early Paleozoic structural fabrics, and the partic-
ipation of high-angle mylonitized basement faults in
deformation all suggest that the fold belt has evolved by
inversion of previous rift basins. Furthermore, the
change of direction from a southern to western branch
mirrors the inferred sidewall configuration of the earlier
rift segments (Figure 16). Cobbold et al. (1992) interpret a
north-striking right-lateral shear (sidewall) to explain the
pattern of folding, stretching lineations, and fault plane
striations.
The Sierra de la Ventana (Australes) foldbelt of
Argentina trends northwestward for 180 km along the
southern margin of the Rio de la Plata craton (Figure 26).
Its Lower Devonian–Permian stratigraphy is similar to
that of South Africa (Keidel, 1916; Du Toit, 1927; López-
Gamundi et al., in press a). The Paleozoic cover was
deformed initially in the Permian by right-lateral
wrenching (Cobbold et al., 1986). The structural style is
dominated by northeast-verging folds linked to
basement shear zones. Cobbold et al. (1986) interpret
these relationships as structural inversion of preexisting
normal faults. Cratonward thrusting was influenced by
northeast-southwest dextral wrenching (Cobbold et al.,
1986, 1992; Rossello and Massabie, 1992).
Similar late Paleozoic deformed belts occur at Sierras
Septentrionales, Sierra Grande, and Bariloche (Figure 26)
(Cobbold et al., 1992). The Sierra Grande fold belt
contains Silurian–Devonian terrigenous clastics that have
35
been deformed with northeastward vergence (Cortés et
al., 1984; Ramos and Cortés, 1984). The farfield effects of
this deformation are also recorded in the transpressional
reactivation of structures in the Paraná basin (e.g.,
Curitiba fault system) (Figure 27). Daly et al. (1991) and
De Wit and Ransome (1992) discuss farfield deformation
in Gondwana.
The Late Permian San Rafael compression formed a
500-km-wide orogenic belt adjacent to the plate margin
of Chile and Argentina (Llambias and Sato, 1990;
Mpodozis and Kay, 1990). This mountain belt was the
locus of intense synorogenic and postorogenic magmatic
activity. The Choiyoi magmatic event comprises a volu-
minous volcanic and plutonic suite dominated by a
rhyolite-ignimbrite association (Kay et al., 1989; Rapela
and Pankhurst, 1992).
Triassic–Jurassic Extension and Magmatism
Triassic–Early Jurassic lithospheric extension was
located mainly along the Permian–Triassic orogenic belt
where it formed a broad band of half-grabens with an
overall north-northwest trend (Figure 26) (Uliana and
Biddle, 1988; Uliana et al., 1989). These trends developed
along pre-Triassic basement structures, including the
pre-Cordillera–Pampeanas and Chilenia–pre-Cordillera
terrane boundaries. Basins such as the Cuyo, Bolsones,
and Ischigualasto of Argentina and the Molteno of South
Africa formed inboard of the compressional belt, where
they were landlocked and hosted continental deposi-
tional systems (Turner, 1983; Uliana et al., 1989). Lacus-
trine bituminous shales in the Cuyo basin (Cacheuta
Formation) and Molteno basin are of similar age.
The extensional basins are offset and linked by
northeast-trending accommodation zones (Figure 26).
These accommodation zones even provide linkage across
uplifted areas, such as the rift jump between the
Neuquén and Cuyo basins (Welsink et al., 1995). Figure
27 shows transpressional reactivation in the Paraná
basin, where a Triassic unconformity has been eroded
across a positive flower structure. Extension was also
prevalent across the San Rafael orogenic belt and
magmatic arc of the Cordillera Frontal and pre-
Cordillera (Rolleri and Criado Roqué, 1968; Rolleri and
Garrasino, 1979). Throughout the region, the principal
Triassic faults were guided by preexisting structures. For
example, the Ischigualasto basin formed by reactivation
of Paganzo and older structures.
Legarreta et al. (1992) and Kokogian et al. (1993) have
described the structural framework of the Cuyo half-
grabens and accommodation zones. To the south, the
Neuquén basin was subjected to Triassic–Early Jurassic
extension followed by a long period of Middle
Jurassic–Paleogene subsidence (Uliana and Legarreta,
1993; Vergani et al., 1995). The early Neuquén basin was
structurally compartmented, suggesting that Lower
Jurassic source rocks probably accumulated in several
isolated depocenters.
This extensional period was accompanied by prodi-
gious magmatism (e.g., Kay et al., 1989). The Gastre fault
system of central Patagonia is a fundamental geologic
36 Tankard et al.
boundary and was subjected to right-lateral displace-
ment in the Mesozoic (Coira et al., 1975; Marshall, 1994).
Development of mylonitic fabrics was also associated
with Triassic–Early Jurassic plutons of the central
Patagonia batholith (Rapela and Pankhurst, 1992, 1993).
Transcurrent movement on this fault system is also
believed to explain the granites of the northern Pata-
gonian massif which have now been dated as
Permian–Triassic. (These northern Patagonian granites
had previously been dated as Carboniferous and were an
essential part of the justification for a middle Paleozoic
age of accretion of the Patagonia terrane. Also, the
geochemistry of the Somuncura batholith is not typical of
subduction-related plutonism, according to Rapela and
Kay [1988].)
The Choiyoi is a Late Permian–Early Triassic suite of
silicic volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks. The Choiyoi has
been attributed to orogenic crustal thickening and lower
rates of subduction (Llambias and Sato, 1990; Mpodozis
and Kay, 1990). The Middle Jurassic (Bajocian, 180 Ma)
Marifil rhyolite-ignimbrite suite of Patagonia is a volumi-
nous bimodal volcanic province associated with the
north-northwest trending system of extensional basins. It
was followed by Middle–Late Jurassic magmatism of the
Tobifera and Chon-Aike formations (about 165 Ma),
which has subduction affinities in the west (Bruhn et al.,
1978; Rapela and Pankhurst, 1992).
The close association of this Triassic–Early Jurassic rift
system with the Permian–Triassic belt and inversion
segments (Figure 26) and with postorogenic bimodal
volcanism and plutonism suggests an origin by exten-
sional orogenic collapse (Dewey, 1988). The overall
distribution of the basin-forming extensional faults and
Figure 27—Seismic expres-
sion of Late Permian–Early
Triassic transpression along a
northeast-oriented fault in the
central Paraná basin, showing
the Lower Triassic unconfor-
mity. P, Permian, Tr, Triassic.
the northeast-directed accommodation zones implies
that the direction of principal extensional stress (σ3) was
toward the southwest in Triassic–Early Jurassic time. We
believe that the processes controlling extension of these
basins was analogous to the Basin and Range province of
western North America. The latter is a Cenozoic exten-
sional province that is probably driven by extensional
collapse of the Laramide orogen (Wernicke, 1985;
Dewey, 1988; Verrall, 1989; Jones et al., 1992). In
Argentina, an important component of the extensional
process was subduction rollback (Uliana et al., 1989).
Late Jurassic–Cretaceous Extension
In the Late Jurassic–Cretaceous, the Permian–Triassic
compressional belt was no longer the locus of extension,
except in South Africa. Instead, extension had propa-
gated inboard and was more widely distributed
(Bianucci and Homovc, 1982; Uliana and Biddle, 1988;
Uliana et al., 1989). These Late Jurassic–Cretaceous rift
basins were associated with a northwest-trending dextral
shear system (Figure 28). Transcurrent shear faults such
as the Agulhas-Malvinas transform, the Gastre fault
system, and the Martin Garcia fault were conspicuous.
Clockwise rotation of the Antarctic Peninsula initiated
spreading in the Weddell Sea between 175 and 155 Ma,
thus isolating east and west Gondwana (Grunow, 1993).
The onset of opening in the South Atlantic was at about
130 Ma (Rabinowitz and LaBrecque, 1979). Widespread
extension was also associated with Late Jurassic–Creta-
ceous subduction along the Pacific margin (Mpodozis,
1984). Upper Jurassic–Neocomian deposition was
generally nonmarine, implying high continental
 Structural and Tectonic Controls of Basin Evolution in Southwestern Gondwana 37

Figure 28—Late
Jurassic–Cretaceous paleo-
L ATE J URAS SI C - C RETA CEOUS geography. A, Alemania basin;
AG, Agulhas transform; AL,
N

.
F
AN
O Altiplano basin; AR, Asunción
I LI
AL S B RA
S
rift; BO, Bolsones basin; CO,
AN
TR Colorado basin; CU, Cuyo
IZ O Z O G
basin; DH, Dorsal de Huincul;
KF
AR CH
EL, Entre Lomas structure; ET,

G
MI CH I CO L A El Toro fault; GF, Gastre fault

U
A
AR CH

PI
system; LC, Bahia La

A
TC

R
A
.
ET SJ Lancha–Rio Chico lineament;

FA
LO

U
CU
F.

LT
GA
U TI N LO, Lomas de Olmedo basin;

R
IT
JA C

IB
A M N

A
EA M, Metán basin; MA, Malvinas

F.
MP
TR A N S PA M

PA A R C H AR
basin; MG, Magallanes basin;
CIN
HA NI, Nirihuau basin; NQ,
AR CH

L AN
BO Neuquén basin; OB, Orange
basin; OU, Outeniqua basin;
P E AN

RA, Rawson basin; SA, Salado

AR
TI

basin; SJ, Salta-Jujuy high;

N
G

CU SJB, San Jorge basin; SL,

AR
C

Santa Lucía basin; TC, Tres

IA

SL
Cruces basin. (Data from Coira
NQ EL
SA
et al., 1975; Bianchi, 1984;
Salfity, 1985; Chebli et al., 1989;

N
DH
CO
Santa Ana, 1989; Uliana et al.,
1989; Fouché et al., 1992;
Milani, 1992; Eyles and Eyles,
OB
NI GF 1993; Muntingh and Brown,
RA
1994; Welsink et al., 1995.)
S JB

Rif t B as in Fil l
L
AG

O Pla tfo rm C o ve r
U

MG Str uc tu ral Inv e rsio n

MA

freeboard. Exceptions were the Malvinas plateau and et al., 1992). Their synrift deposits vary up to 10 km in
Magallanes basin. thickness. A regional late Valanginian unconformity
The initiation of the extensional phase is poorly separates the synrift and postrift deposits. The formation
constrained. Eight sedimentary basins underlie the conti- of these basins has been attributed to relaxation or
nental shelf of Argentina. These are generally attributed collapse of the Cape orogenic belt (De Wit and Ransome,
to Late Jurassic–Neocomian extension (Urien et al., 1976; 1992; Fouché et al., 1992).
Stoakes et al., 1991; Keeley and Light, 1993). The base of Along the shelf and eastern seaboard of Argentina
the synrift succession is exposed in the Santa Lucía basin and Uruguay, the rifts are oblique or orthogonal to the
of Uruguay where Puerto Gomez tholeiitic basalts and continent–ocean boundary. In the Punta del Este, Salado,
intercalated lacustrine deposits overlie Neoproterozoic and Colorado basins, the northeast-trending accommo-
basement (ANCAP, proprietary report). The Gamtoos dation zones of earlier Mesozoic subsidence were reacti-
and Algoa basins offshore South Africa are believed to vated in a normal sense (e.g., Figure 14). Farther south,
contain Kimmeridgian–Tithonian synrift sediments the northeastern fault-bounded margin of the San Jorge
(Fouché et al., 1992). Structural inverson in the Neuquén basin is colinear with the Agulhas-Malvinas-Gastre fault
basin culminated in the latest Oxfordian–earliest system (Figure 28). This fault system coincides with a
Kimmeridgian Araucanian event (Vergani et al., 1995). small circle based on the pole of early South Atlantic
A suite of Late Jurassic–Cretaceous half-grabens opening (Rapela and Pankhurst, 1992). A prominent
underlies the continental shelf of South Africa. They are fault also defines the southern margin of the San Jorge
bounded by arcuate listric normal basin-forming faults basin (Figure 28).
that are genetically linked to the Agulhas-Malvinas A linear belt of transtensional subsidence links the
fracture zone (Figure 28) (Bate and Malan, 1992; Fouché Colorado basin with the rift system of northwestern
38 Tankard et al.
Figure 29—Uninterpreted (top) and interpreted (bottom) seismic line showing structural inversion of the Huincul arch in the
Neuquén basin. See Figure 1 for location.
Argentina, where en echelon rift segments have over-
lapped and surrounded the Salta-Jujuy high (Figure 26).
Synrift deposits in these Salta rift basins (Lomas de
Olmedo, Metán, Alemania, and Tres Cruces) include
thick sequences of terrigenous sediments, evaporites,
and intercalated volcanics. The Paleozoic section across
the Michicola and Pampean arches flanking the Lomas
de Olmedo basin has been eroded, prompting interpreta-
tion of prerift thermal doming (e.g., Bianucci and
Homovc, 1982). However, reprocessed vibroseis data
suggests that Paleozoic stratigraphy is preserved in
deeply down-faulted blocks (Cominguez and Ramos,
1995). It would appear that a process of rifting and rift
flank uplift would better explain the Michicola and
Pampean arches.
The southern Altiplano is part of the Cretaceous
Andean rift. It was controlled by northwest-southeast
and northeast-southwest structures that reactivated a
Brasiliano-age structural grain. Variable extension was
accommodated by northwest-striking transfer faults
 Structural and Tectonic Controls of Basin Evolution in Southwestern Gondwana
Figure 30—Distribution and isopachs of Paraná-Etendeka
magmatism in relation to the Alto Paraguay terrane and
prominent extensional structures. AP, Alto Paraguay
terrane; BS, Blumenau-Soledade fault; CF, Curitiba fault;
GF, Guapiara fault; LF, Lancinha-Cubatão fault; JF,
Jacutinga fault; RP, Rio de la Plata terrane; VA, Velasco
alkaline province. (Data from Fletcher and Litherland, 1981;
Hawkesworth et al., 1992; Milani, 1992.)
during the Berriasian–Campanian interval (Welsink et
al., 1995).
Structural inversion was common during the Late
Jurassic and Cretaceous, depending on the relative orien-
tations of basin-bounding faults and prevailing stress
fields (e.g., Dellapé and Hegedus, 1995; Vergani et al.,
1995). A spectacular example of structural inversion is
the Dorsal de Huincul in the Neuquén basin, which
inverted the Triassic–Early Jurassic depositional trough
(Figure 29). Ploszkiewicz et al. (1984) attributed this
structure to wrench-induced inversion. The Dorsal de
Huincul, Loma La Lata, and Entre Lomas are a suite of
structures that diverge toward the northwest (Vergani et
al., 1995), suggesting that they form a horse-tail splay. In
a right-lateral sense, the splay formed a restraining bend
along which the Dorsal was inverted; oblique slip and
mild inversion characterized the Entre Lomas trend.
Northwest-striking transcurrent faults, albeit with
relatively small displacements, characterized the Paraná
basin as well (Figure 28). A conspicuous example is the
Ponta Grossa arch (Renne et al., 1992). These northwest-
striking structures in the Paraná basin were most
dynamic during the Cretaceous.
39
Continental flood basalts of the Paraná basin and the
smaller Etendeka basalt province on the conjugate
Namibian margin (Figure 30) have been dated at 130–135
Ma (Milner et al., 1992; Turner et al., 1994). The locus of
the Paraná basalts is the Alto Paraguay lithospheric
terrane and its associated structural anistropies (Figure
30). The isopach distribution of this lava pile mimics the
structural framework (Zalán et al., 1991; Milani, 1992).
Maximum thickness is 1800 m. The lava flows were fed
by dikes rooted in the extensional fabric; northwest,
northeast, and north-northeast trends predominate. Late
Jurassic–Neocomian magmatism in Paraguay, Uruguay,
northern Argentina, and Bolivia was generally related to
extensional faulting (Avila-Salinas, 1986; Uliana et al.,
1989). The Velasco alkaline magmatic province of eastern
Bolivia consists of several plutonic bodies that were
intruded along northeast-striking lineaments during
extensional episodes (Fletcher and Litherland, 1981).
It is generally assumed that the Paraná basalts formed
over a fixed Tristan hotspot. However, seismic tomo-
graphic studies do not support a plume head interpreta-
tion (Anderson et al., 1992). The Paraná flood basalts
appear to be related to the Alto Paraguay terrane, a long
history of Phanerozoic extension that preweakened the
lithosphere, and a reorganization of regional stress fields
associated with changing plate boundary forces
(compare Figures 26, 28) (Storey et al., 1992). The Paraná
and Etendeka basalts were extruded at the start of the
opening of the South Atlantic. Also by Late Jurassic time,
a continuous magmatic arc had evolved along the
margin of the Pacific plate (Jensen et al., 1976; Cisternas,
1979; Mpodozis, 1984).
Late Jurassic–Cretaceous extension was controlled by
a northwest-trending right-lateral shear system related to
the opening of the Weddell Sea (Grunow, 1993). The
principal extensional stress (σ3) was oriented toward the
northwest. These characteristics resulted in a greater
dispersion of rifting and abandonment of the
Permian–Triassic compressive tract. This regional stress
field resulted in reactivation of the northeast-oriented
Triassic–Early Jurassic transfer faults in a normal sense
(Figure 14) and structural inversion of earlier rifts (Figure
29). Comparison of the stratigraphies of the Lomas de
Olmedo and Cuyo basins (Figure 31) is a useful test of
the admissibility of this Mesozoic extensional dichotomy.
Their histories of subsidence are mutually exclusive. In
the same vein, inversion of the Dorsal de Huincul in the
Neuquén basin (Figure 29) dates the reorganization of
Mesozoic stress fields to about the latest Oxfordian–
earliest Cretaceous, which was about when Atlantic
extensional subsidence is first recorded along the eastern
seaboard of Argentina and Uruguay, as well as in South
Africa. The occurrence of an extensive magmatic arc
along the Pacific margin suggests that extension may
have been facilitated by subduction pull and Atlantic
mid-oceanic ridge push (Ziegler, 1993).
After the onset of spreading in the South Atlantic at
about 130 Ma (Rabinowitz and LaBrecque, 1979), intra-
continental rifting decreased. Extension persisted inter-
mittently in the San Jorge basin where it was associated
with collapse of inversion rollovers (Cerdán et al., 1990)
40 Tankard et al.

and in the Salta rift complex where it was associated with

alkaline volcanism (Malumián et al., 1983), possibly
reflecting the influence of plate margin subduction.
Fault-driven subsidence was endemic to the Chile plate
margin after the Middle Jurassic (Charrier, 1984).

Tertiary Orogenesis
Compressive tectonics along the Andean belt started
in the early Cenozoic or even Late Cretaceous. However,
the climax of orogenesis was during the Miocene–
Pliocene, which is known colloquially as the Quechua
tectonic event. In Bolivia, Andean orogenesis encoun-
tered thick Phanerozoic accumulations in the Chaco
basin. This allowed the fold and thrust belt to surge
cratonward, forming the Chaco salient. These mountains
have much in common with the Mackenzie Mountains
of northern Canada (Eisbacher, 1985). Figure 18 shows
that along the Boomerang margin of the basin, Andean
folds developed as a series of ramp-flat associated struc-
tures above basement extensional fault blocks. Late
Tertiary contraction also resulted in marked uplift of the
Izozog arch and erosion of much of the Paleozoic cover
(Figure 20). A variety of structural styles resulted from
Andean deformation (Figure 21).
In the Sierras Pampeanas and pre-Cordillera,
northeast- and northwest-oriented basement faults were
reactivated to form a province of tilted block basins
much like those of Wyoming in the United States (Jordan
and Allmendinger, 1986; Fielding and Jordan, 1988).
Grier et al. (1991) and Salfity et al. (1993) describe the
Neogene inversion of Cretaceous rift basins in the Sierras
Pampeanas.
The importance of this Andean-age deformation to
petroleum geology is twofold. First, it was responsible
for very thick accumulations of terrigenous clastic
sediments that promoted maturation of various source
rocks. Depth to basement below the sub-Andean fold Figure 31—Comparative stratigraphic columns of Cuyo
and thrust belt of the Chaco basin is at least 12 km. In this and Lomas de Olmedo basins. Extensional subsidence of
belt, the Tertiary is as thick as 5 km. Second, many large the latter was related to a northwest-oriented shear couple.
oil and gas fields occur in folds above basement-involved These vectors resulted in inversion of the Cuyo basin
reverse faults. The scale of deformation spans a broad during this period (Figure 28). That these two stratigraphic
spectrum from subtle forced folds to the larger scale columns are mirror images of each other supports the
disruption of tilted fault blocks. tectonic reconstruction of southwest-directed extension in
the Triassic–Early Jurassic and northwest-directed
extension in the Late Jurassic–Cretaceous. (From
Legarreta et al., 1993; YPF, proprietary reports.)
DISCUSSION
This study has attempted to reconstruct the evolution stage Brasiliano–Pan-African cycle appears to
and tectonic linkage of the late Precambrian and have controlled subsequent basin development,
Phanerozoic basins of southwestern Gondwana. Figure pre–late Precambrian structural inheritance
32 summarizes the pattern of basin evolution. The most notwithstanding. Until the Permian–Triassic,
important conclusions to have emerged from this study basin development was largely intracratonic,
are as follows: while the edge of southwestern Gondwana was
little affected. The Permian–Triassic San Rafael
• The continental crust on which the Phanerozoic orogeny extended to the plate edge (e.g., inversion
basins developed was probably established by the of the Puncoviscana trend). The locus of Triassic
earliest Paleozoic at the latest. The structural extension by orogenic relaxation was generally
framework that controlled basin evolution largely closer to the margins. However, Late Jurassic–
cut across the Neoproterozoic terrane boundaries. Cretaceous extension was again located inboard
• The structural fabric formed during the multi- as it reverted to older structures.
 Structural and Tectonic Controls of Basin Evolution in Southwestern Gondwana
• A set of northeast-oriented faults, transcurrent
shear faults, or lineaments formed the backbone
of this system. Many of these structures formed a
belt along which the Cretaceous South Atlantic
would eventually open.
• Late Precambrian–Early Cambrian basins were
controlled mainly by these northeast-trending
structures. Locally, transtensional pull-apart
basins of various sizes progressed as far as oceanic
floor stage, as evidenced by ophiolites and
magmatic rocks in the Dom Feliciano, Ribeira, and
Matchless belts. However, the overall tectonic
linkage of these and subsequent basins remained
until the Late Jurassic.
• Regional stress fields and the sense of motion on
these inherited structures changed systematically.
These periodic reorganizations probably
coincided with orogenic episodes, regional dias-
trophisms, and prominent unconformities. Mile-
stones included the Ocloyic orogeny of Late
Ordovician–Early Silurian age, the Chañic
orogeny of latest Devonian–Early Carboniferous
age, the San Rafael orogeny of middle Permian–
Middle Triassic age, and the Araucanian orogeny
of latest Oxfordian–early Kimmeridgian age.
• Each intervening stage of basin formation appears
to have involved an early history of fault-
controlled subsidence and a later episode when
subsidence was more uniform, possibly due to
relaxation of extensional stresses or thermal
contraction.
• Throughout the Paleozoic, the Puna-Pampeanas
arch appears to have formed a persistent tectonic
high and divide, resembling a giant pop-up
structure on either side of which there were sedi-
mentary basins. Sedimentologic evidence
suggests that this structural morphology extended
south of South Africa.
• Following the Chañic orogeny, the Carboniferous
was a time of widespread extension. Dextral
strike-slip along the Puna-Pampeanas system was
associated with pull-apart basins (e.g., Paganzo-
Tarija-Chaco basin tract). Elsewhere, the
northeast-trending accommodation zones of times
past were reactivated as normal faults.
• The Late Ordovician–earliest Silurian Ocloyic
orogeny and the Late Devonian–Early Carbonif-
erous Chañic orogeny coincided with Gondwana
glaciations. This is attributed to the climatic effects
of tectonic arching.
• Phanerozoic extensional depocenters have been
interpreted as isolated rift segments offset across
accommodation zones. Permian–Triassic San
Rafael contraction is believed to have inverted
these basin segments to form discontinuous but
tectonically linked fold belts.
• Triassic extension and magmatism straddled this
discontinuous mountain belt. Southwest-directed
Basin and Range type extensional collapse of the
orogen was guided by northeast-striking
transfers.
41
• Late Jurassic–Cretaceous extension related to
South Atlantic rifting was associated with
northwest-trending right-lateral shear couples.
The Triassic northeast transfers were reactivated
in a normal sense. The Late Jurassic onset of
Atlantic rifting was locally translated into struc-
tural inversion of Triassic–Early Jurassic depo-
centers.
• The rift basins beneath the continental shelf of
eastern Argentina are also partially composite in
form, preserving evidence of an earlier phase of
southwest-directed extension that was later
replaced by a northwest-oriented stress field in
the Late Jurassic–Cretaceous (e.g., San Julian
basin) (P. V. Zalán and A. M. de Figueiredo, 1994,
personal communication).
The way in which the long-established structural
framework responded to changes in horizontal devia-
toric stress in the lithosphere appears to be reasonably
predictable. Less clear are the reasons for these periodic
changes in lithospheric stress and the sources of wide-
spread tension. Orogenic events alternated with periods
of extension and wrench faulting throughout the
Phanerozoic. During the Triassic, extension resulted in
destruction of the irregular and discontinuous fold belts.
In the Late Jurassic–Neocomian, a continuous magmatic
arc along the Pacific margin co-existed with widespread
extension and opening of the South Atlantic (Jensen et
al., 1976; Charrier, 1984; Mpodozis, 1984). Furthermore,
the direction of Mesozoic extension was at a high angle
to the contemporaneous Pacific margins (Figure 32),
suggesting linkage between the plate boundary and
intracontinental extension (Storey et al., 1992). Plate
boundary forces such as subduction slab pull and ridge
push, as well as collision processes, are believed to
control intraplate tectonism (Forsyth and Uyeda, 1975;
Dewey, 1988; Bott, 1992). De Wit and Ransome (1992)
discuss the influence of stress transmission related to the
fusion and fission of supercontinents.
Following the Chañic diastrophism, the Early
Carboniferous basins of western Argentina and Chile
developed as transtensional pull-aparts as a result of
right-lateral shearing due to oblique convergence
(Rapalini, 1990; Breitkreuz, 1991; Fernandez-Seveso and
Tankard, 1995).
Regardless of the precise causative mechanisms
whereby the structural framework of southwestern
Gondwana responded to changing plate boundary
stresses (e.g., Leighton and Kolata, 1990), a global
tectonic control on the subsidence histories of widely
separated but structurally interlinked basins in south-
western Gondwana is implied. This recognition paves
the way for correlations of large-scale depositional
sequences. Recent plate reconstructions by Dalziel et al.
(1994), for example, confirm the striking coincidence in
time between the Sauk–Tippecanoe and Tippecanoe–
Kaskaskia sequence boundaries of the Laurentian craton
with the Taconic and Acadian deformations along the
eastern margin of North America. Correlative tectonism
in South America (the Ocloyic and Chañic orogenies)
42 Tankard et al.

VE N D IA N - C A M B R IA N CA M B R IA N - O R D O V IC IA N
N BF CH TB CH
CHACO
GF
PT
ET
OF
3 PA RANA
PF JF
3 PF

AC LB
LF LA

ML

KF
ZF
CA PE
N

DE V O N IA N CA R B O N IFE R O U S - P E R M IA N
BF
CH

CHACO 3 CH AC O
HI G H

3
PAR A NA
HI
G
H

LB CHACO -
PA RANA
HI

HI G
G
H

D
AN
H

HL
G
HI

HIGH
KA L A H AR I

HI
GH
HI

LA
GH

CAPE ND
LA

KA RO O
ND

Marine Incursion
Ice-Flow Direction

Figure 32—Reconstructions of the tectonic and paleogeographic framework for the principal stages of basin development.
Thrusts on Triassic–Jurassic map refer to Permian–Early Triassic contraction; they show the relationship to Triassic
extension by orogenic collapse. AC, Aconquija lineament; AL, Altiplano basin; AM, Agulhas-Malvinas fracture zone; BF,
Boomerang fault; BL, Bariloche; CFB, Cape fold belt; CH, Chiquitanas front; CO, Colorado basin; CU, Cuyo basin; ET, El
Toro lineament; GF, Goiânia belt; GFS, Gastre fault system; JF, Jacutinga fault; IA, Izozog arch; KL, Kalahari line; LB, Las
Breñas fault; LF, Lancinha-Cubatão fault; LO, Lomas de Olmedo basin; MA, Malvinas basin; MG, Magallanes basin; NQ,
Neuquén basin; OF, Ocloyic fault; OU, Outeniqua basin; PT, Puna trough; RA, Rawson basin; SA, Salado basin; SG, Sierra
Grande; SJ, San Jorge basin; SL, Santa Lucía basin; SP, Sierra Pintada; SS, Sierras Septentrionales; SV, Sierra de la
Ventana; TB, Trans-Brasiliano lineament; WS, Weddell Sea; ZF, Zoetfontein fault.
 Structural and Tectonic Controls of Basin Evolution in Southwestern Gondwana
TR IA S SIC - E AR LY J U RA S SI C
N
CU
3 CU
SP
SV
SS
N
BL
SG
CF
B
Figure 32 (continued)
suggests that broader interregional correlations can now
be attempted.
The repetitive history of basin development and struc-
tural modification also influenced the petroleum geology
and prospectivity of the region. This history involved
multiple phases of orogenesis, fault-controlled exten-
sional subsidence, and decay or relaxation of extensional
stresses (Bally and Snelson, 1980), which resulted in
uniform subsidence of broad epicontinental basins.
There were several episodes of hydrocarbon source rock
deposition, each of which broadly coincided with the
culminating episodes of regional subsidence character-
ized by restricted marine circulation and comparatively
low rates of influx of terrigenous sediments. There are
several source rock intervals:
1. An uppermost Proterozoic interval in the Nama
and São Francisco basins is little more than a fasci-
nating curiosity.
2. Potential Silurian source rocks occur in the Tarija
and Chaco basins, and the Kirusillas shales sourced
Sara oils in the Boomerang area.
3. The Devonian Los Monos shale is the principal
source of hydrocarbons in the Tarija and Chaco
basins. Its counterparts in the Paraná basin are the
Lima and Ponta Grossa formations.
4. Probably the most enigmatic is the Upper Permian
(Kazanian) interval. It is characterized by high TOC
values and kerogen types I and II. The White Hill
Formation in the Karoo basin is overmature. In the
43
L AT E J UR A S SIC - C R ETA C EO U S
AL
IA
LO
SL
NQ
SA
CO
G
FS
RA
SJ
OU
MG MA AM
WS
Paraná basin, the Irati Formation varies from
immature at shallow depths to mature or overma-
ture where it is associated with diabase dikes.
Thick sequences of Patquía de la Cuesta source
rock shales occur in the Paganzo basin, but they
have become involved in the Tertiary tilt block
basin province and are deeply buried in places. The
Paganzo basin is largely unexplored.
5. Several prolific oil-prone source rocks occur in the
Triassic, Early Jurassic, and Early Cretaceous rifts.
The importance of the sub-Andean basins is that they
are long-lived and composite in form and contain
multiple source rock accumulations. All of the commer-
cially producing basins in Argentina and Bolivia
developed above Paleozoic depocenters. The late
Tertiary Andean orogeny provided a thick cover
sequence that enhanced burial maturation and
migration, as well as creating traps by structural
inversion. Most producing oil and gas fields in Argentina
have an inversion component of trap formation.
In contrast, many of the rift basins of Argentina,
Uruguay, and offshore South Africa formed along the
tract of Permian–Triassic fold belts by orogenic collapse.
They are attractive exploration areas because they are
well structured and may contain prolific lacustrine
source rocks. An example is the Cuyo basin with its
Upper Triassic Cacheuta source rock. However, orogenic
collapse also presents the risk of an overabundance of
coarse material.
44 Tankard et al.
Acknowledgments We thank R. Allen, H. R. Balkwill, G.
Bonorino, H. Di Benedetto, E. J. Ebner, F. Fernandez-Seveso,
M. Fowler, P. G. Gresse, W. Hegenberger, G. Henry, N.
Hiller, M. P. A. Jackson, W. A. M. Jenkins, A. H. Knoll, P.
Kress, O. R. López-Gamundí, J. V. Ploszkiewicz, J. A. Salfity,
F. Schein, L. A. Spalletti, I. Stanistreet, J. N. Theron, R.
Unrug, C. M. Urien, J. Utting, B. van Hoorn, R. Viñes, J. N.
J. Visser, and P. A. Ziegler for helpful discussions and assis-
tance at various stages of this project. Elf Aquitaine kindly
provided lithologic logs of the Tses-1 well in Namibia. Typing
was done by K. Bojarski.
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