CHAPTER VIIl
A C C U R A C YC O N T R O L
1. Introduction
A shipbuilding system based on group tech-
nology,using a product-orientedwork break-
down structure and integrated hull construc-
tion, outfitting, and painting, requires that
accuracy be controlled. Otherwise, work in
succeedingstagesof production is adversely
affectedby inaccurateinterim products.Con-
sequently, a system is neededto control the
accuracy of interim products. Although the
justification for such a system may initially
be the need to monitor the construction of
interim products to minimize delays and re-
work during erection, an accuracycontrol sys-
tem is considerably more than this. When
fully operational, accuracy control forms a
major part of the total shipbuilding system.
It involves the regulation of accuracy as a
managementtechnique for improving the pro-
ductivity of the entire shipbuilding system
by focusing attention on individual areas
where improvements offer significant bene-
fits. It also providesthe meansfor monitor-
ing work by individual work processor problem
area.Additionally, a fully implementedaccu-
racy control system establishesa quantitative
feedback loop between production and plan-
ning, design,and engineering.
Accuracy control is defined as "the use of
statistical techniquesto monitor, control and
continuously improve shipbuilding design de-
319
tails, planning, and work methods so as to
maximize productivity."
The use of statistical techniques is an
essentialelement in an accuracycontrol sys-
tem. These techniques were developeddur-
ing the 1940sand are describedin the tech-
nical literature as "statistical quality con-
trol." In the context ofshipbuilding, accuracy
control should not be confusedwith quality
assurance(seeChapter IV, Section6). Accu-
racy control is the regulation of accuracyin
order to maximize productivity. This regula-
tion involves a tradeoffbetween better accu-
racy (and the subsequent improvement in
succeedingassemblyand erection processes)
and the cost to achievesuch accuracy.[1]
1.1.Statistical
Princioles
Statistical analysis as applied in accuracycon-
trol is basedupon the observationthat there
is no such thing as absolute accuracy(re-
peatability). No matter how preciseworkers
try to be during a specifrcwork process,vari-
ations from specifieddimensionsare always
anticipated and measurable. Thus, accu-
racy exists only in terms of usually achieved
ranges.Working with ranges of variations is
crucial for production control and for achiev-
ing specifiedend product accuracy.Note that
this discussionis primarily concernedwith
320 SHIPPRODUCTION
variations and not errors. Errors are acts
that through ignorance, deficiency,or acci-
dent causedepartures from specifieddimen-
sions.They do not ordinarily occur.Accuracy
control dealswith variations that occurin the
courseof normal operations.
Variations in a work processare the re-
sult of the capability of the work process,
including workers, machinesand tools,ma-
terials, and procedures.Dimensional varia-
tions occur in any work processas a result of
common and special causes.Common cause
variation in a work process is the normal
chance or random variation common to the
process. It is the result of the production
system, including raw materials, incoming
parts or interim products,tools and machin-
ery, worker training, work environment, etc.
Variations due to common causescannot be
altered without altering the work processor
the system that controls the work process.
Reducing common causevariations thus be-
comes the prerogative of management. In
essence,common causes are common to a
whole group of workers and belong to the
system.Thesevariations are definedas being
the result of common causesor causescom-
mon to the processcapability. [2]
Errors, as defined above,are the result
of specialcauses,or problemsnot commonto
the process.Special causesof variation are
causes specifrc to a certain worker or ma-
chine. They represent a departure from
previous conditions and performance.These
causesshould be identified and removedas
a regular part of monitoring a work process.
Special causescan of;benbe correctedby the
work force.
Any repeatablework process(consistent
in facilities and worker skills) producesprod-
ucts that have variations in characteristics.
For example, fabricated flat bars will ex-
hibit variations from designdimensions.These
variations, when plotted by the number of
[tntgsthgy000u1,,
uppt,dxihta["
, rur*ul dir-
tribution (see Figure 8-1). Two parameters
describethe relative shapeof a normal distri-
bution (N). They are:
. mean, i, the arithmetical average
of variations in a sample,which
describesthe central tendencyof
the distribution
o standard deviation, o, which classes
the sizesof variations from the mean
value by their frequenciesofoccur-
rence,and thus is a measureof the
relative scatter ofpoints around the
mean
For a normal distribution, 67 percent of the
values fall within one standard deviation of
the mean, 95 percent fall within two stand-
ard deviations,99.7 percentfall within three
standard deviations,and so on. Both para-
meters are obtainable from mathematical
formulas.
Note that in the remainder of this chap-
ter, discussioncenterson sampling from nor-
mal distributions. The normal distribution of
samplesfrom a normally distributed popu-
lation is describedby the sample mean, x,
and the sample standard deviation, o, as de-
scribedabove.
Similar considerationscan be applied to
each work process.Thus, spacingsbetween
longitudinals will vary, and another normal
distribution having its own mean value and
standard deviation applies (see Figure 8-2).
Whether the variations in both flat bar
N(x',
Fig. 8-1. Normal distribution of variation from
designdimensionof cut flat bars.

N(iz, oz)
/\
Fig. 8-2. Normal distribution of longitudinal
spacing.
lengths and longitudinal spacingsimposere-
quirements for rework depends upon their
merger during a later assemblyprocess.
1.1.1.ControlChafts.The most commontool
usedin statistical quality control is the Shew-
hart control chart. Control charts apply the
conceptofexpectedand measurablevariation
in work processesand are usedto distinguish
between common cause variations and spe-
cial cause errors. When only common cause
variations are detected,the processis operat-
ing normally and requires no adjustment.
Should special cause variations be found,
however, investigation and identification of
these causesis required to eliminate them and
return the processto normal performance.
The control charts, a related set ofone x
and one R chart, are plots of the mean (i ) and
range (R) of random samples of measure-
ments from a specific work processover time
(seeFigure 8-3).t31Like the standard devia-
tion, the range of a random sampleis a meas-
ure ofscatter. R is the differencebetween the
largest and smallestvalue in the sample,and
although it is a less rigorous measure of
variability than the standard deviation, its
simplicity has led to its widespreaduse in
control charts.
Control chart theory is basedon the sta-
tistical central limit theorem. The central
limit theorem states that the distribution of
the means of random samplestaken from a
ACCURACYCONTROL 321
Fig. 8-3.i and R controlchartsfor variationof
dimensionsof N/C burnedparts.
normal distribution is another normal dis-
tribution with the same mean as the or-
iginal distribution and a standard deviation
equalto the standard deviationofthe original
distribution divided by the squareroot ofthe
random sample size (seeFigure 8-4). It also
states that the distribution of means of ran-
dom samp\es wil\ fol\ow a normal distribu-
tion, even if the samples are taken from a
nonnormal population.This result canbe used
to detect changesin the original distribution,
which would indicate the presenceof special
causesofvariation.
The technique involves initially deter-
mining regular performance for a work pro-
cess (i.e., its normal distribution) using a
large data sample. This normal performance
can be used to establish an expectedrange of
variation for the process.Subsequentrandom
samplesof productsfrom the work processcan
322 SHIPPRODUCTION

then be monitored to detect changesin the
performance of the process.Control charts
establish limits on the variation of the mean
and the range of these random samples.The
limits are commonly set three standard de-
viations above and below the processmean
and the averagerange. Theselimits are used
becausethey provide gg.7 percent assurance
that exceedingthese limits is the result of a
changein the normal distribution of the pro-
cess and therefore the result of a special
Fig. 8-4. Normal distribution of random samples
taken from a normal population.
cause.Data suchas thoseshownin Figure 8-b
are used to determine individual entries to
an i and an R chart.
The control charts provide information
about a particular work process.Since some
dimensional variation is a regular result of
any work process,it is important to be able to
distinguish between expectedchanceor ran-
dom variations, and other variations. Thus
the control charts are a tool to monitor work
processesto assure that action need not be
taken to maintain the usually achievedaccu-
racy ofthe process.
Control charts are developedfor a work
processwhen the processis in a state of sta-
tistical control. Some understanding of the
meaning of statistical control is important in
using control charts. A state of statistical
control is a state of randomness. When a
processis in control and no specialcausesare
present,variations on the i and R charts are
due to commoncauses.Points plotted on the
i and R charts will fall within the control
limits. When points fall outside the control
limits, they indicate the presenceof a special
cause of variation. The production worker

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Fig.8-5.Random
sample
datato beentered
0nant andR control
chart,

can almost always detect and correct these
causes.When in a state of statistical control,
a work processhas predictable and repeat-
able outputs. Thus, a state of statistical con-
trol is evidencedby random samplevalues of
i and R falling within the control limits on
control charts. The control limits and the
samplesizeindicate the level of accuracyand
the variation that can be expected.
In developingthe i and R controlcharts,
six values are required, three for each chart.
These values are the centerline, the upper
control limit, and the lower control limit (see
Figure 8-3).For eachwork process,the x and
R charts are based on an established and
repeated sampling procedure.The sampling
procedureincludesa specifiedsamplesize,n.
The control chart values are determinedfrom
the results of a seriesof random samples.
If k samples of size n are taken, the i
chart values are:
= t i I r
C L = x = K, n . K
U C L = i + AzR
L C L - x = -Azn
and the R chart values are:
IR
CL _ E -
K
UCL = D + R
LCL = D s R
The constants,A2, D3, and Da are commonly
available in listings of statistical constants
and are a function of sample size, n.
1.1.2. VariationMerging. Ships are built by
procuring or fabricating parts and then join-
ing them to create subassemblies.In turn,
these are combined through several manu-
facturing levels to produce increasingly
larger subassemblies,blocks,and ultimately
a complete ship. Production line techniques
may be employed, for the many different in-
terim products required.
ACOURACYcoNTRoL 323
z(t, o) ._,/-.\
./' \
Fig. 8-6. Merged variation of fitting flat bar be-
tween longitudinals.
When each of the work processesis in
statistical control,the normal distributions
of variations for the work processescan be
determined (mean and standard deviation).
Based on these data, it is possibleto predict
statistically the merged variation from the
total series of work processesthat produce
the ship. Consider the combination of two
work processes,cutting flat bars (seeFigure
B-1) and the spacing of longitudinals (see
Figure 8-2). The mean and standard devia-
tion of variation in fitting flat bars between
longitudinals can be determined from tne
data of the individual work processes(see
Figure 8-6).In addition to frnding the normal
distribution of variation of this latter assem-
bly process,the work processwhich contrib-
uted most to the frnal or mergedvariation is
identifred.
Accuracygoals are expressedin terms of
the normal distribution required for the final
process.Then, by working backwards,neces-
sary goals are similarly set for each of the
work processeswhich would ensure desired
accuracyfor the final process.Since normal
performances at each work station are
known, alternative building strategies may
be evaluatedto determine if the reduction in
rework can be obtained.If rework reductions
by altering assemblysequencesare not pos-
sible, steps to reduce the normal variations
at critical work processescan be initiated.
These may include replanning flow )anes,
 324 SHIPPRODUCTION
improving work environments, retraining
workers, or other similar approaches.This
by-product of the accuracycontrol system is
called process or method analysis. process
analysis involves a detailed review of a par-
ticular work process.The goal ofthis analysis
is to reducevariability, i.e.,to lower the mean
variation and,/orthe standard deviation of the
variations of the process.A similar approach
can be applied to investigate special causes
that are responsiblefor a processbeing out of
statistical control.
Independent normal distributions, such
as those representing performance of each
work process,can be addedto determine the
expectednormal performanceat succeeding
stages of construction. Additions of normal
distributions apply both to work processes
necessaryto ensure neededaccuraciesofin_
terim productsand to interim productsthem_
selvesto ensure required accuracyofa frnal
product, such as a ship's hull. For the latter,
the merged variation, Z, is expressedas:
Z - ZPi + lSi + LAi + IEi
where:
IPi = merged variations from all parts
fabrication processes
ISi - merged variations from all sub-
assemblyprocesses
IAi - merged variations from all block
assemblyprocesses
IEi - merged variations from all
erection processes
This equation is referred to as the variation-
merging equation for the completedhull.
The variation-merging equation is based
on the theorem ofaddition ofvariance. Vari-
anceis simply the square of the standard devi_
ation. For independent distributions, such as
those representing the normal performance
ofwork processes,the theorem ofaddition of
variance states:
o"'= or'+ or'+ 6r'f ...= ro,'
where oi is the standard deviation ofearlier
processesand op is the standard deviation of
a final process.[4]
1.2.Overview
A production line consistsofsequentially ar_
ranged work processes;it is a preplanned
entity. Effrciencyis dependentupon uniform
work flow and coordination with other pro_
duction lines. Optimum accuracyis crucial to
avoid disruptive rework. Even nominal re_
work can break down the economicadvan_
tages of a production line. Thus, when
thinking about how a ship is to be assembled,
planners must addresstheir shipyard'saccu_
racy capabilities. Accuracy control planners
needgoodsystemsfor collectingand evaluat_
ing accuracydata.
In the absenceof such measures,the fol_
lowing typical questionsare disregarded:
o What dimensionsare vitally impor-
tant to achieverequired accuracy?
. How is the required degree of accu_
racy going to be achieved?
.In what work processesshould vital
dimensionsbe controlled?
o What are the tolerancesthat should
be imposedat eachwork process?
Without tolerancesspecifredfor eachprocess,
there is no way to control the accumulation
ofvariations at a final process.Tolerancesin
shipbuilding can be classifiedin two groups:
. end product tolerances,where some
are frxed, as by classificationsocieties,
and others can be negotiated,as those
requestedby owners
o interim product tolerances,which are
applied by a shipyard to ensure com_
pliance with end product tolerances
and simultaneouslyto maximize pro_
 ACCURACYCONTROL 325

ductivity (tolerancesfor productivity LOWER UPPER

reasonsare often more demanding TOLERANCE
LIMIT
TOLEFANCE
LIMIT
than those imposedby classification S T A N D A F DR A N G E
societiesand owners)

As a shipowner's guide to what tolerances

can be achieved at reasonable costs, data
AccEPr i
basedon actual results can be collected.These
data:
> REWORK i
. apply to many details, parts, and

ii
I

subassemblies ACCEPT/INVESTIGATE
I
I
I

. provide standard ranges of actual dimen- I

sions achieved,which by definition

reflect 95 percent probability for normal
shipyard practice
. provide tolerancelimits, which are
criteria for rework
. are periodically revised to incorporate
the effect of continuing improvements
in shipbuilding technology
Shipowners have to pay more if they spec-
ify closer tolerances than those normally
achievedas describedabove.
Standard ranges are indicated with the
same plus and minus notations used to frx
tolerances.However, they are not really tol-
erances.Instead, they reflect usual capabili-
ties with 95 percent probability of the pro-
cessesused by the shipyard from which data
were collected.Tolerance limits should en-
compasstheir associatedstandard range, as
shown in Figure 8-7. Where they do not,
rework can be regularly expected.
An important aspect of accuracycontrol
(A/C) is the di{ficulty commonly encountered
in joining blocks during hull erection. Erec-
tion joint gaps that are not within tolerance
limits must be reworked by gas cutting and/
or back strip welding (seeFigure 8-8). Ap-
plying A/C to all earlier work processesis
more productive than having to deal with
merged variation in relatively inaccessible
and hazardous locations in a building dock or
on the ways.
> ACCEPT/INVESTIGATE
Fig.8-7. Relationshipofstandard ranges and tol-
erancelimits.
GAS CUT B U IL O U P
f
._VA
\ YA/ \
)Y/x )
B A C K I N "G' ' ' l
Fig. 8-8.Erectionjointgapreworktypes.
Margins to be trimmed at an erection
site are commitments to rework, so their
use shouldbeminimized. Statistical methods
could be used to anticipate normal dimen-
sional variations and to provide compensa-
tion, such as specific allowancesfor excess.
Thus excessis applied to dimensions to ac-
count for shrinkage that is predicted by sta-
tistical analysis, while margins are applied
where shrinkage cannot be predicted. Most
of the edges of parts, subassemblies,and
blocks are finish-cut accordingly.
A,/Cstarbswith statistical analysis of vari-
ations generated at each of the prerequisite
work processesfor hull erection, including
work processesduring block assembly,sub-
assembly, parts fabrication, lofting, and de-
sign. Measurements recorded for any work

_-/
326 SHIPPRODUCTION
process,when plotted by frequencyofoccur-
rence versus magnitude, usually follow the
normal (Gaussian) distribution, if the work
processis repetitively applied without change.
The use ofrepetitive work processesis a key
to group technologyshipbuilding and is also
essentialfor valid statistical analysis.
Obtaining a mean and standard devia-
tion for each processmakes it possibleto:
. expressthe standard deviation ofvari-
ations at erection as a combinationof
the deviations ofvariations from pre-
cedingwork processes
. establish an order ofpriority for
"tightening
up" precedingwork in
order to reducethe accumulationof
variations for the frnal work process
. establish accuracystandards
o revise written work and A,/Cprocedures
r direct improvements in design detairs
to minimize requirements for high de-
greesof accuracy
Generally,work processeswhich require sta-
tistical analysis are:
o parts fabrication
-marking
-cutting
-bending
. subassembly
-fitting
-welding
-fairing
. block assembly
-plate joining and fitting
-automatic welding
-marking
-cutting
-assembly and frtting
2. Planning
Accuracycontrol planning is essentialto the
proper functioning of the system.The work is
closely associatedwith regular design, engi-
-welding
-fitting of reverseside members and
welding
. erection
-positioning
-welding
As shown in Figure 8-9, any A./Cactivity can
be classifiedinto one of three basic manage-
ment functions that are inherent in any in-
dustrial enterprise.Theseare planning, exe-
cuting (field work), and evaluating (analy-
sesand feedback).Thus, A./Cresponsibilities
can readily and effectively be incorporated
into any existing organization provided:
. one manager has responsibilitiesfor
all, not just A,/C,planning, executing,
and evaluating of operations
o planning includes design and material
definition
r within organizationssuch as a hull
structural designsection,production
planning group,or subassemblysection,
peoplewith pertinent engineering
qualifications are assignedspecific
and substantial A/C responsibilities
Effective A/C is critically dependenton uni-
fied operations, organized information, and
qualified incumbents. A special A./Corgani-
zation is not a prerequisite.In fact, involving
all aspectsof the shipbuilding organization
with A/C is preferred. The specific people
throughout a shipyard who are assignedA,/C
responsibilitiesmust at least function as a de
facto A./Cgroup. The person who maintains
the principal A/C overview for an operations
manager is a key individual.
neering, and planning. Figure 8-10 outlines
the accuracy control planning pro_essand
shows the natural relationship to d.esign,
 ACCURACYCONTROL 327

EXECUTING EVALUATING
PRELIMINARY
PLANNING STANDARDIZING

WORKPqOCESSES CHECK DATA ANALYSIS WORK INSTRUCTIONS

P O I N T S& L ASSEMBLY
ACCURACIES M A K I N GG R A P H S PROCEDURES
CHECK
SI-]FINKAGES METHODS RESEARCHFIEASON WORK PRACTICES
FOR VARIATIONS SHRINKAGE
CHECK
ALLOWANCES
SHEETS COUNTERMEASURES

q o
FOR VAFiATIONS TOLEBANCES

! O
l"-*.-*T
-fi
DESIGN
WORKINSTFUCTIONS
illl
MOLDLOFT NC DAIA, TEMPLATES PRODUCTION
,,PFODUCTION PROCESS
PLAN(FA8/SU8/ASSY/ERE)
E N G I NE E R I N G ' '

Fig. 8-9. Accuracycontrol cycle.

engineering, and planning. Since variations
will occur at each stage of production (see
Figure 8-11), one aspect of accuracy control
planning is to indicate when (at what stage
of construction) action must be taken to mini-
mize rework at erection. Figure 8-12 shows
when A/C activities are applied.
Basically, what is shown is the role of A/C
planning to:
r pinpoint what vital points and dimen-
sions are critical to the dimensional
and geometrical accuracy of blocks
. designate critical checkpoints and
reference lines in blocks and in the
subassemblies and parts from which
blocks are assembled
. specify locations for and amounts of
excess allowances
. decidewhere and how much margin is
to be used and the specificstagesat
which margins should be cut neat
. determine work processesduring which
checkmeasurementswill be made
. fix the numbers of interim products
that should be measuredbasedupon
random sampling
. incorporatetolerancelimits, excess
allowances,and margins in work
instructions
A./Cplanning is best performedtogetherwith
other planning elements,providedit receives
at least the same emphasis. For effective-
ness, specificA./Cresponsibilities should be
clearly defined and specifically assigned to
individuals. As previously shownin Figure 8-9,
A,/Cplanning can be divided as other major
 328 SHIPPRODUCTION

planning aspectsinto preliminary planning, planners must consider,among other things,

detail planning (preparation of work instruc- how to:
tions), and standardization.
o createblocksthat facilitate shipwright
2.1. Preliminary
Planning
work
Preliminary planning addressessuch mat- . strake the hull shell to design firll plates
ters as block divisions,hull straking, and as- that can be accuratelyformed by avail-
sembly procedures.Necessarily,preliminary able bending facilities and techniques

5 T A { O A R OASG T I C Y

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Fig. 8-10.Accuracycontrol planning process.


Fig.8-11.Sources
ofvariationby stageofconstruction.
. shapeblocks that are spaciousand
open,to facilitate zoneoutfitting
To carry out such studies systematically,
planners must have accessto drawings, such
as a general arrangement, midship section
and lines plan, and proposed schemes for
block divisions and shell straking. The plan-
ners, who are assignedat the hull construc-
tion department level and to the parts fa-
brication shop, subassemblysection,block
assemblysection,and erection section,are
furnished these drawings by the design de-
partment. As a routine matter, the same
information is available to the planners
who have been assigned A/C responsi-
bilities. They use the variation-merging
equations, based upon statistically ob-
tained assessmentsof normal performance
at workstations, and proposeoptimum de-
sign details, assembly and erection se-
quences,tolerances,etc.,accordingly.The
final schemeis fed back to designers,who
ACCURACYCONTROL 329
then developkey plans, such as a shell ex-
pansion, a block plan, and ultimately work
instructions, all of which containA./C-derived
requirements.
2.2. Delail Planning
Accuracycontrol considerationsin detail plan-
ning are really processanalyses from an A,/C
viewpoint. Through such analyses,problems
which can be solved by regulating certain
dimensionsare revealedin advance.In other
words, to obtain required accuracyfor a final
process,it is necessaryto identify the speci-
fic precedingprocessesthat are significantly
contributing to a final or merged variation.
Thus, A,/Canalysesidentify on a quantitative
basisboth the work processesand the design
details which should be improved.
Of course, such determinations are not
made solely from an A./C viewpoint. Accu-
racy control techniques are analybicalman-
agement tools that contribute to processanal-
yses.They are the means for a shipyard as an
330 SHIPPRODUCTION

M I N I M A LE R E C - T I OW
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F I N I S HA B L O C K
O U R I N GA S S E M B L Y
AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE

T O L E R A N C EL I N 4 I T S

AJC PLANNING

VITAL POINTS
VITAL DIMENSIONS
BASE LINES
R E F E F E N C EL I N E S
S T A N D A H D SF O R :
WORK PROCESSES
ACCURACY J
STRAIGHTNESS o
W E L D I N GI N T E R N A L W E L D I N GI N T E F N A L
FLATNESS U
a It,4EMBERS MEMBEFS
PLUMB a
U
a
LEVEL o
Y P A N E LF I N I S H P A N E LF I N I S H
SQUARENESS (J
TOLERANCES CUTTING Y CUTTING
ETC. )
@ P A N E LM A R K I N G J P A N E LM A R K I N G
o o
U i
(r P A N E LA S S E M B L Y PANEL ASSEMBLY
J
l

T O L E R A N C EL I I t , 4 I T S

Fig. 8-12. Stages at which accuracy control measurements are taken.

 ACCURACYCONTROL 331

entity to capture and quantitatively derive
benefits from its accuracyexperiences.Ac-
curacy control methodsin detail planning are
significant becausethey inherently address
the entire hull construction processfor the
purposeof reducing erectionwork.
Planning proceedsby first assessingthe
accuracycharacteristicsfor an end product as
specifredby a regulatory society and ship-
owner. Thinking of reverseprocessflow, A,/C
planners identify vital points and dimensions
that must be maintained during erection,
block assembly,and so on (seeFigure 8-13).
In consideration of such vital aspects,A./C
planners ensure that, via work instructions
and other means,loftsmen and peoplehaving
A/C field responsibilities are provided with
necessaryinformation, such as checkpoints
and referencelines that must be included in
numerically controlled(N/C) data, templates,
and field check sheets. Engineers who per-
form A"/Cplanning for construction of a ship
recognizethat most accuracy variations in
work processesare normal, and their impact
on an end product can be predicted through
statistical methods.
Simultaneously with the designation of
required work proceduresfor a specific in-
terim product, tolerancesand amounts of ex-
cess are determined by taking into account
the merging of variation. Variations gener-
ated by each work processfollow a normal
distribution, N(xi, oi), and accumulateas an-
other normal distribution, Z{ir, op), at the
last stage. In order to reduce the merged
mean variation, Zr, it is necessaryto reduce

Type of Vital Check

Points or Baselines Examples WhyTheseMeasurements
Are lmportant

Characteristic straightnessand levelot hullbaseline satistyregulatorybodies

hull length,draft,breadthof variouspoints establishcapacity/tonnage
drmenslons hullvolumFoffsets at chineor bilges qualrtyassuranceto customer
tonnage/tankage measurements leedback to yard-fuC analysis
leedbackto standardsorganizations-
modify standards
6. affect erectionproductivity

Dimensions relativepositionof sterntube,shatl bearings, 1. affect pertormance.operationol vessel

relatedto enginefoundationand rudderpost 2. feedbackto yard-fuC analysis
operatrng 2 . locatron/alignment
ol specialcomponenls- 3. feedbackto standardsagency
requirements ramps,gun mounts,etc.
roll-on/roll-off 4. affect productivityol component
3 . specialcustomerrequirements installation
5. satistyspecialcustomerrequirements

Major '1.
shellplaleotfsetsai butt 1. affectstrength,reworkrequirements,
structural 2 . chineotlsets detormationduringf abrication
intersections 3 . localionsof majorbulkheads 2. leedback to yard-AJC analysis
at butl jornts largestructuralfoundations-location, 3. leedback to standardsagency
tlatness 4. alfect labricationproductivity
't.
Outfil pipeends which mateto anothercomponent 1. alfeclproperoperationof machinery
component on adjoiningunit 2. atfecl productivityot zone outfitting
Interseclrons 2 . machinerycomponentsmatingto component 3. leedback to yard-tuC analysis
at butl joints on anotherunit 4. leedback to standardsagency
3 . pipe penetrationlocalions

Process 1. fit-upgaps '1.

assistdetermination of processaccuracy
related 2. weldingshrinkage 2. affect productivityol subsequent
measurements 3. weldingdistortion processes
4. bendingaccuracy 3. feedbackto yard process evaluation
5. line heating 4. feedbackto standardsagency
6. cutting,markingaccuracy
7. curvatureot componenislabricaledon pin jig

Measurements 1. platenlevel 1. assistlabrication

to lacilitate 2. jig alignmenuaccuracy 2. atlect productivity
tabrication 3. buildingdock baselinealignment 3. teedbackto yard-fuC analysisof
4. baselineson parts,blocksto tacilitate alternativemethods/processes
measurements, alrgnment, assembly,
outtit. painting and erection

Fig. 8-13.Vital points and dimensions.

332 SHIPPRODUCTION

the standard deviation, oi, and control the
mean value, x,, of each process,considering
their effectson current production methods.
An exampleof howA/C planners can use
variation-merging equations to predict
merged variation in a bottom butt to be
joined during hull erectionis shownin Figure
8-14. Using these results, accuracy control
planners perform processanalysisto improve
design or to alter work sequencesto improve
accuracyand productivity.
A/C planners also apply these tech-
niques to predict merged variation within
every manufacturing level. For example,for
block assemblythey use the normal distribu-
tions for each work process,such as panel
assembly, panel marking, panel frnish cut-
ting, and internal member welding to pre-
dict the normal distribution for blocks being
planned.The sametechniqueis employedfor
subassemblyand for parts fabrication. This
enablesA/C planners to advise designersof
specificA/C matters that are to be included
in work instructions.
2.3. Standardization
Standardization is an important feature of
group technology shipbuilding, as was dis-
cussed in Chapters VI and VII. Standards
related to accuracycontrol can be discussed
in terms of work standards and accuracy
standards.

Assembly Procedure:
1. Fit the flange on the web shifted by Sr 3mm excess allowance and finish cut the panel,s
(fwd end of longitudinal). forward edge.
2. Fit the flange on the web shifted by Sz 4. Fit the longitudinals to the bottom panel shifted
(aft end of penetrating piece). by Az where Az = the designed dimension +2mm.
3. After the plates are welded together to 5. Fit the penetrating piece to the transverse bulk-
create the bottom panel, incorporate a head at the distance A..
variation merging equations for thejoint gaps during hulr erection:
Z t = A z - ( A : +
E z )
Zz = Zt + [(Sr - 6r) - (Sz +62)]
ZB = lE2 - (Pz - Ar)l - [(Pr + Az) - (Ar + Er)]
Za = Zt + [(Sr' - 611)_ (S21 + &1)]
. A negative value for Z predicts overlaps, i.e., negative gap.
. The value for every A, E, etc., is dependent upon a similar lower_tier
equation which accumulates variations for marking, cutting, etc., as
measured from a reference line.

Fig. 8-14(a).Variation merging equation example(continuedin Fig. g-14(b)).

 ACCURACYCONTROL 333

ESTIMATED MERGED VARIATION (Z)

Samplesize Mean value Variance

D i m e n s i o n n x c 2 R e m a r k s

P1 126 +0.4 0.91 Lengthof bottomlongitudinalafterweb is weldedto tlange.

P2 50 +0.5 0.79 Lengthol penetratingpiece afterweb is weldedto flange.
6,, 61 156 0 0.51 Perpendicularity
of bottomlongitudinaland penetratingpiece
enos.

6i,6i
51 140 +1.1 0.61 Fittingpositionol bottomlongitudinalflange.
Si 140 +0.5 1.61 Shiftbetweenweb and flangeat the afterend of bottom
longitudinal.
52 50 4.4 0.81 Finingpositionof flangeof penetratingpiece.
52 50 +0.6 1.82 Shiftbetweenweb and flangeat the forwardend of
penetratingpiece.
A1 36 +2.9 1.38 Lengthol boftompanelafterfinishcut.
A2 83 +1.6 1.64 Fittingpositionof bottomlongitudinal.
A3 70 -O.8 2.02 Fittingpositionof penetratingpiece.
E1 42 4.4 2.43 Accuracyol gap betweenbottompanelsmeasuredbetween
referencelinesafterwelding.
E2 44 +1.9 4.60 Erectedpositionof TransverseBulkhead;Distancefrom buttof
bottomoanel.
EstimatedGap
Zj +0.5 8.26
Z? +2.0 10.70 ' 17"k
z3 + 1. 0 13.79 ' 14"k
z4 +1.0 18.22 ' 170/"

' Estimated
occurrenceof gaps which are 5 or more mm wide; back-stripweldingis required.

ACTUAL MERGED VARIATIONS

Actual Samplesize Mean value Variance Aclualoccurrence

Gap n t o2 of back-stripwelding
21 85 +0.8 7.61 4"k
Z2 82 +2.3 9.71 12Y"
Z3 78 + 1. 1 10.02 6%
Zo 72 +2.2 13.75 13o/"

Fig.8-1a(b).

2.3.1. Work Standards.Any work processcan concernsof A/C people.A/C authorization of

be performed with varying degreesof accu-
racy. When it is controlled so that it is always
performed the same way, variations will be
normally distributed and can be analyzed
statistically. Without such controlled work
processes,statistical analysis is not valid.
Thus a crucial part of A/C is to ensure that
accuracyvariations remain random and are
not the result of arbitrarily introduced bias.
Standardization of work processesand moni-
toring to ensure complianceare fundamental
a proposedchange in any work processper-
mits quantitative analysis of its impact on the
entireshipbuildingprocess.Thisrigidcontrol
does not mean that changesare not made.
Instead, adjustments to work processesare
more frequent due to the continuousprocess
analysesand feedbackthat are inherent fea-
tures of A,/C.
Related standardsshould be written and
adheredto for such matters as planned steel
flow, worker organization, worker training,
 334 SHIPPRODUCTION
and supervision. Ifany are changed without
regard forA/C analyses and approvals, biases
that invalidate previous A,/C or process per-
formance data are introduced.
Among the work standards required are
those for:
. excess
. shrinkage allowance
. baselines and match marks
. checking procedures
r parts fabrication and assembly
schemes
. A"/C information in work instructions
At the startup of A/C planning, the following
questions are asked to determine standards
for excess:
. Why are margins needed?
. Where are margins required?
. How much margin is necessary?
. During what work process will margins
be finish cut?
Usually, a margin scheme for main strakes,
such as shell plates, is created by production
planners. Margins shown are for ordering
materials and./or fabricating parts. However,
the amounts of margin are not prescribed by
written standards that are backed up by re-
cords of measurement data. In this respect,
margins differ from excess allowances. Mar-
gins are used as a buffer to compensate for
accuracy variations in all hull constructron
processes, including design. Therefore, the
true causes of accuracy variations and ways
to improve fabrication methods are difficult
to detect. Where statistical analysis is not
applied, the large amounts of margin used
are based on "rough check" data which char-
acterize feedback from production. This cycle
masks actual causes and reduces opportuni-
ties for improvements.
A"/Cscrutinyshrinksmarginsuntil most
of them becomejust the excessallowances
neededto compensate for variations.Excess
rI
I
I
I
i
is characterized by frnish cutting, based on a
high probability that no rework will be re-
quired. To further eliminate rework, A,/C con-
tinues to impose the same questions when
this transition is achieved:
. Why is excess needed?
. Where is excessneeded?
r How much excess is necessary?
. Ifneeded, during what stage should
rework take place?
This incessant questioning is motivation for
continuous improvements in work methods.
The amount of shrinkage caused by weld-
ing will be different, depending upon mate-
rials, methods, and sequences.Thus, standards
for shrinkage allowances must be based upon
recorded data for each set ofcircumstances.
Baselines and match marks are both
necessary and important to facilitate proper
data collection and to aid production, espe-
cially fitting. Standards are required to as-
sure that their locations and lengths are suffr-
cient to reflect production requirements.
A written checking procedure assures spec-
ified accuracy at each work process. Written
checking procedures (standards) are required
to ensure that measurements are recorded for
analysis.
The sequencesfor subassembly and block
assembly are usually indicated by a number-
ing system, useful for computer processing,
which is hierarchical in order to match as-
cending manufacturing levels. This system is
good enough to indicate a simple sequence
such as parts fabrication, subassembly, block
assembly, and erection. Standards for parts
fabrication and assembly schemes that ad-
dress vital points and dimensions are needed
to achieve specified accuracy during each work
process.
Usual hull construction drawings show
structural details and sometimes include in-
structions for edge preparations. Specific ex-
cess allowances are generally not included.

Little other guidance is provided by de-
signers to indicate fabrication methods and
vital points and dimensions needed to achieve
a specified degree of accuracy. Working draw-
ings, provided to workers, are the only
widely distributed documents which can
display total instructions for how to construct
a ship's hull. When design is recognized as
an aspect of planning, working drawings will
develop more as work instructions which
facilitate employment of less skilled workers,
adherence to work standards, A/C analyses,
and continuous improvement in production
methods.
2.3.2. Accuracy Standards. To control the ac-
cumulation of variations or merged variation
at a final stage, accuracy standards are estab-
lished for preceding work processes. Figure
8-15 shows the relationship among accuracy
standards by stage ofconstruction. Data ob-
tained during construction ofother ships are
used to derive accuracy standards for a con-
templated ship. However, these are reviewed
by analyzing data recorded as production be-
gins and progresses. Adjustments are made if
assumed accuracy standards are unrealistic.
The concept of a standard range with a
tolerance limit, as shown in Figure 8-7, is
3. Executing
Accuracy control execution is concerned with
two tasks:
. define when, what, and how to measure
. take measurements and record data
Before looking into the various aspects of the
execution phase, it is useful to review the
purpose of this effort. The objectives of an
accuracy control program are to determine
that work processes are in a state of statisti-
cal control, to maintain that state of control,
and to provide information to management to
facilitate process analysis and improvement.
The frrst two are important both in the short
ACCURACYCONTROL 335
applied to every work process. The more de-
manding standard range is used as the accu-
racy standard for each particular work pro-
cess in order to ensure control of the merged
variation at erection. By definition, standard
range is associatedwith high probability ri +
2o or 95 percent).
Of the few remaining variations, those
outside the standard range which do not re-
quire rework during the next work stage, nor
spoil end product accuracy, are acceptable
and are regarded as being within a tolerance
limit. This is a tolerance limit because it
applies to fewer cases and includes some
added allowance for acceptance. However,
such limits must be achievable with normal
production capabilities and must not impair
structural integrity ofthe end product.
This approach recognizes basic realities
in any industrial enterprise. While more de-
manding accuracy standards are applied to
normal operations, some allowance is made
for the effect on accuracy ofon-the-job train-
ees, newly developed machines, etc. The con-
cept of a standard range with a tolerance
limit encourages managers to react to trends
away from normally achieved accuracy before
rework is required.
and long terms. Production workers can moni-
tor the work processeswith the aid of control
charts and make adjustments when neces-
sary to maintain the desired state of control.
This has obvious short-term benefrts in de-
creasing product variability and hence im-
proving productivity. Maintaining processes
in control has the additional purpose of en-
suring the validity ofa statistical analysis of
thoseprocesses.This processanalysisto con-
tinuously improve productivity is the third
objective.It is this analysisthat providesthe
principal motivation and benefit of an accu-
racy control program.
336 S H I PP R O D U C T I O N
Fig.8-15. Relationships among accuracy standards and stages ofconstruction.
3.1. Self-Check
Accuracycontrol includesa self-checksystem
that workers and their immediate leaders
execute.Self-checksare crucial. Workers (or
work groups) have not completeda job until
they have checkedtheir work to assurecom-
pliance with written accuracy instructions.
Thus, self-checksshould be regarded as pro-
duction work just as much as any other
work task. Subsequently,work leaders, one
for every work group (approximately eight
workers),checkthe samework and recordthe
pertinent final data. Very important check-
points and lines, often called control items,
are again checkedand recordedby the next
higher level of supervision. If such data are
unreliable or not available, an A/C svstem is
ineffective.
3.2. Whenand Whatto Check
Start and finish date schedulesare usually
postedat each control station for parts fab-
rication, subassembly,and block assembly.
Summary sheets for future work loads are
also posted. Self-checks,subsequentchecks,
and recordings are regarded as work pro-
cessesthat must adhere to these schedules.
Postedrecordsin each division ofproduction
show the day-to-daystatus.
Normally, the master schedulefor block
erection,weekly progresssheets,and a sched-
ule for erection checks based on the master
scheduleare postedin an erectionoffice.The
status of block erection is maintained on a
day-to-daybasis.
Accuracy checks are performed daily in
accordancewith schedulesthat are revised
weekly, if necessary.For each work stage,
items are checkedfor conformancewith accu-
racy standards.These are:
. for template preparation: overall
dimensions,including excessallowances
and marks required for parts fabrication,
assembly,and checkingwork

. for parts fabrication: overall dimen-
sions ofcut plates or shapes,edge
preparations,deformation, and the
curvature ofbent parts
. for subassemblyand block assembly:
the positioning of parts or subassem-
blies, their frt, gaps for welding,
distortion, and overall dimensions
. for erection:fit-up, gaps for welding,
and maintenanceof hull alisnment
for CheckSheets
3.3. Information
Members of an A/C group in a hull construc-
tion department prepare check sheetsin ac-
cordancewith work instructions issued by
designers and based on information pro-
vided by A"/Cplanners.The checksheetsdes-
ignate checkpoints and lines, checking me-
thods, personnel responsiblefor measuring,
and required frequency for measuring. A
typical example of a check sheet is shown in
Figure 8-16.
Preparing checksheetsfor curved blocks
is usually difficult, becausethe dimensions
included in normal working drawings, while
sufficient for assemblywork, are not suitable
for checkingpurposes.The simplest example
is the two diagonalsrequired for verifying the
rectangularity ofa panel. The A/C group ad-
vises loftsmen to calculate numerous other
special dimensions that facilitate accuracy
checks.
Actual measurements are mainly per-
formed as specifredby the checksheets.How-
ever, checksheetscannot practically provide
for all dimensions for all hull parts and as-
semblies.There has to be some dependence
on supplementary routine checking of other
dimensions by workers. This helps ensure
that the dimensionsrequired by checksheets
will satisfy accuracystandards.
3.3.1. Parts Fabrication.To achieve specifred
accuracy during assembly work, each of
many parts must be fabricated within speci-
ACCURACYCONTROL 337
fied accuracystandards.Becausemeasuring
every dimensionof every part is impractical,
random sampling is employed to monitor
accuracy tendencies.Special or large struc-
tural parts, such as girder or transverseweb
assemblies,are exceptions.Each should be
measuredin accordancewith checksheet in-
structions,with particular attention to defor-
mation. When cutting machines,suchas N/C,
are employed,their maintenanceis a signifi-
cant factor in the uniform working circum-
stances which are the bases for a valid
random sampling. Maintenancecheckson cut-
ting machinesshould be frequent and regular.
The accuracyofbent parts is critical for
achievingthe accuraciesspecifredfor assem-
blies. Inaccurately bent parts are frequently
forced to frt and are the sourcesof internal
stresseswhich causedeformationwhen weld-
ing. Thus, all curved shell parts should be
checked,using sightline templates and other
information providedby loftsmento establish
for each plate as required:
. degreesofinclination for setting the
templates
. matchesof the plate edgeswith seam
marks on the templates
. clearancesbetweenthe template edges
and plate surfaces
r transverse and longitudinal curvatures
o twisting
o straightness of the sightline (seeFigure
8-17)
Analogous techniques and checks apply to
other parts, such as twisted longitudinals.
3.3.2. Subassembly.Typically, the fit of stiff-
eners,brackets, and faceplates,such as on a
web plate, and how to prevent and,/ordeal
with deformation and shrinkage caused by
welding, are important for A,/Cof subassem-
blies. Therefore, measuring activity during
subassemblyshould concentrateon checking
frtting dimensions,checkingfor deformation
 S H I PP R O D U C T I O N

<) fl:,
: 11()Nr
MA rr DeC-{-

-\
\,

c><' ,.,
o

uJ f<,t,s

Fig. 8-16.Accuracycontrolchecksheet.

Fig. 8-17.Sight line templatesfor checkingcurved
plate accuracy.
and shrinkage by using a reference line on a
web plate and,/or a straight edge of the web
plate, and measuring other dimensions as
indicated on a check sheet.
3.3.3. Block Assembly. Achieving specified ac-
curacy in an assembled block is most impor-
tant, because the block assembly process
offers the last opportunity to deal with vari-
ations that otherwise have to be considered
during erection. Regardless of their shapes,
blocks are categorized by the panel (flat or
curved) on which they are assembled. Typi-
cally, the former are assembled on flat plat-
ens and the latter on pin jigs. Measurement
methods for the two types are necessarily
different. Flat block check sheets should in-
clude the following requirements:
. measurements of width, length, and
diagonals to be made just after the
base panel is assembled
o twisting
o locations of subassemblies and internal
parts fitted after the base panel is
completed
. special measurements to check unique
aspects offlat blocks which incorporate
some curved shell (see Fizure 8-18)
ACCURACYCONTROL 339
*';rl
',1'1".,/
Fig. 8-18. Vital dimensions on a flat block which
incorporates some cur-ved shell.
Curved block checksheetsshouldinclude the
following requirements:
. measurementsto checkguides for
preciselylocating curved plates for
a basepanel on a pin jig
. measurementsof width, length,
diagonals,and chord lengths to be
madejust after a base panel is
assembled
. use of marked steel tapes prepared
by loftsmen for checkingassembly
finish marking, i.e., the locations
of subassembliesand internal parts
on a curved panel
. means to verify the fitting angle of
internal structure
o instructions on how to detect and
correct deformationcausedby
welding
. meticulouscheckingof required
dimensionsbetweenpanel edges
and the edgesofinternal structure,
particularly near erectionjoints
3.3.4.HullErection.During the erectionstage,
the object is to at least achieveend product
accuracy standards specified by regulatory
societiesand ownersfor hull depth, breadth,
 340 SHIPPRODUCTION

MEASUREMENT DATE

,,1
WxH N o v .1 8
BOTTOM N o v .17
Tlme 9 : 3 0a . m
Temp. 16"C

+ts)

200 mm betow
boltom line

l2o7) (203) (212') (20s)

-7 -3 -2 -5

Fig. 8-19.Accuracycontrol measurementsduring erection.

length, and straightness.A,/Cpersonnelmoni- check sheet instructions during the entire

tor vital points and dimensions by meas- period between keel laying and launch (see
uring and recording periodically, based on Figure 8-19).

4. Evaluating
SystematizedA/C analysis and feedbacken-
sures that experiencesand lessonslearned
are acquired by the organization and trans-
lated into improved productivity. As work
progresses,all results from checksheetsand
reported accuracyproblemsare analyzedbe-
fore they are sent to cognizantorganizational
divisions. The evaluations include analysis
and recommendationswhich, as shown in
Figure 8-20, are performed on either a regu-
lar or an urgent basis.
4.'1.RegularAnalysis
If an analysisdiscloses
an apparent
areafor
improvement, an NC engineer pursues one
or more typical options as follows:
. more detailed investigation of
the data
o investigation of instruments used
for measuring
. verification of alignment of facilities
such as platens for flat block assembly
and cribbing for erection
. review of work methods
. study of specifiedamounts of excess
Workers perform self-checksdaily to ensure
compliancewith accuracy standards. These
are again checkedand reesrdedby their work
leaders.
Propcrly
collcctod
drta,evonif all
measurements are within accuracy stand_
ards, are used to identify the characteristrcs
 ACCURACYCONTROL 341

CHECK
SHEET
VARTATION
REPORT
MAKE
SKETCH

C A L L U R G E N TM € E T I N G O A T AA N A L Y S I S

I N V E S T I G A TC
EA U S E . M A K € G R A P HF O R
OF VARIATION E A C HS H O P
. I S S U EA N A L Y S I SR € P O R T :
PART FAB & SUB.BLK
ASSEM (MONTHLY);8LK
A S S E M & E R E C T( A T E N O )

METHOD MONTHLY
IMPROVE'T VARIATION
REPORT

D E C I D EC O U N I E R i , , I E A S U R E
F O R V A R I A T I O NA N D
I T ST F E N D

Fig. 8-20.Accuracycontrolinformationflows.

and tendenciesofvariations. Suchknowledge . whether suffrcientwork instructions

Ieads to further improvement in production were provided
processes.
Feedbackof analyzedA,/Cdata is vital be- 4.1.1. Analysisof Mean Value.For most work
causeit encouragesplanners to review items processes,the mean value for variations is
such as: planned to be zero. If the actual mean value
differs from zero, it should be changed to
. whether schemesfor amounts of excess, match results of the work process,or the
vital points,and dimensions,etc.,were work processshould be changedto yield the
satisfactory planned mean value (zero).This mean value
. whether block divisions and shell is the grand mean that is used as the center-
straking were optimum Iine on the i control chart, and not the mean
. whether work processstandardswere of one or a few random samples.The following
suitable examplesapply:
342 SHIPPRoDUcTIoN
. Example 1: Consider a particular
dimension for panels, such as for a
longitudinal bulkhead under a 1,anktop,
which were cut with some allowance for
shrinkage. After welding during sub-
assembly work, the grand mean value
of the dimension was determined to be
negative; i.e., some shortage exists
compared to the planned zero value.
Analysis: Check kerf compensation; if
sufficient, the allowance for shrinkage
was too small.
Remedy: Add the absolute mean value
to the previously planned allowance
for shrinkage.
. Example 2.' Near the end of flat block
assembly, checking discloses that plates
in tank top panels are deformed at
their centers with a mean value of
t/2 inch.
Analysis: Check the level of the platen
on which the flat blocks were assem-
bled.
Remedy: If the platen is trre, improve
the assembly work processes;e.g.,
apply pre-tensioning or change weld
sequences.
4.1.2. Analysis of Standard Deviation Stan-
dard deviation is significant for a number of
reasons. It provides the linkage between the
accuracies of earlier work processes and the
accuracy ofa final process, through the theo-
rem of addition of variance. Without this
relationship, analytical A,/C does not exist.
During analysis, A,/C engineers should watch
for a change or shift in the standard deviation
for each work process. Such behavior could
indicate that something about how a work
process is executed has changed. Many rea-
sons exist, including a worker perfecting a
better technique which should be adopted by
others, and erratic operation ofor deteriorat-
ing machinery.
. Example: The standard deviation for
the length of manually fabricated
longitudinals suddenly increases,
decreases, or shifts.
Analysis: Examine how and by whom
the longitudinals were fabricated.
Methods, particularly sequences,
should be thoroughly analyzed.
Remedy: There could be many solutiorrs,
dependent upon results ofthe detailed
analysis. One shipyard's response was
to frnish cut longitudinals before
bending, i.e., eliminate end margins
to permit grasping for bending at
the ends. Following the mechanical
bending process,line heating was
introduced to bend the finish cut
ends. Accuracy was improved (the
standard deviation was reduced) and
the wasteful margins were eliminated.
4.1.3. Sefting Accuracy Standards. Data analy-
sis quantitatively sets accuracy standards. For
example, when erection joints are aligned,
the achieved distribution of gap variations
will, at the extremities of the distribution,
show requirements for rework:
r cutting where a gap is too small or
negative
. back strip welding or building on an
edge where there is too much gap
As shown in Figure 8-21, when Gu is less than
0, minimal material is cut off to achieve the
gap G., because it is cheaper to retain as
much of the original material as possible.
When Gu is more than 0, a minimal amount
is built up to achieve the gap G*, because the
build-up process is expensive. Thus, Gn is
always smaller than G-.
The condition for avoiding rework is:
Gn< Gu < G*
Therefore, by definition the lower tolerance
limit is G, and the upper tolerance limit is
G-. A standard range to be used as a goal for
improving Gu can be established accordingly
(see Figure 8-22).
 ACCURACYCONTROL 343

4.1.4. Modifying Distributions. Consider tradi-

tional rework for adjusting erection gaps.
Cutting dominates, because costs for cutting
are generally less per lineal foot than for back
strip welding. The mean value of the perti-
nent distribution ofgap variations favors the
lower tolerance limit accordingly. Figure 8-23
ca = initialgap
shows this intentional bias and also shows Gn = gap afler reworkby gas cutling
the impact of shifting the mean value toward Gw = gap alter reworkby back slrip welding

the upper tolerance limit. Because of the

nature of normal distributions, the nominal Fig. 8-21.Analysis of rework at block weldings
increase in back strip welding is overwhelm-
ingly offset by the substantial decrease in
cutting required. Further, the prospects for
exceeding the lower tolerance limit are re-
duced. Thus, analytically derived goals pro-
posed by A/C engineers are based on actual
data as collected and analyzed.
When an A,/C system is implemented,
operations managers benefit from detailed
reports of productivity during hull erection.
I STANDARD
l.<+l
The reports relate total lengths ofgas cutting I FIANGE I

and back strip welding to the total lengths of

erection gaps. In a typical report for erection
of a 167,000 DWT bulk carrier (see Figure
8-24), rework was required only for 32.6 per-
cent oftotal gap lengths. The data specifying
rework at erection are sufficiently detailed to
permit the initiation of process analysis.
4.1.5. Sequence for Analysis. Ongoing review
ofaccuracy standards data is very important.
The following procedure for analysis of data
obtained during flat block assembly is typical:
. prepare separate histograms of vari-
ations for each characteristic, such as
length, width, etc. (see Figure 8-25)
. c a l c u l a t et h e m e a n v a l u e ,i , a n d s t a n -
dard deviation, o, for each characteristic
. use each standard deviation to deter-
mine how the data conform to the
pertinent standard range (define
standard range as i t 2or
. when the data for a characteristic d<-r
not conform with the standard range
Gn = lowerlolerancelimit
Gw = uppertolerancelimit
Fis. 8-22. Normal distribution of erection ioint
gap
(i t Zo means conformance with 95 per-
cent probability), A/C engineers confrrrn
that the standard range is appropriate,
investigate, and make necessary recom-
mendations, such as adjusting excess
allowance, changing methods, or sup-
plementing worker training, or, alter-
natively, they may propose changes
in the standard range which do not
affect end product tolerances
4.2.UrgentAnalysis
In shipbuilding, it is not possible to com-
pletely eliminate variations which require re-
work. Moreover, no one can predict exactly
when they will occur.Disruption is caused
by the effectsof such things as errors, acci-
dents,and weather abnormalities,which dif-
 344 SHIPPRODUCTION

fer from variations becausetheir occurrences
do not adhere to normal distributions. De-
spite their erratic nature, they too require
organized responsesand analysesto identi$'
short-term or temporary solutions which mini-
mize disruptions, and to subsequentlyachieve
permanent meansto prevent recurrence.The
feedbackpath for these urgent considerations
is included in Figure B-20.
A possiblepreplannedresponseto a seri-
ous inaccuracy is to immediately summon
LOWER UPPER
TOLERANCE
LIMIT
TOLERANCE
LIMIT
XO X1
to is the mean ol an original distribulion.
ir is lhe mean ol a DroDoseddistribution.
Obtaining a diflerent balance ol cuntnq vs. back striD
welding requtres reduciion In Ihe specllied amount ot excess
by lhe sme amount as lor the shitt in mean value_
Fig. 8-23. Shifting an erectionjoint gap distribu-
tion to control the type ofrework required.
select personnel who are familiar with the
principles of A/C. This troubleshootingteam
ofspecialistsfor planning, executing,and eval-
uating meets where the inaccuracy exists to
examine the evidencefrrsthand. Their job is
to evaluate impact on work flow, recommend
what, how, and when rework is to take place,
minimize disruption, and collectevidencefor
identifying the cause.After taking temporary
countermeasuresfor quickly restoring work
flow, investigationscontinue for the purpose
of devising permanent solutions.
4.3.Control
Controls which assure that achieved accu-
racy conformswith an A/C plan for construc-
tion are important. They are classifiedas reg-
ular or special.
Becauseof the many different parts and
subassembliesrequired, regular controls are
applied to repetitive work processes.Typical
regular control items in an ongoingA/C pro-
gram, including their measurementfrequen-
cies, sample sizes, and standard deviations,
are listed in Figure 8-26. Control charts for
such regular usage were shown in Figure
8-3. Such charts are maintained bv A/C

ANALYSIS
REPORTFORHULLERECTION
EreclionGap
Lenglh(M) "k
ry!94f/.)
1,548.2
3 1i
797.8
lo 32.1
324.0 5.2 54.8
431.8 4.0 103
1.453.7 7.O 30.7
4,883.7 j?6
5.5 ,

Gas cuttrng Gas cut When surpluswas 3 mm or more

Back strip weld When gap was 5 mm or more too wide
B a c k r n gs l n p w e l d r n g
/+5 14 Len9th............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2. .8. 1
.M. . . . .
desrgnalessurplusof 5mm over 4m tength
10 t Breadth........... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.8. .M
.......
desrgnatesgap ot 10mm over 4 m tength
Oepth.............. .............2
. .8. ...2. M
...

2 / o D e a dW e i g h t . . . . . . . . . 1. .6. 7 , 5 0T0o n s
rnorcators L a u n c nIn 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . .A. .p t n1 2 , 1 9 7 7

Fig. 8-24(a).Hull erectionrework analysis and report (continuedin Fig. 8-24(b)through (d))
 ACCURACYCONTROL 345

BOTTOMAND SIDESHELL

rll
A9

a?

+6
le4
l=5

DOUBLEBOTTOM

t 3/

L
I
DC33
0s 32
DC32 o c3 l
D zE!
i,
a
{. P
*J
3
2/
r
a
z

A9
-+a .\ 0l
3\
0s3l l
\,1
tr'io R-94(ht
346 sHrPPRoDUCTToN

?. EG EG EG EG EG E6r
E9 r l r l r

t1 s5 s7 s9

+, +! rrt 0 a o o ?
I _ l f \ f \
t. F.g1 ", t : 6 1 V s G 6/ s / ( sG8 /' 3' ;.1i / o
-? +3
.+3
t.5
\

t23

i,', o,
P t 0 \ o or. +r
,:3
t 3 \ ,. {'
+5 2/ br{ 6 \ 7
t.2
t / \ttr d o/ o 6s' 5/
E
^" B C 6 1 BCt oro. o\a
/ B C or ' .
2 3\
P \ \ ' /o /2
1 T I q + 4 d +3
E2 d t.7 /
BC3 8C5 3.
tJVJ BC9
2 o ^ A o e 4 .
a a\ t ,o 3.' ^ 3 r

3 o' 2 +3 A +3
t.5 o/l t.3 t29 o
{rt
t.6

K \ ina \ o-. 1 o : \ 8 : /:45 \ 6- l : r \ O

1

\ ( b ' l / d\s d
t.9 t.5

s4 s6 s8

EU
tru EG EG EG EG EG

o- o. { \o {
pf 2\ t r1 t\o. 't z\ I
) \ .o /l l. or
'----7-
i3
ttJ
i-z
V *,-.' \; t.l I v D 9 o ,
D3
I os
', , 2 q t\ ,a o.

Fig.8-24(c)
 ACCURACYCONTROL 347

FSI5

gJ52F
t;l
sL52
35

a Y -+6

2 .j. u 6\ Pr L to ,r? q \
: -*'
DI5F

Al! \ f-2
Dl5A
oll 013
-?+16
0\ ) 2

Fig.8-24(d).
 348 SHIPPRODUCTION

11 = 146
i = -0.33
o = 1.86
X a 20: -4.05- +3.39

4 2 0 N= 150
o i = -0.95
o = 2.19
I r n I a 20: -5.33-+3.43

Squareness .150
N =
I = 1.61
5 2 0 o = 1.09
, + 20:3.79
E
4
10

N = .150
i = 4.43
o = 3.05
i + 2o:10.53

Fig. 8-25. Histograms of variations of different characteristics.

engineers for production control purposes. each such control chart is postedat its respec-
Once peoplebecomeused to them, they pro- tive work station.
vide guidance to everyoneconcerrred,includ- Specialcontrolsare basedupon the accu-
ing workers and their supervisors.Therefore, racy conditionof a hull upon completion.Nec-

r
t

essary vital points are defrnedand included
in the A/C plan for a specified hull. When
the hull is completed,members of the A/C
group accumulate and analyze measurements
that relate to predetermined vital dimen-
sions. They look for accuracy trends which
should be modifred for further productivity
improvements.
Statistically derived data which predict
variations in block edges are not sufficient
for depicting the actual status ofeach block.
Erection planners are concernedwith how
the exact dimensions and confrguration of
every block comparewith designdimensions.
A position-dimensiondiagram (P/D) satisfres
this need (seeFigure 8-27).This information
is neededto developvariation tables, which
are usedto determine where gascutting and/or
back strip welding is required (see Figure
8-28). Similar information, for the end posi-
tions of girders and longitudinals, is also
5. Applications
5 . 1 .D e s i g n
The hull block construction method devel-
oped naturally following the introduction of
welding. Some shipbuilders changedtheir
organizationofstructural drawings to suit.
Appropriate drawing titles evolved,such as
block erectionplan, block assemblyplan, sub-
assemblyplan, and parts cutting plan. These
are more than traditional detail designdraw-
ings, becausethey associateclassifrcationsof
parts and assemblieswith specifrcmanufac-
turing levelsin production.They are, to some
degree,work instruction drawings.
Design and material defrnition should be
regarded as aspectsof planning, and draw-
ings should be further developedas virtually
complete work instructions, including A/C
work. Checking and recording should be
clearly delineatedas productionwork, just as
much as marking, cutting, fitting, etc. By
including A"/Crequirements, particularly vi-
tal points and dimensions and excessallow-
ACCURACYCONTROL 349
prepared for the same purpose (see Figure
8-29). Each P/D assumesthat the rectangu-
larity and overall dimensions and shape of
the panel on which the block is assembled
are within specifiedtolerance limits. The
validity of P/D's also depends on confor-
mance of control items such as those listed
in Figure 8-26.
Effectivecontrol ofaccuracyis dependent
on proper understanding of variation-merg-
ing equations such as those given in Figure
8-14. Too much focus on a merged variation,
Z, is not worthwhile. It is more important to
focuson each factor on the right side ofeach
equation.If thesefactorsare sufficiently con-
trolled, nominal checkswill suffrceto confirm
each merged variation. Someof these nomi-
nal checks,usually random samples,are use-
ful for balancingalternatives suchas gas cut-
ting versus back strip welding, as shown in
Figures 8-21 through 8-23.
ances,excessesare adequatelyconsideredand
are consistentlyapplied,and the potential for
human error is reduced.Loft, parts fabrica-
tion, and assemblyworkers no longer have
to refer to separately prepared A./Crequire-
ments or dependupon recollections.
5.2. Mold Loft
Strictly speaking, loft processesshould be
subject to the same A,/Cscrutiny as marking
and cutting in a parts fabrication shop.How-
ever, mold loft process variations are too
small to significantly affect merged variation
during parts fabrication.But loft errors (mis-
takes, omissions,etc.) are ofconcernbecause
they disrupt the A,/Ccycle.
Errors cannot be treated with classical
A/C theory, since they do not enter into vari-
ation-merging equations.Therefore,for A./C
purposes,written proceduresshould be de-
velopedto addressthe classificationoferrors
and methodsfor checking,recording,and ana-
 350 SHIPPRODUCTION

lyzing them. Further, qualifredpeopleshould and other information formats shouldinclude

be assignedas specialiststo do the checking.
Loft error lists and graphic representations
offrequency ofoccurrenceare control mecha-
nisms that can be used (seeFigure 8-30).
The mold loft should be regarded as a
nucleus for A/C activities, becauseit gener-
ates most of what is used to achieve and
maintain a specifieddegreeof accuracy.Loft
processesfor producingN/C data, templates,
essentialA,/Crequirements, such as:
. locationsofvital points
. calculatedvital dimensions
o calculatedspecialdimensionsthat
facilitate assemblyand checkingwork
. referencelines and checkpoints
r adequatemarks for layout marking
(while most are su{ficient for snapping

Conlrol llem
T e m pl at e
Production

Part Cultrng Plate by Ftame

Fabrication
Cutling Plate by Flame
P l m r . S t r a i g h l n e ss Day
Finish MarkrngPlale

Finish Marking Plate

Bevel Angle for Auto Weldet

Accuracv ol Curved plal

Culting Accuracy of Internals

e.9., Floor cirder in a Doubte Boil

Sub-Block Accuracy ol Fittinq Stiitener

A s s e mb l y

Accuracy ol Ftiling Faceplale

Block
Assembly

Position of Tiansvefse End

Accuracy ol Curved Sheil Web

Cutued Shell Plate-Width

Curyed Shell Plale.Reterence line

Fig. 8-26. Regular control items.

I
 ACCURACYCONTROL 351

P - DD I A G R A M

10

-2

-6

10

-2

-4

-6

,8

Fig. 8-2'7.Position dimension diagram.

I
 352 SHIPPRODUCTION

+5 +5

l,rSa
1 3S 4 r2s4 ils4
+f
P S.t 9 S.t
+2
8S4 7S4 6S4 5S4 II
15s4 +3 +J +2 r l t l l-
, 2 + ? {:
r 6s 4 -{ 13s3 1 2s 3 ils3 K)s3 953 853 7S3 6S3 5S3
r5s3 14s3
+ l +3 +2 +2 + l
+? +2 +f +f +? +3 + l +2 + 3
f 3 + 'f . + .a +: + E { + : 13 -0( +2 'rl
r652 t 5 s2 14S2 t 3 s2 t?s2 ils2 tos2
l
952
{
7 S2
-l "
4l o5s
8S2 652 z*'
+2 +! +? o o - l +3 + l +? {2 +3
+? o + l - l +6 +2 +a
t6sl rf,st KSI t 3 5| l2Sl n ilsl OSI +r 9Sl 7Sl 6Slo
8 Sl 3Sl+t
- t + t -2 - l +2 t - l +a
'a *t ., +z +e +l -? +l i l +2 +J +l
f J + l { +? 1 3 + -J i5 +a -l ogs tt
t 6s 2 t3S2 14s2 sse ,?s? il s? tos2 9S2 8S2 7S? 6S2 2
al + l +? + l +l +l + l * l +3 + l
+t " J + l +2 + J +J
l5s3 t.sl '.1 +i 4
t6sa *t 13sJ r2s3 l rs 3 rosl 953 833 7S3 5S3 3S 3
-
t5sa +3 +a +2
r3rl +J +2
13S4 t?54 il stl r0s4 9S. I S.l 7S4 654 5Sa |..
+6 +a t
s
M e a s u r e m e n tm a d e a l t e r b l o c k a s s e m b l y
F i g u r e s i n d l c a t e v a r i a t i o n sf r o m d e s i o n

Fig. 8-28. Block overall dimensionvariation report to be used to plan erections.

#* r0
0l b '
i!: I
o2
A
o

0
t
03
A
o
b
I F
04 I

I
0S
A
o
b
0 F
06
A
o
b
I ?
0

9 o 0 0 o 0 0 + 2 + 2 0 o o o 0 0 0
Gif. 8 o o 0 + l - l - l o o o
0 o i 5 o 0 0
7 0 + l + l I o 0 0 0 + t 0 0 o 0 - 2 o +
6 + l + l 0 0 o I - l - l
0 o o +
3 0 + l | l r O o 0 + l t 5 0.5 - l
o o I +
6ir. 4 o + l o 0 o 0 o.l 0 + l 0 + l + l - l - l 0 f
3 o + t o 0 + l - l
0 0 - l 0 +
2 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 + l 0 0 0 - l
Gi?. I o f l + + l o 0 t l o 0 + 3
t l 0 0
tr - l 0 + l t 0 0 o + 2+ ? + l + l 0 ?
6ir. I -2 - l - 2
+ l - l - l 2 + l + l 0 o - l rr+
2 0 + l - l 0 + 2 + l - t r 0 0 o l o
3 n 0.5 0 - l - t ( + +
Gir. 4 o 0 r-0.5 '0. ? o 0 + l f l + l 0 r+2
5 + l + l - l
o 0 o I 0 0(+
6 0 0 0 + l - l - l o - 2 n ? l + l 0r+ I
7 o 0 ? l o o 0 o f + 3
Gir. I 0 0 + 2 +2 0 0 0 0 0 o
9 0 o 0i o O t + ? o 0 0 0
t0
oJr cmREcTr(/t

ffi[!t'+nl]8:"^-,

cndposition
Fig6 29.Longttudinrl ropoLt
t0bousud
i'plu'urec[io'.

r

a chalk line, there is difficulty in
identifying which marks associate
with each other)
. excessalready incorporated(A/C is
enhancedwhen workers do not have to
separatelymark an excessallowance)
. bridgrng instructions to minimize war-
page and shrinkage during gas cutting
5.3. ProductionControl
If only the termsports fabrication, subassem-
bly, and block assemblyare codedin a mark-
ing system for interim products,it is difficult
to relate a breakdownofvital points to a break-
down of a hull into interim products. Furbher
classification of such products should be in-
cluded in a marking system, so that each in-
terim product has a unique identity lsy zonel
problem area./stage.In other words, a fully
developedproduct-orientedwork breakdown
structure is essential for effectiveA/C plan-
ning, executing,and evaluating.
Product orientation enablesdesignersto
respond more readily to production control
requirements for work instmctions. The latter
are more than just detail drawings, because
they define interim products and specifrcse-
quencesfor their manufacture. Organizing in-
formation by product helps designersto more
readily respondto A/C requirements,includ-
ing tolerance limits and vital points in work
instructions. Work instructions are the most
universally used documents.Therefore,pro-
viding such information in work instructions
facilitates mutual understanding of A,/Cre-
quirements and more effrcient execution by
loft, parts fabrication, and assembly work-
ers, as well as by personnelwith A,/Crespon-
sibilities.
In addition, product orientation permits
sufficient classificationof the many part and
subassembly geometries to relate them to
specific work processes.This associationis
critical for obtaining valid A/C data. Other-
wise, work circumstancesare insuffrciently
controlled,and virtually no data sample will
--
a*
I
I
I
I
I
ACCURACYCONTROL 353
approximate a normal distribution. Quanti-
tative A/C techniques would, therefore, not
be applicable.
5.4. PartsFabrication
N/C gas cutting is almost universally applied
by shipbuilders,but there are still situations
where semiautomaticcutters are useful sup-
plementsto N/C installations. More variation
is probable in a semiautomatic process,and
thereforeA,/Crequirements should be differ-
ent. However, there are common considera-
tions when accuracyperformancesneedto be
enhanced. Human engineering aspects ap-
ply, even for very advanced N/C systems.
Shrinkage allowances should be specified
differently for different part classifrcations,
such as parallel edgepart, internal part, etc.
Kerf tolerances should be specifred.Main-
tenanceand accuracychecks,more compli-
cated for an N/C machine, should be per-
formed regularly and frequently. Worn torch
tips should be replaced and others cleaned.
As heat deformationproblemshave not been
totally solved,measurement data should be
accumulatedon the effect of various cutting
sequences,bridge restraints, etc. A/C engi-
neersshouldbe alert for cutting alternatives,
such as lasers,which can be focusedand can
perform with narrower kerfs, lessheat input,
and thus less shrinkase and distortion.
5.5.Subassembly
Methods to control deformation,such as pre-
tensioning, preheating, and specifyingweld-
ing sequencesshouldbe practiced.Regarding
shrinkage, consider the panel for the sub-
assemblyshown in Figure 8-31. When the
large plate is gas cut, shrinkage 41 occurs,be-
causeno bridges were provided acrossthe cut-
outs. Additional shrinkage 12 occurs when
the large plate is welded to the small plate.
Without a shrinkage allowance,the combined
shrinkage A1 + 42 could necessitaterework,
such as making the cutouts deeper during
block assembly.
354 SHIPPRODUCTION

@
I
()
d
L

I
g
@
f
U
!

NO N,4ABKS
OF PAFTS

A C C U M U L A T EFDR E O U E N C Y
MONTHLY
FREQUENCY

..--'1"---y
14 tE t9 t6 26 1 9 1 1 2 8 3 t 6 ? 2
tu) (3t) (671 (93) (f 12) (t231 ltz7l fl l5) (t4ol (t561 (t,8t

Fig. 8-30. Mold loft error list and frequencychart.


To overcomesuchshrinkage,the two plates
should be welded before gas cutting, bridges
should be used acrosscutouts, all stiffeners
and faceplatesshould be frtted to the web be-
fore welding commences,and welding should
conform to a prescribed sequence.Further,
deformation such as that causedby welding
should be diminished by pretensioning and/
or removedby line heating.
Fitting processesfor subassembly are
mainly performed manually. Where A/C is on-
going, there is close associationbetween su-
pervision of subassemblywork and the A/C
engineer assignedto the subassemblysection.
In a small shipyard, the A/C engineermight be
assignedto the hull construction department.
Becauseof preoccupationwith variations in
each work processand how they merge, the
A,/C engineer readily detects situations where
simple jigs enhanceboth accuracyand pro-
ductivity. Many suchjigs should be used.
5.6.BlockAssembly
All of the preceding suggestionsfor subas-
semblyshould alsobe appliedin block assem-
bly. During this stage, becauseit is just be-
fore erection, checking for accuracy is very
critical. The checksshould include alignments
of platen and pin jig foundations and means
for positioningplates to form the panelsupon
which blocks will be assembled.For curved
blocks, pin jig heights should be checked.
After a curved panel is assembled,marked,
checked,and frnish cut, the positions of its
curved edges should be carefully checked.
Further, simplejigs should be used to fix end
positions of longitudinals and their angle of
inclination.
5.7. Standardization
Standardsimply conservatism.Quite the op-
posite is true for A/C matters. A standard is
simply a description of an authorized and
currently practicedconditionwhich is a base-
line for comparing proposedimprovements.
ACCURACYCONTROL 35s
M e a s u r e da l t e r g a s
cuttrng
11:i""J:Ll^1"'
Fig. 8-31. Weld shrinkage analysis based on work
sequences.
Thus, standards are a means for a shipyard,
as an entity, to know what it is doing and
where it is going in shipbuilding technology
matters. Adequate standards, in numbers
and content, and suflicient specialiststo mod-
ify, create, and cancel standards, are neces-
sary for continuouslyimproving productiv-
ity. Many shipbuilding problemscan be solved
by developingstandardsfor accuracy,excess
and shrinkage allowances,work flows, and
work processes.
5.8. AccuracyStandards
Becauseaccuracystandardsare expressedas
both standard ranges of accuracy normally
encountered and tolerance limits beyond
which rework is required, they can describea
shipyard'spotential for complyingwith toler-
ancesspecifredfor end products.
Just as much as accuracystandards are
baselinesfor evaluating proposalsto improve
productivity, they are baselinesfor improv-
ing accuracyin an end product. If accuracy
standards and an ongoing A,/Corganization
which supportsthem are approvedby a clas-
sification society,reapprovalsfor additional
ship constructionare usually unnecessary.
356 sHrPPRoDUcloN

5.9. Excessand ShrinkageAllowance sameheat input, during subsequentwelding.

Standards Thus, the pertinent data that shipbuilders
Excessis an essential conceptfor successful collect should be classifredto match one or
application of A/C to hull construction proc- more of the four assembly alternatives de-
esses.However,the amounts shouldbe based picted in Figure B-33.
on analyses of actual data which reflect the
5.9.2.Elementsof ShrinkageAllowance.Shrink-
shipyard's experience.Statistically derived
age allowanceis required to maintain the spe-
excessstandardsare basedon the probability
cifredshapeand dimensionsat hull erection.
that, for a high percentage,no rework will be
The amount of shrinkage allowance for gas
required.Thus, applying excessis an attempt
cutting, welding, and,/orline heating should
to compensateexactly for normal variations
be derived from data collectedduring ship-
causedby work processeswhich lead to vari-
yard operations.Shrinkage allowance is re-
ations in joint gaps to be welded during erec-
quired for the following operations(seeFig-
tion. There must be understanding that a
ure 8-32):
small percentagewill require rework by gas
cutting and,/orback strip welding. . fillet welding internal membersto shell
Excessis generallythought of as a means plates (A), where shrinkage occursin
for extending the edge of a plate to compen- the direction normal to the welding line
sate for shrinkage. However, its use else- . removing welding-induceddistortion
where should be specified,such as for facili- by line heating after assemblywork
tating the fit of stiffeners between longitudi- (B), such as removing opposite-side
nals (seeFigure 8-6). indentations causedby frllet welding
internal members,shrinkage occurs
5.9.1. Ways to DistributeExcess versus As- in the direction normal to the heating
semblySequences.Sequencesfor assembling lines
a block, consisting of a panel stiffened by . welding plates to form the panel on
longitudinals and webs, can be classifredas which a block is assembled(E)
"egg crate" or "weld longitudinals r frllet welding stiffeners (flat bars and
to panel
first." The work sequencesare different, as brackets)to internal members such as
shown in Figure 8-32. Thus, the shrinkages a web plate (a)
causedby welding are sequenceddifferently. o line heating on subassemblies,such
This is important, becauserestraints are dif- as webs,to removethe indentations
ferent, the heat input for different welds var- causedby welding (b)
ies, and regionsthat have beenshrunk before . welding plates of internal members
do not shrink the same amount, even for the such as webs(E)

"EGG-CRATE" .WELDLONGITUDINALS
WORKSEOUENCE TO PANELFIRST'WORKSEQUENCE

'1. Panel
Assembly(E)
2. PanelMarking
3. Egg-crateAssembly(a,b,e)
4. Egg-crateto PanelWelding(A)
5. Line Heating(B) if necessary
1. PanelAssembly(E)
2. PanelMarking
3. Longitudinalsto PanelWelding(A)
4. Other-inlernalsWelding (A,a,b,e)
5. Line Heating(B) if necessary

Fig. 8-32.Alternative assemblysequences.


EXCESS ASSEMBLY
DISTRIBUTION SEQUENCE
O n l yA t P a n e l Egg-crate
Edges
W e l d L o n g i t u d i n a lTso
P a n e lF i r s t
Proportionally Egg-crate
Throughout
W e l d L o n g i t u d i n a lTso
P a n e lF i r s t
Fig.8-33.Excessdistributionmustbedetermined
for eachalternativeassemblysequence.
Shrinkage allowanceis also required to com-
pensate for welding and line heating other
miscellaneous interim products, including
parts, blocksofspecialshape,etc.
5.9.3. Ways to DistributeExcess.There are two
practical ways to predict the excessneeded
to offset shrinkage as describedin the fore-
going:
o provide excessamounts only at edges
ofa block without regard for appor-
tioning excessbetweenblock internals,
causing the final positions of the inter-
nals to be different from the specified
design (the dimensionsneededfor
layout are readily obtained from
design drawings)
o distribute excessproportionally, taking
into accountshrinkage rates expected
to be causedby each work processand
the relative spacingofblock internals
from eachother and panel edges,which
requires recalculating the dimensions
neededfor layout, but producesfinal
positions of internals that more
accurately conform with design
5.9.4.Standardsfor Work Processesand lnfor-
mationFlow.To establisheffectivestandards,
the role of each parts fabrication shop and
assembly section must be carefully reviewed
r-
II
t
I
ACCURACYCONTROL 357
for its impact on productionprocessflow. The
inputs and outputs ofeach should be clearly
defined and consistentwith a single A/C sys-
tem. In other words, everything on the right
side of the variation-merging equation must
be compatibleto obtain the best productivity
for the entire hull construction process.
There cannot be dependenceon merely
parochialknowledge.Written work processes
that relate to each other are essential for
achieving specified accuraciesand uniform
flows of work and information. Standard pro-
cessesalso make it easierto changejobs and
are a great aid for training. When a process
standard is revised to incorporate an improve-
ment, others related to it should be reviewed
and./orrevised as necessary.
The following guidance applies to stan-
dards which should be established:
o standard practicesfor
-work instructions
-lofting
-parts fabrication (marking, gas
cutting, bending,line heating)
-subassembly
-block assembly
-shipwright work
-welding
o A,/Ccontentsof standards
-checkpoints
-dimensions to be checked
-checking methods
-tolerance limits
-checking proceduresfor jigs and
machinery
-feedback and remedial measures
. examplesof standards for flat block
assembly
-plate arrangement (positioning,
match mark)
-welding (misalignment,gap)
-panel marking (diagonallength,
width, straightness)
-hoies
358 SHIPPRODUCTION
. examplesof standards for curved
block assembly
-supporting jig (normality, height)
-plate arrangement (jig position)
-datum line for joining
-block marking (four edges,diagonals)
-holes
. examplesof standards for fitting
-elimination of welding bead rise
where internals crosspanel joints
-gas cutting (notch, roughness,check
line)
-position of end of web
-position of end of frame
-angle of internals relative to a panel
-collar plate fitting
-misalignment and gap where
internals join each other
. examplesof standards for grinding
-bead removal for rework
-bead removal to free temporary
fitting
. examplesof standards for line
heating
-block interface edges
- specified temperatures
-specified locations
-fairing
5.10.Measuring
Somevariations are inevitable due to differ-
encesin:
. measuring methods
r environments
. work circumstances
. readingjudgments, etc.
The results of analysis indicate that measur-
ing variations doesnot significantly contrib_
ute to mergedvariation. However,each ship_
yard should verify its own measuring capa-
bilities.
References
1. Chirillo, L.D., R.D. Chirillo, R.L. Storch,
and S. Nakanishi, ProcessA nalysisuia
Accuracy Control, National Shipbuilding
ResearchProgram, Maritime Administration
in cooperationwith Todd pacific Shipvards
Corp., February 1982.
2. Demming, W.E., "On SomeStatistical Aids
Toward EconomicProduction,,,Interfaces,
Vol. 5. No. 4, Augusr l97b.
3. Storch,R.L., and J.R. Gribskov,,,Accuracv
Controlfor U.S.Shipyards."Journat of Ship
Production, Vol. 1, No. 1, February 1gg5.
4. Storch,R.L., "AccuracyControl Variation-
Merging Equations:A CaseStudy of Their
Application in U.S. Shipyards,"Journal ol
ShipProduction,Yol. 1, No. 2, Mav t9g5.