This chapter deals with the laws and processes applicable to gases and mixtures of gases, The term gas will be used henceforth in the general sense and will also mean gas mixtures, The laws are dealt with first and these apply to any process or series of processes on a gas, The various common gas processes are then examined, and particular relationships valid for each process are developed. In all cases, a constant mass of gas is assumed, i.e. all the equations are valid for gases contained in a control-mass system. Care must be exercised in applying these equations to systems where there is a flow of gas involved—some of the equations may be valid, but some may not. The distinction should be clear from the derivation of each formula. 6.1 Perfect or ideal gases In deriving formulae, gases are assumed to be perfect or ideal, which basically means that the gas molecules are spaced at a sufficient distance apart so that they are completely independent of one another (except when a collision occurs). More precisely, a perfect gas is one in which (@)_the molecules of the gas itself occupy a negligible volume compared with the volume of the containing vessel; (b) the molecules are independent of one another except when a collision occurs between molecules; (C)_no energy is lost in a collision, which therefore results only in a redistribution of velocity between individual molecules; (@) any energy change in the molecules can only be a change in translational kinetic energy, ive. any energy transfers into or out of the gas result in a change in translational velocity only.* For a perfect gas, the specific heat capacity (at both constant pressure and constant volume) does not change with temperature or pressure, because the heat transferred to the gas results in a change only in translational kinetic energy of the molecules, and hence the temperature change will be directly proportional to the heat transferred, The assumption of perfect gas behaviour is a good approximation for many real gases except if * This does not preclude the gas from having other forms of energy (e.g. rotational). It does, however, preclude changes in these other energy forms. 142S- GASES 143 a complex molecular structure (because si has re the #28 ation of the molecules oecurs): nificant energy in the form of (2 oration oF Vir » ogg is close to. liquefaction either o the pea because in this case, the molecul highly compressed and/or at a low iles are close together, sis at a very high temperature, because dissociation and electron excitation may eg Yin ir which involves energy other than translational kinetic energy, © occur perfect gas behaviour is a reasonably good assumption for air and for most of the anonatemic ard diatomic Bases (except under conditions noted). It i not such @ good retmption for vapours, such as refrigerants and steam, whose properties. are usually aevained from property tables or charts, Steam and refrigerants are dealt with in separate chapters. 6.2 General gas equation for perfect gases teas shown in Example 2.4 that for a ga 2 out mvt PS "Ww For a constant mass of gas, it follows that e p= constant x 7 Now KE = Jmv’, and for a perfect gas, T « v’. Hence for a constant mass of perfect gas, tant x 5 p = constant x % pV gas equation (6.1) where pp = absolute pressure (Pa) V = volume (m’) T = absolute temperature (K) ¢ = aconstant . and the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to initial and final conditions respectively. Example 6.1 A mass of gas has volume 4 m” when the temperature is "sauge). Determine the volume of this mass of gas at norm: #0 101-3 kPa), 120°C and the pressure is 25 kPa al atmospheric conditions (20°C Solution Pi = 126-3kPa (25 + 101-3) y= 4m T, = 393K (120 + 273) Pr = 101-3 kPa T = 293K (20 + 273)144 HEAT ENGINEERING 6.3 Avogadro's law It has been verified experimentally that when gases (at the same conditions of temperature and pressure) combine chemically, the volumetric relationships between the gases and their products are always simple whole-number ratios, e.g. 2:1:2 and so on. The ratios never involve decimal numbers such as 1-654 or 2-364. This led to the conclusion known as ‘Avogadro's law (or hypothesis), named after its original discoverer. This law states that under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, equal volumes of all gases contain the same number of molecules. The ratios involved in the combination of gas volumes comes about because of the structure of the molecules and not because of the differing-number of them. For example, the ratio 2:1:2 occurs with the combustion of carbon monoxide because the chemical combination is 2CO + O2 — 2CO Avogadro's law may be stated in terms of mass rather than volume using the concept of the kilogram-mole which is the relative molecular mass (M) of any substance (not only gases) expressed in kilograms.* For example: a kg-mole of hydrogen = 2kg (Hz = 1 + 1) akg-mole of carbon = 12kg (C = 12) Using the kg-mole concept, Avogadro's law may be stated as follows: at the same temperature and pressure, a kg-mole mass of any gas has the same volume. This volume has been found by experiment to be(22-41 m? at 0°C and 10-3 KP; 6.4 Mass of a gas From Equation 6.1, py T Taking a kg-mole of gas at standard temperature and pressure, v 22-41 m’ (discovered experimentally) P = 101-325 x 10° Pa T = 273:15K “In physies and chemistry, the “gram-mole” or simply “mole” in grams, INS" gramemol’ or simply mole” is widely used, and isthe relative molecular massGASES 145 ng these values in the equation, substituting ¢ the constant ¢ may be dete is Sune the universal gas constant (Rs), and its accepted values 831 ate: ‘This constant is calfjence for M kg of Bas (a kg-mole), aa py oF = Ro ic ic ly toa jis equation applies only mass of M kg of gas. It can be B Trig valid for any mass of gas m kg, as follows: converted to an equation For M kg of gas: PY _ Ry 2. For 1 kg of gas: mRT general gas equation (6.2) Ro _ 8314 where Rie alene gas constant (6.3) p, Vand Thave meaning and units previously stated, and m= mass of gas (kg) M = relative molecular mass R = gas conistant (J/kg K) Notes (a) Equation 6.2 is also known as the equation of state or the characteristic gas equation and Ris often called the characteristic gas constant. (0) The relative molecular mass M is obtained from the relative atomic masses (given in Appendix 3) of the constituent elements of the gas, knowing the chemical formula for the gas. (©) Equations 6.1 and 6.2 are also valid for a gas mixture, provided the value of R is for 314 ; the gas mixture; ie. for a gas mixture, R = ee where M is the mean molecular mass of the gas mixture obtained from the ratio of the volumes of the constituents in the gas mixture. This is illustrated in Example 6.2. Equation 6.2 may also be written: py = RT or p= pRT (d Where p = 7 (density) ve Zz (specific volume)146 HEAT ENGINEERING Example 6.2 Determine the value of the characteristic gas constant for hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen ang air, Consider air as a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen only, consisting of 21% oxygen by volume. Solution For hydrogen Hi: M = 2 (1 + 1) (Appendix 3) R- Bld “3 = 4157 J/kg K For oxygen Ox: M = 32 (16 + 16) - pp — 8314 BR= 55 = 260 J/kg K For nitrogen No: M = 28 (14 + 14) 8314 3B 297 S/kgK For a gas mixture, the mean molecular mass is obtained from the ratio of volumes, Hence for air: oR= M = 32 0-21 + 28 x 0-79 = 28-84 . 8314 OR 3e84 = 288 J/kg k Note: The accepted value for air is 87 J/kg. Example 6.3 A compressed-air tank is a cylinder 300 mm in diameter and 2:5 m long. After filling, a pressure gauge fitted to the tank reads 1 MPa when the air temperature is 20°C. Calculate the mass of air in the tank. Solution Tank volume: = 2 Ve zxos x25 = 0177m* Absolute pressure: Absolute temperature: P=1X 10° + 101-3 x 10° T = 20 + 273 = 11013 x 106 Pa = 293KGASES 147 joc air = 287 S1KBK- eee mRT py p10L3 x 10° x 0-177 = "287 x 293 = bake aur Example 6.3 is all nk given in Example 6.3 is allowed to empty until Fi wate is 15°C, determine the mass of air thee scapes” Pressure is 101-3 kPa and the Soh = 101-3 kPa 101-3 x 10° Pa T= 15 + 273 288 K V icon Stam V2 = 0-177 m’ (same) R ov": R = 2875/keK ean “m= RE _ 101-3 x 10° x 0-177 > 387 x 288 = 022 kg Hence the mass of air that escapes is im, — mz = 2:32 ~ 0-22 210 kg Note; It is often useful to remember that the mass of 1 m’ of air at normal atmospheric conditions is 101-3 x 10° x 1 287 X 293 = 12kg That is, ar density is about 1-2 kg/m’. Compare this with water which has a density of 1000 kg/m’. m= 55 General gas equation for real gases FAY ca i roximates that of a perfect or ideal gas; this iis the aoe Ane RTS ten the assumptions made about the behaviour preter gases, it'can be seen that the perfect gas laws will be increasing'y inaceurate as ese temperature conditions approach those at which the gas wall liquefy. The WS are not applicable to situations in which mixed phases pi et gas Jay hi Phase change ig occurring.148 HEAT ENGINEERING ed to provide corrections for real gas behaviour. (1873), which provides @ correction for y° ¢ Many equations have been propos lecular forces: of the eatliest was the van der Waals Poe volume of the molecules themselves ant (r+ S)o- = 8F the particular gas. he virial equations of state, @ 1424$4... v v where a and 6 are constants fo are of the form Other equations, known as 1 P RT PY 1+ Bpt Cpt. R 3p are known as virial coefficients and depend upon the gas ang or where the constants B, C its temperature. 6.6 Gas processes The rest of this chapter deals with particular gas processes where specific (rather than general) equations are more useful. The general equations developed so far in this book are Still valid, and may be applied to particular processes as well. However, the general Piva _ pdr qT T has six variables of which five must be known before the sixth can be determined. A specific equation may have only four variables, so only three need to be known in order to determine the fourth. General equations valid for a fixed mass of gas are as follows: equations often have too many unknowns; for example, the general equation fae pi _ pve F TR 6) pV = mRT (6.2) 8314 R=>> (63) ", w= if pdV (3.7) Q = me(T: - T1) (3.10) no m= A(T, ~ Ti) (4.11), With gases, the last two equations are often more useful if written in terms of total internal energy and total enthalpy rather than specific Uz ~ Uy = mev(Tr ~ 1) ————— Ha ~ My = me(T ~ 1) internal energy and specific enthalpy: internal-energy change for a perfect gas (6-4) enthalpy change for a perfect gas (6-5)GASES 149 7 Consiant-pressure process 6. pv diagram see Figure 6.1- , Pe ® ® @ @ -—__._ ~, oa Volume expansion Volume reduction Fig. 6.1 p-V diagram for a constant-pressure process Example of the process Gas compression or expansion against a constant resisting force is shown in Figure 6.2. RAMA) Ieee tee NAA MS Coolins Q eating. volume reduction volume expansion Fig, 96.2 Example of a constant-pressure process150 HEAT ENGINEERING Relationship between p, V and T Since pr = pz = Pathe general equation becomes constant-pressure process (6,6) Work It was shown in Chapter 3 that for a constant-pressure process, W = pla Yi) work transfer in a constant-pressure process (3.6) This equation (like all equations in this chapter) i ; volume-reduction processes, remembering that V; is the initial volume and V2 is the final volume. So for an expansion process, W is positive (work out of the system), and for a reduction process, W is negative (work into the system). Heat For a constant-pressure process, the specific heat capacity at constant pressure (¢,) must be used in Equation 3.10. Hence heat flow in a constant-pressure process (6.7) Q = me,(Ti — Again, the sign of the heat flow is correct, remembering that 7; is the initial temperature and Tr the final temperature. Non-flow energy equation Q- W=(W- U) For a constant-pressure process: mep(T: — Ti) ~ p(V2 ~ Vi) = mev(Ts ~ Tr) Since p = pi = pr, P(V2 — Vi) = pra — pis But p2V2 = mRT; and piVi = mRTi. * p(V2 — Vi) = mR(Tr -— Ti) Substituting meAT, ~ Ti) — mR(Ti — Ti) = mev(T: — Ti) Sep - R=ev or ey gas constant (6.8) Although Equati ; : are all aia was derived by considering a constant-pressure process, R, cp an ¢¥ gas and do not change their values despite the process for any give"a E ‘i A GASES 151 ce Equation 6.8 i ideal gas. Hene is of. general 4 between these properties, F; validity and descrity relationship se pr les. For example, R {i Tibes the fundamental a7 J/kg. Now cp for air is 1005 J/kg k and vy ig STs is found previously to be Been 7 eh /kgK. Itis indeed evident that Bangle 65 iston-and-cylinder mechanism, as illustrated; A Miriam with the surrounding Ree in, Flaure 6.3, contains air and is in piston rises 400 mm. Neglect friction and assume the ganey © Supplied and the f= WOSHKBK, cy = TI8T/KRK, R= 287 J/kg RK. MOwINB values for air Determine the following: kek. fa) mass of air (h) final temperature (0) eat flow (a) internal-energy change (2), work transfer Also, verify that the non-flow energy i verity y equation balances, and act ae erecting ate see inces, and account for the work transfer | 100 mm 878mm Fig. 6.3 Sehaion *) Fust calculate the initial volume of air in the system, _ 0-1? 5 Vi = mx = x 0-878 (mn) . = 6-896 L The pressure in the system is atmospheric plus the pressure due to the piston weight. ek 5, Sx 98l pi = 1013 x 10 + “Gagrys” Pa) = 120kPa q Ty = 288K (15°C)152 HEAT ENGINEERING From Equation 6.2: mh ams Substituting: = mRT Ri 120 x 10° x 6896 x 107? 287 x 288 10-01 x 10° kg oa () Ws x ai x (0-878 + 0-4) (m’) = 10-04 L Since this is a constant-pressure process, VM T Th x Th Vi 10-04 x 107 6:896 x 10° = 419-2 K (146-2°C) 288 (©) From Equation 6.7: Q= mep(Tr ~ Ti) 10:01 x 10? x 1005 x (419-2 — 288) 1320 J (heat in) (d) From Equation 6.4: U; ~ () From Equation 3. We U, = mey(T, — Ti) 10-01 x 10° x 718 x (4192 ~ 288) 943 J (increase in internal energy) " Pa ~ Vi) 120 x 10° x (10:04 - 6-896) x 10” 3773 (work out)| GASES 153 flow energy equation is Q-W=U-U 1320 - 377 = 943 The non which balances. The work transfer out of the system is accounted for n increase in potential energy of the piston: “ PE = mgh 1S x 9-81 x 0-4 = 58-86 J the air surrounding th {i work done on Y 8 the piston, which exer . force to oppose the motion of the piston: tts a pressure and therefore a W = p(Va ~ Vi) = 101-3 x 10° x (10-04 — 6896) x 10? @a = 318-25 Check total: () + Gi) = 58°86 + 318-2 = 31713 which equals the work leaving the system. 68 Constant-volume process p-V diagram ‘See Figure 6.4. @ ® v Pressure decrease Pressure increase Fi "864 p-V diagram for a constant-volume process v154 HEAT ENGINEERING Example of the process Heating or cooling a mass of gas confined in a rigid container is theran in Figure 65 Heating— Cooting— pressure increase pressure decrease Fig. 6.8. Example of a constan-volume process Relationship between p, V and T Since Vi = Va = V, the general equation becomes: Rum constant-yolume process (6.9) Work Since there is no change in volume, there is no work. This can also be seen from the p-¥ diagram, since the area under the vertical line = 0. Heat The specific heat capacity at constant volume must be used in Equation 3.10. Therefore, Q = mev(T; - Ti) heat flow in a constant-volume process (6.10) Non-flow energy equation Since W = 0, the non-flow energy equation reduces to Q=Uu-UN i.e. the heat transfer equals the internal-energy change. This is also evident from the fact that Q = mev(T: ~ Ti)and Ur - Ui = mey(T: - Ti) Example 6.6 Suppose the piston in Example 6.5 (Fig. 6.3) were locked in the equilibrium position (at 3 height of 878 mm above the bottom of the cylinder). The same amount of heat energy (1'3 kJ) is now supplied. CalculateGASES 155 the final temperature; (oe final pressures (>) the internal-energy change, (0 svthat the non-flow energy equation balances, SohtioN sof pasin th . lass of gas in the system = 10. so 1-1 x 107 kg Initial temperature 7; = 288 K Heat flow Q = 1320 6896 L Initial pressure py = 120 kPa cv = 718 J/kgK Initial volume Vi (a) The final temperature can be obtained from Equation 6.10: Q = mer(T; ~ Ti) a me ——__ 1320 10°01 x 10° x 718 183-7 K 183-7 + 288 = 477K Th f which is higher than 7; for the constant-pressure process, as expected. (b) The final pressure can be obtained from Equation 6.9: BR Tt ap=Bx p= 7, Pi 47-7 3 * 120 = 1965kPa (©) The change in internal energy can be obtained from Equation 6.4: Uz — U; = mev(T: - Ti) 10-01 x 10°? x 718 x (471-7 — 288) = 13205 The non-flow energy equation is Q=Uu-U 1320 = 1320 Which balances,156 HEA Ne 6.9 Isothermal process The isothermal provess is a provess during which the gas temperature remains constant B-V diagram ' Sinwe F = constant, then when Tis consti PV is also constant, The equation py ~ ¢ where c is a constant is the equation of a recta ® : v v Volume expansion Volume compression Fig. 6.6 p-V diagram for an isothermal process lar hyperbola, as illustrated in Figure 6 6 ® © Example of the process If gas in a cylinder made of heat-conducting material is slowly compressed to a higher Pressure, the cylinder can be cooled so that the heat generated by compression flows out and SAA AAA) Heatin, Q Cooling volume expansion volume compression Fig. 6.7 Example of an isothermal processGASES 157 ihe wrmPet doves work while heat flows im compressed gas is slowly expanded Mcanuse rermaiins constant. 1 '85, Expansion is isothermal irae Fem process 18 a theore d in Figure 6.7. Note that other the si to achieve IN practice fan be ned that i the temperature remains constant, there can be no beat flow, Tu flow depends upon a temperature difference a a ¢ sme Mamperative 8 constant BUE must be diene ae the cmp fc, the ns othe process 10 De isothermal, The heat flow takes place betucen the eee and necwoundings. Therefore, in order for an isothermal Process to occur, the surroundin; im eat adilevent temperature to the gas in the sysiene . ° aulicd te te Relationship between p, V and T pM sine Ti = Ty = T, the general equation reduce Pili = par isothermal process (6.11) Work ye . he owe [Sar e[In vy: " (in Vz ~ InVs) Ms n(#) © PV, hence x bat ¢ W = pVin ( *) work transfer in an isothermal process (6.12) n% Sime pV; «= p2Vi, this equation could also be written ) W = pYiln 7 i i Vil Vi > Vand In(¥aj V1) ae the sign of the work transfer is correct: for an expansion, V2] NE; for a compression process, Vi] Vi < Vand In(¥a/ Vs) is negative.IME HEAT ENGINE E TING Internal anergy chango Uy th = mets ~ Ti) (Equation 6.4) Since Ty = Pethen Uy — Uh = 0, ie. there is no change in internal energy. This is consistent Wilh the molecular model of a perfect gas because heat transfer to the pas inereaven only the tinslational kinetic enerzy and hence the temperature. It follows thay iL there is no tcmperatute change, there is no internal-energy change. Heat Since the prucess dock nol take place at constant pressure or constant volume, neither = mets — Ti) no Y= mer(Ts ~ 7) is valid. There is no simple equation for the Heat flaw, whieh is best obtained from consideration of the non-flow energy equation. Non-flow energy equation Q-W2=u-U Since U) — Ur = 0, then Q = W, ie the heat flow equals the work transfer. Example 6.7 ‘A mass of 0°2 kg of nitrogen at a pressure of 100 kPa and a temperature of 300 K is slowly compressed, so that the temperature remains constant, until the pressure reaches 1 MPa. slate, a) the initial volume; (b) the final volume; (c) the work transfer; (dl) the heat flow, Solution Refer to Figure 6.8, m= 02kg M = 28 (relative molecular mass of nitrogen) isothermal pV =c © “% Y Ui Fig. 6.8GASES 159 pi = 100 kPa pi = 1MPa T= Tr = 300K piv = mR (a) (0 for nitrogen may be found from R= ag = ag = 297 kek 100 x 10° = 0-178 m? e) piv = pabr 100 x 10? x 0178 1 x 10° = 00178 m? © W = rvin( 2) = 100 x 10° x 0-178 x in (20178) oO = -41kd The negative sign indicates work input to the system. (4) The work transfer = the heat flow and has the same sign: 2Q = -41kI The negative sign indicates heat output from the system. 610 Polytropic process The polytropic process is a general process in which no property remains constant, P-V diagram The equation of the curve is py"=c(@ constant) hte nis i cession or expansion. alled the polytropic index or the index of eompr s ; 659), Polttopic petite similar to the isothermal process on the eP-Y aingram (Fig. '5), except that the curves are of different slope depending upon the V .160 HEAT ENGINEERING polytropic py"=c ® Volume expansion Volume compression Fig. 6.9 p-V diagram for a polytropic process Example of the process : ‘An example of a polytropic process is the compression or expansion of a gas under conditions where some heat flow occurs. Most actual compression or expansion processes Sr gases follow the polytropic process. This is because both compression and expansion do fot take place slowly enough to allow all the heat to flow (isothermal), or rapidly enough to prevent any heat flow at all (adiabatic). Relationship between p, V and T Since pV" = c: piv" = pbs" polytropic process (6.13) For any process: pis _ piWa qh Tr Pr _ Vix Th pr xT From Equation 6.13: Pre PpGASES 161 gnevelne no (")" ' n Vv, polytropte process (6.14) yration nay also be written ay \ vy (2) NK substituting in (1) PR ( mn | This & Loon z ’ 7 \ aT A) zy" i Therefore polytropic process (6.15) Equations 6.13, 6.14 and 6.15 may be used for any possible combination of relationships between p and V, Tand V, or p and 7. Work f pdVv Since pV" = ¢, then Substituting: We= Nowe = py = p2v2", Therefore arly =! nya . is Tae "va 1 pwn 1 = sta - a)162 HEAT ENGINEERING Multiplying top and bottom by ~ 1 work transfer for a polytropic process (6,16) Since PV) — P2V: = mR(Ti ~ 72), an alternative form is ww ay mR oa. - Ow, K W = (Ti ~ Ti) = ) Again, the sign is correet since for an expansion process, Tr > Ts, and for a compression Heat [As with the isothermal process, the heat flow cannot be obtained directly and is best obtained {rom the non-flow energy equation. Non-flow energy equation Since @ - W = Uz — Ur: Q = mev(T2 — Ti) + ‘This expression may be simplified. Since piVi — p2V2 = mR(Ti - 72), then mi Q = -mer(Ti ~ Ti) + 5 Rn - |) m(Ti — T) (4 ii cr) Also, since R = cp ~ cv, this expression reduces to _ mye = Tey Q = mn, - Tr) 2 ‘The expression & ae is called the polytropic specific heat, since the heat flow is equivalent to Q = mea(Ti - Ts) nev where Cy = and c, = polytropic specific heat. Notes (a) Itis often easier to determine the work transfer from Equation 6.16, the internal-enerey change from Equation 6.4, and hence the heat flow from the non-flow energy equation (Equation 4.1) (b) cy can be negative, unlike cp and cy which are always positive.srarple 6.8 ion check of an internal smpressio The © “combustion engine i ‘ing the spark plug and inserting remo" a Pressure gauge, then eranki such a test on 4 new outboard motor shows a ter stroke of kPa (gauge) when the pressure ay (he bottom of the stroke is 98 kPa (absolute), yming compression is polytropic with m= I-2\and thee are no leakage losses, calculate ression ratio of the engine, the sho calculate the temperature after co: mpressed if the temperature of the air at compres Treression and the work done per kilogram of air the bottom of the stroke is 45°C. ea Compression ratio of an engine isthe ratio of the cy lindet volume at the bottom of the ke to the cylinder volume at the top of t sro he stroke, ie. Vi/ Ve, polytropic PV ac Y ‘2 Fig. 6.10 Refer to Figure 6.10, where n= 12 pi = 98 kPa T, = 318K P2 = 980 kPa (gauge) , ; = 1-081 MPa (absolute) sine ener Vor Ye ie V; is red, but there is not enough data to cale ratio Vi/ V2 is required, However, the ratio Vi/ Vz may be calculated: PAV" = p2V2" : ()" =P mA 7 (or Ki (2)" Va \py164 HEAT ENGINEERING _ ftosiyy? “OR = 7393 ice. the compression ratio is 7-39: 1. . The temperature at the top of the stroke (7) may be calculated from Equation 6.14; (sy nay = 318 x (7:393)'7"! 474K (201°C) Note: An alternative solution is to use the general gas equation: Pv _ T i) Va\( pr n= n( 22 1081 L 318 x (rss) * \o8 474 K (as above) The work done may be calculated from the alternative form of Equation 6.16: 4 w= PR 1 - ty) Since m = 1 kg, 1 x 287 w= TT x Gis - 474) = -224kd ‘The negative sign indicates work done on the system. Example 6.9 After ignition of the fuel mixture at the top of the stroke, an internal-combustion engine cylinder contains 0-1 L of hot gas at a temperature of 1500°C and a pressure of 7 MPa (absolute). The hot gas expands polytropically (n = 1-5) to the bottom of the stroke. The compression ratio is 10:1, ¢y = 1-0 kJ/kgK and cy = 072 kJ/kgK. Determine the followin, (a) temperature and pressure at the bottom of the stroke (b)_ work transfer during the stroke {c) internal-energy change during the stroke (d) heat flow from the cylinder during the strokeslate" Fig 6.11 See Figure 6.11 Y Pp ne Ya Mh oV (2) From Equation a, Ti Th Also: pi 2 (6) From Equation 6.16: We GASES 105 - polytrople J pV" ao vs Ve » where OLL = 01 x 107m? 7 MPa = 7000 kPa 1773 K (150°C) 10 (compression ratio) 1L= 1x 10% m 6.14: (ey Va I TN Vr pyr 73(45) 561 K (288°C) n = pbs" -o (7) = 7000 x ( = 221kPa ae 16 ' pbs = pal n-t10 MEAT SGINEL FONG qn ON 0 = AZ AZ I? Wood 40-957 KS (work ont) ey Wh = mts ~ Ty) Wefore substituting, in this equation, i ie necessary to calculate m. Sine pVy = mItT) avd Hem by ~ oy = OFA Ske h, then TN 7 OOS ” Wy 7 VTIB OI AI ke 1th ~ Uy = WOIAS % O72 % (561 ~ $773) 1-230 KS (decrease in imernal energy) (dy ‘The heat Slow may be obtained from the non-Slow energy equation: o-Weth- LQ=Wtlh- Us + 0-957 - 1-290 = ~0273 ks (heat flow out) Alternatively, the heat flow say be caloulated from . Q ~ mehTi ~ Tr) where 10 — 5% 0-72 5-3 = 056 kK /ke kK @ = O14) x -0-16 x (1773 - 561) = ~0273 kJ (which checks) Note: The work could alvo have been calculated from the alternative form of Equation 6.16: Wea mR(T; ~ Ti) nat = PONAL » 0-28 x (1773 - 561) rs -T = 40-957 kJ (which checks) 6.11 Adiabatic process The adiabatic process Is a process during which no heat flow . It is generally treated a8 a special case of the polytropic process,* flow occuas. Wis generally * The ideal adiabatic process is also isentropic (constant entropy).GASES 167 yor the polytunpie process, Q = meh = 1) where cy = Mey nol vor the afiabatic process, Q = 0, Hence mcs MCV a oe mer EE = 1) 90 n sinwe Ti = Fy eannot be equal to 0 (as this would make the process isothermal), this means that , miler = nev) gy n=l ot cp = nev . o® one cy Ihe ratio ¢/cv occurs frequently; it is called the adiabatic index and is given the symbol +. yok adiabatic index (6.17) Since ¢p and cy are constant for ideal gases, y must also be constant, Hence the adiabatic process may be treated as a special case of the polytropic process in which the index n= y = clcy. For example, for air (since ¢» = 1005 J/kgK and cy = 718 J/kgk), y = 1-4, The value of y depends primarily upon the shape of the molecule (degrees of free~ dom): the greater the degrees of freedom, the lower the value of y (as shown in Table 6.1). Table 6.1. Approximate value of adiabatic index y (medium-temperature range) [Type of molecule ‘Molecule shape Example 7 helium (He) A ‘monatomic ° argon (Ar) “ hydrogen (Hz) Giatomic Oo——O ‘oxygen (Oz) v4 nitrogen (Na) trator O—o—O ‘carbon dioxide (CO2) 13 inear reece VY water vapour (Hz) 1:26 - near olatomic -b—O- ethane (Cate) 42240d EAL ENGINE TING " i at with pres i at although ¢» and cy vary somewhat with pressure a, sor real gases, it is found that al i with pre enieanTa (imnticulaly as the state of the gas approaches the point of liquefaction), yt tativ, ie. y, lemains remonably constant over a wide range, p-V diagram The adithatic process has the same general shape as the polytropic process and follows the law pV = © (hig, 6.12). adiabatic pW=c adiabatic pV’=c Volume expansion v Volume compression v Fig. 6.12 p-V diagram for an adiabatic process Example of the process Like the isothermal process, the adiabatic process is a theoretical one, since in practice, expansion or compression seldom take place without some heat transfer. However, adiabatic conditions are approached when one or more of the following conditions occur: (a) compression or expansion is very rapid (such as the firing of a bullet from a rifle); (b) the cylinder and/or piston are made of a non-conducting material such as ceramic, or if the cylinder is insulated as in a steam engine; (c)_ the expansion or compression process is slow, and the temperature of the surroundings is approximately equal to that of the gas, Heat flow through the system boundary depends upon a temperature difference between the system and the surroundings; if this difference is zero, no heat flow will take place. Rolationship between p, V and T Fquations 6.13, 6.14 and 6.15 are applicable, but + is substituted for n, For instance, Equation 6.13 becomes PIV" = piv”GASES 169 in, Equation 6.16 may be used with » = Ags! De W = PM ~ pata a or mR yo - 1) Heat py definition, Q = Non-flow energy equation since Q = 9 -W=U- or W=U- Ur Therefore, for the adiabatic process, the work transfer equals the change in internal energy but has opposite sign (due to the sign convention for work). Example 6.10 Repeat the calculations for Example 6.9, but assume an adiabatic process. Solution Refer to Figure 6.13. 1-0 kJ /kgK 0-72 kJ/kg K adiabatic Lowe Ve Fig. 6.13 vs170 HEAT ENGINEERING Y= OL x 10° mr pr = 7000 kPa Ti = 173K Vy = 1x 10° m m = 000141 kg @) = 14K which is considerably higher than before, since no heat flow takes place. Also, pV = p2V2" 1 yrs p2 = 7000 x (4) = 286 kPa which is also higher, as to be expected. Piva — pba ) vo _ 7000 x 0-1 x 10° — 286 x 1 x 10° ~ 1389 —T — = +1064 kJ which is also higher, since there is no heat loss. (©) Uz, — Uy = mev(Tr - Ti) = 000141 x 0-72 x (724 — 1773) = -1064 ks (d) Q = Oand the non-flow energy equation balances: “W=W- WY 6.12 Comparison of the processes ‘The various gas processes analysed in this chapter can be considered as variations a ss polytropic process with various values of the polytropic index, This comparison i in Figure 6.14.GASES 171 n-0 {constant pressure) Pp naw (constant volume) n=0 eae (constant pressure) {constant volume) v —_ , v Expansion processes Compression processes Fig. 6.4 Expansion and compression processes for various values of the poiytropic index n ‘The constant-pressure process therefore represents a limiting case of the polytropic process with n= 0; the constant-volume process is the other limit with n = so. ‘Although the majority of processes occur in the range in which 77 is positive and between 0 and ee, it is possible to have a process in which 7 is negative and dp/ dV is positive. For example, Figure 6.15 shows the process when a gas is contained in a container that is not periealy rigid but expands on increasing pressure as heat is supplied (so that both the pressure and the volume increase together). All the equations developed are valid for such a process, including the relationships between pressure, volume, temperature, heat and work. Pp @r------4 Pe ® ot \ Ur Pr @ Q v Ms a Fig, 18.6.8 A process for which the polytropic index is negative172 HEAT ENGINEERING Effect of n on work and heat This is tabulated in Table 6.2. Table 6.2 Effect of polytropic in dex non heat and work Values of n Expansion process (Wout) ‘Compression process (Win) : n>y Qou Qn y a0 Q-0 tency Qn | our n=1 Qin = Wout our = We n Wout Qout > Wr In practice, the value of n is determined from experience and experiment as it is difficult to calculate a value from theoretical considerations. Table 6.3 Comparison summary of gas processes" Relationship Internal-energy Process | betweenp,V.T | Work (W) change (Uz ~ Ur) _| Heat (Q) constant p = constant P(V2 - VA) meTe = Tr) me,(Tz - 1) pressure | Vi _ Ve Tae constant V = constant 0 mev(Te - Ti) Q=Uu-u volume isothermal hin (4) 0 a=W v = pviin (4) a polytropic | p¥" = constant | piv = pave Q=W+ru-u th wy" = men - 72) Th (a) where ae o. Gp = Mey Be (h oon nat ps MT _| adiabatic | as for as for mey(Te = 7) 0 Aes YP. polytropic. polytropic. 20 with n= with n= y * Note:For all processes; Q - W = Up ~ Ui Problems Notes (a) Assume ideal gas behaviour. (b) Gas pressures are absolute unless gauge pressure is stated. (c) Atmospheric pressure is (d) Refer to Appendix 3 for 101-3 kPa. relative molecular masses. (©) For air: ¢ = 1005 J/kg, cy = 718 J/kg K, R = 287J/kgK, y = 14ot 62 63 64 65 6.6 67 er GASES 173 What are the three assumptions re (©) erfect? necessary in order that a gas be considered (py Under what conditions do real gases depart i pehaviour? Give reasons, @ppreciably from perfect gas What assumptions are necessar A 0 : ry when applying th {@) Explain what is meant by an isothermal ree Satan to any gas? Axe gas, and give wo examples of exch adiabatic process applied ‘A cylindrical container with hemispherical ends h: i slime ght 28 me ah ne ate 29a he tank reads "a. Determine the ir i ore ie Wee e mass of air in the tank if the air temperature is 8:25 kg nD aad af ‘¢ A cylindrical oxygen-storage’ bottle has internal diameter 200 1600 mm. Determine the gauge pressure reading when the tank eee oxygen at 15°C. 8 47-6 kPa If the oxygen bottle given in Problem 6.3 is recharged with oxygen until the gauge pressure is 800 kPa, determine the mass of oxygen added to the cylinder. If the oxygen is then used at a constant rate of 0-05 kg/min, calculate the elapsed time until the gauge pressure falls to 100 kPa. 0-505 kg; 9-4 min 2m! of gas at a pressure of 150 kPa is compressed isothermally until the volume is 0-5 m°. What is the final pressure? an fe \ ' - Wi cfei\a 600 kPa . 0-01 kg of air is compressed in a cylinder so that the temperature of the air rises from 20°C to 140°C. If the work done is 2 kJ, calculate the heat flow. . If the air in the cylinder is now allowed to cool down to 20°C again, while maintaining the same cylinder volume, calculate the gional ‘heat flow. 7 =114 kJ; -0862KI 4 ane eet 5 i : ; °C expands in a closed 0-2 kg of air at a pressure of 200 kPa and a temperature of 30°C ¢ system doing 5-5 PF of work until the pressure is 100 kPa. Determine the temperature of the air after the expansion is complete if there is no heat flow oa nelnee (adiabatic), Note: This suggests a method of refrigeration using aif & ge (see Chapter 12). —8:3°C. i ited with a A vertical open-ended cylinder of 80 mm bore and a Sees A closeitting piston of mass 8 kg. If atmospheric tEmBernr Onder. Neglect equilibrium position of the face ‘of the piston above the Nee friction, To what temperature would the return the piston to the top position? 173 mm; 59-4°C air in the cylinder need to be raised in order to174 HEAT ENGINEERING 69 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 i d an internal A cylindrical air receiver has an internal diameter of 750 mm an length g 15m. it stores air at a pressure of 850 kPa. Air is used from the tank, and he pressure falls to 700 kPa, Assuming the tank temperature remains at 20°C, calcula the mass of air taken out. 118 kg A piston-and-cylinder mechanism contains 0-25 kg of air, which is compressed ung, the temperature rises from 20°C to 400°C. If the heat flow from the cylinder is 20% o¢ the work done, calculate the work done = 85:3 kJ A piston-and-cylinder mechanism contains 0-15 kg of air at 1000°C under pressure. If no additional energy is supplied, what is the maximum work that can be obtained by allowing the air to expand to 15°C and atmospheric pressure, and under what conditions will this maximum work be achieved? 106 kJ; adiabatic Air at 15°C is compressed in a large diesel-engine cylinder from atmospheric pressure to a final pressure of 4 MPa. The clearance volume is 0-5 L and the index of compression is 1-3. Determine the compression ratio and the temperature at the end of compression. 16-9: 1; 400°C Gas is expanded from pressure of 1-8 MPa and volume 0-05 m? to pressure of 120 kPa and volume 038m’. Assuming expansion follows the law pV" = c, determine the value of n 1-34 Gas at a pressure of 1-4 MPa, temperature 1200°C and volume 0-2 L is expanded in an engine cylinder through a volumetric expansion ratio of 7°4:1. If the index of expansion is 1-3, determine the final volume, pressure and temperature. Also, calculate the work done during the expansion. 1-48 L; 103-8 kPa; 535°C; 421 J 5 of air at atmospheric pressure is slowly compressed through a compression ratio of 10:1 so that the temperature does not change. Determine the work transfer and compare this to the work that would be transferred if the air were compressed S0 rapidly that negligible heat flow occurred. —VATKS; = P91 KS ‘The air brakes of a truck are operated by an air cylinder on each wheel which applies a braking force. The cylinders are fed from an air receiver via a pressure-reducing valve which maintains constant cylinder press: faximum receiver pressure is 600 kPa (eiuge) Pressure of 300 kPa (gauge). It is required that should the air com, ill still t J d pressor break down, the brakes will st! operate 50 nes before running out of air. Determine the required volume of the a reociver if each brake cylinder has a swept volume of 0.4L. and there are 8 brake eylinders. Assume isothermal (constant-temperature) condita 214 .: GASES 175 ies of processes are cartied slowing series of P ses a out ona or emis compressed adiabatically and 40 Ky of aaa Pe fa kd of heat ae supplied at constant volume. ene ( ‘as expands and transfers heat until the tempera (0 TM Bi this process, 75 KJ of work are done, en M® FEtUERS 40 its original viene original state of the gas as zero referenc © point, a . use athe end ofeach proces, Also caeulate the hea tara teal eneray area) F40KT (6) +160 KI) 05-85 KJ ferred in process (c), of gas: eorsvebicle tyre has a volume of 35 L. It is filled with ai Arc vil the gauge reads 280 kPa, illed with air at a temperature of 3) Caleulate the mass of air in the tyre. @ ature drops to 15°C, wha i the air temperature drops , what pressure I ame the volume change is negligible, would the gauge now show? ) What mass of air at 15°C would now need to be added t @ rate pressure 10 280 kPa? fo the tyre to restore the (a) 0-155 kg (b) 265 kPa (c) 0-065 ke ae A hotair balloon, when inflated, is in the form of a sphere of diameter 10m, The total mass of the empty balloon system is 100 kg. Calculate the temperature to which the air inside the balloon must be raised so that when inflated, the system can raise a read of 80 kg. Atmospheric temperature is 15°C. 1227PC ¢20 A quantity of gas at a pressure of 120 kPa and temperature 20°C occupies a volume of 35m’. The volume is then reduced to 05 m? and the temperature increased to 100°C. Determine the final pressure. 0° a If the mass of gas is 0°345 kg, what gas is it? = 1-07 MPa; hydrogen ia % £21 The energy content of a gas is determined using a gas calorimeter and found to be 165 MJ/m?. Barometric pressure is 756 mm_of mercury and the gas is at a gauge pressure of 20 mm water above atmospheric. Gas temperature is 17-5°C. Determine the energy content of the gas at normal conditions (20°C and 101-3 kPa), 16-4 MJ/m? Ben at 104 kPa and 20°C has a specific volume of 0°78 m’/kg. The gas Ch eee ‘iabatically through a compression ratio of 6:1. The final temperature 1S " Determine R, -y, ¢p and cy for the gas. 277 I/kgK; 1-393; 980 J/kg K; 704 J/kg K 623 i the ft . . -2 mm in diameter, te fring the explosive charge in the barrel of @ rifle 72 ie Ft reaches the Tiperature rises °C. The barrel length is 600 min. Sf end 8 to 4000°C. The barrel leng! o, the bullet has a mass ©! 10g lt atrel, the temperature has dropped te #9 on aa (neglecting friction, G2: Calculate its muzzle velocity, assuming adiabatic contin |r the explosive hare 254 the kinetic energy of the gases themselves). Take roperties as air "8.85 | g and assume the combustion gases have the same P 714 m/s176 HEAT ENGINEERING 6.24 6.2! aR 6.26 6.27 6.28 6.29 5 a sure of 200 kPa from a tem ass 0-006 kg is heated at a constant pressure 0 from a temperata, Fo a ee SL to a temperature of 300°C and volume 46 L. The gas ia specific heat capacity of 700 J/kg K at constant volume, Determine the following. (a) internal-energy change of the gas (b) work done during the expansion (c) heat supplied (d) specific heat capacity at constant pressure (c) enthalpy change (a) 8405 (b) 3203 (c) 11605 (d) 967J/keK (e) 11605 ine has a cylinder bore of 130 mm and a stroke of 150 mm, and operates on a compustion rao of 85:1. Calculate the mass of gas in the cylinder if the gas has 4 relative molecular mass of 28, and the pressure and temperature at bottom dead centre are 98 kPa and 150°C respectively. After compression, the pressure is found to be 1-5 MPa. Calculate the temperature of the gas at this point. 0-001 76 kg; 489°C A cylindrical tank of diameter 5m and Iength 7:5 m contains methane (CH,) at a pressure of 10 kPa (gauge) and a temperature of 20°C. The tank is cooled until the temperature drops to - 10°C. Assuming cp for methane is 2-21 kJ/kg K, determine the following: (a) mass of methane in the tank (b) final pressure shown by the gauge (©) heat flow (4) change in internal energy of the methane (a) 107-65 kg (b) —1-4kPa (c) —5:-46MJ (d) —5-46 MJ A mass of 0-05 kg of nitrogen at 250°C is heated at a constant pressure of 150 kPa until there is an increase in volume of 100%. Assuming y for nitrogen is I-4, determine the following: (a) final volume (b) final temperature (©) heat flow (d) work transfer (©) change in internal energy (a) 0:1035 m’ (b) 773°C (c) 27-17KI_ (4) 7-76KI (@) 19-41 KT 1-5 L of air at 350°C and 1250 kPa expands isothermally to normal atmospheric pressure. Determine the following: (a) final volume (b) work done (©) heat flow (@) change in internal energy (a) 1851 L (b) $471k (©) 44-71 KI (4) 0 A mass of 0-05 kg of air at a temperature of 40°C and pressure 100 kPa is compressed to a pressure of 500 kPa, according to the law pV"? = ¢, Determine the following: (a) final temperature (b) final volume (©) work transferGASES 177 peat transfer @ jn internal energy @ taney isieC. (b) 13-02. (@ | (© ~673k3 (@) -1-68kI () 450815 tical cylinder of 100 mm bore, o} A ong vertical cyling Open at the top, contains 0+ 620 A Kpteric at at 15°C: A close-fittng piston of mas 15 kes placed inthe eyieder ttle to an equilibrium posi : i t} allowed t0 Se ‘ position. Heat energy is oad aes 300 mm. Tf fiction is negligible, determine ned ae ry the heat energy supplied; ; ip) the change in internal energy of the air inside the cylinder; (0) the work done by the air in the cylinder. > (a) 990k (b) 708F (c) +2835 (GPA mass of 1 kg of air at 100 kPa and 20°C is compressed isothermally to a OM ioxPa, 100kI of heat are then added at constant pressure and the Leeann expanded adiabatically back to its original pressure. Sketch these processes on a p-V diagram (not to scale) and determine the following: {a) work transfer during compression {b) temperature after the heat is added (@) work transfer during adiabatic expansion (@) final volume sf Now resketch the p-V diagram to approximate scale. (a) -1166 kJ (b) 119*S°C (©) 92-1 kJ (d) 0-758 m 632 02 m’' of air at 20°C and 100 kPa is compressed by the piston in an engine cylinder that has a compression yatio of Heat is then added while the pressure remains the same, until the piston returns to its original position. Compression is polytropic with n= 13. ‘Sketch these two processes on a p-V diagram, and determine the following: (a) mass of air (b) pressure at the end of the compression (©) final temperature (d) net work transfer for the two processes (a) 0-238 kg (b) 1027 MPa (c) 2736°C (d) 123-7 kJ 633 Air ata pressure of | MPa and a temperature of 130°C is expanded adiabatically to a Pressure of 105 kPa and then compressed isothermally to its original volume. Draw the processes on a p-V diagram and determine the following: (a) initial specific volume (b) final temperature (©) final pressure (4) change in internal energy per kilogram te net work transfer per kilogram (1) net heat flow per kilogram (a) 1IS7L/kg (b) -61-3°C (©) 525 kPa (d) -137KI_ (©) 395K (f) -97-8 KS 6.34 yo, ‘ A quantity of carbon dioxide occupies a volume of 0°14 m’ at 975.kPa and ae C. It i Beated at constant volume to a pressure of 4-2 MPa, alter which itis expanded in an Sulated cylinder to a pressure of 270 kPa. Sketch these processes on @ P™ jiagram. Ssuming g = 14075 kJ/kg K for carbon dioxide, determine the Following:178 HEAT ENGINEERING 6.3: 6.3¢ Ss & (a) temperature at the start of the expansion (b) volume after expansion (c) temperature after expansion (d) net work transfer (e) net heat flow (£) net change in internal energy (a) 2497°C_(b) 1344? (6) 1437°C(d) HOGMS(@) 212 My (f) 1-06 MJ A reciprocating piston-and-cylinder mechanism contains air at atmospheric pressure ‘and 15°C which is compressed to a pressure of 1-25 MPa and 285°C. Determine (a) which process best describes the compression and why; (b) the specific volume and density of the air after compression; (c) the compression ratio; (@) the work transfer, heat flow and change in internal energy per cubic metre of air compressed. (a) polytropic, n = 1-36 (b) 0:128 m?/kg; 7-8 kg/m* (©) 637:1 (d) —266 kJ; —28 kJ; 238 kJ Show that the general gas law may be obtained by combination of an isothermal with a constant-pressure process, and by combination of a constant-volume with an isothermal process.