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A Survey of Standard Repertoire for the Classical Guitar
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There are few examples of analytical papers concerning classical guitar

repertoire that examine multiple pieces. This paper serves to fill this void and

provide a brief historical background and analysis for selected pieces of standard

guitar repertoire. It will provide musicians and composers a more intimate

understanding and model of how compositions for the classical guitar work. The

paper is an analysis of Johann Sebastian Bach’s Cello Suite No. 1 (BWV 1007), Isaac

Albeniz’s Asturias (Leyenda), Heitor Villa-Lobos’s The Five Preludes, and Nikita

Koshkin’s Usher Waltz.

The reasons for choosing these pieces are as follows. Asturias (Leyenda) is

one of the most easily recognizable pieces for the guitar. It was brought to its

popularity when arranged and performed by Andrés Segovia and subsequently

referenced in a song by The Doors. J.S. Bach’s Cello Suite No. 1 is included in this

analysis due to its immense popularity and because arrangements for the guitar are

intuitive. Additionally, the technique is much simpler than other Baroque suites,

thus it is frequently used by many guitarists as introduction into large Baroque

works. Villa-Lobos was a well established composer in the early 20th century, was

incredibly familiar with the guitar, and is often considered one of the first big names

in composition to unleash the guitar’s potential. The Five Preludes are included to

illustrate his representative works. The last piece, Usher Waltz, became immensely

popular after John Williams performed it in his Seville Concert. This concert was

broadcasted on British television as part of a series The Film Profile of John Williams

and brought Usher Waltz to the public eye. Furthermore, Usher Waltz makes use of
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expanded tonality and extended techniques, and is a good example of modern guitar
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composition.
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Historical background is included for all works because it is essential to

inform the performer and audience of the relevant context surrounding each piece.

This can be as broad as knowing the time-period a composer was alive or as focused

as knowing how someone lived his or her life as a child, and how that impacted their

music career. In addition to this, a well-informed performer can create a stronger

atmosphere in a performance, and a well-informed listener has a much easier time

internalizing that atmosphere.

Johann Sebastian Bach’s Cello Suite No. 1 is the first piece this paper will

analyze. Johann Sebastian Bach was born in 1685 in Eisenach, Saxe-Eisenach. Born

into a musical family, his father Johann Ambrosius Bach was a stadtpfeifer (literally

“town-piper”) in Arnstadt, later a violinist for the town of Efurt, and finally a court

musician in Eisenach (Hanford and Koster, 1995). It is presumed that Ambrosius

taught J.S. Bach violin and various other bowed string instruments (Emery and

Wolff). The importance of music in the Bach household would not end at J.S. Bach.

Two of his, sons Carl Philip Emanuel Bach and Johann Christoph Bach, are still

important today because of their respective contributions to the world of music.

While he was alive, J.S. Bach was most well known for being a virtuoso

organist. But, his compositions would be his claim to fame from the 19th century on.

Bach’s compositional style was inspired by Antonio Vivaldi and became the

quintessential example of the late Baroque style (Wolff). It incorporated heavy

though not exclusive use of the major/minor tonal system, frequent use of
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counterpoint, and the adoption of popular music forms of the time (the chaconne,
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partita, dance suite, passacaglia, etc.). His compositions are incredibly expansive, so
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much so that scholars created the “BWV” or Bach-Werk-Verzeichnis numerical

catalogue. It functions as an index for all of Bach’s compositions and is organized by

instrument, extending to a massive 1,128 works.

The Six Suites for Unaccompanied Cello are near the top Bach’s most famous

works. The suites were composed in 1720 while he served as the Kapellmeister, or

director of music, for Prince Leopold in Cöthen, Anhalt-Dessau (Soderberg). The

suites were released by Bach’s wife Anna Magdalena and were written

simultaneously with the violin sonatas and partitas. These were all written for

Prince Leopold who was both a violin player and a viol de gamba player. Leopold

was very interested in music and used his political power to provide resources to

musicians (Hanford and Koster). This would not last long though, as Prince

Leopold’s support of musicians would decline due to a new marriage and need for

funding for the Prussian War. As a consequence, and in addition to wanting to write

more choral music, Bach left Köthen for Leipzig (Hanford and Koster).

Cello Suite No. 1 follows a similar structure to most Baroque dance suites; a

prelude followed by several dances. The dances in Cello Suite No. 1 are the

Allemande, the Courante, the Sarabande, Menuet I, Menuet II, and the Gigue. Bach

composed these as stylized dances, pieces that primarily function as concert

repertoire but retain similar characteristics to their original counterparts.

The focus of the following analysis will be two brief melodic motives and the

important role they play in tying movements together to make the suite cohesive.
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The first motive, henceforth referred to as “Motive A,” is a simple three-note motive
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that involves moving to an upper or lower-neighbor tone then moving back to the
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starting pitch.

Example 1 – Depicts opening measure. Motive A is represented in the red boxes.

From there, Motive A is presented very frequently. Bach takes Motive A and

inverts, modulates, and augments it all throughout the upcoming measures of the

piece – it is a very clear indication to the performer that this motive will be

important in the upcoming movements (Example 2).

Example 2 – presents Motive A and its prevalent usage just within a two measure excerpt. While not
only forming the basis for many small excerpts such as this, it is also used at major cadences to lead
to the resolution.

The second motive is a contrasting idea that is presented in the B section of

the Prelude and expanded from there. This motive, which will subsequently be

referred to as “Motive B,” is one that involves short excerpts of stepwise motion,

typically in the form of a scale, leading to either a descending or ascending arpeggio

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(Example 3). Motive B, while presented in the Prelude, has a much greater influence
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on the following movements, especially the Courante.
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Example 3 – Motive B as it is first presented in the suite

The Allemande contains instances of Motive A and Motive B within the first

three measures (Example 4). The Allemande starts with a descending diatonic scale

leading into Motive A, then it leaps a perfect fourth downward and beings Motive B.

The final note of Motive B’s arpeggio leads into Motive A and a repeat of the theme

that was just presented. This theme is repeated three times and makes up the

entirety of the first phrase. The immediacy and repetition of the two motives are a

clear sign of their importance in the movement.

Example 4 – the combination of Motive A and Motive B. While only one instances of it is marked in
the red boxes, it is repeated immediately after.

The next notable instance of Motive A and Motive B is nearing the final

cadence of the A section. Bach begins an ascending diatonic scale that turns into an

ascending secondary dominant arpeggio (Example 5). The ascending scale and
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arpeggio create a new inverted version of Motive B. This variation only ascends as a
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way to create more motion leading into the final cadence of the A section. In the
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measure after Motive B is presented, Motive A begins on F# with a lower neighbor

tone. Since the final note in Motive A leads into a descending D major arpeggio,

Motive A is likely being used to strengthen the modulation from G major to D major.

This instance of the two motives is important, not only do we see them functioning

as the main melodic ideas for the piece in Example 4, but now in Example 5 they are

utilized to get to major arrival points in the work.

Example 5 – The music supports the theory of Motive A and Motive B being used at important
cadences, as we can see the final note, a G above the staff, is an eighth note. These are infrequent in
the top voice, and when they do appear they are usually at major cadences, either on the resolution
or on the V or other tense chord before a resolution.

The Courante puts a spotlight on the two main motives. This movement

begins with an altered version of Motive B that reverses the order of the arpeggio

and stepwise motion. It starts on a descending G major arpeggio and is followed by a

brief stepwise motion that arrives on a B, where again a G major chord is outlined

and a short stepwise idea is played (Example 6). This continues for the rest of the

phrase, until a contrasting idea appears that primarily involves Motive A. In it,
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Motive A is repeated on beats one and two for two measures, followed by a
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shortened version of Motive B and then Motive A leading into the first cadence of
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the piece (Example 7). These two phrases and their variations are what make up the

vast majority of the material in the movement.

Example 6 – the opening measures of the Courante, exposing Motive B as the main motive of the
movement

Example 7 – The second phrase of the Courante, exposing Motive A. In the red box is the implied line
that incorporates Motive A leading into the first major cadence.

The Sarabande has fewer instances of the motives though when they are

used it is at important cadences. Motive A is used more than Motive B. An inverted

form of Motive A is presented in the very first measure of the Sarabande (Example

8). Another notable example of Motive A includes the first cadence to D major in the

A section of the movement (Example 9).

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Example 8 and 9 – Two separate instances of Motive A within the A section of the movement.

Though the two motives appear frequently in Menuet I, the most important

examples of their use are in Menuet II. Menuet II has an A section that has three

implied lines, two of which present Motive A (Example 10). In the B section the

melodic idea changes and more excerpts from Motive B, though Motive A is still

used (Example 11).

Example 10 – While just an excerpt of two measures, this same pattern makes up the
majority of the A section of Menuet II.

Example 11 – The first excerpt shows Motive A’s usage within the B section of Menuet II, and
the second excerpt shows an example of Motive B. Motive B includes some variation as the first note
of the scale, A, is transposed down an octave.

The final movement of the suite, the Gigue, has many instances of the two

motives. Motive A is frequently used at cadences, and the most significant instance
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of its use is in the final cadence. Motives A and B are combined in this cadence,
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which supports the idea that these two motives are important to the framework of
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the suite. The cadence begins as an ascending diatonic scale from D to B which

works as the first half of Motive B. Following this is Motive A starting on a G and

going to a lower neighbor, then immediately after the second half of Motive B is

presented as a descending G major arpeggio, concluding the suite (Example 12).

Example 12 – The final cadence of the suite incorporates an ascending diatonic scale as part
of Motive B, then Motive A which leads into the second half of Motive B, a descending G major
arpeggio.

J.S. Bach’s Cello Suite No. 1 is an incredibly complex piece of music and was

one of Bach’s most defining works. These suites are some of the most significant

non-keyboard works for any solo instrument to come out of the Baroque Era. The

suites translate to the guitar very well when considering both the cello and guitar

are stringed instruments that have a similar range and dark tone. The suite has been

arranged many times for the guitar and, as such, has evolved over the past one-

hundred years in different ways. In the mid-20th century, when Andrés Segovia

arranged it for guitar, he arranged it in such a way that it would take advantage of

the of the guitar’s strengths. Segovia arranged the piece into the key of D major, and

added an incredibly rich accompaniment that turned the piece into a new, modern

piece in a romantic style. He included new octaves and new ideas to emphasize a
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“full” sound, going so far as removing the pedal tone in the Prelude of the suite,
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opting instead for a new melodic bass line.
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Another well-known interpretation is Micheal Lorimer’s 1973 arrangement.

The emerging paradigm then was modesty. His arrangement adds notes and fills out

lines like Segovia’s, but does so with Bach’s intentions in mind. The piece was

transposed to D major to better accommodate the guitar, much like Segovia’s

version. No pedal points are altered, and if a bass line is added it adheres to the rules

of counterpoint to fit Bach’s compositional style. Chords may be filled out to utilize

the two extra strings the guitar has and though the added tones may not strictly

adhere to voice leading rules they are still modest changes.

Cello Suite No. 1 is a piece that has been arranged on many instruments, but

the intuitive nature of the piece makes it standard guitar repertoire. The suite is a

stepping-stone into more complicated Baroque suites and at the same time a suite

that is rife with complexity and depth.

Isaac Albeniz was born in Camprodon, Spain on May 2, 1860. Purportedly a

child prodigy, Albeniz played the pianoforte so well at less than four years of age

that listeners often thought it was a scam and a man behind a curtain was playing

instead of Albeniz (Jean-Aubry). His life as a child prodigy put him on the fast track

to success as he began his studies at a conservatory in Madrid at age eight. During

his time there, he came upon many books that would spark his love of travel and

adventure, and it did not take him long to embark on this passion (Jean-Aubry). At

age nine, he took a train to the town of Escurial to perform a recital. When he went

to return home he accidentally took a train going the opposite direction, and ended
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up performing two impromptu concerts at the places he stopped. His trip was
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extended even longer when he was robbed of all the money he had earned
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performing. Not wanting to return home empty handed, he decided it best to go

back out and continue to perform to earn back the lost money (Jean-Aubry).

The traveling he did would certainly not stop here, as it would become one of

the most defining characteristics of his career. Enamored with Spanish culture in

particular, Albeniz travelled all around Spain during his performance career after

school, well known as a virtuoso pianist. From there on his travel would expand,

visiting countries rich with Latin culture like Cuba and Puerto Rico, in addition to

countries such as England and France (Clark 1992).

All of the traveling Albeniz would do would lead to the creation of one of his

most well known works – Op. 47 or Suite Española. The suite is composed of eight

movements; Granada, Cataluña, Sevilla, Cádiz, Asturias, Aragón, Castilla, and Cuba.

All of which are meant to depict a different region of Hispanic geography, and

because of this each reflects a small amount of the cultural identity that Albeniz

encountered in these regions while performing concerts.

Unfortunately, as it seems with many well-received compositions that pre-

date the twentieth century, it could never be as simple as that. Several of the

movements of the suite were not ever intended to be in the suite, nor are they about

the regions they are meant to be about. Càdiz, Aragón, Castilla, and Asturias were

added in to the suite by Hofmeister, the company that published many of Albeniz’s

pieces, after Albeniz’s death in 1909. Most likely Albeniz had promised a completed
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suite for Hofmeister but never quite finished the entirety of the work, or unable to
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finish it before his death.
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Hofmeister took various other works that Albeniz wrote and inserted them

into the suite with the new titles. Asturias specifically comes from Chants d’Espagne

(or Songs of Spain) and is originally entitled Preludio. It gets all the more

complicated because Preludio was most likely intended to depict a region of Spain

other than Asturias. Instead, Preludio is meant to represent the Alhambra Palace,

which is located in Granada, Spain (Yates). So ironically, Asturias is about Granada,

which has its own movement, Granada, and Asturias (the region) is not the subject

of any of the movements.

The subtitle of Asturias (Leyenda) may hold more credence to the meaning

behind the piece than the given name. Leyenda (translated as “legend”) is meant to

represent a party inside the Alhambra Palace. The A section is meant to depict the

Romani people of Spain, Gitanos, living inside the palace playing and dancing

flamenco. Albeniz wrote that the B section is meant to emulate “the guzla, the lazy

dragging of the fingers across the strings. And above all, heartbreaking lament out of

tune” (Clark).

It is not exactly known when the first performance of a guitar arrangement of

this piece occurred. What we do know is that Asturias (Leyenda) was performed and

arranged first by Severino García Fortea though Andres Segovia was the man that

brought the piece to fame on the guitar (Yates). It is not certain when Segovia

arranged his version of the piece, though we do know the earliest known

performance by Segovia was in October of 1924 (Yates).

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For analysis this paper will dissect the guitar arrangement created by Andrés
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Segovia and edited by Richard Provost. The paper will attempt to understand why
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certain aspects of it were changed from piano editions. The analysis will also

attempt look for the piece’s prototypical late-Romantic Era elements.

The first and most obvious change is that this particular guitar arrangement

was transposed from G minor to E minor. The lowest pitch the guitar can produce in

standard tuning is an E, allowing Segovia to utilize the frequent tonic pedal points to

the best of the guitar’s ability. A second major change to the piece is the way the

accompaniment works throughout. The original version contains rapid octave D’s.

Segovia changes this to a sixteenth note triplet figure providing a much easier

arpeggio and added depth to compensate for short sustain of the guitar. There are

also several parts which were changed due to the fact that they would present an

unrealistic challenge to the performer. For example, the A section ends with an

ascending sixteenth note D major arpeggio (B major in the guitar version) – the

rapid succession of these 16th notes would be very challenging for a guitarist when

combined with the pizzicato of Segovia’s arrangement.

The piece starts with a simple melody which contains only five unique notes.

Due to its repetition, it is evident that this melody forms the foundation for the A

section. Though the melody is fairly stagnant throughout the piece, the harmonic

content shifts in order to build intensity. The piece begins in E minor, modulates to

B major with a 3-note tremolo, returns briefly to E minor and then cadences

strongly on B major. It finishes with a passage switching back and forth quickly

between a B major chord and a German augmented sixth chord, Ger+6, which was
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very popular in the late-Romantic Era and is a chord which is comprised of a # and
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a ♭ which both resolve to a . This gives the chord a very strong pre-dominant 28

function and provides for powerful cadences – the repetition of the Ger+6 and its

resolution to the dominant confirm the modulation to B major. The final B of this

phrase stays as the pedal point until the end of the A section where there is an

ascending 3-octave B major arpeggio.

The B section begins with a melodic line centered around a B major chord.

This section, while focused on B major, is most likely still in E minor. The most

important piece of evidence that suggests this is the use of both D♮ and D#. Albeniz

utilizes D♮ in the melody and D# for the sole purpose of creating B major chords.

The D#’s, and thus, the B major chords, occur most frequently at half-cadences. The

most apparent instance of one of these half-cadences is at the end of the octave

motive. The cadence is made up of a French augmented sixth chord, or Fr+6, which is

composed of # , ♭ , , and . The Fr+6 functions as a strong pre-dominant with its

# ,♭ , and all resolving to . With this in mind, we would assume that the Fr+6

would resolve to a dominant chord, and that dominant would in turn resolve to a

tonic. This isn’t the case however; the Fr+6 resolves to the dominant but the

dominant doesn’t resolve to the tonic, and instead resolves to G major. The mood

created by these half-cadences and the ambiguity of key is a clear contrast to what

was presented in the A section.

Following this, Albeniz creates a section that is much more “Spanish”

sounding, using an E major dominant Phrygian mode, the “Spanish Phrygian” mode,
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or an E major scale with a ♭ ,♭ , and ♭ . The “Spanish Phrygian” is a great G
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example of music in the late-Romantic Era, not only is it using a mode of the 28

harmonic minor scale, but it is also an example of the prevalent nationalism that

was incorporated in much of the music of the time. Using this mode, the E major

begins to function as a dominant and leads to an A minor. The A minor brings us

back to E minor, and the B section ends with a half-cadence and the return of the B

major chord.

The coda calls back the beginning of the B section with its slow chordal

section and emphasis on G major, A minor, and E minor. It also includes some other

characteristics that are typical of the late-Romantic era. The first and foremost is

that the second phrase utilizes a Neopolitan Sixth chord, N6, which is ♭ II chord with

a sixth above it. This is a musical reference to the Spanish Phrygian mode that

occurred in the B section, a mode that is easily recognizable for it’s ♭ II chord. While

these instances alone are not all of the important romantic elements of the piece,

they are important and technical enough to give a finer understanding to the

expanded harmonic vocabulary of the late-Romantic Era and the yearning for

cultural identity.

Heitor Villa-Lobos was born in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil on March 5, 1887 (The

Musical Times). As a child Villa-Lobos was primarily self-taught. His father, who was

a self-taught musician as well, taught him the cello (Fraga 1996). Villa-Lobos would

become very interested in the popular music of the time, the choro. He had hopes of

participating in jam sessions with well-known chorões (choro players). The choro,

which is translated as “little cry” or “little lament” were popular music pieces with
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origins in Rio de Janeiro. Oxford Music Dictionary describes the choro as a piece
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with “…rhythmic patterns (syncopated binary figures), although tempo and
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instrumentation are distinguishing features…” and “…virtuoso improvisation of

instrumental variations and the resulting imaginative counterpoint…”

Unfortunately, when Villa-Lobos was just fourteen years old his home life and

musical career came to a standstill. His father passed away and his mother

attempted to prevent him from playing the guitar in fear that it would turn him into

a scoundrel (Meirinhos).

As a result of this, Villa-Lobos fled his mother’s home and lived with his aunt

(Meirinhos). From there his career would be defined by his travels, as he traversed

all throughout Brazil in order to gain a better understanding of his country’s native

music (Fraga). In this time, he would write many pieces, including one of his most

famous, “Suite Populaire Brasilienne” a piece which contained five choros based off

of different European dances, such as the waltz, mazurka, and gavotte.

Villa-Lobos was funded partially by the government and elites to travel to

Paris (Fraga 1996). Villa-Lobos would meet many famous composers and musicians,

including Prokofiev, Edgar Varése, and Andrés Segovia. He would end up writing

another famous set of pieces for guitar there – The Twelve Etudes – dedicated to

Andrés Segovia.

When he finally returned to Brazil Villa-Lobos combined his experiences in

Brazil and Europe to create a new set of pieces: The Six Preludes. The Six Preludes

were written by Villa-Lobos in Rio de Janeiro, 1940 though one of the pieces, the
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sixth and final prelude, went missing and has not been recovered to this day. Thus,
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often the set is commonly referred to today as The Five Preludes.
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Each prelude has its own unique subtitle: Prelude 1 “Lyrical Melody,” Prelude

2 “Melodia Capadocia,” Prelude 3 “Homage to Bach,” Prelude 4 “Homage to the

Brazilian Indian,” and Prelude 5 “Homage to Brazilian Social Life.” Each of these

subtitles speaks to the sections, especially in the context of an analysis. The goal of

the subsequent analyses will be to find musical representations of the subtitles

within each of the preludes.

Prelude 1 or “Lyrical Melody” is arguably the most popular of the five

preludes. The A section of the piece begins on E minor with the melody in the bass

line and open chords on top in a “boom-chic” style of sorts. If we look at Villa-Lobos’

other works and his musical background it becomes very apparent that the bass line

melody is meant to replicate the sound of a cello, while the plucked chords on top

are a piano accompaniment. This cello-like melody is the “lyrical melody” of this

piece – as is evident by its simplicity, repetition, frequent stepwise motion, and its

inherent beauty.

Prelude 2, or “Melodia Capadocia/Homage to the Brazilian Scoundrel,” seems

to call back to certain aspects of Prelude 1 with it’s E major key signature and

ternary form. Programmatically, the piece suggests contrasting regions of Brazil –

the first of which being the beaches of Rio de Janeiro – which manifests itself in the

A section as slow, relaxed, even carefree with the amount of rubato and ritards used.

Villa-Lobos takes this so far as to include a measure that is essentially unmetered, as

it contains a scale that is longer than the time signature should allow.
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In contrast, the B section fulfills the subtitle “Homage to the Brazilian
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Scoundrel.” The section is fast and lacks the tonal security of the A section. The B
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section also contains a melody which is just an octave and fifth, with a constant

arpeggio on top that always consists of an open B and E string. The melody with the

arpeggio is parallel motion of a major chord, with a centricity around F# major. The

contrasting open B and E strings in addition to all chords being major and the

speedy arpeggio make for a hectic, fast-paced B section reflective of hustlers and

scoundrels in the inner city.

Prelude 3 is slightly different than the last in terms of form, as it is in binary

form (AB) as opposed to ternary form (ABA). Additionally, while the key signature

presents us with A minor, the tonality is not clearly solidified until the final measure.

Because it is an “Homage to Bach,” both of these things are very appropriate. The A

section includes repetitious motives along with quick modulations and notated

Baroque ornamentation. The most notable of these are the appoggiaturas. These

appoggiaturas are very important, as evidenced by the fact that they are used in the

opening measure of the piece and repeated frequently. Additionally, the A section is

reminiscent of a French overture. The inclusion of dotted rhythms, frequent pauses,

and an unmetered feel are all evidence of this. The B section of the piece reminiscent

of a Bach organ toccata slowed down to half-speed, with a pedal point in the top

voice and a descending line underneath it.

Prelude 4, subtitled “Homage to the Brazilian Indian” is in E minor and is in

an ABA’A form. The piece is marked as lento and contains longer rhythms,

contrasting most of the other preludes. It is also much more sparse that the previous
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preludes, so much so that the majority of the A section is monophonic. When
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accompaniment does appear, it seems to suggest music of the Brazilian Indians. This
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is due to the rhythms, dotted eighth-sixteenths, which were meant to emulate the

sound of the human heartbeat close to nature, and reflective of a lot of native Indian

music. The B section is contrasting only in rhythm and feel, as it is still in the key of

E minor. It contains a constant sixteenth-note arpeggio that ascends and descends

on the fourth string, then ascends and descends on the sixth string until the melody

from the A theme appears in only harmonics. Following this is the return of A

section, which closes out the piece.

The final prelude, Prelude 5, or “Homage to Brazilian Social Life,” can also be

seen as an homage to the beginnings of Villa-Lobos’s career. The piece is in the form

of a waltz-choro. Evidence of this includes its fast 6/4 meter with an emphasis on

one and four in addition to a contrapuntal bass line. Villa-Lobos had originally

written a waltz-choro as part of his Suite Populaire Brasilienne though much slower

and in a minor sonority. This one is upbeat and in a major key, though it is

contrasted by the B section of the prelude which is in B-minor. This prelude is

unique in that it is in an ABCA form, with the C section having much faster rhythms

with a lot of ascending eighth note arpeggios and a triplet-eighth note scale

ascending to a repeat of the C section. The fifth prelude concludes with a literal

repeat of the A section.

Another important work from the 20th century is Nikita Koshkin’s Usher

Waltz. Nikita Koshkin was born in Moscow, Soviet Russia in 1956. While he

purportedly fell in love with the works of Stravinsky and Shostakovich at the age of
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four, rock guitar would be his passion until he was about fourteen years old
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(LaFave). When Koshkin was fourteen he received his first classical guitar along
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with recordings of Andrés Segovia. Classical guitar became his passion and he would

go on to study at the Moscow College of Music. Koshkin received his first

breakthrough when guitarist Vladimir Mikulka premiered his suite The Prince’s Toys

in 1980 (LaFave). Over a decade later in 1993 he would have another major

breakthrough when John Williams performed Usher Waltz on his biography John

Williams: The Seville Concert and Film Profile.

Usher Waltz is a programmatic piece meant to depict the short story by Edgar

Allen Poe, The Fall of the House of Usher. The story, told in the first-person, involves

a man visiting his old childhood friend Roderick Usher who is suffering from severe

mental illnesses. The narrator describes Usher’s wealthy family history and the

mansion he lives in, decrepit though unusually structurally sound. The narrator then

visits Roderick and finds out the details of his affliction – nervous agitation,

dramatic mood swings, paranoia, and hypersensitivity to all stimuli. Roderick states

the last condition was passed down his family tree due to many consanguineous

relationships. In addition to this, his sister, Lady Madeline, is suffering from severe

illness and rapidly deteriorating health; she dies at the outset of the story. As the

narrative goes on, the narrator helps Roderick bury Lady Madeline within the house.

Roderick’s mental illness continues to grow worse and the narrator begins to feel

unhinged as well, until the climax of the story. The narrator, reading to Roderick on

a stormy night in hopes of calming him down, is interrupted by Lady Madeline

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bursting through the door. The narrator immediately runs away from the house as
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fast as he can, and it crumbles in the distance.
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The aim of the following analysis will be to find relationships between the

story and its musical counterpart. The analysis will examine compositional devices

that are unique to twentieth century works. Finally, the analysis will examine how

Koshkin’s background in rock and jazz affected Usher Waltz.

The piece adheres to a tonal center but very frequently utilizes chromaticism

instead of chordal progression. Koshkin uses the chromaticism in order to create

not only a sense of motion but to illustrate the insanity that is occurring within the

story. This is most prominent in the bass line which drives most of the harmonic

motion in the work. Bass lines including chromatic tones ascending to a dominant or

secondary dominant chord are common. They often resolve to the tonic and then

quickly return to the dominant and resolve again.

The piece is in a loose rondo form. The A section consists of a clear A minor

tonal center – contrasting this is the B section which has a C major tonal center.

From here there are phrases which have an A minor tonal center and are another

instance of the A section. The C section briefly modulates to D minor and returns to

A minor – another A section. The D section is similar to the C section due to the fact

they both have a shared tonal center of D minor. The piece modulates back to A

minor, and then modulates to E minor in the E section, only to finally resolve back to

A minor in the coda.

In addition to these shared tonal centers, there is a motive that occurs

frequently in the bass line that distinguishes the A section from the rest. This
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motive, as shown in Example 13, is presented in the first instance of the A section
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and occurs in some fashion in the subsequent instances of A. Koshkin uses the
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motive to tie sections together and support the rondo form.

Example 13 – The motive utilizes chromaticism to built to the pre-dominant and dominant.

Examples 14 and 15 depict different instances of this motive. Example 14 has

a very literal interpretation of the motive, while Example 15 is more clouded.

Example 15 focuses on three pitches in the motive, E, A, and Bb. Koshkin is using

only the E and Bb here as a way to tonicize A minor, since both E and Bb serve a

dominant function. This new, shorter instance of the motive serves to push the piece

forward and build more tension.

Example 14 – The motive presented again. Koshkin uses this motive quite literally in its second
appearance, almost as a way to acclimate the listener to it before radically changing it.
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Example 15 – A shorter instance of the motive. The melody supports the A minor tonal center here.
The phrase starts on an A minor triad and the first four pitches are A and its upper and lower
neighbor.

As far as the programmatic aspect of the piece, the B section clearly depicts

part of the story. At one point Roderick plays The Last Waltz by Carl Maria von

Weber and the reader discovers that when Roderick plays the guitar he is

unaffected by his ailments. This part of the story is depicted in the B section of Usher

Waltz. The only instance where we get a stable modulation to a major key is in the B

section, and there is almost no chromaticism present here either. Both of these

things support the idea that this section is meant to depict Roderick calmly playing

the guitar.

Another notable instance of the music depicting the story is in the final pages

of the piece. The loud strummed chords leading into section only of harmonics serve

as the climax of the story and are most likely meant to depict the scene when Lady

Madeline, who is supposedly dead, enters the room where Roderick and the

narrator are. Following this is a quiet section that imitates previous material in the

piece, possibly harkening back to when Lady Madeline was “alive.” This section is all

done in harmonics as well, creating a ghostly, ethereal atmosphere which is very

appropriate for what it is depicting.

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The music not only gives us an understanding of the story, but a great
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understanding of Koshkin’s background as well. For example the introductory
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theme, which is often repeated throughout the work, has an arpeggiated E major

dominant 7th sharp 9 chord. This chord was popularized by Jimi Hendrix’s song

Purple Haze and has a much greater presence in rock and jazz music now than it did

in classical. Furthermore, Koshkin frequently includes strummed barre chords

which are very common in rock music. Finally, there are instances where the

performer is directed to “alternate the pitch by pulling the string sideways,” an

incredibly common technique on the electric guitar that is rarely used on a classical.

The pieces analyzed in this paper not only cover diverse eras of music but

diverse compositional styles as well. Each composer, while not necessarily writing

for the guitar, produced a piece that works fluently for it. Learning about these

composers, analyzing their pieces, and assessing compositional styles presents what

works well on guitar and why it works well. Not only is this beneficial for someone

potentially composing for the guitar, but anyone that is vaguely interested or just

wants to listen to its performance. A more knowledgeable listener likely appreciates

and understands a performance or work more clearly, and it is for that reason

surveys of multiple works are essential.

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Bibliography
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Bach, Johann Sebastian. Six Cello Suites, BWV1007 – BWV1012. Edited by Anna
Magdalena. Manuscript, n.d. (ca 1726).

The first score of the cello suites, as released by Anna Magdalena, J.S. Bach’s
second wife.

Bach, Johann Sebastian. Six Cello Suites, BWV1007 – BWV1012. Edited by Kellner,
Johann Peter. Manuscript, n.d. (ca 1726).

An edition of the cello suites released by Johann Peter Kellner, a contemporary of

J.S. Bach. This edition proves to be a good alternate to the Magdalena edition.
Subsequent editions incorporate ideas from both. For example – the Anna
Magdalena edition has no ascending diatonic scale before the final cadence in the
Gigue, while the Kellner edition does. When examining recordings and other
editions of the suites, performers and arrangers typically include the scale in the
final cadence. With this in mind, it is evident that no edition is definitively
“right.”

Christoph Wolff, and Walter Emery. "Childhood" Bach. Grove Music Online. Oxford
Music Online. Oxford University Press. Web. 22 Apr. 2014.

A biography on J.S. Bach by Wolff and Emery. The section used in this paper is
on Johann Sebastian Bach’s childhood and was referenced for the purposes of
uncovering some of his family history. The section itself covers J.S. Bach’s
education both in the context of music and outside of it. The biography reveals
that most music education J.S. Bach received is conjecture, though it is likely that
he was taught by his father. The biography goes on to discuss the passing of J.S.
Bach’s father and how J.S. Bach was then put in the custody of his brother J.C.
Bach. Wolff and Emery write that at the age of fifteen J.S. Bach was taught organ
by his brother J.C. Bach and support this claim with an account from J.S. Bach’s
son. Wolff and Emery state J.S. Bach learned how to compose as a copyist. They
conclude the section by stating that it is likely J.S. Bach composed his first piece
when he was fifteen, and support this with the claim that BWV749, 750, and 756
closely resembled the compositional style of Johann Pachelbel, his teacher’s
teacher, and were likely the first pieces he composed.

Clark, Walter Aaron, Albéniz: Portrait of a Romantic (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998), p.
65, fn. 132.

Cited in Yates’ article, Clark provides first-hand sources and explanations to

certain aspects of Asturias. Specifically used in this paper is Clark’s quote of a
letter between Albeniz and a friend that explains the inspiration behind the B
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section of Leyenda. Albeniz states that the B section is meant to represent a man
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playing a guzla, a Middle Eastern instrument, in the Alhambra Palace. It also goes
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on to state that Albeniz often thought of himself of Moorish descent, piquing his
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interesting in the Middle Eastern instrument and the Alhambra Palace.

Fraga, Orlando. Heitor Villa-Lobos: A Survey of His Guitar Music. Heitor Villa-Lobos: A
Survey of His Guitar Music. Electronic Ethnomusicological Review, Sept. 1996.
Web. 04 Apr. 2014.

Fraga begins his survey by giving a brief biography of Villa-Lobos. He does this
by first describing the scene where Villa-Lobos would grow up, Rio de Janeiro.
Fraga describes it as a place that was dominated by music and the choro. Villa-
Lobos was primarily self-taught, and Fraga details how most of Villa-Lobos’s
inspirations come from his travels within his home country of Brazil. Beyond this
Fraga details Villa-Lobos’s time spent studying in Paris and the people he met
there. Fraga ends the biography section of the paper with Villa-Lobos’ return to
Brazil and explains how it has changed from when he was there before. Following
this, Fraga lists all of Villa-Lobos’ guitar works and addresses each in a sentence
or two in addition to giving an excerpt from each one. For most of these, Fraga
just highlights what he believes is interesting and unique and each piece.

Hanford, Jan, and Jan Koster. "J.S. Bach: Biography." Eisenach (1685 - 1695). N.p.,
1995. Web. 04 Apr. 2014.

Another biography about J.S. Bach, this one was referenced just for the section on
Eisenach, and describes Bach’s life at an early age. It is a much more straight-
forward source than Clark and Emery’s work and provides a nice secondary
source. While there are no major discrepancies between the two, one may provide
more detail on certain aspects that the other does not have.

Jean-Aubry, G. "Isaac Albeniz (1860-1909)." Musical Times. 1 Dec 1917: 535-538. Print.

Jean-Aubry gives a biography of Isaac Albeniz and his various travels. Aubry
provides interesting personal stories that help add depth in addition to outlining
Albeniz personality. Most interesting though is that Jean-Aubry discusses Albeniz
change in careers. Albeniz was a virtuoso pianist for a large portion of his life, so
much so that he was very close to his contemporary and idol Franz Liszt. This
changed later in his life when he moved to Paris and devoted his time to
composition and personal enjoyment. Jean-Aubry crystallizes this point with a
first-hand account of himself listening to Albeniz play Iberia. Albeniz composed
it late in his life when he had long given up the virtuoso career, and Jean-Aubry
states that when he heard it performed by Albeniz he was tapping his feet,
laughing, and very ecstatic about it. For the purposes of this paper, Jean-Aubry’s
work was used as a biographical resource and a way to find personal accounts and
interactions with Albeniz. Furthermore, the source clearly has a goal in mind as
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he attempts to highlight the career change Albeniz made adding a new perspective
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to Albeniz’s life.
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Koshkin, Usher. Usher Waltz. Published by G. Schirmer, Inc. Manuscript, 1989.

An edition of Usher Waltz, used in this paper for musical examples.

LaFave, Kenneth. “Nikita Koshkin – Composer & Guitarist.” (n.d.). Accessed April 28,
2014. (http://physiology.med.unc.edu/tgs/artists/koshkin/nikita_koshkin_bio.html)

This source is a short biography of Nikita Koshkin. LaFave goes into detail on
Koshkin’s influences in addition to his musical training. Beyond this, LaFave
states that Koshkin got his fame through Vladimir Mikulka’s performance of his
piece The Prince’s Toys. For the purposes of this paper, it was used primarily for
historical background.

Meirinhos, Eduardo, "Primary Sources and Editions of Suite Popular Brasileira, Choros
No. 1, and Five Preludes, by Heitor Villa-Lobos: A Comparative Survey of
Differences" (2003). Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations. Paper 2500.

Meirinhos’ dissertation is similar to Fraga’s paper but done in much more detail
and with a much narrower focus. Meirinhos’ goal is to create a comparative
analysis of original transcripts and later editions. Additionally, Meirinhos’ details
things that were originally in the score but removed by Villa-Lobos. Meirinhos
states he wants “…a contextualization of the guitar in the life and work of the
composer.” In the context of this paper, Meirinhos’ work is used for its biography
and to provide a second source for Villa-Lobos’ history.

Poe, Edgar Allen. “The Fall of the House of Usher” 1839. Taken from the University of
Virginia’s website.

The text of “The Fall of the House of Usher” by Edgar Allen Poe. The source is
used in this paper in order to create a synopsis of the story. This provides the
reader with more context and creates an appropriate atmosphere around Usher
Waltz by Nikita Koshkin.

Soderberg, Stephen. "The Bach Cello Suites." The Bach Cello Suites. The Library of
Congress, n.d. Web. 04 Apr. 2014.

The goal of this short description of the Cello Suites is to make the listener ask
more questions about why Bach did what he did. Soderberg frames some ideas –
stating that the cello suites may not have been composed for anyone and may not
have been performed when he was alive – but then attempts to make the reader
dig deeper. Leading off the previous example, he may ask the question “Does that
mean Bach performed these suites on his own? Why did he even write them?” to
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get the reader to research and form an opinion from that research. Furthermore,
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Soderberg presents a brief analysis in order to show the depth of Bach’s
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compositions and to attempt to make the listener analyze them more. While
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Soderberg’s work is only cited in this paper for some biographical information, it
forms the basis for why this paper focuses on Motive A and Motive B. Why are
these two motives used so frequently? How might they be altered and then
presented elsewhere? Making the reader or listener question why the composer
does something is the best way learn quickly.

Yates, Stanley. "Everything You Wanted to Know About Albeniz's Leyenda." Stanley
Yates - Albeniz's Leyenda. N.p., 2000. Web. 04 Apr. 2014.

A comprehensive work on Albeniz’s history, the context of Asturias (Leyenda)

and Asturias’ subsequent guitar transcriptions. Yates is provides invaluable
information on how Asturias (Leyenda) is likely not meant to depict the
Asturias region of Spain and provides first-hand accounts as proof. He details
the likelihood that it was Albeniz’s publishers that renamed works and put
them in the Suite Española. Furthermore, Yates creates a comparative
analysis of guitar transcriptions like Segovia’s with the original score by
Albeniz and goes through what was changed and why it was changed. Yates’
work was used in this paper not only as a biographical source but for the
well-supported ideas he has on the programmatic aspect as well.