Understandingengineeringgeology 150714021135 Lva1 App6892

Luwalaga John Groover
MSc.PH (IHSU); B.Eng. Civil (KYU); H.Dip. Civil (KYU); Dip. Arch. (UPK)
2010 Edition
KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY
FACULITY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND BUILDING ENGINEERING
CE 225: ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

FOR
B.ENG. CBE II AND BEEEM II
FEBRUARY 2011
2 KYU, DCBE, BENG. CBE 2 & BEEEM 2, Engineering Geology Notes, for Sem.2,
2010/2011.
©Luwalaga John Groover (Mob: 0772450847; E-mail: Godblessugandanow@gmail.com)
Table of Contents
CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................................... 9
1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 9
1.1 Brief Description of the course ................................................................................ 9
1.2 Objective of the course ................................................................................................ 9
1.3 Geology ............................................................................................................................... 10
1.4 Work of Geologist ....................................................................................................... 10
1.5 The Scope of Geology .............................................................................................. 10
1.5.1 Physical geology ........................................................................................................ 10
1.5.2 Historical Geology .................................................................................................... 11
1.6 Civil Engineering ......................................................................................................... 12
1.7 Engineering Geology ................................................................................................. 12
1.8 Why study Geology .................................................................................................... 12
1.9 Activities of Engineering Geologists in Civil & Building Engineering

Industry ............................................................................................................................ 13
CHAPTER TWO................................................................................................................................. 14
2.0 THE PLANET EARTH AND ITS SURROUNDING .............................................. 14
2.1 Universe........................................................................................................................... 14
2.2 The Solar System........................................................................................................ 14
2.3 The Planet Earth ......................................................................................................... 19
2.4 The Age of the Earth................................................................................................ 20
2.5 The Internal Structure of the Earth .................................................................. 20
2.5.1 Crust ................................................................................................................................. 22
2.5.2 Mantle.............................................................................................................................. 22
2.5.3 Core .................................................................................................................................. 22
2.6 The Theory of Plate Tectonics ........................................................................... 23
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2.7 Continental Drift ........................................................................................................ 23
2.7.1 Evidence Supporting Continental Drift .......................................................... 24
2.8 Sea-Floor Spreading ................................................................................................. 25

Formation of an Oceanic Ridge ............................................................................................. 25
2.9 Geological Time Scale ........................................................................................................... 26
CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................................ 28
3.0 MINERALOGY .................................................................................................................. 28
3.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 28
3.2 SUMMARISED UGANDA MINERAL INVENTORY AND THEIR USES .. 29
3.3 Identification of Minerals and their Properties .......................................... 36
3.3.1 Physical Properties of Minerals .......................................................................... 36
3.3.2 Microscopic Optical Properties of Minerals......................................... 42
3.3.3 Chemical Properties of Minerals ........................................................................ 44
CHAPTER FOUR .............................................................................................................................. 50
4.0 PETROLOGY ...................................................................................................................... 50
4.1 Definitions ...................................................................................................................... 50
4.2 Rock Cycle ..................................................................................................................... 50
4.3 Types of Rocks ............................................................................................................ 52
4.3.1 Igneous Rocks (Eruptive Rocks) ....................................................................... 52
4.3.2 Sedimentary Rocks/Stratified/Secondary Rocks .................................... 56
4.3.3 Metamorphic Rocks .................................................................................................. 60
CHAPTER FIVE................................................................................................................................. 63
5.0 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY............................................................................................ 63
5.1 Definitions ...................................................................................................................... 63
5.2 Folds .................................................................................................................................. 64
5.2.1 Causes of Folding ...................................................................................................... 64
5.2.2 Parts of a fold and connected terminology ................................................. 65
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5.2.3 Types of Folds ............................................................................................................. 68
5.2.4 Engineering Considerations involved in Dealing with Folded

Rocks ............................................................................................................................................ 70
5.3 Fractures in Rock ...................................................................................................... 71
5.3.1 Joints ................................................................................................................................ 72
5.3.2 Faults ............................................................................................................................... 73
CHAPTER SIX ................................................................................................................................... 77
6.0 EARTH QUAKE................................................................................................................. 77
6.1 Definition ......................................................................................................................... 78
6.2 Causes of Earthquakes and their types ......................................................... 78
6.3 Seismic waves ............................................................................................................. 79
6.4 Types of seismic waves................................................................................. 80
6.4.1 Body waves: .................................................................................................................. 80
6.4.2 Surface waves .............................................................................................................. 80
6.5 Measuring of the size of an Earthquake ......................................................... 81
6.5.1 Intensity: ......................................................................................................................... 81
6.5.2 Magnitude: ...................................................................................................................... 81
6.6 Effects of earthquakes ............................................................................................ 83
6.7 Tsunami: .......................................................................................................................... 85
CHAPTER SEVEN ............................................................................................................................ 86
7.0 GEOTECHNICAL METHODS OF SITE INVESTIGATION .............................. 86
7.1 Definitions ...................................................................................................................... 86
7.2 Objectives....................................................................................................................... 86
7.3 Steps involved in Site Investigation ................................................................. 87
7.3.1 Desk study ...................................................................................................................... 87
7.3.2 Site reconnaissance. ................................................................................................ 88
7.3.3 Ground investigation ................................................................................................ 88
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CHAPTER EIGHT ............................................................................................................................. 91
8.0. TUNNELING.............................................................................................................................. 91
8.1 Definitions. ..................................................................................................................... 91
8.2 Merits and demerits of tunnels.......................................................................... 91
8.3 Tunnel approaches .................................................................................................... 92
8.4 Shape and size of tunnel cross-sections. ...................................................... 93
8.4.1 Shapes of tunnel cross-section ......................................................................... 93
8.4.2 Size of Tunnel cross-section. ..................................................................... 96
8.5. Types of tunnels ................................................................................................................ 96
a) Traffic tunnels. ................................................................................................................... 96
b) The Hydro power tunnels. ............................................................................................ 97
c) The Public Utility Tunnels ............................................................................................ 98
8.6 Geological considerations required for successful tunneling

operations in consolidated and unconsolidated rocks. ......................... 98
8.6.1 Tunneling in consolidated rocks ....................................................................... 98
8.6.2 Tunneling in unconsolidated rocks ................................................................. 99
CHAPTER NINE .............................................................................................................................. 100
9.0. PROCESS OF WEATHERING AND DENUDATION ................................................ 100
9.1 Introduction: General, sources and definitions ........................................ 100
9.2 Types of weathering. .............................................................................................. 101
9.2.1 Mechanical weathering or disintegration ................................................... 101
9.2.2 Chemical weathering. ............................................................................................ 103
9.2.3 Biological Weathering ............................................................................................ 107
9.3 Agents of erosion...................................................................................................... 108
9.3.1 Water ............................................................................................................................... 108
9.3.2 Wind ................................................................................................................................. 108
9.3.3 Erosion by moving ice. .......................................................................................... 108
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9.4 Factors affecting rate of Weathering............................................................. 109
9.5 Importance of weathering ................................................................................... 110
9.6 Short coming of weathering ............................................................................... 110
CHAPTER TEN ................................................................................................................................ 111
10.0 GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF BUILDING STONES AND

AGGREGATES. ............................................................................................................................... 111
10.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 112
10.1.1 Rock ........................................................................................................................ 112
10.1.2 Stone ....................................................................................................................... 112
10.2 Uses of stones .......................................................................................................... 112
10.3 Seasoning of stone ................................................................................................. 113
10.4 Characteristics of stones ................................................................................... 113
10.5 Decay or degradation of Stones ...................................................................... 114
10.6 Preservation of stones ......................................................................................... 115

10.6.1 Examples of preservatives ................................................................................ 115
10.7 Quarry and Quarrying ............................................................................................ 116
10.8 Selection of Quarry site ....................................................................................... 116
10.9 Different methods used in stone Quarrying .............................................. 116
CHAPTER ELEVEN ....................................................................................................................... 118
11.0 GEO-HYDROLOGY....................................................................................................... 118
11.1 Origin of ground water........................................................................................... 118
11.2 Definition...................................................................................................................... 119
11.3 The hydrologic cycle. ............................................................................................ 119
11.4 Occurrence of Groundwater .............................................................................. 120
Porosity...................................................................................................................................... 121
Permeability ............................................................................................................................ 122
Water table .............................................................................................................................. 124
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Perched water table ........................................................................................................... 124
Drainage of Ground water ............................................................................................... 124
Specific yield .......................................................................................................................... 124
Specific retention or field capacity ............................................................................ 125
11.5 Wells ................................................................................................................................ 125
11.5.1 Types of wells .................................................................................................... 125
11.6 Aquifers. ........................................................................................................................ 127
11.6.1 Types of Aquifers ............................................................................................. 128
11.7.1 Formation and types of springs ................................................................ 131
11.8 Isotropy and Anisotropy ........................................................................................ 132
11.8.1 Isotropy (KV = KL)................................................................................................ 132
11.8.2 Anisotropy (KL >>>>> KV) ..................................................................................... 132
11.9 Potentiality of different Rocks as Aquifers ............................................... 132
11.9.1 Sedimentary rocks as aquifers. ................................................................ 132
11.9.2 Metamorphic Rocks as Aquifers. ............................................................. 133
11.9.3 Igneous Rocks as Aquifers.......................................................................... 133
11.10 Groundwater Prospecting .................................................................................... 133
11.10.1 Objectives of hydro-geological investigation ................................ 134
11.10.2 Methods of exploration ............................................................................. 134
11.10.3 Logs or recording of Bore-hole Data .................................................. 136
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................................. 149
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CHAPTER ONE
The ancient Romans had a tradition: whenever one of their Engineers constructed an arch, as the capstone was hoisted
into place, the Engineer assumed accountability for his work in the most profound way possible: he stood under the arch.
Michael Armstrong. U.S. business executive, speech
1.0 INTRODUCTION
 Definition of Geology
 Work of Geologist
 The Scope of Geology
SUMMARY  Definition of Civil Engineering
 Definition of Engineering Geology
 Why study Geology
1.1 Brief Description of the course

 Introduces the fundamental aspects of geological processes and materials.
 Examines the close linkage with our everyday life as well as with civil and water engineering
constructions of common good.
1.2 Objective of the course
By the end of this course (Engineering Geology) students should be able to:
 Describe and identify the different types of rocks in order of formation and their physical
properties;
 Observe and record geological information and then translate this data to practical
engineering design, construction and maintenance of civil engineering projects;
 Explain the rocks’ contributions to groundwater quality purification and deterioration;
 Identify the chemical, mineralogical composition and structures of these rocks and their
effects to construction structures;
 Identify groundwater flow pattern within the different types of rocks in the world;
 Describe fully and identify the biological properties the rocks offer to weathering processes.
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1.3 Geology
The term Geology comes from the Greek words Geo + Logos. Geo means Earth, and
Logos means study or science. Geology therefore, deals with the study of the planet
Earth on which we are living. The science of Geology tells us about the origin, structure
and history of the Earth and its inhabitants, as recorded in the rocks. Without its
study, one remains ignorant about the same planet on which we are living.
Geology is a branch of natural science devoted to the study of the physical features of
the earth, the composition and structure of the rocks composing it, the forces at work
in altering it, and the record of the animals and plants that have lived on its lands and
inhabited its seas.
1.4 Work of Geologist

Geologists seek to understand how the earth formed and evolved into what it is today,
as well as what made the earth capable of supporting life.
A geologist is concerned with every aspect of the composition and structure of the
earth’s crust. His/her sphere of work is therefore world-wide; his/her main laboratory
is the great out-of-doors where he/she examines rocks as they actually occur in
nature. His/her considerations range from the beginning of time and into the future,
even to that time when man will no longer be on earth. He/she studies all that
composes the crust of the earth sphere and especially those materials of use to his/her
fellow man.
1.5 The Scope of Geology

The scope of geology is so broad that it has been split into two (2) major divisions:-
1. Physical geology
2. Historical geology
1.5.1 Physical geology
It deals with the Earth’s composition, structure, the movements within and upon the
Earth’s crust, and the geologic processes by which the Earth’s surface is, or has been
changed. This division of geology includes in itself, the following branches:-
Mineralogy: - This deals with the study of minerals. Minerals are basic constituents
of rocks, and thus, influence the properties of the rocks. Hence in order to know the
properties of the rocks, one has to study the properties of the minerals.
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Petrology: - The term Petrology is derived from the Greek word, Petro + Logos. Petro
means rocks and Logos means study. Hence Petrology means the study of the rocks.
Since the Earth’s crust, also called lithosphere (solid outer layer of the Earth above
the asthenosphere, consisting of the crust and upper mantle), is composed of different
types of rocks, their study is done under this branch, which deals with the study of
mode of formation, structure, texture, composition, occurrence, types, etc. of the
various rocks of the Earth’s crust.
Structural Geology: - The rocks which constitutes the Earth’s crust, have undergone
and continues to undergo various deformations, dislocations under the influence of
tectonic forces; causing formation of geological structures like folds, faults, joints, etc.,
in the rock masses. The details of their mode of formation, causes, types, classification,
importance, etc, are studied in this branch of physical geology.
Geomorphology: - This branch of geology explains and studies the origin of various
surface features of the Earth.
Economical Geology: - This is a specialized division of mineralogy and petrology,
wherein the products of the Earth’s crust having good economic value, are studied.
Valuable ores containing metals, like coals, petroleum, etc, do come under the domain
of this specialized study. It includes the study of their occurrence, search, and
exploitation for commercial and industrial uses.
1.5.2 Historical Geology
This deals with the study of the origin and evolution of the Earth and its inhabitants.
The various sub-divisions of this branch of geology includes:-
Stratigraphy: - The term stratigraphy comes from the Greek words: Strata + Graphy.
Strata mean the sets or beds of sedimentary rocks; while Graphy means the
description. Stratigraphy deals with the study of the beds of the sedimentary rocks.
The study thus helps in identifying the ages of the rocks of the various regions and
areas, thereby assisting in describing in detail their general civil engineering uses. The
study of these rocks involves extraction of fossils, i.e. the remains of plants and
animals of the past geological Eras.
Palalentology: - Deals with the study of the ancient organisms, plants, and animals,
etc; as revealed from their remains and remnants (i.e. fossils), the study helps in
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providing a background to the development of life on Earth, over the past geological
Eras.
Palaeogeography: - This branch of science deals with the study of the geographic
conditions of the past times. It, thus deals with the reconstruction of the relations of
the ancient lands and seas, and the organisms that inhabited them.
1.6 Civil Engineering

Civil Engineering is defined as the art that includes the design and construction of all
structures other than simple buildings, and the investigation, design, and
construction of all systems of transportation, natural power development, water
supply and sewage disposal, as well as the direction of natural forces for the use and
convenience of man. Every branch of civil engineering has some contact with the
surface of the earth. For instance, the works designed by the civil engineer being
supported by or located in some part of the earth’s crust. The practice of civil
engineering includes the design of these works and the control and direction of their
construction.
1.7 Engineering Geology

Engineering geology is the application of engineering principles to geologic problems.
Two fields of Engineering that use geology extensively are civil Engineering and Mining
geology Engineering. For example, the stability of a building or bridge requires an
understanding of both the foundation material (rocks or soil) and the potential for
earthquakes in the area.
1.8 Why study Geology

 To classify and know the types of rocks
 To differentiate the types of minerals and their properties
 To appreciate geological structures such as faults, folds, joints, bedding, etc
 To determine the strength and behavior of geological materials
 To be able to understand and carryout ground investigations
 To understand the earth’s endogeonetic and exogeonetic processes e.g. weathering,
erosion, failure of slopes, etc
 To be able to interpret Geological Maps
 To understand characteristic of ground water bodies
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 To facilitate excavations in rocks and soils during mining, tunneling, etc
 To be able to determine foundations and embankments for reservoirs, dams, etc
 To help identify suitable locations for landfills
1.9 Activities of Engineering Geologists in Civil & Building

Engineering Industry
Investigation of foundations for all types of major structures, such as dams, bridges,
power plants, airports, large buildings and towers;
Evaluation of geological ground conditions along tunnels, mines, pipelines, canals,

railway, and highway routes;
Exploration and development of sources of rock, soil and sediment for use as
construction material;
Investigation and development of surface and groundwater resources; groundwater

basin management; protection and remediation of groundwater resources;
Evaluation of geological hazards such as landslides, faults and earthquakes, seismic

hazards, radon, asbestos, subsidence, expansive and collapsible soils, expansive
bedrock;
The evaluation of geological conditions affecting residential, commercial, and

industrial land use and development;
Foundation investigation, slope stability and excavatability;
The safe disposal of waste to the Earth;
In cooperation with the civil engineers, Engineering geologists have a big role in
ensuring public safety, health and welfare in relation to engineering works. In some
countries like the US, the profession laws require participation of engineering
geologists in approving construction plans.
Geology is pro-people. It exists because people want to modify the geological

environment for their use and convenience; they want to work and live safely in
harmony with the environment. Geologists can determine which geological
environment is good and safe for construction.
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CHAPTER TWO
John 1:1-4
In the beginning the Word (Jesus Christ) already existed. The Word was with God, and the Word was God. He existed in
the beginning with God. God created everything through Him and nothing was created except through Him. The Word
gave life to everything that was created, and His life brought light to everyone.
2.0 THE PLANET EARTH AND ITS SURROUNDING
 The Solar System

 The Planet Earth
 The Age of the Earth
 The Internal Structure of the Earth
SUMMARY
 The Theory of Plate Tectonics
 Continental Drift
 Sea – floor spreading
 Geological Time Scale
2.1 Universe
The Universe is the totality of all matter and energy that exists in the vastness of
space, whether known to human beings or not.
2.2 The Solar System

The solar system (sun and bodies orbiting it) is the sun and all the planets,
asteroids, meteors, and comets that are subject to its gravitational pull.
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The Solar System consists of nine major planets (including the earth) moving around
a central body – SUN.
These planets includes:-
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto.
The nine major planets and their moons (32) are revolving in nearly the same plane
around the sun. In addition to this movement around the sun, these planets are
undergoing constant rotation about their own axis. Among the nine planets, only the
earth is the only planet which is certainly known to support life.
2.2.1 Important Facts about the Solar System

No. Name of the Average distance Equatorial No. of Length of time Length of time for 1
Planet from the sun Diameter (Km) Moon for 1 trip around revolution about the
(million Km) the sun own axis
1 Mercury 57.91 4878 0 88 days 59 days

2 Venus 108.2 12100 0 224 days 243 days
3 Earth 149.6 12756- 1 365 ¼ days 23hrs, 56min,
12714 1sec.
4 Mars 227.94 6793-6753 2 1.9 years 24hrs, 37min
5 Jupiter 778.33 142880- 12 11.9 years 9hrs, 50min
133540
6 Saturn 1426.98 120000- 10 29.5 years 10hrs, 14min
106900
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7 Uranus 2871 50800- 5 84 years 10hrs, 49min
49400
8 Neptune 4497 48600- 2 164.9 years 15hrs, 48min
47500
9 Pluto 5914 5500 0 248 years 6.4 days
Mercury orbits closer to the Sun than any

other planet, making it dry, hot, and virtually
airless. Although the planet’s cratered surface
resembles that of the Moon, it is believed that
the interior is actually similar to Earth’s,
consisting primarily of iron and other heavy
elements. This composite photograph was
taken in 1974 by Mariner 10, the first probe to
study Mercury in detail.
Venus is the brightest object in our sky, after

the sun and moon. Swirling clouds of sulfur
and sulfuric acid obscure Venus’s surface and
inhibited study of the planet from Earth until
technology permitted space vehicles, outfitted
with probes, to visit it. These probes
determined that Venus is the hottest of the
planets, with a surface temperature of about
460° C (about 860° F). Scientists believe that
a greenhouse effect causes the extreme
temperature, hypothesizing that the planet’s
thick clouds and dense atmosphere trap energy
from the sun.
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Earth. An oxygen-rich and protective
atmosphere, moderate temperatures, abundant
water, and a varied chemical composition
enable Earth to support life, the only planet
known to harbor life. The planet is composed
of rock and metal, which are present in molten
form beneath its surface.
Mars. The most detailed information available

about Mars has come from unpiloted
spacecraft sent to the planet by the United
States. From this data, scientists have
determined that the planet’s atmosphere
consists primarily of carbon dioxide, with
small amounts of nitrogen, oxygen, water
vapor, and other gases. Because the
atmosphere is extremely thin, daily
temperatures can vary as much as 100 Celsius
degrees (190 Fahrenheit degrees). In general,
surface temperatures are too cold and surface
pressures too low for water to exist in a liquid
state on Mars. The planet resembles a cold,
high-altitude desert.
Jupiter is the largest of the planets, with a

volume more than 1,300 times greater than
that of Earth. Jupiter’s colorful bands are
caused by strong atmospheric currents and
accentuated by a dense cloud cover. The
massive planet, upper right, is shown here
with its four largest satellites: Io, upper left,
Ganymede, lower left, Europa, center, and
Callisto, lower right.
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Saturn, distinguished by its rings, is the
second largest planet in the solar system. This
processed Hubble Space Telescope image
shows the planet’s cloud bands, storms, and
rings as they would appear to the human eye.
Uranus. Uranus’s blue-green color comes

from the methane gas present in its cold, clear
atmosphere. The dark shadings at the right
edge of the sphere correspond to the day-night
boundary on the planet. Beyond this boundary,
Uranus’s northern hemisphere remains in a
four-decade-long period of darkness because
of the way the planet rotates.
Neptune. This image of Neptune, taken by the

Voyager 2 spacecraft, shows the planet’s most
prominent features. The large, dark oval
surrounded by white clouds near the planet’s
equator is the Great Dark Spot, a storm similar
to Jupiter’s Great Red Spot. The smaller dark
oval with a bright core below and to the right
of the Great Dark Spot is another storm known
as Dark Spot 2.
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Pluto is farther from the Sun than the
major planets in the solar system,
although it occasionally moves in closer
than Neptune due to an irregular orbit.
The small, rocky, and cold world takes
247.7 years to revolve around the Sun.
This artist's rendition depicts Pluto,
foreground; its moon, Charon,
background; and the distant Sun, upper
right.
2.3 The Planet Earth
Earth (planet), the third planet in distance from sun in the solar system, the only
planet known to harbor life, and the home of human beings
Nearly two-thirds or about 71% of earth’s surface is covered by water, which is
essential to life. The rest is land, mostly in the form of continents that rise above the
oceans.
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Illustration of the earth
North Pole
Polar (12714 Km)
Equator (12756 Km)
Circumference (40, 000 Km)

South Pole
The earth has a Polar diameter of 12714 Km, Equatorial diameter of 12756 Km,
Circumference of 40,000 Km; surface area of about 510 x 106 Km2, volume of about
1042 x 109 Km3, mass of about 5.97 x 1021 tones; average distance from the sun is
150 x 106 Km, length of time for one trip around the sun is 365 ¼ days, length of time
for one revolution about the own axis of about 24 hours and average temperature of
14oC. In shape, the earth is like an oblate spheroid, i.e. with the exception of a slight
flattening at the poles, the earth is nearly spherical or ball shaped.
2.4 The Age of the Earth

Geochronologists are responsible for determining the age of the earth using
radioactivity technique (radiometric dating technique). This can be achieved by using
modern estimates of the age of rocks which form the earth’s crust and are based on
determinations on radioactive minerals contained in the rocks. The age of the earth
has been estimated to be about 4.55 billion years.
2.5 The Internal Structure of the Earth

The known volume and mass of the earth gives its mean density to be 5.5 g/cm3, yet
the mean density of rock forming the outer part is 1.126 and 3.1 g/cm3. Thus its
greatest mass is concentrated towards the centre.
Evidence from seismic waves shows that the earth is layered. The earth basically
consists of 3 layers:-
1) Crust
2) Mantle
3) Core
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The Earth is made up of a series of layers that formed early in the planet’s history, as
heavier material gravitated toward the center and lighter material floated to the
surface. The dense, solid, inner core of iron is surrounded by a liquid, iron, outer core.
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The lower mantle consists of molten rock, which is surrounded by partially molten
rock in the asthenosphere and solid rock in the upper mantle and crust. Between
some of the layers, there are chemical or structural changes that form discontinuities.
Lighter elements, such as silicon, aluminum, calcium, potassium, sodium, and
oxygen, compose the outer crust.
2.5.1 Crust
This is a solid rock which is the topmost thin layer of the earth’s body, having a solid
thickness of about 30 to 40 Km in continents and 5 to 6 Km in the oceans. In fact, it
has been concluded that in the continents, the total depth is about 35 Km, out of
which the bottom 5 Km depth consists of denser Basalt rock (density of 3.0 g/cm3);
and the top 30 Km consists of lighter Granite rock (density of 2.7 g/cm3).
The granitic rocks of the continents and the basaltic rocks of the oceans are covered
by a top layer of unconsolidated sediments (about 1 Km thick). The earth’s crust
provides hard and soft rocks, and is classified as igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks which are to be discussed later.
2.5.2 Mantle
This is a region surrounding the heavy core. The mantle consists of upper mantle
which is generally solid and the lower mantle which is semi-solid and can flow; and
this is the focus of most earthquakes.
The crust and the uppermost part of the mantle are relatively rigid and collectively
they make up the lithosphere. The lower mantle which is below the lithosphere is
called the asthenosphere, which is soft and therefore flows more readily than the upper
mantle. It provides a lubricating layer over which the lithosphere moves.
2.5.3 Core
This consists of 2 layers (inner and outer core). The inner core is solid and is composed
of heavy metals mainly iron (Fe) and Nickel.
The outer core consists of the same metals but in a fluid state.
Magnetism is generated by the electric currents flowing through the liquid iron (Fe).
Therefore the earth has its own magnetic field.
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=endscreen&v=0mWQs1_L3fA&NR=1
2.6 The Theory of Plate Tectonics

The term Plate Tectonics came to be used to denote the process involved in the
movements and interactions of the plates (“tectonic” is derived from Greek “tekton”,
meaning a builder).
Plate Tectonic is a theory that outer shell of the Earth’s surface is divided into large,
thick, rigid plates that are slowly moving relative to each other, and changing in size.
The plate tectonic theory is a unifying theory that accounts for many seemingly
unrelated geological phenomena. Some of the disparate phenomena that plate
tectonics explains are where and why we get earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain belts,
deep ocean trenches, and mid-oceanic ridges.
Plate tectonics regards the lithosphere (crust and upper mantle) as broken into plates
that are in motion. The plates, which are much like segments of the cracked shell on
a boiled egg, move relative to one another, sliding on the underlying asthensphere
(lower mantle).
According to plate tectonics, divergent boundaries exist where plates are moving apart;
transform/conservative boundary occurs where two plates slide past each other,
earthquakes along the fault are a result of plate motion; and convergent boundary
occurs where plates move toward each other.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1-HwPR_4mP4&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KCSJNBMOjJs&feature=related
2.7 Continental Drift

The planet Earth is composed of about six continents namely, Africa, North America,
South America, Asia, Europe, and Australia.
2010/2011.
The continents at one time about 220-250 million years (my) ago, formed one super-
continent called “Pangea” or “Pangaea”.
Continent drift is the idea that continents move freely over Earth’s surface, changing
their positions relative to one another.
From the study of magnetism in the rocks of the earth’s crust and from the detailed
surveys of the ocean floor; it was concluded in 1960s that continents
drifted/drift/move away from one another.
2.7.1 Evidence Supporting Continental Drift
1) Palaeo-climatology: The past climates which are inconsistent with their modern
locations.
2) Palaeontology: Patterns of present day animal life, similarities among fossils across
continents.
3) Geometric fit of the different continents e.g. if South America and Africa are fitted
together, the identical contacts are found in precisely the right position on the
shore of South America.
4) Matching Stratigraphy and Truncated structure: The Mountains of North Eastern
America, Western Europe and Northern Africa, their compositions are the same
and this is a proof that the world was one.
2010/2011.
2.8 Sea-Floor Spreading
Sea-floor spreading is Hess’s 1962 proposal which is a hypothesis (concept) that the
sea floor forms at the crest of the Mid-oceanic ridge, the moves horizontally away from
the ridge crest towards an oceanic trench. The two sides of the ridge are moving in
opposite directions like slow conveyor belts.
Mid-ocean ridges occur along boundaries between plates of Earth’s outer shell where
new seafloor is created as the plates spread apart. As plates move apart under the
ocean, molten rock, or magma, wells up from deep below the surface of the seafloor.
Some of the magma that ascends to the seafloor produces enormous volcanic
eruptions. The rest solidifies on the edges of the plates as they spread apart, creating
new rocky seafloor material.
Formation of an Oceanic Ridge

An oceanic ridge develops on the ocean floor where the boundaries of tectonic plates
meet. Molten rock is forced up at these boundaries and pushes the oceanic crust up
and outward, creating the ridge.
Magma Upwelling
Mid-ocean ridges occur along boundaries between plates of Earth’s outer shell where
new seafloor is created as the plates spread apart. As plates move apart under the
ocean, molten rock, or magma, wells up from deep below the surface of the seafloor.
2010/2011.
Some of the magma that ascends to the seafloor produces enormous volcanic
eruptions. The rest solidifies on the edges of the plates as they spread apart, creating
new rocky seafloor material.
2.9 Geological Time Scale

Geologic time is the time scale that covers earth’s entire geologic history from its origin
to the present day.
Geology involves vastly greater amounts of time, often referred to as deep time. The
earth is estimated to be about 4.55 billion years old. Humans have been here only
about the last 3 million years.
Geologic time scale helps scientists think about the history of the planet in
manageable section of time. Geologists can use fossils in rocks to refer the age of the
rock to the standard geologic time scale (below), a worldwide relative time scale. Based
on fossil assemblages, the geologic time scale subdivides geologic time.
2010/2011.
Geologic Time Scale
EON ERA PERIOD EPOCH BEGINNINGLIFE FORMS
ORIGINATING
(YEARS AGO)
Neogene Holocene (Recent)…11500……………………………………………

(Quaternary) Pleistocene…………..1.8 million……………Human………………….
Cenozoic Paleogene Pilocene………………5.3 million………………………………………….

(Tertiary) Miocene……………….23 million……………Grazing and………….
Oligocene……………..34 million……………Carnivorous…………
Eolene…………………..56 million…………..Mammals…………
………………………….Paleocene………………65 million……………………………………….
Phanerozoic Cretaceous…………………………………145 million….Primate, flowering, plant
Mesozoic Jurassic…………………………………………200 million……………..Birds…………………
Triassic …………………………………………251 million………Dinosaurs, Mammals
Perimian…………………………………….299 million………………………………………..
Carboniferous Pennsylvanian…….318 million………………Reptiles………
Paleozoic Mississippian……359 million………..Fern Forests………….

Devonian………………………………………416 million….Amphibians, Insect…….
Silurian……………………………………….444 million..Vascular land plants…….
Ordovician…………………………………….488 million….Fish, Chordates………….
Cambrian………………………………………542 million….Shell fish, Trilobites……

Proterozoic………………………………………………………………………………..2.5 billion…….Eukaryotic cells………..
Archean ………………………………………………………………………………………… 3.8 billion? ....Prokaryotic cells……..
The geologic time scale, representing an extensive fossil record consists of three eons
(Archean, Proterozoic and Phanerozoic). Each eon is subdivided into eras. Each era is
made up of periods, which are further divided into epochs. The Archeon and
Proterozoic eons are collectively called Precambrian time. Precambrian denotes the
vast amount of time that proceeded the Paleozoic era (which begins with the Cambrian
period). The Paleozoic era (meaning old life) began with the appearance of complex life,
as indicated by fossils. Rocks older than Paleozoic contain few fossils. This is because
creatures with shells or other hard parts, which are easily preserved as fossils, did not
evolve until the beginning of the Paleozoic. The Mesozoic era (meaning middle life),
followed the Paleozoic. We live in the recent (or Holocene) epoch of the Quaternary (or
Neogene) period of the Cenozoic era (meaning new life).
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CHAPTER THREE
The Lion looked at Alice wearily. “Are you animal – or vegetable – or mineral?” He said, yawning at every other word.
Lewis Carroll (1832 - 1898), British writer and mathematician.
3.0 MINERALOGY
 Definitions
 Summarized Ugandan Minerals Inventory and their uses.
 Identification of Minerals and their properties.
SUMMARY
 Physical properties
 Microscopic Optical properties
 Chemical properties
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Mineralogy is the study of minerals.
Minerals are the basic constituents of rocks, and thus influence the properties of the
rocks.
A mineral is a naturally occurring homogeneous solid with a definite chemical
composition and highly ordered atomic arrangements.
A mineral is a body produced by the process of nature, having a definite chemical
composition and, if formed under favorable conditions, a certain characteristic,
molecular structure which is exhibited in its crystalline form and other physical
properties.
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3.2 SUMMARISED UGANDA MINERAL INVENTORY AND THEIR USES
Map of Uganda showing all districts
2010/2011.
2010/2011.
ITEM MINERAL DISTRICIT LOCATION USAGE
COMMODI
TY
1 Aggregates All Districts Construction of Houses, Roads and other Civil works.
and Crushed
Stones.
2 Asbestos Arua Anzaiya Roofing, Brakes and Friction, Ceramics, Chemicals and Fertilizers,
Paint, Coatings Vanish, Gaskets, Insulation Mats.
Moroto Morungore
Nakapiripirit Nakiloro
3 Beryllium Busheny Kaharoro, Murali, Mutaka. Beryllium – Copper Alloys with great fatigue resistance nuclear field,
Aeronautic Industry.
Mbarara Kihanda
Mukono Lunya
Rukungiri Bugangari, Bulema,

Kyanymphiha, Ishasha,
Nyabushoro,
NyabuKarina.
4 Bismuth Rukungiri Muramba, Kayonza, Rwanzu, Medical, Cosmetic, Low – Melting point alloys when combined with
Kyambeya, Kitwa, Rwenkuba, Lead, Tin, Cadmium and Antimony, Bearing Alloys with Brass and
Kitawulira. Bronze.
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5 Chalcopyrite Kasese Kilembe Copper wires, Coins, Alloys like Brass and Bronze production. Copper
Salts used in Industries like treatment of Timber and Fungicide.
6 Kyanite Rukungiri Ihunga Hill

Nebbi Azi
7 Clay Widely spread in the country Bricks, Tiles Ceramic Ware.
close to swamps river valleys
and rift valleys.
8 Cobalt Kases Kilembe Used in the form of Ferrous and Non – Ferrous Alloys, special Steels,
also as the oxide and in Salts, Glass and Ceramics, Chemical and Bio
Chemical Industry.
9 Copper Kasese Kilembe Wide applications in Electrical and Metallurgical Industries.
Karamoja
10 Chromites Moroto Nakiloro Manufacture of Metallurgical products, Refractory used in
Kitgum Burukung and Abora Rivers. Metallurgical Plants. Cements and Plastics used in the construction of
Furnaces, Chemical Products such as Chromates and Pigments.
11 Diatomite Nebbi Panyango, Alui, Atar. Chemicals and Fertilizers, Filter Medial e.g. Brewing Industry,
Pakwach Ferrites, Insecticides, Herb/Fungi.
12 Feldspar Mukono Lunya Ceramics, glass, Glazes, enamels, pottery, poultry grit.
Bushenyi Mutaka
13 Glass Sand Masaka Bukakata, Diimu. Glass ware, Enamel ware, Refractories, Scouring and Polishing Media,
Wakiso Entebbe Plastics, Rubber, Dental Products, Construction etc.
Mpigi Nalumuli, Kome Island
Mukono Nyimu
14 Graphite Kitugum Omia, Orom Hills Lead pencils, Batteries Crucibles, Finer Grade used as Lubricant.
Nebbi Zeu
Moroto Ekuyen
15 Gold Bushenyi Mashonga, and Buhweju.
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Busia Amonikakinei, Makina, Alupe, Jewellery and Decorative, Electronics, Bullion, Monetary, Dental,
and Nanguke. Medical, and Industrial Supplies.
Mbarara Ibanda, Mabonwa – mpasha,
Rukiri, and Katenure.
Kanungu Kanungu
Moroto Rupa
Kotido Lopedo, and Alerek.
Arua Most Streams at DRC Boarder.
Nebbi Nyagak River, Goli hill.
Bugiri Bude – Kitojha.
Moyo Most Streams at Sudan Boarder.
16 Gypsum Mbarara Mburo Ceramics, Glass, Glazes, Enamels, Chemicals Cement Manufacture,
Bundibugyo Kibuku Building wall and Wall Board, Soil Container, Textiles, in Casting and
Kasese Muhokya Moulds.
17 Nickel Mbarara Kajunzo
Ntungamo Rugaga
18 Kaolin Bushenyi Mutaka Ceramics, Chemicals, Construction, Glass, Glazes, Enamel,
Rakai Kisai (Koki) Insecticides, paint, coatings, Vanish, Paper, Leather Tanning,
Moyo Lunyenye Refrectories, Welding Electrodes.
Nebbi Kuluva
18 Lead/Galena Kabalore Kitaka Used in Battery manufacture, Low Melting point Alloys, Paint, and
Glass.
20 Lime Stone Kasese Hiima Cement, Lime, Ceramics, Chemicals and Fertilizers, Lime used in Soil
Tororo Tororo Hiill Stabilisation, Water Treatment, Poultry and Animal Feed stuffs.
Mbale Bukiribo
Moyo Gweri Hill
Kabarole Dura
21 Lithium Mubende Used in Glass Industry, Enamels, Fluxes, Greases, Bleaches.
Kabala
22 Magnetite Moroto Lolung Making Rubber, Stucco, Magnesium, salts, Heat Insulation Metallurgy
and Refractories.
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23 Marble Kotido Cement, Terrazzo, Dimensional Stone.
Moyo
Moroto Forest Reserve, Tank Hill, Rupa,
Katike Kakile.
24 Malachite Kasese Kilembe Minor ore of Copper used as Ornamental and Gemstone.
25 Mica Arua Chere River Electrical and Heating Insulation e. g. in Flat – Iron, Welding
Kotido Labwor and Morulem Electrodes, Plastics and Rubber, Cosmetic and Pharmaceuticals.
Nebbi Aguyi and Aliakira
Kitgum Orom, and Pailma.
Mukono Lunya.
26 Niobium Tororo Sukulu Useful for its corrosion resisting properties at high temperature such
(Columbium Rukungiri Bulema as in Superchargers and Gas Turbines, in Mild and Stainless Steels,
) Kanungu used in Dyes for Artificial Fibres.
27 Phosphate Mbale Busumbu Fertilize and Chemicals based on elemental Phosphorus and
Tororo Sukulu Phosphoric Acid, Livestock Food.
28 Precious Karamoja Ornamental
Stone
29 Pyrite Kasese Kilembe Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, as a Gemstone old as Marcasite.

30 Salt Kasese Lake Katwe Source of common salt (Sodium Chloride) and a wide range of other
Masindi Kibiro salts e. g. Sodium Carbonate and Bicarbonate, Potassium Chloride,
Sodium Sulphate, Potassium Bromine; Eutectic Brine, Bromine Gas,
used in preservation of Foods, Medicines, and Weed killer.
31 Talc Kasese Kisinga Cosmetic and Pharmaceuticals, Paper, Carpet backing Ceramics,
Bushenyi Kyamuhunga Paint, and Refractories.
Moroto Lolung
32 Tantalum Rukungiri Very high corrosion resistance and therefore a substitute for platinum
Bushenyi in Chemical apparatus Surgical Steels, used in Dyes for Artificial
Fibres.
Mubende
33 Tin Mbarara Kikagati – Kitezo, Ruhama, Tin metal, Alloys, Tin Plating, Canning, Utensils, Textile Dying,
(Cassiterte) Ruzinyo. Ceramic Industry, and manufacture of Solders.
Kabale Ruhuma, Buvama, Kamwezi.
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Ntungamo Kyamugasha.
Kanungu
Bushenyi Kaina and Rwentobo.
34 Tungsten Rakai Buyaga Main use is in high – speed outing tools, Military hardware (Amour
Kabala Nyamulilo, Mpororo, Rushanga, Plate), Electric Light Filament, Electrical Contacts and Tungsten
Wolframite Ruhizha. Carbide. High speed cutting Tools, Steel, Valves, Springs, Armour
Masaka Plates and manufacture of resistant Non – Ferrous Alloys.
35 Diamond Bushenyi Buhweju
36 Travertine Kabalore Dura Manufacture of Decorative Terrazzo, Concrete blocks, Ceramics,
(Lime Stone) Cement, Lime Stone, used in soil Stabilisation, Paints, Water
Treatment, Fertilizer, Building White Wash, Stone, Road Metal,
Whiting substitute and Paper Mills, Neutralization of Waste Acid,
Waste Treatment, Poultry and Animal Feed Stuff.
37 Vermiculite Mbale Namakhara, Sukusi, Kabatola, Used in Heat and Sound Insulation, Insecticides, Light weight Bricks,
Surumbusa, Nakhupa. Building Plaster, Lubricants, Brake Linings and Soil Conditioning.
38 Water Widely spread in the Country Drinking.
except in the in the Rift Valley.
39 Zircon Moroto Rupa Gemstones, Refractory and source of Zirconium Oxide used in the
manufacture of Incandescent Gas Mantles and Abrasive.
40 Iron Ore Mbarara Mugabuzi Roofing Sheets, Iron Bars, and Iron ore is added to Scrap material in
Kabala Butare (Muko) Steel production at Jinja.
Tororo Sukulu
Kisoro Kyanyamuzinda
Moyo Gweri (Metuli)
Iganga Wambogwe.
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3.3 Identification of Minerals and their Properties
Every individual mineral has a certain set of properties, which will be characteristic of
that mineral alone. By testing a mineral for all such properties, therefore, we can easily
identify it.
The various properties of the minerals, the study of which may help in their identification
are:-
1. Physical properties
2. Microscopic optical properties
3. Chemical properties
3.3.1 Physical Properties of Minerals

The physical properties of minerals are important aid in identifying and characterizing
them.
The various physical properties of minerals are: - streak, colour, luster, hardness,
cleavage, fracture, tenacity, specific gravity, etc.
Colour
The first thing most people notice about a mineral is its colour. For some minerals, colour
is a useful property. Muscovite mica is white or colourless. Most naturally occurring
minerals contain traces of substances which modify their colour. Thus Quartz, which is
colourless when pure, may be white, grey, pink, or yellow; when certain chemical
impurities or included particles are present.
Streak
The streak of a mineral is the colour of its powder. The streak of a mineral can be readily
observed by scratching it on a streak plate, which is made up of unglazed porcelain or
roughened glass. Streak plate has a hardness of about 7.0 and cannot be used for
minerals of greater hardness and transparent minerals. While determining streak for a
mineral, care should be taken to scratch it from its obscure part, and to give only a small
scratch, producing a small quantity of its powder. Streak is useful, e.g. in distinguishing
the various oxides of iron like: - hematite (Fe2O3) gives a red streak; Limonite (hydrated
Fe2O3) gives a brown streak, and Magnetite (Fe 3O4) gives a grey streak.
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Luster
The shine of a mineral is called its luster. Luster can also be defined as the appearance
of a mineral surface in reflected light. The luster of a mineral is described by comparing
it to familiar substances.
Different Types of Luster
No Type of Luster Represented by Mineral examples
1 Vitreous Luster A mineral having a glassy shine Quartz and Calcite
2 Pearly Luster A mineral having a pearly shine Muscovite
3 Metallic Luster A mineral with a metallic shine Magnetite
4 Silky Luster A mineral with a silky shine Asbestos
5 Resinous Luster A mineral with a greasy shine like that Talc
of a resin
6 Adamantine The mineral having a diamond like Diamond and Zircon
Luster shine
Cleavage
Cleavage is the ability of a mineral to break, when struck along preferred direction. The
planes along which the crystal breaks are called the cleavage planes. A mineral tend to
break along certain planes because the bonding between atoms is weaker there. In
Quartz, the bonds are equally strong in all directions; therefore, Quartz has no cleavage.
The Micas, however, are easily split apart into sheets. Terms used to describe cleavage
include: - perfect, good, distinct, imperfect and no cleavage.
Different Types of Cleavage
No Type of cleavage Represented by Mineral Example
1 Basal cleavage There are one set of cleavage. The Muscovite
crystals with this cleavage can easily
break or split into thin sheets.
2 Prismatic cleavage There are two sets of cleavage. The Hornblende
cleavage planes are parallel to the
vertical set of crystal faces.
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3 Cubic cleavage There are three sets of cleavage at Galena
right angles to each other.
4 Rhembohedral There are three sets of cleavages Calcite
cleavage directions, each excellent but at
angles other than right angle.
5 Octahedral cleavage There are four sets f cleavage. The Fluorspar and
cleavage planes are parallel to the Magnetite.
faces of the crystal form.
Fracture
This is the appearance or nature of a broken surface of a mineral when it is hammered
and broken. The break being irregular and independent of cleavage; a fresh fracture
shows the true colour of a mineral.
Different Types of Fractures
No. Type of Represented by Mineral Example
Fracture
1 Even Fracture When the broken surfaces of a Chert
mineral is smooth.
2 Uneven Fracture When the mineral breaks with very Chromite and various
rough and coarse surface. other minerals.
3 Hackly Fracture When a mineral breaks with Native Copper
irregular surfaces having sharp
edges.
4 Earthy Fracture When the broken surface is soft Chalk
and almost smooth.
5 Conchoidal When a mineral breaks with Quartz
Fracture curved surfaces. There will be
concentric grooves and ridges
resembling with the concentric
lines of growth on a shell.
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Tenacity
The response of a mineral to a hammer below, to cutting with a knife and to bending is
described by its tenacity.
Different types of Tenacities of Minerals
No. Type of Tenacity Represented by Mineral Example
1 Sectile When the mineral can be cut with a Talc and Graphite
knife. These are very soft minerals.
2 Malleable When a mineral flattens into a sheet, Silver and Gold
when hammered. It can also be cut
with a knife as sectile mineral.
3 Brittle When a mineral crumbles to grains or Quartz, Fluorite,
powder, when hammered. Most of the Calcite, Magnetite,
minerals are brittle in nature. etc.
4 Flexible When a mineral can be easily bent. Chlorite
5 Elastic When a flexible mineral on being bent, Muscovite and
does regains its original position, as Biotite
the bending force is removed.
6 Inelastic When a flexible mineral on being bent, Gypsum
does not regains its original position,
as the bending force is removed.
Specific Gravity (Gs)

Specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of its weight to the weight of air equal volume
of water at 4oc. H20 has Gs of 1.0.
To determine this, property, a balance can be used, for crystals or fragments which are
not too small. The mineral (or rock) is weighed in air and in water, and the specific
gravity, Gs, is calculated from the formula: W1/ (W1-W2), where W1 = weight in air and
W2 = weight in water.
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Mineral possessing heavier and closely spaced atoms will have high Gs; whereas, a
mineral possessing lighter and widely spaced atoms will have a low Gs. The Gs of the
mineral is thus, a representation of its atomic structure.
Light Gs<2:0, Normal Gs = 2 to 4, Heavy Gs= 4 to 6, extremely heavy Gs>6
Specific gravity of common minerals

Mineral Specific gravity
Hematite 4.9 - 5.3
Magnetite 5.17
Hornblende 3.2 - 3.5
Kugite 3.2 - 3.4
Biotite 2.8 - 32
Micas 2.7 – 3.1
Muscovite 2.7 - 3.1
Chlorite 2.6 - 2.9
Dolomite 2.85 - 2.87
Calcite 2.72 - 2.90
Talc 2.70 - 290
Sermentive 2.20 - 2.70
Quartz 2.65
Cypsum 2.32
Feldspar 2.56 - 2.7
Hardness
Hardness of a mineral may be defined as the resistance which the mineral offers to
scratch. This property of a mineral is generally determined by scratching a given mineral
with a mineral of known hardness, so as to obtain the comparative figure for the
hardness of the given mineral.
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Moh’s scale
The Moh’s scale is used to rate the relative hardness of a material by performing scratch
test and hardness, or resistance to abrasion, is measured relative to a standard scale of
ten minerals, and known as moh’s scale of hardness as seen below. These minerals are
chosen so that their hardness increases in the order 1 to 10.
Moh’s Scale of hardness

Hardness H Mineral
1 Tale Can be scratched with a finger nail.
2 Gypsum
3 Calcite Can easily be cut with a pen knife or scratched by copper coin
4 Fluorspar Can easily be scratched with a knife blade or window glass
5 Apatite
6 Feldspar Can be scratched with a pen knife but with difficulty
7 Quartz Scratches a knife blade or window glass cannot be scratched
8 Topaz with any ordinary
9 Corundum Implement. Quartz will scratch glass; topaz will scratch quartz
10 Diamond will scratch quartz; corundum will scratch topaz and Diamond
will scratch corundum
The numbers given are used as relative hardness numbers, relative only since the actual
hardness value of talc is about 0.02, whereas that for a diamond runs into the
thousands.
Other miscellaneous properties

Besides the above physical properties of minerals, there are others like:
a) Transparency (minerals capability to pass light through it)
b) Fluorescence (is due to which mineral may emit light when exposed to radiations like
x-rays).
c) Phosphorescence ( is due to which mineral may emit light after it has been exposed
to certain radiations or subjected to heating or rubbing)
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d) Taste, feel, odour (all depending upon the senses); fusibility (depending on heat),
magneticity (depending upon the magnetic capability) electrical conductivity (such
as good conductor or bad conductor)
3.3.2 Microscopic Optical Properties of Minerals

Apart from physical properties of mineral, there are several other characteristics of
mineral, which can be studied under a polarizing microscope. These properties, known
as optical properties, help in more precise identifications of even minute grains of
minerals. This helps in the identification of rocks, which are just nothing but aggregates
of different minerals.
How to prepare a Rock Slice
A thin section of the given mineral called the slide/Slice has to be first of all, prepared,
before it can be tested under a polarizing microscope.
Equipment:
1. Grinding wheels
2. Glass or steel plates
3. Abrasive powders (commonly Carborundum powders) of various course and fine
grades
4. Hot plates
5. Canada balsam
6. Glass strips
7. The cover slips
8. Methylated Spirit
Procedures
 A chip of rock (or slice cut by a rotating steel disc armed with diamond dust) is
smoothed on one side and mounted on a strip of glass 75 x 25mm.
 The specimen is cemented to the glass strip by means of Canada balsam, a gum
which sets hard after being heated, or a synthetic resin.
 The mounted chip of rock is then ground down with Carborundum and emery
abrasives to the required thinners, general 30µm (1 micrometer =
1/1000millimeter)
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 The transparent slice is completed by covering it with a thin glass strip fixed with
balsam.
 Surplus balsam is washed off with methylated spirit. The surface of the specimen
has been smoothed in making the slice/slide, and they are free from all but very
small irregularities.
Note: At this stage, the specimen is ready for being studied under the Microscope.
Instruments and processes involved in optical mineralogy.

 A polarizing microscope, also called a Petrological Microscope, is the most important
instrument which is used in any study dealing with the process of determining the
optical properties of minerals.
 A polarizing microscope essentially consists of:-
a) a Reflecting mirror at the base,
b) A Nicol prism (called the polarizer) between the mirror and the stage;
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c) An objective above the stage
d) Another Nicol prism called the (analyzer) above the objective.
e) An eye- piece
 The eye-piece, the analyzer and the objective are fitted into an adjustable tube, which
can be raised or lowered with the help of coarse (focusing) and fine adjustment
screws.
 The polarizer also be raised or lowered with the help of its own adjuster
 Such a Polarizing/ Petrological microscope is used to study the optical properties of
the given mineral.
 The prepared slide of the sample is now placed on the stage of the microscope, and
studied for its optical properties.
 The main optical characteristics are studied using polarized light and these include
Refractive index, Pleochroism, Extinction, Interference colours and Opaque
minerals.
 Besides studying the main optical characteristics, the slide can be used to study some
general physical properties like colour, cleavage, shape, form, e.t.c of the minute
grains of the mineral, under the microscope, using ordinary light and without using
the polarizer and analyzer.
3.3.3 Chemical Properties of Minerals
3.3.3.1 Rock forming Minerals

The minerals which constitute the bulk of the rocks of the earth’s crust are called the
rock forming minerals.
Civil engineers are more concerned with the rock forming minerals because they need to
know the properties of the rocks precisely, to enable them to consider different rocks for
their civil engineering uses, like: picking the rocks as good foundations, or for using the
rocks for making concrete aggregates, as building stones, or road metal, or flooring,
roofing, or decorative materials, etc. Since the properties of rocks will mainly depend
upon the properties of their constituent minerals, a detailed study of the rocks forming
minerals becomes imperative for all the civil Engineers. The study of the minerals,
constituting a rock, will help him/her to identify the rock with reference to their
appearance, strength, durability, etc.
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3.3.3.2 Classification of Minerals
Minerals can be classified as:-
a) Silicate Minerals
b) Non-Silicate Minerals
c) Clay Minerals
A) Silicate Minerals
The existence of a silicon tetrahedron makes a mineral as silicate mineral.
1. Felspar/ Feldspar group
Felspars are the most abundant silicate mineral, in which the silicate tetrahedrons are
arranged in a three dimensional frame work, e.g feldspars and Quartz.
Types
i) Felspars
These are identified by their hardness (6.0), 2 cleavages at nearly right angles (85o to
86o) Gs 2.76 and light colours (such as white, pink, grey, etc). They are the most
important constituents of igneous rocks. Examples include:-
 Plagioclase felspars, also called sodic felspars or soda lime felspars;
 Potassium felspars also called potash felspars or orthoclase felspars.
ii) Quartz (Silca or silicon- dioxide SiO2)
Pure Quartz is white, but due to impurities it may have any colour, such as black, pink,
yellow, e.tc.
Its other characteristics are:- Vitreous luster, no streak, no cleavages, hardness = 7.0,
specific gravity = 2.65, and conchoidal fracture. Under microscope, Quartz grains are
found to have low refractive index and positive optical sign. Quartz occurs in a number
of varieties, such as low quartz, high Quartz, Tridymite, and cristobalite, chalcedony,
Agate and Jasper.
2. Pyroxene group or pyroxenes.
Pyroxene is a silicate mineral’s family, in which the tetrahedrons are arranged in single
chains that are held together by other positive ions, such as calcium, Magnesium and
Iron. Pyroxenes can be represented by the chemical formula: RSiO3, where R represents
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Ca, Mg, Fe, etc. They are generally recognized by dark colours, hardness (5-6), and 2
cleavages that meet at nearly right angles (93o or so)
Types
a) Orthorhombic pyroxenes, which include
- Enstatite (Mg. SiO3)
- Hypersthene (Fe.Mg.SiO3)
b) Monoclinic pyroxenes, which include
- Clino- enstatite (Mg.SiO3)
- Diopside- Hedenbergite (Ca, Mg (SiO3)2) and (CaFe (SiO3)2);
- Augite, a complex silicate (Mg, FeII, FeIII, Al) (Si Al) 2 O6)
- Aemite (NaFe (SiO3)2)
- Spodumene (LiAl (SiO3)2)
- Jadeite (NaAl(SiO3)2); e.t.c
c) Tricline pyroxenes; which include

- Rhodonite (MnSiO3) and Babingtonite.
Augite
It is characterized by: black - dark green colour, vitreous luster, no streak, two
directional distinct prismatic cleavages at an angle of about 90o, Gs = 3.2 -3.5, hardness
= 5.0 to 6.0. Its main use is its occurrence as an important rock forming mineral, which
occurs in many basic igneous rocks, and also in metamorphic rocks like Gneisses and
Granulites. A few lustrous varieties of Augite are used as gem stones.
3. Amphibole group or Amphiboles
In this group, the silica tetrahedrons are arranged in double chains. Amphiboles exhibit
cleavage in two directions at an angle of about 120o.
Examples
a) Orthohombic Amphiboles, which include: - Anthopyllite (CMg.Fe) SiO3), etc.
b) Monoclinic. Amphibole which include:
 Cummingtonite Grunerite (Fe, Mg, Silicate)
 Tremolite (Ca, Mg3(SiO3)4),
 Hornblende (Ca2Na(Mg FeII)4 (AlFeIIITi)(Alsi)8 022(O,OH)2)
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 Actinolite (Ca(Mg, Fe3) (SiO3)4)
 Glaucophane (Fa, Fe, Al, Silicate)
 Riebeckite (Na, Fe, Silicate)
c) Triclinic Amphiboles, which include: Aenigmatite
Hornblende It is characterized by: black, dark-green colour, vitreous luster, no streak,
2 directional distinct cleavages at an angle of about 120o, Gs = 2.9 to 3.4, hardness = 5
to 6.
Hornblende occurs mainly in acidic igneous rocks, and is used in the manufacture of
cement.
4. Mica Group or Micas

Micas are complex hydrous silicates of metals like potassium (K), Magnesium (Mg), iron
(Fe), etc. In all Micas, the silica tetrahedrons are arranged in sheets or layers thus giving
a clear cut sheet like formation or structure to these minerals. Due to this type of
structure, Micas will cleave, separating into thin flexible layers. E.g. Chlorite,
Serpentine, Talc, Biotite, Muscovite or Potas Micas
Examples
a) Biotite, Biotite is the name given to black Mica, and is represented by the chemical
formula (K(Mg Fe)3 (AlSi3 O10 (OH)2)
It is characterized by deep brown to black colour, vitreous pearly luster, no streak,
hardness = 2.5 to 3, sheet structure, perfect cleavage with the capability to split into
exceedingly thin sheets in one direction.
Gs. = 2.8 to 3.0, no fracture e.t.c
Biotite is found in many igneous rocks and metamorphic rocks. It is used in light weight
concrete.
b) Muscovite or Potas Micas
Muscovite is the name given to white mica and is represented by the chemical formula
(KAl2 (AlSi3O10) (OH) 2).
It is characterized by white colour, vitreous to pearly luster, no streak, hardness = 2 to
2.5, sheet structure, perfect cleavage with the capability to split into exceedingly thin
sheets in one direction, Gs = 2.7 to 2.9, even fracture e.t.c
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Muscovite usually occurs in igneous rocks like in Granites and pegmatite, and also in
metamorphic rocks like schist. Many sedimentary rocks also contain muscovite.
Muscovite is used as an insulating material in electrical instruments.
B) Non- Silicate minerals

These are minerals that do not contain silica tetrahedrons.
Important Non- Silicate Minerals
No Chemical group General Name Chemical Name Chemical Formula

1 Oxides Hematite Iron oxide (ferrous) Fe2O3
Magnetite Iron oxide (Ferric) Fe3O4
Liminite Hydrous Iron oxide Fe2O3 A H2C
Chromite Oxide of iron and chromium Fe.Cr2 O4
Corundum Aluminium oxide Al2O3
Bauxite Hydrated Alminium oxide Al2O3.2H2O
2 Carbonates Calcite Calcium carbonate CaCo3
Dolmite Calcium Mg. carbonate Ca,Mg (Co3)2
3 Sulphides Pyrite Iron sulphide FeS2
Chalcopyrite Copper iron sulphide CuFes2
Cinnabar Mercury sulphide Hgs
Galena Lead sulphide Pbs
Sphalerite Zinc sulphide Zns
4 Haloids Halite Sodium chloride Nacl
Fluorite Calcium fluoride CaF2
5 Sulphates Brite Barium sulphate BaSo4
Gypsum Calcium sulphate (hydrous) CaSo4.2H2o
Anhdrite Calcium CaSo4
sulphate(anhydrous)
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C) Clay minerals:
These have properties that are of great importance to Geotechnical Engineers, Some
clays swell when wet and shrink when dry. Such clays can cause settlement in
foundation of structures and roads. Gs of clay = 2.60 to 2.90. Most of clay minerals
are soft and exhibit plasticity when mixed with a limited quantity of water. Particle sizes
(<0.002mm).e.g. – Kaolinite, Halloysite (amorphous), Montmorillonite, Beidellite,
Pyrophyllite, Allophane, Illite (hydro mica), chlorite, Bentonite clay, china clay (Kaoline),
Ball clay
Kaolinite
Kaolinite is a clay mineral used as a raw material in the manufacture of pottery and
porcelain, filler in rubber, paint and paper industry.
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CHAPTER FOUR
Matthew 16:18
Jesus Christ said “Now I say to you that you are Peter (which means ‘Rock’), and upon this Rock I will build my church, and all the powers of
hell will not conquer it.
4.0 PETROLOGY
 Definitions
 Rock Cycle
 Types of Rocks
SUMMAR  Igneous Rocks
 Sedimentary Rocks
 Metamorphic Rocks
4.1 Definitions
The term petrology is derived from the Greek word, Petro +Logos. Petro means rocks
and logos mean study. Hence, petrology means the study of the rocks.
Petrology deals with the study of mode of formation, structure, texture, composition,
occurrence, types, and e.tc of the various rocks of the Earth’s crust.
Rocks are the aggregates of minerals, including hard as well as soft materials, like
stones, sands, clay, e.t.c
4.2 Rock Cycle

The rocks of the Earth’s crust are of 3 types;-
- Igneous rocks
- Sedimentary rocks
- Metamorphic rocks
The Igneous rocks are prime most rocks which solidify from a molten mass, called
magma. These rocks are formed below the Earth’s surface as well as on the Earth’s
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surface. The ones formed below may be exposed by their continued erosion caused by
water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and temperature changes. These rocks are attacked and
disintegrated by these external agents of weathering (the collective process of rocks
disintegration and decays). When these rocks have been weathered into loose material,
they are subjected to removal by wind, water, ice, or organisms. After moving some
distance, these loose sediments may again come to rest, and thus get deposited over
other rocks in layers, forming what are called as the sedimentary rocks/ stratified rocks.
Once having formed from a molten mass (i.e Igneous rocks) or through the process of
sedimentation or stratification (i.e. sedimentary rocks), a new environment of heat,
pressure or both generally in the presence of hot fluids such as water, may be imposed
upon these rocks and thereby changing them into a third type of rocks, called the
metamorphic rocks.
These metamorphic rocks can be further subjected to over powering stresses and heat,
which may cause the melting of metamorphic rocks, giving rise to new igneous rocks.
The sequence of events, described above, constitutes what is known as the rocks cycle.
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4.3 Types of Rocks
As mentioned earlier, there are three types of rocks namely:-
a) Igneous rocks
b) Sedimentary rocks
c) Metamorphic rocks
4.3.1 Igneous Rocks (Eruptive Rocks)

4.3.1.1 Formation of Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks or eruptive rocks are formed when magma (natural hot molten material or
liquid rock, probably existing below the Earth’s surface) erupts out on or within the
Earth’s surface due to volcanic activities.
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4.3.1.2 Mode of occurrence of Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks may occur in two ways, either as intrusive bodies (i.e. large rock masses
which have not formed in contact with the atmosphere), or as extrusive bodies (i.e. those
rocks which occur above the surface of the Earth).
These intrusive and extrusive bodies may occur in different forms depending upon
factors, such as, the capability and strength of Magma; the type, texture and strength of
adjoining rocks, etc. The various forms in which these intrusive and extrusive igneous
rocks may occur are explained below.
4.3.1.3 Forms of Intrusive Rocks (Plutonic Rocks)
Intrusive rocks occur when magma is unable to disturb and cut across the existing
intruded rocks, it may get cooled and solidified within the fissures and cavities prevailing
in the existing rocks. Intrusive rocks may occur in different forms, such as: - Sills,
Phacoliths, laccoliths, Dykes, Batholiths and volcanic neck.
1. Sill.
Occurs when the magma is pushed into the existing bedding layers of the intruded rocks;
and solidifies there, in the form of a thin sheet.
Rock A
Sill
Rock B
2. Laccoliths.
Occurs when magma injects into the layers of the intruded rocks, but is unable to spread
length and width wise for greater distances due to high viscosity, it may force the layers
of rocks upwards, in the form of a dome or an arch.
Intruded rocks arching up

Laccoliths
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3. Dykes.
Occurs when the magma is forced through the vertical or nearly vertical cracks or
fissures in the intruded rocks and is consolidated there as a wall like structure.
Dyke
Rock A
Rock B
Rock C
4. Batholiths.
This occurs when the magma moving under high pressure fills up a large space in the
pre-existing intruded rocks by melting them away or keeping them aside, or by any other
means; thus forming a huge mass of igneous rock.
Rock A
Rock B
Rock C
Batholiths
4.3.1.4 Forms of Extrusive Rocks (Volcanic Rocks)

These are igneous rocks that crystallize on the surface of the earth. The magma is poured
out at the surface. They undergo rapid cooling such that there is no enough time to form
large crystals. Their texture is glass like.
They occur in two major forms:-
1. Flow or Lava flows
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Flows are identical to sills in their external appearance, because when lava oozes out, it
will spread over the surface in thin sheets, getting consolidated there.
2. Pyroclastics.
These are all associated with volcanism and represent rock fragments blown out of
volcanoes during eruptions.
They are classified according to size and include:-
 Volcanic bombs (include materials from a few centimeters to meters in diameter)
 Cinders (include materials from 5mm to several centimeters in diameter)
 Tuffs (include materials less than 5mm in diameter)
 Volcanic ash (is the finest dust particles which remain suspended in the atmosphere
for months together before settling down on the earth).
4.3.1.5 Classification of Igneous Rocks
1. Plutonic rocks. Intrusive igneous rocks formed at great depth
a) Granites, b) Syenites, c) Gabbros d) Peridotities, e) Diorites
2. Hypabyssal rocks: are intrusive igneous rocks formed below the surface of the earth
but at a short distance, e.g. Dolerites
3. Volcanic rocks: - These are extrusive igneous rocks formed over the earth’s surface
a) Rhyolites b) Andesites c) Basalts
Granites
Granites are light coloured rocks of plutonic origin. Their colours are grey, pink or red
and depend chiefly upon the colour of the feldspar mineral present in a particular
Granite. They are acidic in nature, with Quartz and feldspar as essential minerals.
Texture: Granites are generally of coarse-grained texture and sometimes of medium-
grained textures.
Types: Granites are named after prominent presence of a particular accessory mineral
like Hornblende Granite, Biotite Granite, Tourmaline Granite, Augite Granite, Muscovite
Granite e.t.c
Mode of occurrence: Granites commonly occur in the form of large igneous bodies, like
batholiths. May also occur in the form of large igneous bodies, like batholiths; also may
occur in the form of dykes.
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Physical properties and uses: They have a very high crushing strength (100 to
250MN/M2); low water absorption value (0.5-1.2%); least porosity (very low); Specific
gravity (2.6 to 2.8); Density (2500 to 2650Kg/m3); Hardness (very hard with Hardness
coefficient as 18); Frost and fire resistance (Good frost resistance but low fire resistance).
Granites are extensively used as building stones for structural as well as decorative,
monumental and architectural purposes. They can take fine polish and are the strongest
available stones. They can also be used as road aggregates and concrete aggregates.
Dolerites
These are hypabyssal igneous rocks, dark (such as grey or black) in colour. They chiefly
consist of calcic plagioclase felspars, such as, Labradorite and Anorthite. The
ferromagnesian minerals generally present are olivine, Augite and iron oxides.
Textures: Dolerites have fine-grained texture.
Mode of occurrence: Dolerites commonly occur as sills and dykes.
Properties and uses: They are highly tough and possess high abrasion resistance. They
are not used as building stones but are generally used as crushed stones for concrete
aggregates and for making road.
Andesites
They are light coloured volcanic rocks. The essential minerals are felspars.
Texture: They are generally fine-grained aphanitic rocks.
Types: These include. Hornblende Andesite and Biotite Andesite base on the presence
of prominent quantities of accessory minerals, such as Hornblende & Biotite.
Mode of occurrence: They are the most abundant volcanic rocks, but next to Basalts.
They occur in the form of lava flows of huge dimensions.
Properties and uses: Like all volcanic rocks, they are not of much use as dimension
stones. They may be used as crushed stones.
4.3.2 Sedimentary Rocks/Stratified/Secondary Rocks

It is called Stratified rock because sediments are deposited and consolidated in layers.
It is called Secondary rock because it is formed from some existing primary rocks.
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Sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition and consolidation of new sediments
(loose or solid particles), in layers, over the pre-existing rocks. The sediments are eroded
away from some old rocks by weathering and are then transported by agents like wind,
water, ice, etc. The eroded sediments, after traveling, may get deposited over some
existing rocks, which on consolidation will form sedimentary rocks. About 75% of the
rocks on earth’s surface are sedimentary in origin.
4.3.2.1 Formation of Sedimentary Rocks

The sedimentary rocks are formed in the following four different stages:-
i) Weathering (i.e. erosion of the existing rocks)
Mechanical weathering disintegrates a pre-existing rocks into smaller fragments and
chemical weathering acting on these small fragment, rearranges the elements into new
minerals and thus decomposes them.
ii) Transportation of Eroded sediment.
The products of rock weathering are generally transported in large amount by the
running waters (i.e. rivers), moving ice (i.e. glaciers), and blowing winds.
iii) Deposition of Eroded Sediment
The transportation of the weathered products continues as long as the velocity of the
transport of medium remains unchecked. But when these products are brought at rest
into big water bodies like oceans and lakes, their deposition will start. Of the weathered
products carried in suspension, the coarser and the heavier pieces will settle first,
followed by lighter and finer particles. The weathered products carried in solution may
precipitate out at a later stage, which may form a separate layer on deposition.
iv) Lithification of Deposited sediment.
The transformation of loosely deposited sediments into a rock is called lithification. This
can be done in 2 ways:-
a) By compaction or consolidation: As deposition of sediment continues, it
automatically goes on compacting and consolidating due to its own weight with
the squeezing out of water.
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b) By cementation: Water soluble materials, such as calcite, silica, iron oxides,
dolomites, clay, e.t.c; are deposited by ground water, between the various grains
of the deposited sediment thus bonding them together.
4.3.2.2 Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks can be divided into three categories i.e.
1. Clastic rocks
The word clastic means fragmental. Clastic rocks are derived from fragments or
individual minerals of other rocks. E.g. Breccias, conglomerates, sandstones, shale,
Boulders, cobbles, Pebbles or coarse gravel, Gravel or Granules, sand (coarse and fine),
silt and clay.
2. Chemical sediments/Chemically formed sedimentary rocks
These are rocks formed when weathered materials which travel in solution and reach the
water bodies such as lakes and oceans get precipitated. E.g. limestone, -
Dolostone/Dolomite, Rock gypsum and rock salt
3. Organic Sediments and organic Sedimentary rocks
Organic sediments are derived from the biological activities of various organisms, living
in water bodies, which consume the weathered products in solution and sediments. The
remains of dead organisms also keep on accumulating and consolidating, resulting in
the formation of organic rocks e.g. coal, coprolites and guano e.g. organic lime stone.
Size of Clastic Sediments
Name of the particle Size or Diameter in mm
Boulders 300 and above
Cobbles 80 to 300
Pebbles or coarse gravel 20 to 80
Gravels or Granules 4.75 to 20
Sand (coarse and fine) 0.075 to 4.75
Silt 0.002 to 0.075
Clay <0.002
Sand stones
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Sandstones are clastic sedimentary rocks, formed by Lithification of sand beds of size
2mm to 0.1mm. Quartz is the chief mineral constituent.
Texture: Sand stones may be of coarse and fine grained types.
Types: are based on the type of cementary materials e.g. Siliceons sandstones;
Calcareous Sandstones; Argillaceous Sandstones; Ferruginous Sandstones.
Occurrence: They occur in thick or thin beds and sometimes as lenticular bodies within
the beds of other rocks.
Uses: As building stones; those with high silica and low iron are used in glass
manufacture; crushed sandstones of many types are used for road construction and as
rail-road ballast.
Shales
These are clastic sedimentary rocks formed by clay particles of less than 0.01mm in size.
Depending on the clay minerals and impurities present in the rock, shales are of colours
like grey, red, purple, green black etc. They are soft and brittle rocks, which crumble
easily under the hammer.
Types: Depending upon their composition, include: calcareous shales; siliceous or
sandy shales; carbonaceous or bituminous shales; Alum shales; and oil shales.
Occurrence: They occur as thin and thick beds and sometimes as small bands and
irregular inclusions within other sedimentary rock formations.
Uses: Because of their thin-bedded structures, sometimes cause trouble in tunneling, as
the material may dislodge quite easily. They may also give trouble in dam foundations.
Shales are also not as hard as sandstones and if unsupported, they may yield to the
pressure of the overlying rocks. They are of no value as building stones. But, they are
used in the manufacture of clay products, such as, bricks, tiles, sewer pipes; and
Portland cement.
Conglomerates
These are clastic sedimentary rocks, with the constituent fragments of more than 2mm
in size they consist of rounded pebbles, gravels, boulders e.t.c cemented together.
Types: Volcanic conglomerates; Basal Volcanic conglomerates; Glacial conglomerates;
Gravel conglomerates (fragment size = 4.75 to 20mm); Pebble conglomerates (fragment
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size = 20 to 80mm); cobble conglomerates (size = 80 to 300mm) and Boulder
conglomerates (size>300mm).
Uses: Because of their coarseness, are of little values as building stones. The harder and
denser types may be used as milestone (landmark, sign post, target); also crushed stones
for roads, making concretes, as rail-road ballast.
Lime stone
These are sedimentary rocks formed by chemical as well as organic processes.
Type: chalk, argillaceous limestone, Shelley limestone, Kankar limestone, Calc-Tuffa,
lithographic limestone, siliceous limestone.
Uses: Used as crushed stones for road making, for concrete aggregates, used as internal
and external building stones- chief ingredient in the manufacture of cement, glass
manufacture, sugar refining, used in the manufacture of Rock wool/Mineral wool
(insulation material: a lightweight fibrous material made from slag or glass. Use:
insulation, packing material, filters); etc.
Coal
This is a combustible organic rock composed primarily of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Coal is burned to produce energy and is used to manufacture steel. It is also an important
source of chemicals used to make medicine, fertilizers, pesticides, and other products.
4.3.3 Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks (from the Greek word “Meta”, meaning between, also denoting change
and “Morphe” means form or shape) are rocks changed in same way from either an
original igneous or sedimentary form.
The new rocks which are formed from the alteration of the pre-existing rocks of any type,
by the process of metamorphism, are called metamorphic rocks.
Metamorphism is defined as a process or phenomenon by which the existing rocks are
modified texturally, structurally and mineralogically under the influence of factors, such
as, heat, pressure and hot chemically active fluids, such as water.
The Igneous and sedimentary rocks, when subjected to metamorphism, undergo changes
that are physical, chemical or both. Physical changes are reflected as changes produced
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in the texture of the old rocks, whereas chemical changes produce the formation of new
minerals, thus, giving rise to this new group of rocks, called metamorphic rocks.
4.3.3.1 Classification of Metamorphic Rocks

List of sedimentary rocks and their corresponding metamorphic rocks
Sedimentary rock Metamorphic conversion
Conglomerate Gneiss and schist
Sandstone Quartzite
Shale Slate, phyallite and schist
Limestone Marble and schist.
List of igneous rocks with their corresponding metamorphic conversion rocks

Igneous Metamorphic conversion
Coarse- grained rocks, such as Granite, syenites, e.t.c Gneiss
Fine-grained rocks, such as felsites, Tuffs, e.tc Schists, slates, etc
Ferromagnesian rocks, such as Dolorites, Basalts, Shists, e.t.c
4.3.3.2 Important metamorphic rocks

1. Gneisses
Foliated Rocks: are rocks when secondary structures in the
2. Schists form of parallel arrangement of minerals in layers, are
3. Phyallite developed during metamorphism.
4. Slates
5. Quartzites
6. Marbles
Non-Foliated Rocks
7. Miscellaneous rocks, like:
Hornfels, soapstone, serpentine
Gneisses
This is any banded or layered metamorphic rock, whether originally of igneous (Granite,
syenite, e.t.c) or sedimentary (conglomerate) origin.
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Types: Biotite Gneisses; Hornblende Gneisses; Granite Gneisses; Otho- Gneisses; Para-
Gneisses; Banded Gneisses; Augen Gneisses.
Colours: vary from white to black.
Uses: Because of their banded structure, Gneisses cannot be worked so uniformly as
Granites and hence their use is more restricted. On the other hand, their banded
structures permit their easy splitting into more or less parallel flat surfaces and thus
promoting their easy use in construction of rough walls and in street works. Granite
gneisses are most widely used for structural works, as they are similar to Granites in
respect of their specific gravity, water absorption and crushing strength. Gneisses may
also be used for concrete and road aggregates.
Slate
Slate is an extremely fine-grained textured metamorphic rock, formed by the
metamorphism of shale (a sedimentary rock).
Types: Black slates (common slates), Grey slates, Green slates, purple slates.
Uses: Slates are rather soft rocks, which can be easily cut into sheets and pieces. They
are, thus, widely used in electrical industries as switch boards, bases and various turned
and shaped parts. In construction of buildings, slates are also used for floors, mantels
(fireplace frame: an ornamental frame around a fireplace usually made of stone or wood)
and in a variety of ways; slates are also used as roofing materials. They are, however,
not used as dimension stones or as crushed stone, because of the low crushing strength
and slaty cleavage.
Marbles
Marbles are calcareous, compact crystalline granular rocks, formed by the
Metamorphism of limestone generally and Dolostones occasionally.
Types: Calcite marble and Dolostone marble. Marbles, though white when pure, yet due
to the presence of mineral impurities, are usually found to have various beautiful
colours, such as black, grey, red, pink, brown, green, yellow, e.t.c
Uses: Marbles are extensively used as building stones, especially for ornamental and
decorative purposes in columns, pilasters, staircases, floors, etc. They may also be used
for building monumental or architectural buildings, statues, e.t.c
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CHAPTER FIVE
Africa must refuse to be humiliated, exploited, and pushed around. And with the same determination, we must refuse to
humiliate, exploit or push others around.
Julius Kambarage Nyeree (1922 - 1999), Tanzanian President
5.0 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
 Definitions
 Folds
SUMMAR  Fractures in Rock
 Joints
 Faults
5.1 Definitions
Structural Geology can be defined as the branch of geology concerned with the shapes,
arrangement and interrelationships of bed rock units and the forces that cause them.
In the study of structural Geology, the following are the major concerned:
1. The force acting on the rock
2. The response of the rock
3. The geometrical features of the rock.
Due to a force acting on a rock it may undergo deformation.
The major terms considered under deformation are:-

Stress: This is a force acting on a body, or rock unit that tends to change the size or
shape of that body, or rock unit. Force per unit area within a body. Stress brings about
permanent deformation if the strength of the body is exceeded.
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Strain: Change in size (volume) or shape of a body (or rock unit) in response to stress.
Strain is the result of the application of the stress. The stress that causes the deformation
of a rock is not present any more but the strain is; and so we can work backwards to
determine the stress. The strain tells you the kind of force that acted on bedrock.
Ductile deformation
A rock that behaves in a ductile or plastic manner will bend while under stress and does
not return to its original shape after relaxation of the stress.
Ductile behavior results in rocks that are permanently deformed mainly by folding or
bending of rock layer.
Brittle deformation
Rocks exhibiting brittle behavior will fractural/break at stresses higher than its elastic
limit.
Faults and joints are examples of structures that are formed by brittle behavior of the
crust.
5.2 Folds
Folds are bends or undulations or wavelike features in layered rocks of the Earth’s crust,
as a result of the stresses (commonly lateral compression) to which these rocks have
been subjected to, from time to time in the past history of the Earth.
Folded rocks can be compared to several layers of rugs or blankets that have been pushed
into a series of arches and troughs.
The fact that rock is folded shows that it was strained in a ductile way rather than by
elastic or brittle strain.
5.2.1 Causes of Folding
Folding of rocks may be caused by numerous factors or causes, which may be divided
into two main types:
1. Tectonic causes. These are causes which are produced due to the forces operating
within the Earth’s crust, such as lateral compression caused by shrinkage;
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2. None-Tectonic causes of folding. These include all those rock folding effects which
are effective over the ground surface, resulting, mainly under the influence of
gravitational force, such as
a) Land sliding
b) Creeping (a gradual movement of rock and debris down a slope/ a slow
deformation of rocks and minerals in response to prolonged stress).
c) Differential compaction
d) Isostatic settling
e) Subsidence into solution cavities and glaciations
5.2.2 Parts of a fold and connected terminology

The various parts of a fold and the terms generally used in describing them are explained
below with respect to the vertical cross-sections of the folds or the folded area.
Limbs: Limbs are the sides of a fold.
An individual fold will have two limbs. Each anticline and adjacent syncline shares a
limb (common central limb).
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Crest: Crest is the line running through the highest points in an up-arched fold.
Trough: Trough is the line running though the lowest points in a down-arched fold.
Anticline: Is when the beds are up folded into an arch-like structure. In such folds,
the beds on either sides are inclined away from the crest and that is why the name
anti-cline.
Syncline: Is when the beds are down folded into a trough like form. In this case the
bends on either side incline together towards the keel.
Axial plane: This is the imaginary plane bisecting between the two limbs of a folder,
thus dividing the fold into two parts, as symmetrically as possible.
Axis of the fold: The line of intersection of the axial plane with any bed of the fold
is termed as the plunge or pitch of the fold. When the fold axis is inclined, the angle
which it makes with the horizontal, as measured in a vertical plane, is called the
angle of plunge, or plunge of the fold. Such folds with inclined fold are known as
plunging folds or pitching folds.
5.2.3 Types of Folds

1. Open folds
Open folds have limbs that dip gently. All other factors being equal, the more open the
fold, the less intense the stress involved.
The two diagrams show alternate ways that stresses may have been distributed to have
caused the folding.
2010/2011.
2. Isoclined fold.
Isoclined fold is one in which limbs are parallel to one another, implies intense
compression.
3. Recumbent folds.
These folds are overturned to such an extent that the limbs are essentially horizontal.
Recumbent folds are found in the cores of mountain ranges and indicate compressive
and/or shear stresses were more intense in one direction and probably record
shortening of the crust associated with plate convergence.
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4. Overturned fold.
Overturned fold occurs where the axial plane is inclined to such a degree that the fold
limbs dip in the same direction. Overturned folds imply that unequal compressive
stresses or even a shearing stress caused the upper limb of the fold to override the lower
limb.
5. Other types.
a) Upright folds: These are folds that have vertical axial planes.
b) Asymmetric fold: Is a fold where the axial plane of a fold is not vertical but is
inclined.
5.2.4 Engineering Considerations involved in Dealing with Folded Rocks

A civil engineer has to be very cautious, while s/he is handling or excavating through
the folded rocks, because whenever, the folds are disturbed, they release the stored
energy and may damage the site in various ways. Moreover, folded rocks are generally
highly fractured, particularly along the axial parts. These fractures, not only make the
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rock weak, but also act as channel-ways for the surface waters to percolate through
them. All major projects, like construction of highways, construction of tunnels, site
selection for dams and reservoirs, etc. due consideration must be given to the presence
of folds. The following are the various effects produced by folded rocks:-
1) Synclinal folded rocks may yield hard and tough quality stones, whereas, anticlinal
folded rocks will yield weaker stones.
2) Folded rocks are under considerable strain, and hence, excavations through them
may be accompanied by slips and rock bursts.
3) Folded rocks are generally shattered and weak, particularly in the axial regions;
hence, they are unsafe to be trusted as roofs or floors of tunnels, or as foundations
for dams. Such regions should therefore, be avoided for such purposes, or must be
thoroughly investigated, and remedial measures taken, if at all adopted for such uses.
4) Fractured folded rocks are highly permeable, and as such may pose numerous
problems; like, while excavating tunnels through such regions, ground water may
rush into the excavation.
5) Since the folded rocks offer greater prospects for groundwater, they become quite
important for engineers searching for water supplies. Artesian conditions are
developed only when aquifers are folded (or inclined) as synclines, and are enclosed
between top and bottom impervious layers.
6) The anticlinal folds provide good prospects for stored petroleum; and hence in oil
exploration, folds must not be overlooked.
5.3 Fractures in Rock

If a rock is brittle, or if the strain rate is too rapid for deformation to be accommodated
by plastic behavior, the rock fractures or breaks. Commonly there is some movement or
displacement. If essentially no displacement occurs, a fracture or crack in bedrock is
called a joint. If the rock on either side of a fracture moves, the fracture is a fault.
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5.3.1 Joints
Joints are fractures or cracks in bedrock along which essentially no displacement has
occurred. These joints, divide the rock into parts or blocks, but these blocks are not
moved past each other as in the case of fault.
The inclination of a joint plane with the horizontal is called the dip of the joint. The line
along which the joint plane meets the surface is called the strike of the joint, the strike
direction being perpendicular to the dip direction.
Dip joint
Strike joint Oblique joint
Sheets
Joint Bedrock
5.3.1.1 Examples of joints

1. Strike joints: These are joints in which the strike of the joints is parallel to the strike
of the bed.
2. Dip joints: These are joints in which the strike of the joints is perpendicular to the
strike of the beds (i.e. parallel to the dip of the beds)
3. Oblique joints: These are joints in which the strike of the joints is neither parallel
nor normal to the strike of the bends
4. Sheet joints: These are horizontal joints developed in massive igneous rocks,
especially granite. They divide the rocks into sheets. These horizontal joints are
closely spaced in the upper layers and become progressively further a part with depth.
5. Shear joints: These are joints formed by the shearing stresses, which tend to slide
(or actually slide) one part of the rock against the other. These joints are developed
during folding or faulting
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5.3.1.2 Engineering Considerations involved in Dealing with Jointed
Rocks
For construction of any major civil engineering structure in any area, it is absolutely
necessary to investigate the rock joints thoroughly, mainly because joints act as sources
of weakness for the rocks, and also sources of leakage through the rocks.
Hence, if the proposed foundation rocks for a dam or a reservoir happen to be heavily
jointed, and if the water-table of the region is low, then the leakage from the reservoir to
the underground may be very heavy, finally resulting in abandoning the proposed site,
and to choose better one. Similarly, in construction of tunnels, if the roof or the side
rocks are highly fractured or jointed, the groundwater may seep into the tunnel, thus
creating acute water troubles, in addition to its becoming unstable or unsafe structurally.
The joints in rocks play a very important role in landslide in hilly regions, because they
serve as slip surfaces.
The effects of joints on the proposed structure should, therefore, be thoroughly
considered and remedial measures undertaken, before the actual construction of the
structure. Treatment of joints will differ in different projects. E.g. when leakage is to be
avoided, grouting of joints is generally adopted. Similarly, when the jointed rocks offer
instability or unsafe, as in the case of heavily jointed roofs of tunnels, lining of tunnels
may become necessary.
In addition to all these engineering problems, study of joints becomes important in
quarrying and mining operations. In quarrying of stones, joints may help in making
quarrying easier, if quarrying is done along them.
5.3.2 Faults
Fault is a rock fracture or a fracture surface along which relative movement between the
fractured parts occurs. The phenomenon of development of such fractures and
occurrence of the relative displacement of blocks is known as faulting.
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5.3.2.1 Fault terminology
1. Fault plane: This is the surface along which fracture occurs in the rock body and
there occurs a relative movement between the so formed rock parts.
2. Fault trace/outcrop/line: Is the line of intersection of a fault plane with the ground
surface.
3. Dip of the fault: Is the inclination of the fault plane, with the horizontal and its
represented in degrees.
4. Strike of the fault: is the direction perpendicular to the dip direction.
5. Hade: is the angle which the fault plane makes with the vertical. Hade = (90o – dip of
the fault).
6. Hanging wall and footwall: A fault plane separates the two blocks and each block is
known as a wall. If the fault plane is inclined, then the block lying over the fault
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plane is called the hanging wall, whereas, the block lying beneath, i.e. underside of
the fault plane is called the foot wall.
7. Up-throw side and down-throw side: Of the two blocks of a fault, the one which
moves up with respect to the other is called the up-throw side; and the one, which
moves down with respect to the other is called the down-throw side.
8. Throw: The throw of a fault, is the total vertical displacement in a fault
9. Heave: Is the total horizontal displacement in a fault (i.e., the horizontal distance
between hanging wall and foot wall).
10. Slip: Slip of a fault is the relative displacement of two points which were initially
against each other.
5.3.2.2 Types of Fault

Normal fault; thrust fault; Trans-current fault; tear/transverse fault; vertical fault; high
angle fault; low angle fault; strike fault; Dip fault; oblique fault; Dip-slip fault; strike-slip
fault; wrench fault; rift fault; oblique-slip fault; parallel fault; Echelon fault;-step fault;
peripheral fault.
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5.3.2.3 Engineering Considerations involved in Dealing with Faulted
Rocks
Faulted rocks generally offer unstable sites from engineering considerations, not only
because there have been displacements along the fault(s) in the past, but also that
further fresh movements may take place at any time in the future. Thus, if a structure
is constructed on such rocks, then any future movements along the faulted plane(s) may
endanger the stability of the structure, and thus causing it to collapse.
An engineer, as a general rule, must try to avoid locating any of the proposed structures
on fault or rather even in its vicinity.
When an engineer decides to put the proposed project in moderately faulted regions,
precautions must be taken to avoid any major failures, either by seismic effects caused
by movements along the faults, or due to heavy leakage that may take place through the
faulted rocks. The improvement works in faulted rocks, such as excavation of weaker
material from the faulted zone and refilling or grouting it with cement concrete, etc. may
therefore become necessary.
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CHAPTER SIX
Matthew 27:54
The Roman officer and the other soldiers at the crucifixion were terrified by the earth quake and all that had happened.
They said, “This man (Jesus Christ) truly was the Son of God!”
6.0 EARTH QUAKE
 Definitions
 Causes of Earthquakes and their types.
 Seismic waves
SUMMARY  Measuring of the size of an Earthquake
 Effects of Earthquake
 Tsunami
2010/2011.
6.1 Definition
An Earthquake is a natural vibration of the ground (or the Earth’s Crust) produced
by forces called earth quake forces or seismic forces.
Or An Earthquake is a trembling or shaking of the ground caused by sudden release
of energy stored in the rocks beneath Earth’s surface.
6.2 Causes of Earthquakes and their types

Depending upon the possible cause of an earthquake, earthquakes are generally
classified into two categories i.e.
1) Tectonic earthquakes
2) Non-Tectonic earthquakes
a) Tectonic Earthquakes
Tectonic is the force that produces movement and deformation of the Earth’s crust. The
tectonic earthquakes are caused by the slippage or movement of the rock masses along
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a rupture or breaks called a fault. These are generally very severe and the area affected
is often very large. Faulting is a phenomenon which has been associated with most of
the severe earthquakes of the world. As such, it can generally be considered as the
immediate cause of many tectonic earthquakes.
b) Non-tectonic earthquakes
Non Tectonic earthquakes are earthquakes caused by a number of easily understandable
processes, such as; volcanic eruptions, superficial movements like landslides,
subsidence of the ground below the surface, etc. All such processes may introduce
vibrations into the ground.
6.3 Seismic waves

The energy released during faulting, produces seismic waves which can be detected by
sensitive and delicate instruments, called seismographs, installed at specially designed
seismographic stations; the record of seismic waves is called seismogram.
Epicenter
Epicentral line Focus
Earth surface
Solid earth
Anticentre
The focus or seismic center is the place beneath the Earth’s surface from where an
Earthquake originates and the point or line on the Earth’s surface immediately above
the focus is called the Epicentre or Epicentral line. The point which is diametrically
opposite to the epicenter is called anticentre. The area around the epicenter will be
subjected to earthquake vibrations, and is called epicentral area.
Earthquake foci are distributed in 3 general depth ranges. Shallow earthquakes
originate within about 60km of the surface; intermediate earthquakes have force
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between 60 to 300km down; and the deep seated earthquakes originate at depths
below 300km, or so.
6.4 Types of seismic waves

6.4.1 Body waves:
Body waves are seismic waves that travel through the Earth’s interior spreading
outwards from the focus in all directions, e.g.
a) P wave (primary): is a compressional (or longitudinal) wave in which rock vibrates
back and forth parallel to the directions of wave propagation. It’s very fast and the
first to arrive at a recording station following an Earthquake
b) S wave (secondary): These are waves that travel in directions at right angles (i.e.
transverse) to the directions of propagation of the wave. These waves travel slower
than the P-waves, and are second to be recorded at the seismographic station. The
velocity of S-wave is controlled by the resistance of a medium to shear. Due to this
reason, these waves, though capable of passing through solids, yet cannot pass
through liquids, as liquid do not have any distortorial elasticity.
6.4.2 Surface waves

These are the slowest waves, set off by earthquakes. Surface waves causes more
property damage than body waves because surface waves produce more movement
and travel more slowly, so they take longer to pass e.g.
a) Love waves: are most like S waves that have no vertical displacement. The ground
moves side to side in a horizontal plane that is perpendicular to the directions,
the wave is traveling or propagating. Like S waves, love waves do not travel
through liquids and would not be felt on a body of water. Because of the horizontal
movement, love waves tend to knock buildings off their foundations and destroy
highway and bridge supports.
b) Rayleigh waves: These behave like rolling ocean waves and cause the ground to
move in an elliptical path opposite to the direction of the wave passes. Rayleigh
waves are incredibly destructive to buildings because they produce more ground
movement and take longer to pass.
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c)
d) Fingerprint of an Earthquake
e) A seismograph produced this record of a California earthquake measuring 5.5 on the Richter scale. The
finger points to a heavy sweep on the seismogram created by the seismograph’s needle, or stylus,
which is designed to respond to horizontal or vertical vibrations, but not both. The machine cannot
record both kinds of waves because the different orientation of the wave types requires separate
balance systems.
6.5 Measuring of the size of an Earthquake

The size of the Earthquake is measured into two ways:-
6.5.1 Intensity:
Intensity is a measure of an Earthquake’s effect on people and buildings. Or intensity
of an earthquake is the rating of an earthquake based on the actual effects produced
by the quake on the earth. Intensities are expressed as Roman numerals ranging from
l to Xll
6.5.2 Magnitude:
Magnitude is a measure of the energy released during an earthquake. This method is
usually done by measuring the height (amplitude) of one of the wiggles on a
seismogram. The larger the quake, the more the ground vibrates and the larger the
wiggle. After measuring a specific wave on a seismogram, and correcting for the type
of seismograph and for the difference from the quake, scientists can assign a number
called the magnitude.
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Intensity scale for Earthquakes with approximately corresponding magnitudes
Intensity Maximum Name of the Effects observed Magnitude (M)
class Acceleration of corresponding to highest
shock
the ground in intensity reached
mm/sec2
I. 10 Imperceptible Recorded only by sensitive seismograph
II. 25 Feeble Recorded by all seismographs and may
be felt by some sensitive persons at rest 3.5 to 4.3
III. 50 Slights Commonly felt by all people at rest,
especially on upper floors 4.3
IV. 100 Moderate Commonly felt by all people, either at
rest or in motion; knocking of loose
objects including standing vehicles 4.3 to 4.9
V. 250 Fairy strong Generally felt; most sleeping persons are
awakened; ringing of bells
VI. 500 Strong Trees sway and all suspended objects
swing; fall of weak plasters; general 4.9 to 5.5
panic; damage by overturning and falling
of loose objects.
VII. 1000 Very strong Damages to buildings producing cracks
in walls etc; fall of chimmeys; general 5.5 to 6.2
alarm & panic
VIII. 2500 Destructive Car drivers seriously disturbed; masonry
fissured; poorly constructed buildings
damaged. 6.2 to 7.0
IX. 5000 Ruinous Some houses collapse where ground
begins to crack; pipes break, opens.
X. 7500 Disastrous Ground cracks badly; many buildings
destroyed; railway lines bent; landslides 7 to 7.3
occur on steep slopes
XI. 9800 Very Few buildings remain standing; bridges
disastrous destroyed; and services like railways, 7.4 to 8.1
pipes, cables, etc. getting out of actions;
great landslides and floods.
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XII. Over 9800 Catastrophic Total destruction objects thrown into air > 8.1 (maximum known
ground rises and falls with waves. 8.9)
6.6 Effects of earthquakes

Damage to buildings and other structures depends greatly on the type of geologic
material on which a structure was built as well as the type of construction. Houses built
on solid rock normally are damaged far less than houses built upon loose sediment.
Brick and stone houses usually suffer much greater damage than wooden houses, which
are somewhat flexible.
1. Ground motion is the trembling and shaking of the land that can cause buildings to
vibrate.
2. Fire is a particularly serious problem just after an earthquake because of broken gas
and water mains and fallen electrical wires.
3. Landslides can be triggered by the shaking of the ground.
4. Permanent displacement of the land surface may be the result of movement along a
fault.
5. Aftershocks are small earthquakes that follow the main shock. Although aftershocks
are smaller than the main quake, they can cause considerable damage, particularly
to structures previously weakened by the powerful main shock.
6. Foreshocks are small quakes that precede a main shock and are less damaging.
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Figure shows earthquake zones
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6.7 Tsunami:
This is a huge ocean wave produced by displacement of the sea floor; also called seismic
sea wave. The sudden movement of the sea floor upward or down during a submarine
earthquake can generate very large sea waves, popularly called tidal waves but the
Japanese term Tsunami is preferred by geologist. They are caused by great earth quakes
(magnitude 8 +) that disturb the sea floor, but they also result from submarine landslides
or volcanic explosions.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sBkMLYUyUZg&feature=related
2010/2011.
CHAPTER SEVEN
Matthew 7:24-27
Jesus Christ said “Anyone who listens to my teaching and follows it is wise, like a person who builds a house on solid rock.
Though the rain comes in torrents and the floodwaters rise and the winds beat against that house, it won’t collapse because
it is built on bedrock. But anyone who hears my teaching and doesn’t obey it is foolish, like a person who builds a house on
sand. When the rains and floods come and the winds beat against that house, it will collapse with a mighty crash.”
7.0 GEOTECHNICAL METHODS OF SITE INVESTIGATION
 Definitions
 Objectives
 Desk study
SUMMARY
 Site Reconnaissance
 Ground Investigations
 Site investigation Report
7.1 Definitions
A site investigation or soil survey is an essential part of the preliminary design work on
any important structure in order to obtain information regarding the sequence of Strata
and the ground water level and also to collect samples for identification and testing.
In addition a site investigation is often necessary to assess the safety of an existing
structure or to investigate case where failure has occurred.
7.2 Objectives
British standard code of practice BS.5930, “site investigation”, lists the following as the
main objectives of a site investigation:
i) To assess the general suitability of the sight for the proposed works.
ii) To enable an adequate and economic design to be prepared.
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iii) To fore see and provide against difficulties that may arise during construction due
to ground and other local conditions.
iv) To predict any adverse effect of the proposed construction on neighboring
structures.
7.3 Steps involved in Site Investigation
7.3.1 Desk study

The desk study is generally the first stage in a site investigation.
It involves collecting and collating published information about the site under
investigation and putting it all together to build a conceptual model of the site.
This model can then be used to guide the rest of the investigation, especially the ground
investigation.
Much of the information gathered at the desk study stage is contained in maps,
published reports, aerial photographs and personal recollection.
7.3.1.2 Source of information
The sources of information available to engineer include geological maps, topographic
maps (ordinance survey maps), soil survey maps, aerial photographs, mining records,
ground water information, existing site investigation reports, local history literature,
metrological records; and river and coastal information.
a) Geological maps: Geological maps provide information on the extent of rock and soil
deposits at a particular site. The significance of the geological information must be
correctly interpreted by the engineer to assist in the further planning of the site
investigation.
b) Topographical maps: These are also called Ordinance survey maps and provide
information on, for example, the relief of the land, site accessibility and the land forms
present
c) Soil survey maps: Also called Pedological soil survey involves the classification,
mapping and description of the surface soils in the area and is generally of main
interest to agriculturalists. It studies top soils 1-1.5m. The surface soil type can
often be related to the parent soil lying beneath; and so, soil types below 1.5m can
often be interpreted from the maps.
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d) Aerial photographs: With careful interpretation of aerial photographs, it is possible
to deduce information on land forms, topography, land use, historical land use; and
geotechnical behavior. The photographs allow a visual inspection of a site when
access to the site is restricted.
e) Existing site investigation reports: These can often be the most valuable source of
geotechnical information. If a sight investigation has been performed in the vicinity
in the past, then information may already exist on the rock and soil types, drainage,
access, etc. The report may also contain details of the properties of the soils and test
results.
7.3.2 Site reconnaissance.

A walk over the site can often help to give an idea of the work that will be required.
Difference in vegetation often indicates changes in subsoil conditions and any cutting,
quarry or river on or near the site should be examined. Site accesses, overhead
restrictions, signs of slope instability are further examples of aspects which can be
observed during the walk over survey.
7.3.3 Ground investigation
7.3.3.1 Site exploration method

Test or trial pits: A test pit is simply a hole dug in the ground that is large enough for
a ladder to be inserted, thus permitting a close examination of the sides. With this
method, ground water conditions can be established exactly and undisturbed soil
samples are obtainable relatively and easily. Depth of 4m can be achieved with this
method.
Hand auger or post-hole auger: The hand auger (attached to drill rods and turned by
hand) is often used in soft soils for boring to about 6m in depth.
Boring rig: In most site investigations the boreholes are taken down by some form of
well-boring equipment and can extend to considerable depths.
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7.3.3.2 Sampling
Two types of soil sample can be obtained which are disturbed sample and undisturbed
sample.
Disturbed sample: The soil sample got as a borehole is being excavated is called
disturbed soil samples.
Undisturbed samples: This is the sample got by driving a core into the ground, carefully
removing it; first be given two coats of paraffin wax on each side and then placed in an
air tight container.
7.3.3.3 Soil profile.

From the results of a site investigation vertical sections (soil profiles) are generally
prepared, showing to scale the sequence and thickness of the strata.
7.3.3.4 Site investigation reports.

The site investigation report is the final product of the exploration program. Site
investigation report involves the following:-
a) Preamble: This is introductory section consisting of a brief summary which gives the
location of the site, the date of the investigation and name of the client, the types and
number of boreholes put down and the equipment used.
b) Description of site: Here a general description of the site is given; whether it is an
open field or a redevelopment of a site where old foundation, walls e.tc remain. A
map showing the site location and the positions of any boreholes put down, is usually
included in the report.
c) Description of subsoil conditions encountered:
This section should consist of a short and readable description of the general subsoil.
Conditions over the site with reference to the bore hole journals.
Generally the significance of any in-situ testing carried out is mentioned.
d) Borehole journals: It is a list of all the materials encountered during the boring. A
Journal is best shown in sectional form so that the depths at which the various
materials were met can be easily seen. It should include a note of all the information
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that was found, ground water conditions, numbers and types of samples taken, list
of in-situ tests, time taken boring. etc.
e) Description of laboratory soil tests. This is simply a list of the tests carried out
together with a set of laboratory sheets showing particle size distribution curves,
liquid limit plots etc.
f) Conclusions. It is in this section that firm recommendations as to possible
foundation types and modes of construction should be given.
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CHAPTER EIGHT
Politicians are people who, when they see light at the end of the tunnel, order more tunnel.
Sir John Quinton (1929- ) British banker
8.0. TUNNELING
 Definitions
 Merits & Demerits of tunnels
 Tunnel Approaches
SUMMARY  Shape & Size of Tunnel cross-section
 Types of Tunnels
 Geological considerations required for successful tunneling
operations in consolidated and unconsolidated rocks.
8.1 Definitions.
Tunnels may be defined as the underground routes or passages, excavated through the
rocks or soft ground, without disturbing the overlying rocks or soil covers.
The subways below the ground by first removing the overburden by making open cuts
and then laying roof slabs are therefore not included in tunnels.
8.2 Merits and demerits of tunnels.

8.2.1 Merits of tunnel.
i. Tunnels prove to be more economical than the open cuts beyond certain depths.
ii. Tunnels avoid disturbing and interfering with surface life and traffic during
construction
iii. Tunnels prove to be better protected than bridges during war times and bombing
operations.
iv. Tunnels prove to be cheaper for carrying water, sewage, gas, etc as compared to
their being taken in open cuts.
v. Tunnels do not occupy any space on the surface.
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8.2.2 Demerits
i) The construction of tunnels is a costly process
ii) It requires skilled labour and technical supervision.
iii) Tunneling requires specialized and sophisticated equipments.
iv) The excavation of tunnels takes long period.
8.3 Tunnel approaches

Tunnels are joined at either ends by open cuts, called approaches. The approach is very
short (fig a) in case of steep hill slopes; and very long when the hill slopes is very flat (fig
b)
Steep hill overlaying soil

side
Tunnel
Approach
a) Short approach
Flat hill side overlaying soil
Tunnel
Approach
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b) Long approach
8.4 Shape and size of tunnel cross-sections.

8.4.1 Shapes of tunnel cross-section
The tunnels may be constructed in different shapes depending on the nature of soil/rock
and other practical considerations. The three types of sections, which are commonly
adopted, are:-
i) D-shape
ii) Circular shape
iii) Horse –shoe shape
(i) D-shape
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(ii) Circular shape
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(iii) Horse-shoe shape
i) D-Shaped tunnel.
This is usually adopted in rocks, where unlined tunnels are proposed to be
constructed. Such a section has an arch roof and straight vertical sides. The arch
roof can easily take vertical loads and transfer them to the sides.
The sides may be constructed in R.C.C in case of soft soils. This section is suitable
for subways and for navigation tunnels. This section has a nearly flat invert, which
provided additional working floor space, helpful during driving and a flat floor for
moving equipment.
These are the principal advantages for this section and make it the usually adopted
section for highway and railway tunnels (subways)
ii) A circular section.
This is usually lined and offers strong resistance to external pressure from water
bearing soils or soft grounds; as well as to the internal pressure of fluids, if passing
through the tunnel.
Such a shape is most suitable to withstand internal and external forces and provides
the largest cross- sectional area for the least perimeter. It is therefore, most suitable
for sewers, water conducts, etc. Circular section, however, is not suitable for roads
and railways, as more filling will be required for obtaining a flat base. This is best
suitable for non-cohesive soils and for tunnels driven by shield-method.
iii) A horse shoe section
This is a popular shape, having a semi-circular roof together with arched sides and a
curved invert. When lined, this cross section offers good resistance external ground
pressure and serves to combine the advantages of both the D-shaped and circular
sections. It is the best shape suitable for traffic tunnels, as the floor of the tunnel is
nearly flat, which also provides working space to the contractor, for storing materials
during construction, besides providing flat base for moving traffic. This section is
found to be most suitable for soft rocks and is also suitable for carrying water or
sewage. This shape is very commonly used for highway and railway tunnels in all
countries of the world.
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8.4.2 Size of Tunnel cross-section.
The size of the tunnel is determined from its utility requirements aspect. For highway
and railway tunnels, the size will depend upon the number of lanes and tracks to be
passed through the tunnel. To avoid too large sizes, sometimes twine tunnels, placed
side by side, may be constructed, at suitable spacing, such that the disturbance caused
in the ground due to the construction of one tunnel does not affect the other.
The size of the section in general, will however, be governed by the thickness of lining,
provisions required for drainage, the clear opening required for drainage, the clear
opening required for passing the volume and nature of traffic, the opening required for
passing the designed discharge, etc.
8.5. Types of tunnels

Depending upon their use, the tunnels may be classified into the following groups;-
a) Traffic tunnels
b) Hydropower tunnels
c) Public utility tunnels
a) Traffic tunnels.
The traffic tunnels include all those tunnels, which are constructed for passing railway
tracks, roads, pedestrians, or even navigational traffic. A traffic tunnel, thus, provides a
direct transportation link between two places, separated by obstacles such as a
mountain, a hill, a water body like rive or sea, or even densely populated land. Traffic
tunnels may vary in length from a few meters to many kilometers.
2010/2011.
b) The Hydro power tunnels.
The tunnels which are excavated through rocks for the purpose of conveying water from
one point to another, in connection with hydro-power generation, are called hydro-power
tunnels. When such a tunnel is excavated through a hill to carry water from one point
to another by gravity, it is called a discharge tunnel and when the tunnel is steeply
graded to feed water under great pressure to turbines, etc. it is called a pressure tunnel
as shown below.
Reservoir Discharge tunnel

Pressure tunnel
Power house
2010/2011.
c) The Public Utility Tunnels
All other tunnels excavated for other public uses, such as for carrying sewage, cables, oil
supplies, drinking water, etc. are classified under this category.
8.6 Geological considerations required for successful tunneling

operations in consolidated and unconsolidated rocks.
Like other civil engineering projects, such as dams, reservoirs, buildings, roads, bridges,
docks, harbors, etc, tunnels are also very important civil engineering projects, but with
the primary difference that tunnels lie underground within the rocks; while the other
structures lie on the surface.
For this reason alone, the safety and stability of tunnels become much more important.
Another difference between tunnels and dams is with reference to the scope of selection
of the site whereas, in the case of dams, etc., the final selection of the best site is made
after carefully considering the relative merits and demerits of the various alternative
sites; there is no such choice in the case of tunnels, since they are dependent upon the
bus route, or course of railway track, location of power house, location of town ship, etc.
Since these locations are fixed, the places where tunnels are needed also get
automatically fixed, thereby usually leaving no scope for choosing a better alternative
site. There may of coarse exist a little flexibility in fixing the alignment of tunnel like
other civil engineering structures, tunnels too need favourable geological conditions of
their sites for obtaining success in their construction. As usual, success here also means
safety, stability, economy and non- troubling future performance. To achieve these aims,
geological investigations are required to be made at the tunnel site.
8.6.1 Tunneling in consolidated rocks

Tunneling in hard crystalline and massive rocks like Granites, Diorites, Gabbros,
Basalts, sandstones, Quartzite, Granitic Gneisses and Marbles usually present no major
problems.
These are excavated by using conventional rock blasting methods which involve
exploding suitable quantities of right type of explosive in especially drilled blast holes.
Each blasting round is usually followed by a Mucking period during which the blasted
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fragments are removed. Excavations so created in these rocks are mostly self-supporting
and no major support required. Although cost of blasting may be high with hard rocks,
it is often more than compensated by the self- supporting character of the rocks.
In soft rocks like lime stones, Dolomites, argillaceous, sand stones, schists and slates,
etc. blasting costs are comparatively lower, but involves a lot of expenses and delays in
erecting temporary and even permanent living, which become a major consideration for
safety reasons.
8.6.2 Tunneling in unconsolidated rocks

Tunneling in unconsolidated rocks or loose sediments is known as soft-ground tunneling
and is comparatively complicated than in solid rocks. The complications arise because
of:-
i) Structural weakness of the sediments forming the ground.
ii) Low cohesion and internal friction of the particles of ground.
iii) Uncertainty of ground-water conditions
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CHAPTER NINE
You can teach someone up to a University, but you can’t teach that person how to think.
9.0. PROCESS OF WEATHERING AND DENUDATION
 Introduction
 Types of weathering
 Agents of Erosion
SUMMARY
 Factors affecting rate of weathering
 Importance of weathering
 Shortcoming of weathering
9.1 Introduction: General, sources and definitions

The rock surface of the continents of the Earth, on which we are living, is undergoing
constant and continuous destruction, a process called denudation.
Denudation is the process by which the land areas are continually being reduced and
their shape modified by weathering and erosion.
Rocks exposed at Earth’s surface are constantly being altered by water, air, changing
temperature and other environmental factors. The term weathering refers to the group
of destructive processes that change the physical and chemical character of rock at or
near Earth’s surface. The tightly bound crystals of any rock can be loosened and altered
to new minerals by weathering.
It is important to distinguish between weathering and erosion and between erosion and
transportation. Weathering breaks down rocks that are either stationary or moving.
Erosion is the picking up or physical removal of rock particles by an agent such as
streams or glaciers. Weathering helps break down a solid rock into loose particles that
are easily eroded.
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Most eroded rock particles are at least partially weathered, but rock can be eroded before
it has weathered at all. A stream can erode weathered or un-weathered rock fragments.
After a rock fragment is picked up (eroded), it is transported. Transportation is the
movement of eroded particles by agents such as rivers, waves, glaciers, or wind.
Weathering processes continue during transportation.
A boulder being transported by a stream can be physically worn down and chemically
altered as it is carried along by the water.
9.2 Types of weathering.

These are three types of weathering namely:-
i) Mechanical weathering or disintegration.
ii) Chemical weathering or decomposition
iii) Biological weathering.
9.2.1 Mechanical weathering or disintegration

This is the breakdown of rocks into small particles by the action of temperature, by
impact from rain drops and by the abrasion from mineral particles carried in the wind.
9.2.1.1 Products of mechanical weathering

The products of mechanical weathering include everything from huge boulders found
beneath the cliffs to the smallest silt.
9.2.1.2 Processes most commonly involved in mechanical

weathering.
1. Mechanical unloading
This is the vertical expansion due to the reduction of vertical load by erosion.
This will open existing fractures and may permit the creation of new fractures.
2. Mechanical loading
This is impact on rock and abrasion, by sand and silt size. Wind borne particles that
occur in deserts, impact on soil and weak rocks, by raindrops during intense rainfall
storms.
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3. Thermal loading.
This is expansion by freezing water in pores and fractures in cold regions or by the
heating of rocks in hot regions.
4. Welting and drying.
Expansion and contraction associated with the repeated absorption and loss of water
molecules from mineral surfaces and structures.
5. Crystallization.
This is expansion of pores and fissures by crystallization within them, of minerals that
were originally in solution.
Note: Expansion is only severe when crystallization occurs within a confined place.
6. Pneumatic loading.
The repeated loading by waving of air trapped at the head of fractures exposed in the
wave zones of a sea cliff.
Some terms used

1. Frost-heaving- gentle rising and falling in regular alternation
This occurs when the freezing of the soil results in the formation of layers of segregated
ice at shallow depths.
The frost heaving of foundations of buildings is also caused by forces originating in the
active layer and is a common problem is the Arctic – extremely cold.
Buildings which are heated can be placed a little above ground- level with a large air
space beneath them. Cold air in winter then circulates under the building and contracts
the heating effect from it.
Piped services to the buildings are also placed above ground level to prevent their rupture
by ground movement.
2. Insolation.
In hot climates, when a rock surface is exposed to a considerable daily range of
temperature as arid and semi-arid regions, the expansion that occurs during the day
and the contraction at night, constantly repeated, weaken the structure of the rock. The
outer heated layers tend to pull away from the cooler rock underneath and flakes and
slabs split off, a process known as exfoliation. This weathering is called Insolation.
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3. Un loading
One result of denudation is to reduce the load on an area as the removal of the rock
cover proceeds, leading to relief of stress in the rocks. The unloading allows a small
vertical expansion which gives rise to the formation of “sheet” of rock by the opening of
joints parallel to the ground surface.
This is frequency seen in igneous rocks such as granite intrusion, where the sheet
jointing is developed in the upper part of the mass; the ‘Sheets’ or slabs of a rock are
commonly up to a meter or so in thickness
9.2.2 Chemical weathering.

This is the breakdown of minerals into new compounds by the action of chemical agents;
such as acid in the air, in rain and in river water; although they act slowly, produce
noticeable effects especially in soluble rocks. The rate of chemical weathering depends
on temperature, the surface area and the amount of water. Chemical weathering causes
the old minerals to disintegrate and to form new minerals. Minerals which are originally
formed at lower temperatures in the original igneous rocks during the process of cooling
of magma prove more resistant to chemical weathering compared to those which were
formed at high temperatures during the cooling of Magma.
9.2.2.1 Processes of chemical weathering

Processes are most commonly involved in chemical weathering are listed below and their
rate of operation depends upon the presence of water and is greater in wet climates than
in dry climates. Some commonly occurring processes in chemical weathering are:
1. Solution.
This is dissociation of minerals into ions greatly aided by the presence of carbon dioxide
(CO2) in the soil profile, which forms carbonic acid (H2Co3) with percolating rain water.
2. Oxidation
This is the combination of oxygen (O2) with a mineral to form oxides and hydroxides or
any other reaction in which the oxidation number of the oxidized elements is increased.
3. Reduction.
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The release of oxygen (O2) from a mineral to its surrounding environment; ions leave the
mineral structure as the oxidation number of the reduced element is decreased.
4. Hydration.
This is the absorption of water molecules into the mineral structure.
Note: This normally results in expansion; some clay expands as much as 60% and by
admitting water hastens the process of solution, oxidation reduction and
hydrolysis.
5. Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis is the reaction with water. Hydrogen ions in percolating water replace mineral
cations; no oxidation reduction occurs. In other words, hydrolysis is a chemical reaction
in which a compound reacts with water causing decomposition and the production of
two or more other compounds.
6. Leaching
This is the migration of ions produced by the above processes.
Leach. (To drain away from soil when dissolved in rain water, lose a mineral or chemical
dissolved in rain water.
Note: The mobility of irons depends upon their ionic potential. Calcium (Ca),
Magnesium (Mg), Sodium (Na), and Potassium (K) are easily leached by moving
sodium water, Iron (Fe) is more resistant, Silicon (Si) is difficult to leach and
Aluminum (Al) is almost immobile.
7. Cation exchange.
This is the absorption onto the surface of negatively clay of positively charged cations in
solution especially Calcium (Ca), Hydrogen (H), Potassium (K), and Magnesium (Mg).
9.2.2.2 Conclusion
The speed and severity of weathering in wet climates depends essentially upon the
activity of the root zone, i.e. the rate of growth of vegetation and production of carbon
dioxide (Co2 ) in the root zone and the frequency with which percolating rain water can
flush weathered constituents from the weathering profile. Chemical weathering is seen
readily in rocks containing the minerals Halite (Nacl), Anhydrite (CaSo 4) and Gypsum
(CaSo4.2H2O).
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The most easily weathered are lime stones; of greater resistance are sandstones and
shales; igneous rocks (excluding certain volcanic rocks that weather rapidly) and
Quartzite are the most resistant.
Note: In dry climates, chemical weathering is superficial and much retarded by the lack
of water, producing thin zones of weathered rock. In very dry climates mechanical
process are the dominant weathering agents.
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9.2.2.3 End Product of Chemical Weathering of common Minerals
NO Parent constituent Weathering process Weathering product End product or final
mineral elements in reaction deposition.
1 Quartz SiO2 No chemical weathering Sand grains Sand stone
2 Potassium Felspars K +Co2 (carbonation) K2CO3 Some is transported in oceans
(KALSi3O8 Some is used by plant life & some is
Al, SiO absorbed on or taken into certain clays.
SiO2 +H2O(Hydrolysis) Clay (Al2Si2O5(OH)4) Shale (Chalcedony) chert.
Soluble and colloidal silica
3 Plagioclase Felspars Na +Co2 (carbonation) Ala2CO3 Dissolves in ocean limestone
(NaAlSi3O8 Ca +Co2 (carbonation) Calcite (caco3) Shale (Chalcedony
and(CaAl2 Si2O8) Clay Chert.
Al, Si, O +H20 (Hydrolysis) Soluble and colloidal
SiO2 Silila
4 Muscovite Produces the same products as potassium felspars.
5 Ferro magnesian They form the same weathering products as the felspars, plus
minerals Fe +O(oxidation) Hematite (Fe2O3 Sedimentary deposits of
+O+H2O(oxidation & limonite (FeO(OH) iron ore
Mg hydrolysis) Mg Co3 Some replaces calcium in
+ CO2 in lime stone to form Dolostone and
(not clearly known) some goes into certain clay minerals
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9.2.3 Biological Weathering
This describes those mechanical and chemical changes of the ground that are directly
associated with their activities of animals and plants. When present, microbial activities
can change the chemistry of the ground close to ground level.
9.2.3.1 How does this type of weathering come about?

Burrowing animals and plant roots penetrate the ground and roots produce gasses
which increase the acidity of the percolating rain water.
By these processes a covering layer of weathered rock is formed on a land surface.
Normally the upper layers of this cover are continually removed, exposing the fresher
material beneath it to the influence of the weathering agents. In this way, the work of
denudation continues. Agents of erosion include: - rivers, wind moving ice. Water
waves, etc. Weathering effects which are small in themselves but noticeable in the
aggregate can be attributed to plants and animals (Biotic weathering). Plants retain
their moisture and any rock surface on which they grow is kept damp, thus promoting
the solvent action of the water. The chemical decay of the rock is also aided by the
formation of vegetable humus, i.e. organic products derived from plants and this is
helped by the action of bacteria and fungi. Organic acids are thereby added to
percolating rain water and increase its solvent power. Bacteria species may live in the
aerobic and anaerobic pore space of the weathering zone and mobilize C, N, Fe, S and
O; thereby assisting the process of weathering and sometimes attacking concrete and
steel. Their mineral by-products can accumulate and cause expansion of the ground if
not washed away by percolating water. The mechanical break up of rocks is hastened
when the roots of plants penetrate into cracks and wedge apart the walls of the crack.
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9.3 Agents of erosion
The erosion is caused mainly by the three agents:-
i) Water
ii) Wind
iii) Ice
The fourth agent which helps is gravity.
9.3.1 Water
Water is the most important agent of erosion responsible for the maximum havoc it
creates in the form of erosional damages to the land surface.
It may act in three forms i.e. as falling drops, running overland flow and as running
rivers and streams. The erosion caused by water is generally quite devastating and may
create various engineering problems, if not properly checked or accounted for, while
planning the engineering projects.
9.3.2 Wind
The earth, as you know is surrounded by an environment of gases, called the
atmosphere. The movement of the atmosphere in a direction parallel to the Earth’s
surface, is wind, where as the vertical movements of the atmosphere are termed as air-
currents. The cause of wind formation is the subject of a science called Meteorology,
and is beyond the scope of this program. We under engineering Geology are mainly
concerned with the geological work done by wind, in the form of erosion and consequent
deposition of the eroded material.
Like water, wind is also an agent of erosion, transportation, as well as deposition. It is
quite an effective agent of erosion in deserts and arid dry areas.
9.3.3 Erosion by moving ice.
A glacier is a mass of moving ice, which causes erosional of the surface over which it
moves. The third agent of erosion i.e. ice or glaciers may also cause a lot of erosional
damages, although it becomes slightly less important in a tropical country like Uganda.
The eroded material is carried in an embedded state by the glacier over some distance
and then deposited at some place(s) as and when the sediment load gets separated out
due to over-loading or sudden disturbance or melting of glacier itself. A glacier, like
water and wind, thus act as an agent of erosion, transportation, as well as deposition.
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About 10% of our present land of the globe is covered by glaciers. They are slow erosive
agents, much less effective than water, as far as the overall erosion is concerned.
However, in areas of excessive snow falls, such as in mountain tops and solar regions,
they become quite effective over a period of time and are thus believed to have developed
many land forms (i.e. geological features) of the world
9.4 Factors affecting rate of Weathering

1. Mineralogy
Some minerals are more susceptible to weathering. The dark minerals are also more
affected by thermal weathering than light coloured ones. A rock that is polymineralic is
more subject to destruction than one that is monomineralic. This is because coefficients
of linear expansion and therefore undergo different deformations with variations in
temperature with protracted temperature variations, mutual cohesion between
individual grains is disrupted and the rock disintegrated.
2. Texture
In principle, the finer grained rock is the greater the surface area exposed and hence
the greater the surface area are exposed and hence the greater intensity of weathering.
However, if a rock has coarse grains that are easily weathered, the great holes left may
weaken the rock rapidly and therefore enhance the rate of weathering.
3. Discontinuities
These provide surfaces along which weathering can take place easily (i.e. where agents
of chemical weathering can penetrate and act). They include joints, faults, bedding
planes and cleavage. The fractures are gradually widened by weathering until the rock
is completely split into parts.
4. Climate
Regions with large diurnal range (daily temperatures variations) undergo the most
intensive thermal weathering.
This is most pronounced in deserts.
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9.5 Importance of weathering
1. Leads to the breakdown of rocks into smaller particles until soil is formed which is
valuable agricultural uses
2. Weathered land forms are tourist attractions.
3. Weathered land forms are used for research purposes.
4. Weathering products transported to the sea by rivers as dissolved solids make sea
water salty and serve as nutrients for many marine organisms.
5. Some metallic ores, such as those of copper and aluminum, are concentrated into
economic deposits by chemical weathering.
9.6 Short coming of weathering

1. Affects buildings and other constructed infrastructures.
2. It encourages erosion especially rapid weathering
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CHAPTER TEN
Psalm 118:22
The stone (Jesus Christ) that the builders (Human Beings) rejected has now become the cornerstone (indispensable).
10.0 GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF BUILDING STONES AND
AGGREGATES.
 Introduction
 Uses of stones
 Seasoning of stones
SUMMARY  Characteristics of stones
 Decay or degradation of stones
 Preservation of stones
 Quarry and Quarrying
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10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Rock
A rock is a term used to name a solid portion of the earth’s crust. It has no definite
shape and chemical composition.
The rocks have one or more than one mineral. Those having one mineral are known as
monomineralic and those having several minerals are known as polymineralic minerals.
Quartz, pure gypsum, and Magnetite are examples of monomineralic rocks and granite,
Basalt and gabbros are polymineralic rocks. The rocks are named after the predominant
mineral in it. A rock having calcium carbonate mineral predominant is termed as
calcareous rock. Similarly, rocks predominant in clay are called argillaceous rocks.
10.1.2 Stone
A stone is always obtained from a rock. The rock quarried from quarries is called stone;
quarried stone may be in the form of stone block, stone aggregate, stone slab, and stone
lintel.
Stone, inorganic mineral or soil concretion of the earth, of sedimentary, igneous, or
metamorphic origin, commonly used in building, civil engineering, manufacturing and
art. Some of the building stones are basalt, flint, granite, lime stone, marble, porphyry,
sand stone, slate and flagstone.
Ornamental stones, other than precious stones or gems, include alabaster, fluorite
Jade, Jasper, lapis lazuli, laboradorite and malachite.
10.2 Uses of stones

1. Masonry work for lintels, floor slabs, paving roads, Boulders on roads, aggregates in
concrete.
2. Manufacture of cement and lime
3. Ballasts used in railway tracks.
4. Construction of Masonry Dams
5. Decoration
6. Damp proof course
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10.3 Seasoning of stone
Stones have natural moisture and the moisture is known as quarry sap. This quarry
sap renders the stone blocks comparatively soft and makes them easily workable.
Therefore the stones should be dressed soon after quarrying. The quarry sap is a mineral
solution which chemically reacts with mineral constituents of stone during drying and
makes the stone hard and compact. It is important to achieve full hardening of freshly
quarried stones before they are allowed to be used in Masonry work. The full hardening
of the stone is achieved by exposing the stone to open air up to 6-12 months, during
this period, quarry sap dries up from stones completely, and this process is known as
seasoning of stones.
10.4 Characteristics of stones

The most important physical properties of rocks which are required for engineering
purposes are their durability, hardness, toughness, porosity and strength. These
properties are dependent on the mode of occurrence, type and condition of the rocks,
and are modified by their subsequent treatment when exposed to the solvent action of
acid or salt waters, great changes of temperature and when subjected to mechanical
pressure, abrasion or impact. These are:-
1. Durability: This is the ability of a stone to last for a long time, especially without
sustaining damage or wear.
2. Strength: The ability of a stone to withstand force, pressure, or stress.
3. Hardness: The state or quality of a stone being firm, solid and compact.
4. Toughness: This is the resistance of a stone to breaking under repeated hitting and
bending forces.
6. Fineness of grains
7. Compactness
8. Weight
9. Resistance to wear
10. Appearance
11. Porosity and absorption
12. Resistance to fire
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13. Resistance to weathering
10.5 Decay or degradation of Stones

Exposed stones have to withstand harmful effects mainly caused by:-
1. Temperature variation
Stones are composed of several minerals which have coefficients of expansion. Rise or
fall of temperature causes differential expansion and contraction of minerals causing
deterioration. Alternatively, a rise and fall temperature without differential expansion
or contraction also causes deterioration.
2. Wetting and drying stones
Rain, dew and frost cause wetting of stones and sunshine causes drying.
Alternating wetting and drying causes disintegration of stones.
3. Frost action
In hilly regions and other cold regions, water presentation pores of stone may freeze due
to cold. The water expands after freezing and thus causes splitting of the stones.
4. Polluted atmosphere
The atmosphere may be changed heavily with harmful gases and fumes. Such an
atmosphere prevails in industrial cities.
The gases tend to form acids in atmospheric moisture action with calcium carbonate
(CaCo3) of stones and causes disintegration.
5. Living organisms.
There are some living organisms which slowly act upon stones and cause their
deterioration, lichens destroy lime stones and worms destroy all stones except granite.
6. Vegetable growth
Certain trees and other vegetations may grow at fracture, or joints of the stones the
roots of vegetations attract moisture and keep the stones always damp. Trees growing
expand and push the adjacent stones.
7. Rain water.
Rain water causes physical disintegration of rocks by physical as well as chemical
action, wetting of stone as well as drying by sunshine is a physical action.
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Rain water descending through the atmosphere absorbs gases like carbon dioxide
hydrogen, sulphide, etc. These both form acids with rain water and render water
chemically aggressive leading to disintegration.
8. Wind.
Wind also helps in deterioration of stones. Strong winds cause fine particles to strike
against the stone, hence causing it to decay. Winds also help rain water to penetrate
and may freeze during winter
H2SO4 + CaCo3 CaSo4 + Co2 + H2O
10.6 Preservation of stones

A good preservation should posses the following properties.
1. Economical, non-corrosive and harmless to health
2. It should maintain its effectiveness for a long time.
3. It should easily penetrate into the stone interior
4. Application should be easy on the stone surface.
5. It should not develop sectionable, objectionable colors.
6. It should not allow deep penetration of moisture.
7. Preservative should be hard enough to withstand atmosphere.
10.6.1 Examples of preservatives

1. Paint
2. Lean seed oil
3. Paraffin
4. Plastering and painting
5. Using Barium hydroxide.
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10.7 Quarry and Quarrying
The site from where stones are excavated is called a quarry.
The process of taking out stones from a quarry is known as quarrying of stones.
Open excavation from which any useful stone is extracted for building and engineering
purposes and the operations required to obtain rock in useful form from a quarry.
The two principal branches of the industry are the so-called dimension-stone and
crushed-stone quarrying. In the former, blocks of stone such as marble, are extracted
in different shapes and sizes for different purposes. In the crushed- stone industry,
granite, lime stone, sand stone, or basaltic rock are crushed for use principally as
concrete aggregate or road stone. There is a difference between quarrying and mining.
In case of mining, all the excavation process is carried out underground whereas all the
operations of quarrying are at ground level and under exposed conditions.
10.8 Selection of Quarry site

The following points should be considered while choosing a quarry:-
1. Distance from quarry to road, train, etc., should not be large.
2. Sufficient stones should be assured from site.
3. Availability of equipment and labor.
4. Quality of stone available from quarry site should be good.
5. Drainage from quarry should be easy.
6. Adequate facility for transportation of stone should be available
7. Geological formation of site should be properly studied.
8. Site should be away from residence
10.9 Different methods used in stone Quarrying

Quarrying is carried out by different methods and equipment, such as hand tools,
explosives, or power saws, and by channeling and wedging, according to the purpose
for which the stone is extracted. Hand tools alone may be used for quarrying stone that
lies in easily accessible beds. The principal hand tools are the drill, hammer, and wedge.
A row of holes several centimeters apart is made with the drill and the hand hammer,
partly through the layer, or stratum, perpendicular to its plane of stratification and
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along the line at which it is desired to break the stone. Each hole in a long row is filled
with three wedges, shaped so that one may be driven down through the others, the
method being known as plug and feathers; by striking each plug a sharp blow with a
hammer, hitting them in succession, and by repeating the operation several times, the
combined splitting force of the plugs and feathers finally becomes great enough to
rupture the rock.
Explosives are most commonly employed for detaching large blocks of stone, which are
then split and broken into smaller stones by wedges or by the plug-and-feathers method,
or crushed by a heavy steel ball weighing several tons. In this method of quarrying, the
drill holes are put down to the depth to which it is required to break the rock and are
then partly filled with some explosive that is discharged by the usual methods of
blasting. To obtain finely crushed stones for concrete, primary crushers, of the jaw or
gyratory type, and secondary crushers are used to reduce the size of the rocks.
Channeling is the process of cutting long, narrow channels in rock to free the sides of
large blocks of stone. Channeling machines, or channelers, formerly steam driven; have
now been generally replaced by gasoline or electric engines. These are self-propelling
and move a cutting edge back and forth along the line on a rock bed on which the
channel cut is to be made. The channel cut is sunk deep enough to permit the insertion
of wedges by which the rock is split, the cut or groove guiding the fracture. The
channeling and wedging process of quarrying is extensively used in quarrying marble,
sandstone, limestone, and the other softer rocks, but is not successful for granite and
other hard rocks.
Another method of cutting is by the combination of a power saw, an abrasive, and water
as a lubricant and a coolant. The saw cuts a narrow channel, the primary or initial cut,
which is then either expanded by a wedge or is blasted. This method is used in slate,
granite, and limestone quarries.
An automatic channel burner has recently come into commercial use in dimension-
stone quarrying. It resembles a handheld burner held vertically in a frame, with an
electric motor moving the whole unit slowly down a track. It makes a more even cut,
does not require the presence of an operator, and wastes less rock. The unit is controlled
by a computer.
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CHAPTER ELEVEN
Genesis 21:19
Then God opened Hagar’s eyes, and she saw a well full of water. She quickly filled her water container and gave the boy
(Ishmael) a drink.
Genesis 26:32-33
And it came to pass the same day that Isaac’s servants came and told him concerning the well which they had dug, and
said unto him, we have found water. And he called it Sheba: therefore the name of the city is Beersheba unto this day.
11.0 GEO-HYDROLOGY
 Origin of groundwater & Definitions

 The hydrologic cycle
 Occurrence of groundwater
 Wells
SUMMARY  Aquifers
 Springs
 Isotropy & Anisotropy
 Potentiality of different rocks as Aquifers
 Groundwater prospecting
11.1 Origin of ground water.

The major source of ground water is rainfall and this groundwater which originates
from precipitation is called meteoric water.
Besides this major source, two other minor sources of ground water are:-
Connate water: The sea water trapped in the pores of rocks that originated in shallow
seas of the past geological times.
Juvenile: The water which comes chiefly from volcanic emanations in the form of water
vapor.
2010/2011.
Neither of these two minor sources is significant in terms of the total volume of fresh
underground water.
11.2 Definition
Groundwater may be defined as:-
Groundwater is Surface water accumulating because of seepage (infiltrations) and
returning to the surface as springs and through wells. Ground water is the underground
water that occurs in the saturated zone of variable thickness and depth below the earth’s
surface. Precisely to say, Groundwater is water beneath the surface that can be collected
with wells, tunnels or discharge galleries or that flows naturally to the earth’s surface
via seeps or springs. Groundwater is the fluid mostly encountered in engineering
construction. It is derived from many sources but mostly it comes from rainfall and
melting of snow. The passage of water through the surface of the ground is called
infiltration and it’s down ward movement to the saturated zone and depth is described
as percolation. Cracks and pores in the existing rocks and unconsolidated crystal layers,
make up a large underground reservoir, where part of precipitation is stored.
11.3 The hydrologic cycle.

The movement of water and water vapor from the sea to the atmosphere, to the land
and back to the sea and atmosphere again is called the hydrologic cycle.
The hydrologic cycle may be represented diagrammatically as shown below.
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Water in the sea evaporates under solar radiation and clouds of water vapor move over
the land areas. Precipitation occurs as water begins to flow back into the sea. Some of
it infiltrates into the soil and percolates into the saturated ground zone beneath the
water table or phreatic surface. The water in this zone flows through aquifers to river
channels or sometimes directly into the Sea. The water that infiltrates also feeds the
surface plant life and sometimes gets drawn up vegetations where transpiration takes
place on the leaves.
Water remaining on the surface partially evaporates into vapor and the remaining water
that has not infiltrated or evaporated runs as surface water/Run-off to the river
channels and arrives back to the sea.
The whole cycle will then start again, hence the hydrologic cycle.
11.4 Occurrence of Groundwater

The rainfall that percolates below the ground surface passes through the voids of the
rocks and joins the water table. These voids are generally inter-connected permitting
the movement of the ground water. But on some rocks, they may be isolated and this
preventing the movement of water between the interstices. Evidently, the mode of
occurrence of ground water depends largely upon the type of formation and hence upon
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the geology of the area. All the materials of variable porosity (or interstices) near the
upper portion of the Earth’s crust can be considered as a potential storage place for the
ground water and may therefore be called as the ground water reservoir.
The volume of water contained in an area, i.e. the water storage capacity of the ground
water, is dependent upon:-
i) The porosity of the rocks
ii) The rate at which water is added to it by infiltration.
iii) The rate at which water is lost from it by evaporation, transpiration, seepage to
surface courses and withdrawal by man.
Porosity
Porosity is the percentage of rock or sediment that consists of voids or openings. It’s a
measurement of a rock’s ability to hold water. Porosity defines the maximum amount of
water that can be stored in the rock; but does not ensure the storage of underground
water.
Total volume of voids in the aggregate i.e. the volume of water require to
Porosity = saturate the dry sample (Vv)
Total volume of the aggregate (V)
It is generally denoted by the letter Neeta (η)

Therefore η = Vv x 100%
V
Porosity, in fact, depends upon the shape, packing and degree of sorting of the
component grains in a given material.
(A) (B)
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Uniform and well sorted grains (A) give rise to higher porosity because the grains of (A)
are all about equal in size; whereas, heterogeneous grains (B) with irregular
arrangements decreases the porosity because in (B) smaller grains fill the spaces
between the larger grains, thus reducing the volume of void space.
Permeability
Permeability is the ability of a rock or unconsolidated formation to transport or pass
water through itself. Permeability refers to the capacity of a rock to transmit a fluid such
as water or petroleum through pores and fractures. In other words, permeability
measures the relative ease of water flow and indicates the degree to which opening in a
rock interconnect. The distinction between porosity and permeability is important.
A rock that holds much water is called porous; a rock that allows water to flow easily
through it is described as permeable. Most sandstones and conglomerates are both
porous and permeable. An impermeable rock is one that does not allow water to flow
through it easily. Unjointed granite and schist are impermeable. Shale can have
substantial porosity, but it has low permeability because its pore is too small to permit
easy passage of water.
Table showing porosity and permeability of sediments and rocks
Sediments Porosity (%) Permeability

Gravel 25 to 40 Excellent
Sand (clean) 30 to 50 Good to excellent
Silt 35 to 50 Moderate
Clay 35 to 80 Poor
Rock
Conglomerate 10 to 30 Moderate to excellent
Sand stone
- We sorted, little cement 2 0 to 30 Good to very good
- Average 10 to 20 Moderate to good
- Poorly sorted, well- cemented 0 to 10 Poor to moderate
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- Shale 0 to 30 Very poor to poor
- Lime stone, dolomite 0 to 20 Poor to good
- Cavernous limestone Up to 50 Excellent.
Crystalline rock
- Un-fractured 0 to 5 Very poor
- Fractured 5 to 10 Poor
- Volcanic rocks 0 to 50 Poor to excellent
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Water table
This is a static level of water in wells penetrating the zone of saturation
Perched water table
This is the top of a body of ground water separated from the main water table beneath
it by a zone that is not saturated.
Drainage of Ground water
This is the extraction of water from below the water table through wells, infiltration
galleries, springs, etc. The water is, thus, drained from the ground water reservoir, either
under some natural phenomena (like springs) or it can be drained artificially by
constructing wells and lifting water through them. The water so drained may be to fulfill
domestic, rural, municipal or industrial water demands.
Specific yield
The volume of ground water extracted by gravity-drainage from an aquifer is known as
the yield and when it is expressed as the ratio of the volume of the total material drained,
and then it is known as the Specific field.
Specific field = Volume of water obtained by gravity drained x 100
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Total volume of the material drained or dewatered
Specific retention or field capacity
The quantity of water retained by the material against the pull of gravity is termed as
the specific retention or the field capacity.
Specific retention = Volume of the water held against gravity drainage x 100
Total volume of the material drained
Note: It is evident that the sum of the specific field and specific retention is equal to its
porosity.
11.5 Wells
Water well is a hole usually vertically excavated in the earth for bringing ground water
to the surface.
A well is man-made hole in the ground from which water can be withdrawn.
11.5.1 Types of wells
The wells may be classified into two types:-
1). Open wells
2). Tubes wells.
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1. Open wells or Dug wells
Open wells are generally open masonry wells having comparatively bigger diameters and
are suitable for low discharges of order 1-5 liters per second. The diameter of open wells
generally varies from 2 to 5m in depth. The walls of an open well may be built of precast
at ring or in brick or stone masonry. The field of an open well is limited because such
wells can be excavated only to a limited depth where the ground water storage is also
limited.
Types of open wells
Open wells may be classified into types:-
a) Shallow wells
b) Deep wells
a) Shallow wells.
A shallow well is the one which rest in pervious stratum draws its supply from the
surrounding materials.
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b) Deep well.
A deep well is the one which rests on an impervious “Mote” layer and draws its supply
from pervious formation lying below. The “Mote” layer (layer of clay, cemented sand or
other hard materials which often found laying a few meters below the water table in the
subsoil).
2. Tube wells
Here long pipes or tubes are bored or drilled deep into the ground, intercepting one or
two water bearing stratum.
11.5.2 Selection of a site for a well

The factors to be carefully studied before selecting a site for sinking a well are:-
1. Topography
2. Climate
3. vegetation
4. Geology of the area
5. Porosity, permeability and alteration of rocks.
6. Joints and faults in rock
7. Folded strata.
8. Proximity of any tank, river, spring, lake, unlined channels, reservoirs etc.
9. Existing wells in the vicinity.
11.6 Aquifers.
An aquifer may be defined as a formation of a permeable material, which is capable to
field appreciable quantities of ground water under gravity.
An aquifer is a body of saturated rock or sediment through which water can move easily.
Aquifers are both highly permeable and saturated with water. A well must be drilled into
an aquifer to reach an adequate supply of water. Good aquifers include sand stone,
conglomerate, well-jointed lime stone, bodies of sand and gravel and some fragmental
or fractured volcanic rocks such as columnar basalt. Crystalline rocks such as granite,
gabbros, gneiss, schist and some types of lime stone because they are not very porous,
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are considered not good aquifers. The porosity of such rocks may be 1% or less. Shale
and crystalline rocks are called aquitards because they retard the flow of ground water.
The geological formation or stratum of impervious material which does not admit ground
water is called an aquiclude. They usually contain and transmit small quantities of
water; examples are clay, mudstone, shale, and un-fractured igneous and metamorphic
rocks.
Other geological formations for example un-weathered granite, Dolerites and fresh
carbonate rocks that supposedly neither contain nor transmit water are known as
aquifuges. The importance of these formations is that they form boundaries of aquifers
and provide the clastic materials for formation of aquifers.
11.6.1 Types of Aquifers

Aquifers vary in depth, lateral extent and thickness but in general, all aquifers fall into
one of the two categories:-
1. Unconfined aquifers
2. Confined aquifers
Unconfined aquifers
Unconfined aquifers, also called non-artesian aquifers, are the top-most water bearing
strata having no confined impermeable over-burden rock bed lying over them. The
ordinary gravity wells of 2 to 5 m diameters, which are excavated through such top most
aquifers, are known as unconfined wells. The water level in these wells will stand equal
to the level of water table. Such wells are also known as water-table wells or gravity
wells.
Confined aquifers
When an aquifers is encased on its upper and under surface by impervious rock
formation (aquiclude), and is also broadly inclined so as to expose the aquifer
somewhere to the catchment area at a higher level for the creations of sufficient
hydraulic head, it is called a confined aquifer or an artesian aquifer. A confined aquifer
is completely filled with water under pressure, and which is usually separated from the
surface by a relatively impermeable confining bed; or aquitards, such as shale. An
unconfined aquifer is recharged rapidly by precipitations, has a rising and falling water
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table during wet and dry seasons, and has relatively rapid movement of ground water
through it. A confined aquifer is recharged slowly through confining shade beds. A well
excavated through such an aquifer yields water that often flows out automatically,
under hydrostatic pressure, and may even rise or gush out of surface for a reasonable
height. However, where the ground profile is high, the water may remain well below the
ground level. The former type of wells, where water is gushing out automatically, are
called flowing wells.
Perched aquifers
Perched aquifer is a special case which is sometimes found to occur within an
unconfined aquifer. If within the zone of saturation, an impervious deposit below a
pervious deposit is found to support a body of saturated material; then, this body of
saturated material which is a kind of an aquifer is known as the perched aquifer; the
top surface of the water held in the perched aquifer is known as the perched water table.
2010/2011.
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11.7 Springs:
A spring is a place where water flows naturally from rock on to the land surface. The
natural outflow of ground water at the earth’s surface is said to form a spring.
A pervious layer sandwiched between two impervious layers gives rise to a natural
spring. A spring indicates the out cropping of the water table. Some springs discharge
where the water table intersects the land surface, but they also occur where water flows
out from caverns or along fractures, faults, or rock contacts that come to the surface.
Springs are generally capable of supplying very small amounts of water, and therefore
mostly not regarded as source of water supplies.
11.7.1 Formation and types of springs

Gravity springs
When the ground-water table rises high and the water overflows through the sides of
the natural valley or a depression, the spring formed is known as a gravity spring. The
flow from such a spring is variable with the rise or fall of water table.
Surface springs.
Sometimes, an impervious obstruction or stratum, supporting the underground storage,
becomes inclined, causing the water table to go up and get exposed to the ground
surface. This type of spring is known as a surface spring. The quantity of water available
from such a spring is quite uncertain.
Artesian spring
When the above storage is under pressure i.e. the water is flowing through some
confined aquifer, the spring formed is known as an artesian spring. These types of
springs are able to provide almost uniform quantity of water. Since the water oozes out
under pressure, they are able to provide higher yields, and may be thought of as the
possible sources of water supply.
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11.8 Isotropy and Anisotropy
11.8.1 Isotropy (KV = KL)
Aquiclude
KV
KL Confined Aquifer
Aquiclude
This is a phenomenon where the hydraulic conductive in the vertical directions KV will
be equal to hydraulic conductivity in horizontal direction KL.
11.8.2 Anisotropy (KL >>>>> KV)
This is a phenomenon, where the hydraulic conductivity in the horizontal directions KL,
will be significantly greater than its hydraulic conductivity in the vertical direction KV.
11.9 Potentiality of different Rocks as Aquifers

The various kinds of rocks possess variable water bearing properties, depending chiefly
on their permeability and porosity these include:-
1. Sedimentary rocks
2. Metamorphic rocks
3. Igneous rocks.
11.9.1 Sedimentary rocks as aquifers.
Sedimentary rocks generally constitute the best aquifers. Sedimentary rocks, such as
gravels possess the highest water-retaining as well as water yielding capacities this more
true in case of loose and weakly cemented course gravels. Next to gravel, the other
Sedimentary rocks in their successive order of decreasing water bearing capacity are:-
loose sands, sand stones, limestone, etc. shales (clays) are the poorest in absorbing
water, being impermeable although porous, and hence classified as aquiclude.
Amongst Sand stones, the water-bearing capacity depends much upon their texture and
nature of cementing material. Coarse-grained sandstones may be good aquifers, where
2010/2011.
as fine-grained sandstones may prove to be the poorest aquifers, with almost no possible
yield of water. The water bearing capacity of limestone depend much upon the presence
of solution channels, crevices, fissures, and other such openings in the rock. Hence
fissured and cracked lime stones may prove to be excellent aquifers and many other
compacted lime stones may prove to be totally unproductive.
11.9.2 Metamorphic Rocks as Aquifers.
Non-foliated metamorphic rocks like marbles and Quartzite are generally impermeable,
except along the original bedding, if the same is not completely destroyed during
metamorphism. These rocks, thus, normally behave as aquicludes. The foliated
metamorphic rocks like slates, schist, phyllites, and sometimes even gneisses, may
contain some good amount of ground-water due to their being highly fractured.
11.9.3 Igneous Rocks as Aquifers
The igneous rocks are generally the poorest aquifers.
The intrusive igneous rocks like Granites, Syenites, etc, are generally very compact and
dense, and hence are non-porous. They are, thus barren of groundwater under normal
conditions. However, when they are traversed by fissures or cracks, they may be capable
of holding some ground water quantities. Even these cracks and figures die out with
depth and as such, there is absolutely no possibility of getting any ground water in these
rocks at depths greater than 80 to 100 meters.
The extrusive igneous rocks also exhibit great variations in their water bearing
properties. Basic igneous rocks like Basalts are generally rich in cavities and
contraction cracks and as such may become permeable and sources of underground
water. Acidic igneous rocks like Rhyolites may or may not contain ground water,
because such rocks although generally possess interstices but may be filled up with ash
and other materials and become uncertain of containing water.
11.10 Groundwater Prospecting

The term ground-water prospecting means searching for the ground water. It does not
only include to find out the places where ground water is available, but also to find out
its approximate quantity and quality as well.
This job can be done by carrying out what is called ground-water surveys.
2010/2011.
11.10.1 Objectives of hydro-geological investigation
The objectives of any hydro-geological investigations are:-
1. To define recharge and discharge areas
2. Define major water bearing units.
3. Define location, extent and interrelationship of aquifers.
4. Establish physical parameters of aquifers like transmissibility, storage, coefficient
and specific field
5. Estimate total subsurface storage capacity
6. Establish geological factors which affect quality of ground water.
7. Arrival at the location, probable depth of drilling and field from the bore well, (tube
well)
8. To establish the level of water in the ground, their variation over an area and their
fluctuation with time.
11.10.2 Methods of exploration

A number of techniques can be used in combination to determine the location of ground
water. These may include
- Maps- topographic and geological
- Vegetation survey
- Local knowledge
- Remote sensing- aerial photos and satellite imagery
- Geophysics.
- Drilling
11.10.2.1 Desk study and initial survey

Reports and maps of various kinds are a useful starting point for ground water
exploration.
Topographic maps will indicate the nature of the terrain and the presence of any springs,
streams, or lakes. Geological maps will only give a general indication of the likely rock
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types and sometimes ignore the thin surface sediments which can be important local
sources of ground water. Valuable information can be obtained from a visit to the area
under consideration. The growth and occurrence particular types of vegetation often
indicates the presence of water these include the Baobabs trees of East Africa which
usually grow where the permanent water table is within rooting depth. Trees and
shrubs which thrive in distinct linear patterns during drought periods may indicate
fissures containing stored ground water. Local knowledge is of particular importance
and is generally best obtained by talking to people who live in the study area.
11.10.2.2 Remote sensing

The term remote sensing is used to describe all the techniques which collect information
from electromagnetic radiation reflected, emitted or transmitted from surface or near
surface features of the Earth. The Techniques range from simple aerial photographs to
oblique radar generated data collected by specially equipped aircraft. In most humid
and temperate locations remote sensing techniques will only be useful in helping to
provide information on the surface features that exist. The presence of groundwater
cannot be detected directly but only inferred from the information collected on surface
geology, soil moisture, vegetation and groundwater discharge.
11.10.2.3 Geo-physics
Geophysics may be used to supplement surface data by providing information on the
sub-surface properties of the ground.
These properties can give useful indications of the presence or otherwise of ground
water. The geophysical techniques that are most appropriate to groundwater exploration
are:
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1. Resistivity: This uses the direct contact of electrodes placed into the ground to
measure the resistance to electricity. Water is a better conductor of electricity than
the rock; hence water bearing strata will have a lower resistivity than similar strata
that are dry
2. Conductivity: This is a non-contact method uses electro-magnetic principles
determine the ease with which electricity passes through the ground. It can be used
to locate gravel, shallow bedrock, Saline intrusions and cavities in carbonate rock (e.g.
lime stone)
3. Seismic refraction: This technique depends on rocks with different densities
transmitting sounds or vibrations at different velocities and can be used to locate
boundaries between subsurface layers and the depth to the water table.
11.10.2.4 Drilling
Drilling is generally the final stage in exploration. It is the only way to confirm the
presence of ground water beyond all doubt and gives vital information regarding
geological conditions and the hydraulic characteristics of potential aquifers. There are
many techniques available. Selection of an appropriate method will depend on a
number of factors including the type of rocks to be penetrated the likely depth to the
water table and the availability of equipment.
11.10.3 Logs or recording of Bore-hole Data

Logs may be defined as the recodes of the sub-surface investigations and provide useful
information regarding the nature and properties of the materials occurring at various
depth below the ground surface.
These records may be in the form of more tables or graphic plots with symbolic
descriptions. The data making the basis of these records may be obtained by different
method and accordingly these are many types of bore-hole logs; like geological logs
which are representing the geological type of the strata occurring at different depths and
encountered during direct digging or boring of wells.
2010/2011.
2010/2011.
PAST PAPERS
2010/2011.
HIGHER DIPLOMA IN CIVIL AND BUILDING ENGINEERING - I

SEMESTER I TEST ONE 2008/2009
DCE 312: ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
Date: Thursday 18th – September - 2008 Time: 7:15pm – 8:15pm
INSTRUCTIONS:
 This test contains questions from two (2) chapters.
 Attempt all questions.
 All questions carry marks indicated.
a) Briefly describe the scope of Geology (5 marks)

b) Differentiate between Geology and Engineering Geology (2 marks)
c) Why do you study Geology? (5 marks)
d) Discuss what you know about the internal constitution of the Earth (9 marks)
e) Briefly explain the last three (3) eras of Geologic time scale (6 marks)
f) What is continental drift and clearly show the evidences supporting it (5 marks)
g) What is Geologic time? (1 mark)
h) Differentiate between Plate Tectonics and Sea-floor spreading (4 marks)
i) Which category of scientist is responsible for determining the age of the Earth (1 mark)
j) Mention any technique used by these Scientists in (i) above to determine the age of the
Earth (1 mark)
k) What is the estimated age of the Planet Earth? (1 mark)
2010/2011.

SEMESTER I TEST TWO 2008/2009
Date: Friday 17th - October - 2008 Time: 7:05pm – 8:35pm
INSTRUCTIONS:
 This test contains questions from Three (3) chapters.
 All questions carry marks indicated.
1. Briefly discuss any five (5) physical properties of minerals. (5 Marks)

2. Mention any ten (10) minerals and their respective uses found in the various
districts of the Republic of Uganda. (5 Marks)
3. Describe how you can prepare a rock slide; also instrument and process involved in
optical mineralogy. (8 Marks)
4. With illustrations, discuss the Rock Cycle. (5 Marks)
5. With illustrations and examples where possible, discuss the mode of occurrence of
igneous rocks. (8 Marks)
6. Discuss the formation of Sedimentary rocks. (7 Marks)
7. Differentiate between metamorphic rocks and metamorphism (2 Marks)
8. With examples and illustrations, briefly discuss folds, joints, and faults. (10 Marks)
2010/2011.
KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY
ORDINARY DIPLOMA IN WATER ENGINEERING

YEAR I SEMESTER II EXAMINATIONS 2007/2008
DWE 123: GEOLOGY AND SOILS
Date: Wednesday 20th – August – 2008 Time: 8:00Am – 11:00Am
INSTRUCTIONS:
 This Examination paper contains Eight (8) questions.
 Attempt any Five (5) questions.
 All questions carry equal marks.
 Begin each question on a fresh page.
 Do not write anything on the question paper, all rough work should be done on the official
answer booklet.
Question One
a) Differentiate between intrusive and extrusive rocks. (4 marks)
b) What is a mineral? (1 mark)
c) Briefly describe the layers of Planet Earth. (9marks)
d) Explain the three (3) types of rocks you know giving two (2) examples of each. (6 marks)
Question Two
a) Differentiate between petrology and mineralogy (2 marks)
b) With illustrations where necessary, explain the following terms:-
i. Batholith,
ii. Laccolith,
iii. Lava flows,
iv. Dykes, (8 marks)
c) Differentiate between weathering and erosion (2 marks)
d) Briefly describe the four (4) stages of sedimentary rock formation. (8 marks)
2010/2011.
Question Three
a) Mention any five (5) minerals found in Uganda and their respective uses. (5 marks)
b) What is Site Investigation? (1 mark)
c) A polarizing microscope is the most important instrument which is used in any study dealing with the
process of determining the optical properties of minerals.
Give any five (5) of its essential parts. (5marks)
d) Draw well labeled structural representations of the following: -
i. Reverse fault,
ii. Anticline,
iii. Syncline (9 marks)
Question Four
a) Define Geology. (1 mark)
b) What do you understand by the term “Site Reconnaissance”? (2 marks)
c) Briefly explain the sources of information in the Desk Study. (5 marks)
d) With the aid of a drawing/sketch describe the rock cycle. (6 marks)
e) What do you understand by Continental Drift, Sea- floor spreading and Plate Tectonic? (6 marks)
Question Five
a) Define Paleozoic era, Mesozoic era, and Cenezoic era. (3 marks)
b) Differentiate between lithosphere and asthenosphere by use of a sketch (5 marks)
c) With illustrations explain the following types of folds: -
i. Open Folds,
ii. Isoclined Fold,
iii. Overturned fold,
iv. Recumbent fold (12 marks)
Question Six
a) With illustrations, explain the following fault terminologies: -
i. Strike of the fault,
ii. Dip of the fault,
iii. Hade (6 marks)
b) Mention about three (3) agents of soil erosion (3 marks)
c) What do you understand by a rock? (1 mark)
d) Briefly describe any five (5) physical properties of minerals (10 marks)
2010/2011.
Question Seven
a) Explain the term Representative sample and its methods. (4 marks)
b) Define Specific gravity of the soil. (2 marks)
c) How is Specific gravity of soil determined in the Laboratory, using Density Bottle method? (8 marks)
d) What do you understand by the term moisture content of the soil? (2 marks)
e) Using Specific gravity practical results of the soil given, calculate the Specific gravity value. (4 marks)
 Mass of density bottle = 115g
 Mass of density bottle containing dry soil = 165g
 Mass of density bottle containing saturated soil = 261g
 Mass of density bottle containing liquid only = 230.5g
Question Eight
a) What do you understand by the term particle size distribution of soil? (2 marks)
b) How is particle size distribution of soil determined, using dry sieving method? (8 marks)
c) On 27th/June/2008, students of ordinary diploma in Water Engineering, year one, group A; carried
out a particle size distribution practical on soil sample in the DCBE Materials Testing Laboratory and
got the following results:-
Sieve sizes Weight Retained
(mm) (g)
10 0
6.3 42
5 105
2 115.5
1.18 136.5
0.6 84
0.425 94.5
0.3 136.5
0.212 115.5
0.15 52.5
0.063 84
Receiver 84
i. Calculate the percentage passing each sieve size. (5 marks)

ii. Plot the grading curve (3 marks)
iii. Make conclusion basing on (ii) above (2 marks)
2010/2011.
Name: …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Reg. No.: …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Program: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Date: ……………………………………….
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION CHART
2010/2011.
KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

SEMESTER I, TEST ONE, 2009/2010
Date: Friday 2nd – October - 2009 Time: 7:15pm – 8:45pm
INSTRUCTIONS:
 This test contains questions from three (3) chapters.
 All questions carry marks as indicated.
a) Differentiate between Geology and Engineering Geology. (2 marks)

b) Describe the scope of geology. (5 marks)
c) Why do you study Geology? (5 marks)
d) What is the estimated age of the earth; and what name is given to people
responsible for determining its age? (2 marks)
e) Describe fully the internal constitution of the earth. (6 marks)
f) Differentiate between Plate Tectonics and Continental drift. (2 marks)
g) Give concrete evidences supporting continental drift. (4 marks)
h) What do you understand by sea floor spreading? (2 marks)
i) List any three (3) Eons of the geologic time scale. (3 marks)
j) Describe any three (3) Eras of one of the above Eons. (6 marks)
k) Differentiate between mineralogy and minerals. (2 marks)
2010/2011.
l) List any ten (10) minerals with their respective uses found in the Republic of
Uganda. (5 marks)
m) Explain any four (4) physical properties of minerals. (8 marks)
n) Explain any four (4) microscopic optical properties of minerals. (8 marks)
KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

SEMESTER I, TEST ONE, 2009/2010
Date: Friday 6th – November - 2009 Time: 7:15pm – 8:45pm
INSTRUCTIONS:
 This test contains questions from four (4) chapters.
 All questions carry marks as indicated.
1) Explain the causes of folding. (4 marks)

2) Explain folds, faults and joints as applied in structural geology. (6 marks)
3) Discuss the Civil Engineering considerations involved in dealing with folded, faulted
and jointed rocks. (9 marks)
4) Describe the rock cycle. (5 marks)
5) Explain the mode of occurrence of igneous rocks. (7 marks)
2010/2011.
6) Explain the formation and classification of sedimentary rocks. (12 marks)
7) Explain the types of seismic waves. (6 marks)
8) The site investigation report is the final product of the exploration program. If you
are given a task to prepare one, which important information would you include
while preparing one? (6 marks)
9) Explain the sources of information in a desk study during site investigation.(5
marks)
DID YOU KNOW THIS?

From BODY, Editorial Consultant, Robert Winton.
 Weight for weight, Bone is six times stronger than steel.
 What makes a genius a genius? This was the question that motivated Dr. Thomas
Harvey to remove the brain of the physicist Albert Einstein (1879 - 1995) when he
died. Harvey sliced Einstein’s brain into 240 pieces. Later, research suggested that
although Einstein’s brain weighed less than average, there were more neurons
packed into the cerebral cortex (grey matter). They also found unusual grooves in
the part of the brain – the parletal lobe – that deals with mathematical reasoning.
 Your tongue does more than just detect sweet, sour, salty, and bitter tastes. It has
pain detectors (nociceptors) that are stimulated by capsaiein, a substance released
by hot chili peppers. So, the hot feeling you get from chilies is actually pain! Your
tongue also has touch receptors that tell whether the food you are chewing is smooth
or rough. Heat detectors (thermo-receptors) register the difference between cold ice
cream and hot baked potato. All these receptors help to make your food more – or
less – enjoyable.
 The eye can detect up to 10 million different colours.
2010/2011.
 Your nose can detect more than 10,000 smells.
 Your Brain is more complex than any computer.
 Salivary Gland pour about one (1) liter of saliva into your mouth daily.
 Why do valentine cards have hearts on them? Why do people talk about “having a
broken heart”? This is because long ago people thought that the heart was the organ
of love and emotion. This belief has persisted to the present day, even though we
now know it is our brain that is responsible for these feelings.
 Your shoulder joint is the most flexible joint in your entire body.
 In 1543, the first accurate study of human anatomy appeared when Andreas
Vesalius (1514 - 64) – a Belgian doctor based in Padua, Italy – published a book
called on the structure of the Human Body, which was filled with amazing drawings
of dissected (cut-up) bodies. In his younger days, Vesalius stole the bodies of hanged
criminals to make his dissections. But once he became famous, the town of Padua
readily supplied him with corpses to dissect.
 The pelvis keeps your body balanced over your legs.
2010/2011.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. KOMAR. Building Materials and Components
F.G.H. BLYTH & M.H. de FREITAS. Geology for Engineers, Seventh Edition
KATTO EDWARDS, 2002 Summarized Uganda Mineral Inventory and their uses
MICROSOFT CORPORATION, Encarta Encyclopedia
PLUMMER, MC GEARY AND CARLSON, Physical Geology, ninth edition
ROBERT F. LEGGET. Geology & Engineering
ROBERT WINTON, BODY, Editorial Consultant.
S. K. GARG, Physical and Engineering Geology
Geologists should approve Building plans; New Vision Article October 2008
Bible
2010/2011.

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Luwalaga John Groover

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND BUILDING ENGINEERING

CE 225: ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

B.ENG. CBE II AND BEEEM II

1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 9

1.1 Brief Description of the course ................................................................................ 9

1.2 Objective of the course ................................................................................................ 9

1.3 Geology ............................................................................................................................... 10

1.4 Work of Geologist ....................................................................................................... 10

1.5 The Scope of Geology .............................................................................................. 10

1.5.1 Physical geology ........................................................................................................ 10

1.5.2 Historical Geology .................................................................................................... 11

1.6 Civil Engineering ......................................................................................................... 12

1.7 Engineering Geology ................................................................................................. 12

1.8 Why study Geology .................................................................................................... 12

1.9 Activities of Engineering Geologists in Civil & Building Engineering

2.0 THE PLANET EARTH AND ITS SURROUNDING .............................................. 14

2.2 The Solar System........................................................................................................ 14

2.3 The Planet Earth ......................................................................................................... 19

2.4 The Age of the Earth................................................................................................ 20

2.5 The Internal Structure of the Earth .................................................................. 20

2.5.1 Crust ................................................................................................................................. 22

2.5.3 Core .................................................................................................................................. 22

2.6 The Theory of Plate Tectonics ........................................................................... 23

2.7.1 Evidence Supporting Continental Drift .......................................................... 24

2.8 Sea-Floor Spreading ................................................................................................. 25

CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................................ 28

3.0 MINERALOGY .................................................................................................................. 28

3.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 28

3.2 SUMMARISED UGANDA MINERAL INVENTORY AND THEIR USES .. 29

3.3 Identification of Minerals and their Properties .......................................... 36

3.3.1 Physical Properties of Minerals .......................................................................... 36

3.3.2 Microscopic Optical Properties of Minerals......................................... 42

3.3.3 Chemical Properties of Minerals ........................................................................ 44

CHAPTER FOUR .............................................................................................................................. 50

4.0 PETROLOGY ...................................................................................................................... 50

4.1 Definitions ...................................................................................................................... 50

4.2 Rock Cycle ..................................................................................................................... 50

4.3 Types of Rocks ............................................................................................................ 52

4.3.1 Igneous Rocks (Eruptive Rocks) ....................................................................... 52

4.3.2 Sedimentary Rocks/Stratified/Secondary Rocks .................................... 56

4.3.3 Metamorphic Rocks .................................................................................................. 60

5.0 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY............................................................................................ 63

5.1 Definitions ...................................................................................................................... 63

5.2 Folds .................................................................................................................................. 64

5.2.1 Causes of Folding ...................................................................................................... 64

5.2.2 Parts of a fold and connected terminology ................................................. 65

5.2.4 Engineering Considerations involved in Dealing with Folded

5.3 Fractures in Rock ...................................................................................................... 71

5.3.1 Joints ................................................................................................................................ 72

5.3.2 Faults ............................................................................................................................... 73

CHAPTER SIX ................................................................................................................................... 77

6.0 EARTH QUAKE................................................................................................................. 77

6.1 Definition ......................................................................................................................... 78

6.2 Causes of Earthquakes and their types ......................................................... 78

6.3 Seismic waves ............................................................................................................. 79

6.4 Types of seismic waves................................................................................. 80

6.4.1 Body waves: .................................................................................................................. 80

6.4.2 Surface waves .............................................................................................................. 80

6.5 Measuring of the size of an Earthquake ......................................................... 81

6.5.1 Intensity: ......................................................................................................................... 81

6.5.2 Magnitude: ...................................................................................................................... 81

6.6 Effects of earthquakes ............................................................................................ 83

6.7 Tsunami: .......................................................................................................................... 85