Conference on Recent Advances in Soft Soil Engineering and Technology @Asset2

2 –4 July, 2003. Sibu, Sarawak, MALAYSIA

SAMPLE PAPER
(This paper was published in Proceedings of Conference on Recent Advances in Soft Soil Engineering, eds. Huat,
B.B.K and Bahia, H.M., 5-7 March, 1997. Kuching. Sarawak. pp. 135 – 149)

VARYING PERSPECTIVEON PEAT, IT’S OCCURRENCE IN

SARAWAK AND SOME GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES
Harwant Singh1, Hufdi M. Bahia2 and Bujang B.K. Huat3
1
Lecturer, Faculty of Resource Science & Technology and 2 (Formerly)Associate Professor, Faculty of
Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, MALAYSIA
1
Tel: 082-671000 Fax: 082-672275
3
Associate Professor, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
43400 UPM Serdang. Selangor. MALAYSIA
Tel: 603-89466368 Fax: 603-86567129
E-mail: 1terrate@frst.unimas.my ,3 bujang@eng.upm.edu.my

ABSTRACT

Peat deposits, covering about 13% of the land area of Sarawak amounting to around 16,500 km2 , has
been investigated by various agencies and from workers each from their own perspectives. The
geotechnical fraternity has also dabbled with it viewing it from its own standpoint. This paper draws
contrasts between two perspectives, namely, soil sciences and the geotechnical engineering, to enable
each of these diverging interests to appreciate and, if possible, sow the seed for synergism between the
two. This paper also brings forth the data on the occurrence and distribution of peat in the state,
expounding the morphology of these deposits highlighting some of its characteristics particularly its
internal fabric. Lastly, there is an exposition of some local documented geotechnical investigative work.

1. INTRODUCTION

In an effort to understand peat, workers from various disciplines have studied it from their own
perspectives. The geotechnical standpoint, although concerning itself with aspects peculiar to it, has had
to, now and then, resort to other research findings such as that of soil science to augment its
understanding of this soil material. We shall first understand the distribution of peat in Sarawak as it is
commonly defined and then examine the two principle perspectives i.e. soil sciences and the geotechnical,
after which look at the morphology of the peat at some level of detail before seeing some local
geotechnical properties.

2. DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT OF PEAT IN SARAWAK

Sarawak has the largest peat area in Malaysia with 16,500 km2 that makes up 13% of the state, of which
about 90% is more than 1 m in depth (5 & 8) (Fig. 1). The essential thing to note is that peat here is
identified from the soil sciences perspective prior to 1982 where soil with more than 35% of organic
matter content were described as peat and this will be seen later differs from the geotechnical perspective.
Another point to take heed of here is that the thicknesses of some of these peat deposits are too shallow to
be of any impendence to construction. The Soil Map of Sarawak, on the scale of 1: 500,000, 1968, based
on a classification of Sarawak soil, 1966 and subsequent amendments shows the extent of this peat. This
is also the latest soil map available for the state (at this scale) that shows areas under peat. Of interest for
geotechnical work will be the latter of two depth categories i.e. mainly shallow peat soils (< 1 m) and
mainly deep peat soils (> 1 m) shown on this map as the problematic terrain would occur in this category
of peat.
Conference on Recent Advances in Soft Soil Engineering and Technology @Asset2
2 –4 July, 2003. Sibu, Sarawak, MALAYSIA

Fig. 1 Peat swamp forests in Sarawak (4)

Most of the peats are found on the coastal lowlands and form a corridor parceling the coast. The peat in
these coastal lowlands lies between the lower stretches of the main river courses. Some small pockets of
peat also occur in poorly drained interior valleys. The former are referred to as basin peats while the later
are called valley peats. In fact, at one time (5) the peats or organic soils (as they were equivalent terms
then) were divided on the basis of their place of occurrence into basin and valley peats.

Geographically, these peats are found in the administrative divisions of Kuching, Kota Samarahan, Sri
Aman, Sibu, Sarikei, Bintulu, Miri and Limbang on their coastal side. Wong (5) gives total area of peat
soils in Sarawak by its administrative divisions. These figures are produced below in Table 1.

Table 1. Areas under peat in the various administrative divisions in Sarawak (km2)

Sarawak
Kuching Admin. Div. 23 059
Samarahan Admin. Div. 192 775
Sri Aman Admin. Div. 283 076
Sibu Admin Div. 540 800
Sarikei Admin. Div. 169 900
Bintulu Admin. Div. 146121
Miri Admin. Div. 276 579
Limbang Admin. Div. 25 300
Total 1 657 600
Conference on Recent Advances in Soft Soil Engineering and Technology @Asset2
2 –4 July, 2003. Sibu, Sarawak, MALAYSIA

3. PERSPECTIVE ON PEAT AND ORGANIC SOILS

Peat commonly occur as extremely soft, wet, unconsolidated superficial deposits normally as an integral
part of wetland systems. They may also occur as strata beneath other superficial deposits. The term peat is
described as a naturally occurring highly organic substance derived primarily from plant materials. It is
formed when organic (usually plant) matter accumulates more quickly than it humidifies (decays). This
usually occurs when the organic matter is preserved below a high water table like in wetlands (2). Peats
are therefore superficial deposit or soils with high organic matter content. However, the cut-off value of
the percentage of organic matter necessary to classify a superficial deposits or soil as peat varies
throughout the world, usually depending on the purpose of classification. This cut-off value also serves to
differentiate peat from superficial deposits or soils with lesser amounts of organic matter content.

On the other hand, organic soil is an analogous term for superficial deposits or soil that contains organic
matter. Soils with organic matter in it have undergone a change in perception accompanied by a change in
terminology in Sarawak during the past 50 years particularly in the discipline of soil sciences itself. Peats
and organic soils, both terms used for describing soils with an organic content, were used in soil sciences
at separate times and today these terms have also come into engineering literature. These different
perspectives are related below.

3.1 Organic soils: the soil science perspective

Prior to 1982
(i) the term peat was used for organic soils prior to this date and an exclusive definition of peat
was used in Sarawak (requirement of more than 35% organic matter content vis-à-vis an
organic matter content of 65% as was normally used (12).
(ii) All organic soils in Sarawak were classified as peat and peat was not a category of organic
soils.
(iii) That soil requires to have organic matter content of above 35% to be considered as organic
soils in the first place and they were right away called peats.

Post-1982
(i) presently since the above, soils with an organic matter content are referred to as organic
soils (with qualifications as embodied in the Soil Classification of Sarawak (10).
(ii) The definition of organic soils materials “covers materials which have been called peats and
mucks” (10) previously. The above statement is interpreted to mean that the “peat”
categorization is no longer used in organic soils classification in Sarawak.

The revised nomenclature and classification of soils with an organic content are thus devoid of the term
peat and it does not even exist as a sub category of any soil type. An awareness of this development is
essential in order to appreciate the literature and reference sources concerned with this soil type. Peats
shown in aforementioned Soils Map is based on the definition used prior to 1982.

3.2 Organic soils: the geotechnical perspective

Introduction

Most soil classifications for engineering purpose according to Jarrett (3) are woefully inadequate in their
dealing with organic soils and peats. As is the objective, engineering soil classification strive to group
materials with similar properties together. Jarrett (3) discussed the organic soils and peat component of
some engineering soil classification and finds shortcomings which have resulted in materials with
different properties being classified together. He concludes that there is a need for a, at least an initiatory
one, classification in this area and cites two vital factors i.e. the organic content and the stage of
decomposition or humidification of the organic matter as those which are essential for a proper
geotechnical description and classification.

It is pertinent to note that the engineering perspective of organic soils and peat, however, retains the
organic matter as a deterministic criteria for recognizing and defining organic soils and peats.
As mentioned earlier peat is described as and said to be differentiated from other types of organic soils by
its higher organic content but the cut-off value varies throughout the world usually depending on the
Conference on Recent Advances in Soft Soil Engineering and Technology @Asset2
2 –4 July, 2003. Sibu, Sarawak, MALAYSIA

purpose of classification. The Public Works Department, Malaysia (2) classifies a soil as peat if it has an
organic matter content of more than 75%.

Geotechnical classification

Organic soils are recognized as a separate soil entity and the United Soil Classification System (USC),
which is adopted by the American Society for Material Testing (ASTM) as the standard classification of
soils for engineering purposes (ASTM, 1983) and has been described as having been accepted in
international geotechnical communication (15). It has a major division called Highly Organic Soils (Pt)
which refers to peat, muck and other highly organic soils.

However, the organic soils component of the above mentioned Classification is felt to be incomplete (2).
Jarrett (2) gives a classification for organic soils which, purportedly, can be integrated with the UCS to
bridge the gap between peat, as defined above, and purely inorganic clays and silts. This is shown in
Table (2) below. Thus organic soils with an organic content short of 75% may be integrated in the USC.

Table 2. Organic content ranges (2)

Basic Soil Type Descriptor Symbol Organic Conten

(%)
Clay or Silt or Sand Slightly Organic o 3-20
Organic Soil O 20-75
Peat Pt >75

However, in Malaysia the BS 5930:1981 (2) is the current soil classification system that is in use. This
classification may be improved by the addition of descriptive modifiers mentioned in Table 2 above (2).
The above classification for sub-75% organic soils based on the organic content factor enhances the
Organic Soils and Peat Soil Group of this system by making it more explicit.

In addition, the second vital factor which is the measure of the state of decomposition or humidification of
the organic matter on a ten point scale H1 to H10 where the decomposition increases with the increase in
the numerical values is studied to further characterize the peat for this classification. The Degree of
Humification represents the state of decomposition/ decay of the organic plant remains which give rise to
peats and organic soils. The decomposition range lies between plant remains that are fresh to those
completely decayed amorphous material where no plant structure is recognizable any more. The
engineering behavior of organic soils with variations in organic contents are discussed by Farrell et al
(14).

With the inclusion of the above two factors, Jarrett and the Public Works Department, Malaysia (2)
propose an extension to the system in vogue (BS 5930:1981) terming it as the Extended Malaysian Soil
Classification System (MSCS) which is given in Table 3 below.

Descriptive literature on peat contains another classification which has been used to characterize peat and
is pertinent due to its use in the Extended Malaysian Soil Classification given in Table 3 above plus its
mention in this paper further on. This is the U.S Department of Agriculture (USDA)’s three-point scale
classification based on fiber content resulting from decomposition and humidification and is described
below in Table 4. A fiber is defined as > 0.15mm. The organic fiber content has been referred to as the
fabric of the organic soil (6). An appreciation of the constituent matter and its attributes like orientation
aids in the constitutive modeling of this soil type for basic understanding of the mechanical behavior (6).
 Conference on Recent Advances in Soft Soil Engineering and Technology @Asset2
2 –4 July, 2003. Sibu, Sarawak, MALAYSIA

Table 3. Malaysian Soil Classification system for engineering purposes and field identification (2)
(Organic Soils and Peat Part Only)

Soil groups Sub – group and laboratory identification Field

(See note 1) identification
Description Group Sub- group Liquid Degree of Sub- group name
Symbol symbol limit % humification

ORGANIC SLIGHTLY Slightly MO Slightly Organic SIL(Sub-divide like Usually very

SOILS and ORGANIC Organic SILT Mo Co) dark to black in
PEATS SOILS Clo colour small
Slight Organic Fo Clo <35 Slightly Organic CLAY of low amount of
Organic CLAY CHo 35-50 plasticity organic matter
content 3%- CVo 50-70 Slightly Organic CLAY of may be visible.
20% Co CEo 70-90 intermediate plasticity Often has
>90 Slightly Organic CLAY of high distinctive
plasticity organic small.
Slightly Organic CLAY of very high
plasticity
Slightly Organic CLAY of extremely
high plasticity
ORGANIC ORGANIC Subdivision of Organic Soils is
SOILS 0 difficult, as neither the humification
SOILS tests are reliable for them. As such a
Organic “best attempt” is the probable
Content outcome of subdivision leading to
20%--75% description such as “Fibrous
ORGANIC SOIL” Or “Amorphous
ORGANIC SOIL of Intermediate
Plasticity.
Dark brown to
PEATS PEAT Pt Ptf H1-H3 Fibric or Fibrous Peat black in colour.
Pth H4-H6 Hemic or Moderately Decomposed Material has low
Organic Pta H7-H10 Peat density so seems
Content Sapric or Amorphous Peat light. Majority
more than of mass is
75% organic so if
fibrous the
whole mass will
be recognizable
plant
remine.More
likely to smell
strongly if
highly humified

Note: The methodology for estimating the Organic Content and Degree of Humification using the Van Post
Squeeze Test is given in (2) and (13).

Table 4. U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Classification based on fiber content (8)

Classification Fibre Content Von Post Class

-- -- - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - -- - - -----------
Fibric peat over 66% H4 or less
Hemic peat 33-66% H5 orH6
Sapric peat less than 33% H7

Peat is also referred to as topogenous or clay peat and ombrogenous peat. The former, as its alternative
name suggests, is composed of slightly to moderately decomposed plant matters and fine clastic
sediments (mineral matter). The latter is described as essentially a pile-up of loose trunks, branches, roots
and fruits (13).

4. SOME CHARACTERISTIC OF PEAT DEPOSITS IN SARAWAK

Basin peats form domes which according to Mutalib et al (5) are up to 15 m high whilst valley peats are
flat or are interplayed with river deposits. Normally, sandy ridges bound basin peats at their seaward side
or they gradually merge into muddy coastal flats. Lowlying levees flank these domes along the river. The
complexity of the domes become more pronounced as the distance from the sea increases (Fig. 4)
Conference on Recent Advances in Soft Soil Engineering and Technology @Asset2
2 –4 July, 2003. Sibu, Sarawak, MALAYSIA

4.1 Structure and stratification of peat deposits

External morphology

Level surveys and peat boring along transects across the deposits (1 & 8) which are seen to be lenticular
and dome surfaced. This shape of the dome is, however, tempered by a flattening at the center of the
deposits.

In Fig. 2, it is seen from transect 3 across a dome studied in the Baram river area (1) that the base of the
deposit shows concavity while the surface is profoundly convex. In this case it is described as rising 10 m
above the river level. It has suffered erosion at the eastern margin and had developed a steep gradient on
the western margin, again, due to erosion.

Internal stratification: vertical profile

Peat domes have been shown to have a well developed stratification. The peat domes studied in the
Baram river area are shown to have developed an internal stratification (1) of fiber content. The peat, in
transect 3 of Fig. 2, described to have laid on dark grey clay and sand, has at the base a thin zone of
clayey peat which is in turn overlain by a thick zone of dark brown, granular fine hemic peat (33-66%
fiber content). This is followed by a thick zone of reddish-brown, fine to medium grained woody hemic
peat (33-66% fiber content). On top of this comes a zone of coarse hemic (33-66% fiber content) and
fibric peat (>66% fiber content) at the center of the deposit. In this case the margin is very thin and the
peat becomes finer grained hemic (33-66% fiber content) and sapric (<33% fiber content).

However, reportage of investigations in the western Sarawak describe the stratification as a broad
threefold one (8). The surface layer, 0.5 - 1.5 m thick is of sapric (<33% fiber content) peat which
overlies a hemic (33-66% fiber content) – fibric (>66% fiber content) peat with grey mangrove clay
beneath it. A basal sapric peat layer, reported to be up to 1.5m thick, exists in certain places especially in
the direction of the periphery of the swamps (Fig.3).

The clay-peat content at the based is described to be normally sharp but there is an intermediate layer of
peaty clay of clayey peat in some places. As we have seen above, the base, again, is concave but there
may be undulation due to the depositional surface on which the peat was deposited.

In some localities, particularly in the northern part of the Rajang Delta, it is reported that coastal sands are
overlain by peat.

Looking from another aspect, the base of the peat profile is reported to be in general predominately of
topogenous peat. This peat as also expected to dominate the fringes of the peat ‘dome’, adjacent to the
leaves bordering the rivers that bound these ‘domes’ and the lower banks of the streams that transverse
them, while ombrogeous peat overlies it (13).

The margins mentioned above are reported to be exposed to seasonal flooding and mineral matter
deposition. Therefore, a gradation soils towards the center of the ‘dome’ from alluvium to muck and peat
is expected. This, it is postulated, may have lead to the concavity at the base described in section 3 above.
Conference on Recent Advances in Soft Soil Engineering and Technology @Asset2
2 –4 July, 2003. Sibu, Sarawak, MALAYSIA
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2 –4 July, 2003. Sibu, Sarawak, MALAYSIA

Effects of Drainage

Drainage of peat swamps is reported to encourage decomposition which enhances consolidation and
compaction of the organic matter and hence invariably leads to the ground surface. A study done in
Peninsular Malaysia (5) has shown the development of a profile as shown in the Fig. 4 below with a sapric-
hemic-fibric (<33%, 33-66%, >66% fiber content respectively) morphology over an estimated 20 years due to a
subsidence of 80 cm. The bearing capacity is still reported to be low. It is also unclear, however, if drainage over
shorter periods of time and lower magnitude plus rate of subsidence would result in a similar morphology.
Conference on Recent Advances in Soft Soil Engineering and Technology @Asset2
2 –4 July, 2003. Sibu, Sarawak, MALAYSIA

4.2 Physical and chemical characteristics

It is worth mentioning the range of some physical and chemical characteristics as follows.

a) Moisture content

The field moisture is reported to range from 100-1300% on a dry weight basis (5). This high water
content is the cause of buoyancy and a high pore volume that results in low bulk density and low bearing
capacity.

b) Ash content

Most of the peat is reported to have an ash content of less than 10% (5) showing a very high content of
organic matter. The loss of ignition value is more than 90%.

c) Bulk density

The bulk density determined for the top 0.30 m is low varying within the range of 100 to 200 kg per cubic
m (5).

d) Particle size analysis

The organic fiber content has been referred to as the fabric of the organic soil (6). The results of a particle
size distribution analysis of the fiber content are cited by Esterle et al (1) for peat in the Baram River area
in Sarawak. This analysis placed measured particles into one of a total of three mean diameter categories
as follows: >10 mm, 2-10 mm and <2 mm and reported as showing great variability within peat types but
an average decrease from fibric to sapric peat, particularly in the >2 mm factions. See Table 5 below.
Conference on Recent Advances in Soft Soil Engineering and Technology @Asset2
2 –4 July, 2003. Sibu, Sarawak, MALAYSIA

Table 5. Average megascopic size distributions (1)

1= fibric, 2 = coarse hemic, 3 = hemic, 4 = fine hemic, 5 = sapric, 6 = clayed peat

Fine fibrous particles <2 mm in diameter are said to predominate fibric peat which also has small amounts
of coarse rootlets (2-10 mm in diameter) and on rare occasions wood, roots and stems > 10 mm in
diameter (1).

Woody hemic peat is described to be dominated by fine particles < 2 mm but a small amount of coarse
fibres (2-10 mm in diameter) can also be present (1).

Sapric peat is stated to be the most decomposed of the peat types by being constitute of fine grained
materials <2 mm (1).

The fabric in these types of soil is termed as an isotropic due to the orientation of the remains of most of
the fibres being horizontal and this inherent property is being used as basis for the development of a
representative model for the mechanical behavior of peat (6).

e) Degree of Humidification

The Extended Malaysian Soil Classification (Table 3) for engineering investigations also subdivides peat
into three sub-group i.e. Fibric, Humic and Sapric and associates degrees of humidification with each
category i.e. H1-H3, H4-H6 and H7-H10 respectively. Literature search has yielded one study (7) which
reports the degrees of humidification in the vertical sections of peat domes as shown below (Fig. 5) from
the Rejang Delta and Balingian areas in Sarawak.

f) pH value

The organic soils are acidic and the pH values are between 3.0 - 4.5 (5). The electrical conductivity is also
low. Ombrogenous peat as mentioned earlier which is essentially a pile-up of loose trunks, branches, roots
and fruits (13), is reported to be characterized by a low pH (13).
Conference on Recent Advances in Soft Soil Engineering and Technology @Asset2
2 –4 July, 2003. Sibu, Sarawak, MALAYSIA

5. SOME GEOTECHNICAL WORK ON PEAT IN SARAWAK

Various workers have documented general problems associated with development in peat soils in
Malaysia. Yogeswaran reported severe settlement in various housing estates in some areas around
Kuching and describes peat as having an extremely low shear strength on account of its high water
content and low dry density with a consistency close to a liquid in an undrained bog (peat swamp)
with a negligible compressive strength (13). Some geotechnical data obtained in the course of site
investigation in peat areas around Kuching has been compiled by Yogeswaran (13). This data offers a
more detailed insight about the various physical properties mentioned earlier and on mechanical
properties.

The bulk wet density of peat is reported to range from 1.05 Mg/m3 to 1.35 Mg/m3 for ombrogenous
peat and about 1.45 Mg/m3 for topogenous peat. The dry density ranges from 0.06 Mg/m3 to 0.27
Mg/m3 for the former and about 0.4 Mg/m3 for the latter (Fig. 6). This figure also illustrates the peat
density frequency distribution in the Kuching area and density-depth relationship for some peat. It
may be noted that the densities generally increase with depth as a result of self weight compression.
As the water level is lowered the densities at depth can be projected to increase because the drained
peat layers will weigh down on the peat below the water table (13). The average field vane shear
strength for peat is reported to be only 10 kPa while the sensitivity ranges from 2 to 11 (13).
Conference on Recent Advances in Soft Soil Engineering and Technology @Asset2
2 –4 July, 2003. Sibu, Sarawak, MALAYSIA

6. CONCLUSION

In conclusion, upon the examination of the data available, there is in the first instance a need for detailed
mapping to determined the extent of the terrain that is covered by peat as defined from the engineering
perspective and establish their isopach contours to delieanated the thicknesses. The other varieties of
organic soils should also be delieanated.

At the same, while building the above database, it could also be supplemented by the relevant information
regarding the lithology constituting the base of these deposits. The above database also then could serve
as a base for the recording of the mechanical behavior of these peat in the investigation of which more
work has to be done.

7. REFERENCE

(1) ESTERLE, J.S., CSLVERT, G., DURIG, D., TIE, Y.L. and SUPERDI (1991), Characterization
and Classification of Tropical Woody Peats from Baram River, Sarawak and Jambi, Sumatra in
Tropical Peat, in Proceeding of the International Symposium on Tropical Peatland, Kuching,
Sarawak, Malaysia, 33 - 48.
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(2) JABATAN KERJA RAYA Malaysia and JARRETT, P.M. (1995). Geoguide 6: Site
Investigation for Organic Soils and Peats, JKR Document 20709-0341-95, Institut Kerja Raya
Malaysia.
(3) JARRETT, P.M. (1991). Design Parameters for Peats and Organic Soils, Bulletin, Institution of
Engineers.
(4) LEE, H.S. (1991). Utilization and Conservation of Peat Swamp Forest in Sarawak, Tropical
Peat, in Proceedings of the International Symposium on Tropical Peatland, Kuching, Sarawak,
Malaysia, 286-292.
(5) MUTALIB, A.A., LIM, J.S., WONG, M.H. and KOONVAI, L. (1991). Characterisation,
Distribution and Utilization of Peat in Malaysia, Tropical Peat, in Proceeding of the
International symposium on Tropical Peatland, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia, 7-16
(6) MOLENKAMP, F. (1994). Investigation of Requirements for Plane Strain Element Test on Peat,
in Den Haan, E., Termaat, R. and Edil, T.B., (eds.), Advances in Understanding and Modeling
the Mechanical Behavior of Peat, Balkema, 428 pp.
(7) ONG, B.Y. and YOGESWARAN, M. (1991). Peatland as a Resource for Water Supply in
Sarawak, Tropical Peat, in Proceeding of the International Symposium on Tropical Peatland,
Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia, 255-268.
(8) GOVERNMENT of SARAWAK, 1990. Peat Aquifer Resources, Final Report, Master Plan for
Rural Water Supply, Coastal Region of Sarawak, July, Vol. 3.
(9) TIE, Y.L. Properties of Organic Soils, 5th Paper, Seminar On Water Management for
Agricultural Development, Source of Reference: Geological Survey Malaysia, Sarawak
Department Library, date unknown, Item Call No. 631.4 TIE.
(10) TIE, Y.L. (1991). Soil Classification of Sarawak, Technical Paper No. 6, Soils Division,
Agriculture Department Sarawak, 1991, 86 pp.
(11) TIE, Y.L. and ESTERLE, J.S. (1991). Formation of Lowland Peat Domes in Sarawak, Malaysia,
Tropical Peat, in Proceedings of the International Symposium on Tropical Peatland, Kuching,
Sarawak, Malaysia, pp. 81-89.
(12) TIE, Y.L. and KUEH, H.S. (1979). A Review of Lowland Organic Soils of Sarawak, Technical
Paper No. 4, Soils Branch, Department of Agriculture Sarawak. 34 pp.
(13) YOGESWARAN, M. (1995). Geological Consideration in the Development of the Kuching
Area, Dialogue Session: Geological and Geotechnical Considerations in Civil Works, Kuala
Lumpur.
(14) FARRELL, E.R., O’NEIL, C. and MORRIS, A. (1994). Changes in the Mechanical Properties of
Soils with Variations in Organic Content, Advances in Understanding and Modeling the
Mechanical Behavior of Peat, 1994, Balkema, 19-25.
(15) JOHNSON, R.B. and de GRAFF, J.V. (1988). Principles of Engineering Geology, John Wiley &
Sons.

BIOGRAPHY

Dr. Bujang B.K. Huat, an Associate Professor at the Faculty of Engineering, University Putra Malaysi.
He obtained his M.Sc. in Soils Mechanics from the Imperial College, London and Ph.D. from the
University of Manchester, UK. His special area of interest is in the field of soft clay engineering, organic
and peat soils, soil stabilization, vertical drains and stone columns, piled embankment, model and field
testing and fundamental behavior of soils.

Dr. Harwant Singh is a Lecturer in geological engineering at the Faculty of Resource Sciences &
Technology, University Malaysia Sarawak. He did his post graduate studies in France, and Ph.D. from
the University of Manchester, UK. His interest in field of engineering geology and environmental
geotechnique.