Cell Theory
1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells.
2. Cells are the basic living unit of structure and function in
organisms.
3. All cells come only from other cells.
Cell Theory (cont.)
Four generalizations constitute the cell theory:
1. Every living organism consists of one or more cells
2. A cell is the smallest unit of life, individually alive even as part
of a multicelled organism
3. All living cells come from division of preexisting cells
4. Cells contain hereditary material, which they pass to their
offspring during division.
Two main types of cells
There are 2 components to the cell theory.
i) All organisms are composed of cells.
ii) Cells come only from preexisting cells.
* All cells have an outer membrane called the plasma
membrane.
* The plasma membrane encloses a semifluid substance called
the cytoplasm and the cell’s genetic material.
* The word “cell” entered biology in the 17th century.
* Anton van Leeuwenhoek is recognized for inventing one of
the earliest microscopes and observing a first cell. Constructed
a number of simple microscopes and observed details of
numerous forms of protozoa, fungi, and bacteria in 1670s.
* Robert Hooke confirmed earlier findings and coined the term
“cell.”, the English biologist who observed algae and fungi in
the 1660s.
* Matthias Schleiden stated that plants are composed of cells.
Size of Cell
1. Cell size varies, but are quite small.
2. A frog’s egg is about 1 millimeter (1mm) in diameter.
• Large enough to be seen by naked eye
3. Most cells are smaller than 1mm.
4. Some cells are as small as 1 micrometer (1mm).
5. Microscopes permit extremely small objects to be seen,
objects measured in the metric system in micrometers
and nanometers.
6. A micrometer (μm) is equivalent to a millionth of a
meter, while a nanometer (nm) is a billionth of a meter.
7. Bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and unicellular algae are
normally measured in micrometers, while viruses are
commonly measured in nanometers.
8. A typical bacterium such as Escherichia coli measures
about 2 micrometers in length and about 1 micrometer
in width.
Size of Cell (cont.) Types of microscopes
1. Cells being small is an advantage for multicellular → Microscope are divided into LM &EM
organisms: LM
• Nutrients such as glucose can enter the cell. 1. Light microscopes
• Wastes such as CO2 can exit cell. 2. Phase-contrast microscopes
• Therefore surface area affects the ability to get 3. Fluorescence microscope
materials in and out of a cell. EM
• As cells increase in volume, the proportionate 1. Electron microscopes
amount of surface area decreases. 2. Transmission electron Microscopes
2. For a cube-shaped cell: 3. Scanning electron microscopes
• The volume increases by the cube of the sides
(height X width X depth). Examples of microscopes
• The surface area increases the square of the sides 1. Compound light microscope
and the number of sides (height X width X 6).
• If a cell doubles in size, its surface area increases
fourfold, while the volume increases eightfold.

Surface Area / Volume Ratio

2. Transmission electron microscope (TEM)

1. The size to which cells can grow is limited by their

surface area to volume ratio.
2. All 3 have the same volume, but the group on the right
has 4 times the surface area
The light microscope
1. The common light microscope used in the laboratory is
called a compound microscope because it contains 2
types of lenses that function to magnify an object.
2. A compound light microscope often contains 4
objective lenses:
• Scanning lens (4X), low‐power lens (10X), high‐
power lens (40 X), and oil‐immersion lens (100 X).
• An ocular lens that magnifies 10 times, the total
magnifications possible will be 40 X with the scanning
lens, 100 X with the low‐power lens, 400 X with the
high‐power lens, and 1000 X with the oil‐immersion
lens.
2nd alternative microscope is the phase‐contrast microscope
1. This microscope also contains special condensers that
throw light “out of phase” and cause it to pass through
the object at different speeds.
2. Live, unstained organisms are seen clearly with this
microscope, and internal cell parts such as
mitochondria, lysosomes, and the Golgi body can be
seen with this instrument.
The fluorescent microscope
1. Uses ultraviolet light as its light source.
2. When ultraviolet light hits an object, it excites the
electrons of the object, and they give off light in various
shades of color.
3. Since ultraviolet light is used, the resolution of the object
increases.
4. A laboratory technique called the fluorescent‐
antibody technique employs fluorescent dyes and
antibodies to help identify unknown bacteria.
Electron microscopy Cells under the microscope (cont.)
 The energy source used in the electron microscope is a 1. Light microscopes can be used to view cells but not in
beam of electrons. much detail.
 Since the beam has an exceptionally short wavelength, it 2. Electron microscopes allow the structure of cells to be
strikes most objects in its path and increases the viewed in greater detail.
resolution of the microscope significantly.
 Viruses and some large molecules can be seen with this The light microscope v the electron microscope
instrument.
 The electrons travel in a vacuum to avoid contact with
deflecting air molecules, and magnets focus the beam
on the object to be viewed.
 An image is created on a monitor and viewed by the
technologist.

Transmission electron microscope (TEM)

✓ The more traditional form of electron microscope.
✓ To use this instrument, one places ultrathin slices of
microorganisms or viruses on a wire grid and then stains
them with gold or palladium before viewing.
✓ The densely coated parts of the specimen deflect the
electron beam, and both dark and light areas show up
on the image.

Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

➢ The more contemporary form electron microscope.
➢ This microscope gives lower magnifications than the
TEM
➢ The SEM permits three-dimensional views of
microorganisms and other objects. Whole objects are
used, and gold or palladium staining is employed.
The relationship between the surface area to volume ratio of a
cell and its size
✓ Cells are small because they are limited by their surface-
area-to-volume-ratio.
✓ The surface area of a cell is critical because it must be
large enough to allow adequate nutrients to enter the
cell.
✓ Cells can increase their surface area with specialized
projections.

Cell structure and microscopy