544354

research-article2014
WMR0010.1177/0734242X14544354Waste Management & ResearchAliu et al.

Original Article

Waste Management & Research

Municipal household solid waste collection

2014, Vol. 32(9) Supplement 67­–78
© The Author(s) 2014
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strategies in an African megacity: Analysis sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0734242X14544354

of public private partnership performance wmr.sagepub.com

in Lagos

Ibrahim Rotimi Aliu1, Oluwagbemiga Ezekiel Adeyemi2 and Adeolu Adebayo1

Abstract
Managing municipal solid waste is a pervasive urban problem globally. While several strategies have been applied for efficient
municipal solid waste management in developing economies, their performance level has not been critically investigated. Among
these strategies, the public private partnership has widest appeal. This study examines the performance of public private partnership
in household solid waste collection in Lagos, Nigeria. We collected primary data using a municipal solid waste survey in three
residential density areas of Lagos megacity. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyse the data. Two indexes of service
performance, namely the service reliability index and operational quality index, were created to produce evidence on public private
partnership performance in municipal solid waste collection in Lagos. Results show that the average amount of household solid waste
generation per week ranges between 22.75 kg in the medium residential density area and 30.39 kg in the high residential density region
of the city. The estimated per capita waste generated in Lagos Megacity is 0.95 kg day-1. Regression models indicate that the public
private partnership performance is significantly influenced by economic status, affordability, flexibility, consistency, cleanliness,
coverage and accessibility, as well as number of waste collection vehicles, vehicle maintenance, capacity, trip rate, frequency, number
of personnel and quality of personnel. Findings from this study reveal that Lagos residents have strong positive perception of public
private partnership as a waste collection policy framework. The study has important policy and practical implications for urban waste
management, public health and sustainability in developing economies.

Keywords
Developing economies, waste management, service reliability, operational quality, public private partnership, municipal solid
waste, Lagos megacity

Introduction
A common challenge of all globalising cities is the rapid genera-
tion of waste through households, industrial and commercial
activities. Expired materials that have no useful value or materi-
als that have outlived their life spans, unwanted substances,
scraps that await disposal or recycling, remain a source of envi-
ronmental degradation and threat to public health in cities world-
wide (Faccio et al., 2011). The enormous issues underlining
waste generation, collection, disposal and management in urban
areas of developing economies have been widely documented
(Achi, et al., 2012; Afon and Okewole, 2007; Agunwamba, 2003;
Al-Ansari, 2012; Faccio et al., 2011; Goel, 2008; Massoud and
El-Fadel, 2002; Momoh and Oladebeye, 2010; Morrissey and
Browne, 2004; Ogwueleka, 2003; Rathis, 2006). In Nigeria,
25 million metric tonnes of solid wastes are generated yearly
which typically absorbs up to 1% of gross national product
(GNP) and 20%–40% of municipal revenues in developing coun-
tries (UNHABITAT, 2010). The UNHABITAT commissioned
study on waste collection problems in developing countries fur-
ther states that:
When people talk about solid waste management they think
immediately of recycling. Certainly recycling is an important
component of solid waste management, but it is not the aspect
that requires the greatest expenditures, and it is not the aspect that
has the greatest impact on the urban environment or public
1Department of Geography and Planning, Lagos State University,
Ojo-Lagos, Nigeria
2Department of Sociology, Lagos State University, Ojo-Lagos, Nigeria

(Ogwueleka, 2009). Lagos, the most populous megacity in sub-

Saharan Africa, generates between 3.1 million and 4 million Corresponding author:
Ibrahim Rotimi Aliu, Department of Geography and Planning, Lagos
tonnes of waste annually (Kofoworola, 2007; Ogwueleka, 2009). State University, PMB 1087 Apapa, Ojo-Lagos, +234, Nigeria.
Managing solid waste is one of the most costly urban services, Email: ibrolordtimi@yahoo.co.uk
68 Waste Management & Research 32(9) Supplement
health… it is the collection of municipal waste that is the most
important aspect. The collection and transporting of solid waste
make the biggest demand on municipal budgets and have the
greatest impact on urban living. (UNHABITAT, 2010: 11)
Urban waste collection, according to Faccio et al. (2011), has
been a highly visible municipal service that involves large expen-
ditures and difficult operational problems, because it is expensive
to operate in terms of investment costs (vehicle fleets), opera-
tional costs (fuel and maintenance) and environmental costs
(emission, noise and traffic congestions). Municipal waste col-
lection methods in Nigeria, until the new millennium, were char-
acterised by routine formality, bureaucracy and intriguing
politics, improper and unsustainable solid waste management
techniques. This contradicts sustainable municipal solid waste
(MSW) management practice, which recognises provider inclu-
sivity, private sector participation through large number of small
and micro service providers, community environmental groups,
properly licensed micro-enterprises in high income countries and
unrecognised informal sector recyclers in low and middle income
countries (Wilson and Scheinberg, 2010). The results of formal,
inefficient waste collection approaches in Nigeria, driven only by
the central and local government authorities and agencies, yielded
extensive waste accumulation in Nigerian cities in the late 1980s
and 1990s. No wonder waste management studies, in the twilight
of the 20th century, were characterised by description and analy-
sis of ‘mountains of solid wastes’ that defamed Nigerian cities
(Agunwamba, 1998, 2003; Odumosu, 2000).
A large volume of scholarly work has been produced on the
MSW collection and management crisis in Nigerian cities. The
majority of this literature is devoted to explaining the basis for
high waste generation, inefficient waste collection and manage-
ment in urban areas (Agunwamba, 1998; Agwu, 2012;
Igbinomwanhia and Ohwovoriole, 2012; Kayode and Omole,
2011; Ofuani, 2011; Ogwueleka, 2009). The waste collection
problems in Nigeria have been attributed to lack of awareness,
lack of enabling legislation, poor public enlightenment, inappro-
priate technology, poor infrastructural maintenance, noncommit-
tal posture of waste management workers, attitude of the public,
group behaviour, education, poverty and corruption (Abel, 2007;
Achi et al., 2012; Agunwamba, 1998; Babalola, 2008;
Kofoworola, 2007; Momoh and Oladeyebe, 2010; Olorunfemi,
2011; Sridhar and Adeoye, 2003). For the poor waste infrastruc-
ture in Nigerian cities, hundreds of tonnes of generated waste
remains uncollected for months and refuse collection vehicles
make two trips per day to the disposal sites (Nkwocha et al.,
2011; Ogwueleka, 2003).The challenge of municipal waste gen-
eration and collection varies within the residential areas of urban
areas (Ukpong and Udofia, 2011) and extends to settlements in
coastal areas (Ohimain et al., 2009). The pervasive waste collec-
tion problems could lead to environmental pollution and epidem-
ics, such as Escherichia coli, Staphylococus aureus and Samonela
Sp., discourage tourism and promote undesirable residential
mobility (Achi et al., 2012; Agunwamba, 2003; Aliu and Ajala,
2014; Egbere et al., 2000; Lasisi, 2007; Shamshiry et al., 2011).
Much of the problems facing urban MSW management in
developing countries have to do with the methods of waste col-
lection and disposal. MSW collection methods vary from country
to country. In developed economies, three modes of residential
refuse collection exist: the manual, semi-automated and fully
automated methods. The manual collection vehicles are operated
by a driver who loads and drives the vehicle. The cab is designed
to allow the operator to safely step in and out of the vehicle in
order to efficiently perform his duties. The semi-manual method
involves a process where the driver operates a mechanical arm of
the vehicle that is made to load a specially designed refuse cart
into the body of the vehicle. This method involves the curb-side
lifting of a garbage-can using an automatic lifting device on the
vehicle. The fully automatic method uses a compactor vehicle,
which is a technologically advanced waste collection system
designed to improve collection efficiency and performance.
However, in developing economies, two major waste collection
methods are practiced, namely collection from neighbourhood
deports and house-to-house collection. The first method of waste
collection is a system by which common neighbourhood dump-
sites are established where each household is required to trans-
port and deposit its refuse. From there, municipal vehicles load
the refuse and evacuate them to final processing and disposal
sites. In Lagos state, the neighbourhood dumpsite method was
the most popular until the beginning of the 21st century
(Agunwamba, 2003; Odumosu, 2000). The second method of
waste collection is characterised by the use of vehicles (pick lift,
compactor), bicycles and rickshaws to collect refuse from house
to house at regular intervals to disposal sites. This is presently the
order of the day in most Nigerian cities (Achi et al., 2012; Afon
and Okewole, 2007; Izugbara and Umoh, 2004; Momoh and
Oladebeye, 2010; Olorunfemi, 2011). However, before the
advent of private sector participation in waste management,
MSW collection and transfer in Lagos were fraught with acute
inefficiencies.
The new millennium ushered in the public private partnership
(PPP) model of waste management in some cities in Nigeria and
many other developing economies (Lasisi, 2007; Massoud and
El-Fadel, 2002; Rathis, 2006). The PPP is a policy employed for
resolving critical planning problems where benefits and risks are
shared by the government (public) and the private sectors. It is a
drastic response to the policy of government-controlled enter-
prises that are often bedevilled by undue bureaucracy, reckless
impunity, abject corruption and crass inefficiency. The PPP
approach has been found useful in other sectors of the Nigerian
economy, especially transport, housing, agriculture and educa-
tion. In the waste management sector, the PPP seeks to improve
the process of collecting and disposing wastes, especially in rap-
idly urbanising regions, by strengthening the operational base of
waste management institutions, reducing cost and improving ser-
vice quality (Massoud et al., 2003; Morrissey and Browne, 2004;
Wilson and Scheinberg, 2010). In Nigeria, the PPP is a collabora-
tive effort between the government and the private sector partici-
pant (PSP) in the delivery of waste services. As private
Aliu et al. 69

entrepreneurs, the PSP operators – numbering about 340 compa- management and sustainability. The goal of this research is to
nies in Lagos – are entrusted with the responsibility of collecting evaluate the performance of PPP as a service-providing strategy
and recycling wastes in Lagos state. The PPP approach has been in the waste collection process in Lagos. The specific objectives
widely employed in many other developing economies to man- of the study are to:
age MSW. For instance, in Beirut, Lebanon, the strategy is used
as a regulated private market for MSW management (Massoud (a) summarise and describe household waste generation and col-
and El-Fadel, 2002; Massoud et al., 2003); in Mumbai, India, lection in Lagos megacity regions;
PPP is a veritable approach with community-based organisations (b) estimate PPP performance based on service reliability;
for managing urban waste (Goel, 2008; Rathis, 2006); and in (c) estimate PPP performance based on operational quality;
Nairobi, Kenya, PPP helps reduce the challenges of political (d) suggest implications of findings.
interference, poor waste collection vehicles, poor infrastructure
and inadequate funding in Kenyan cities’ waste management sys- Having discussed the background to the study, the focus shifts to
tem (Henry et al., 2006). the study area and the methods used in obtaining and analysing
Statutorily in Lagos, as in all parts of Nigeria, MSW collec- residents’ perception of public private partnership in waste col-
tion is the sole responsibility of the municipal government – lection services in the study area.
Lagos Waste Management Authority (LAWMA) established in
1991. The PSP operators were first involved in 1997 to provide The study area, Lagos megacity
waste collection services to the people at affordable cost (Idowu
Lagos megacity is the metropolitan area of Lagos State Nigeria.
et al., 2011; Lasisi, 2007). The Lagos PPP projects are financed
The megacity region of Lagos, where this study was carried out,
through government budgetary allocation (public finance), pri-
consists of 16 local government areas (LGAs) (Figure 1). Lagos is
vate initiatives, multilateral agencies, Stock Exchange Market
geographically positioned in south-western Nigeria on longitude
Bonds, bank loans and external donors. Both government and
2° 42ʹ–4° 20ʹ E and latitude 6° 22ʹ–6° 42ʹ N (Balogun et al., 1999).
private investors contribute material and human resources to con-
Lagos state is the smallest state in terms of land areas in Nigeria
duct efficient waste services in Lagos. In addition, the LAWMA
and is bounded in the east and north by Ogun State, in the west by
coordinates the waste management process in the state (LAWMA,
Benin Republic and in the south by the Atlantic Ocean. Although
2013). The PSP collects MSW in all parts of Lagos megacity,
with a land area of 3577 km2, Lagos has 22% of its land area as
presently at a monthly cost ranging between $6.25 and $31.25
water and creeks. Lagos is a littoral city, which enjoys a humid
per residential dwelling (LAWMA, 2013). The first city in
tropical climate with a high rainfall, high temperatures during
Nigeria to adopt the PPP method in waste management was
summer and a short dry season. Lagos is the most populous state
Lagos in 1997 (Lasisi, 2007; LAWMA, 2013). For over a decade
in Nigeria with over 10 million people in 2006 and used to be the
now, the PPP has continued to operate along with LAWMA for
seat of power and capital city of the country from the colonial
collecting and disposing MSW in Lagos, and it appears the
days until 1991 when the seat of power and capital city shifted to
‘mountains of municipal wastes’ are gradually fading away. The
Abuja. It is the most industrialised region of Nigeria and perhaps
PPP has brought some level of changes to the modus operandi of
the whole of West African sub-region. Lagos megacity is a cos-
waste collection and disposal in Lagos State. In spite of the
mopolitan, globalising city, which, until recently, has been charac-
improvement recorded in waste management in Lagos in the last
terised by mountains of municipal waste dumps (Kofoworola,
decade, very few scholars have paid serious attention to the per-
2007; Odumosu, 2000).
formance of PPP in Lagos. The question really is, what is the
Although waste dumps are a regular experience in third world
public perception of PPP performance in municipal waste ser-
cities (Massoud and El-Fadel, 2002), it has however wider spatio-
vices in Lagos? What are the performance key indicators (PKIs)
social dimensions in densely populated megacities like Lagos.
for assessing the PPP services in Lagos?
Waste management in Lagos has been problematic for decades,
A study on the performance of PPP in waste collection in
perhaps owing to uncontrollable population, rapid industrialisation
Lagos is important for a number of reasons. First, Lagos is the
and policy-thrust spearheaded by the public sector since 1991
most populous megacity in sub-Saharan Africa with challenging
when LAWMA was established. Until 1997, when waste manage-
infrastructural and environmental problems, including waste col-
ment was deregulated and LAWMA statutory role was reviewed,
lection and management. Second, Lagos has physical attributes
MSW management in Lagos was almost intractable. The introduc-
(climatic and edaphic) that make waste collection somehow dif-
tion of the private sector in the twilight of the 20th century marked
ficult and waste decomposition very rapid. Third, Lagos megac-
the evolution of the PPP approach for waste collection in Lagos.
ity accounts for a high level of waste generation yearly and has
been interested in getting more efficient MSW management
approaches for years. Finally, Lagos is the first megacity in sub- Methods
Saharan Africa to introduce PPP as an innovative approach to
Method of data collection
waste collection. Understanding the operation and performance
of PPP in Lagos waste management, therefore throws more lights The data used in this study were drawn from primary sources
on the essence of public and private collaboration in urban using the Municipal Waste Collection Survey (MWCS) carried
70 Waste Management & Research 32(9) Supplement
Figure 1.  The study area, Lagos megacity region.
out between August and November 2013 in Lagos megacity
regions. A stratified random sampling technique was used for the
study. First, the study area consisting of nine LGAs was divided
into three groups according to residential density, namely high
residential density (HRD) area, medium residential density
(MRD) area and low residential density (LRD) area. The HRD
consists of Mushin, Oshodi-Isolo and Lagos Island LGAs; the
MRD consists of Ojo, Amuwo-Odofin and Alimoso LGAs and
the LRD consists of Ikeja, Eti-Osa and Apapa LGAs. This intra-
city distribution was used in order to capture the true state of the
PPP model in socio-economically differentiated parts of Lagos
megacity. A total of 500 questionnaire copies were administered
on respondents in the study area, out of which 480 questionnaire
copies were retrieved. About half of the respondents (240
respondents) came from the HRD, one-third (160 respondents)
from the MRD, while about one-sixth (80 respondents) came
from the LRD. The questionnaires were distributed across LRD,
MRD and HRD areas in ratio 1:2:3, respectively. From a total of
89 electoral wards in the study area, 48 wards (54%) were
selected, making 24 in the HRD, 16 in the MRD and eight in the
LRD. In each ward, 10 copies of the questionnaire were distrib-
uted randomly along the streets starting with the 2nd residence on
the street numbering system and at an interval of five, that is 7th,
12th, 17th and so on. One resident per dwelling was interviewed.
This method reflects previous similar studies in some Nigerian
cities (Kayode and Omole, 2011; Momoh and Oladebeye, 2010).
The questionnaire contains questions on the demographic, socio-
economic attributes, waste generation and perception of quality
and reliability of PPP services in the study area. Mobile weighing
devices (Salter Brand), with metric calibrations in kilograms and
grams, were used to get the weight of sorted household wastes.
The household wastes were sorted into five categories, namely
metal, paper and cardboard, food items, glass and wood, plastic
and nylon. These waste categorisations follow previous studies in
Nigeria (Afon and Okewole, 2007; Kofoworola, 2007;
Ogwueleka, 2009). The interviewers were taught generally on
Human Subject Research Education/Human Subject Protection
Education (HSRE/HSPE) and specifically on how to administer
the questionnaire to the respondents, how to weigh solid wastes
and record them, how to ensure the confidentiality and integrity
of respondents, and how to advise the respondents on the filling
of the questionnaires. The attributes of respondents interviewed
vary considerably. Female constituted 73.7% and male 26.7%,
married constituted 76.7% and non-married 23.3%, public
employees constituted 41.7% and others 58.3%, and respondents
with tertiary education constituted 22.7% while secondary cer-
tificate holders were 77.3%. The age of respondents ranged from
approximately 44 years to approximately 52 years, and the num-
ber of persons per household (household size) ranged between
three and seven persons.
Description of research variables
We employed three broad component variables in the study,
namely individual lifestyle component, service reliability compo-
nent and operational quality component variables to evaluate PPP
performance in Lagos (see Figure 2). The variables included in
the model reflect previous research experiences and local peculi-
arities (Afon and Okewole, 2007; Izugbara and Umoh, 2004;
Ogwueleka, 2009). The dependent variables were service reliabil-
ity index (SRI) and operational quality index (OQI), while the
explanatory (independent) variables consisted of service, opera-
tional and respondents’ attributes in the three regions of the city.
Dependent variables.  Two dependent variables, SRI and OQI,
were created for examining the performance levels of the PPP.
The first dependent variable SRI is a composite performance
index that measures the level of service reliability of PPP in
waste collection and management. SRI is a summative value of
Aliu et al. 71
X14
X13
RELIABILITY
X11
X15
X21
X24
LIFESTYLE
X22
X23
X32
X33
QUALITY
X35
X31
Figure 2.  Research design for MSW services performance.
PPP: public private partnership.
the six service reliability indicators. The second dependent vari-
able, OQI, is a composite performance index that measures per-
formance based on the operational efficiency of PPP and is a
summative value of the seven operational quality indicators.
Explanatory variables.  A total of 26 explanatory variables used
in the study were in three categories.
1. Service reliability variables: The perception of PPP based on
service reliability was measured by six reliability variables:
cost (affordability), payment flexibility, coverage, accessibil-
ity, consistency per week and tidiness of street. Each of the
variables was an ordinal variable measured on a Likert scale
of 0–6. The least represents strongly disagreed and the high-
est strongly agreed. The variables were operationalised from
the respondent’s perception: ‘PSP offers waste collection ser-
vices at affordable cost’, ‘PSP offers flexible payment for
services’ and others.
2. Operational quality variables: The seven operational key
indicators include number of vehicles, maintenance level,
volume capacity of vehicle, trip rate, frequency of collection,
number of personnel and quality of personnel. Each of these
operational quality variables was an ordinal variable meas-
ured on a Likert scale of 0–6. The variables were operational-
ised from the respondent’s perception: ‘PSP operates with
large number of vehicles’, ‘PSP operates more appropriate
and well maintained vehicles’ and others.
3. Individual lifestyle variables: The respondent attributes were
13 in number, namely respondent’s gender, age, marital status
(lifecycle), monthly income (economic status), occupation,
SERVICE
RELIABILITY
MUNICIPAL
PPP SOLID WASTE
Performance COLLECTION
METHODS
OPERATIONAL
QUALITY
education, household size and wastes generated. The house-
hold’s wastes were categorised into five categories – metal,
food items, paper and cardboard, glass, plastic and nylon.
While gender (male/female), marital status (married/non-
married), occupation (public/others) and educational status
(tertiary/secondary) were dummy variables (0, 1), the rest of
the lifestyle variables were continuous variables. The depend-
ent and the explanatory variables carry different weights
according to their nature and only economic status among all
individual attribute variables was included in the regression
equations.
Method of data analysis and model
specification
Analyses in this study were done using simple descriptive statis-
tics and multivariate models. Multivariate statistics such as mul-
tiple linear regression models are quite appropriate to explain
main factors that account for variation among contending
explanatory variables (Hardy and Bryman, 2004). Of course,
prior to the multivariate analysis, data were given general
descriptive statistical treatments using mean, standard variation,
cross tabulations and percentages of frequency distribution.
Eight different models were fitted using an ordinary least square
(OLS) method to examine the variation in PPP performance
based on some selected variables. Four models were estimated
on each of the two dependent variables using the total sample,
HRD, MRD and LRD subsamples. Conceptually, the level of the
SRI varies linearly with the indicators of reliability as indicated
in equation (1):
72 Waste Management & Research 32(9) Supplement
SRI = f (affordability, accessibility,
(1)
coverage, flexibility…)
The same way the level of the OQI varies linearly with the indi-
cators of operational quality as indicated in equation (2):
OQI = f ( vehicle, maintenance, trip rate,
frequency, personnel quality…) (2)
Either of these indexes can be normally rewritten as a form of
multiple linear regressions in equation (3):
SRI or OQI = β o + β i * Xi + ε ij (3)
where βo represents intercept of the linear equation; βi represents
the contribution to the estimation of the SRI or OQI given a dis-
crete change in the explanatory variables; Xi represents explana-
tory variables; εij is the error term that is assumed to be normally
distributed among independent variables. Using these methods
the study provides two categories of analyses, namely the sum-
mary and model results.
Results
Summary of household waste
generation, collection and perception of
PPP services in Lagos
Before the multivariate analysis, the data were systematically
organised and described. Table 1 contains the summary of house-
hold wastes generated in the three density areas of Lagos. The
results are presented for the total sample and three regions of
the city – HRD, MRD and LRD areas – in order to accommodate
the practical effect of spatial polarisation. Analysis shows that
socio-economic and demographic characteristics of the respond-
ents in the three regions vary. The economic status, as indicated
by the household’s mean monthly income, in Lagos ranges from
about $300 to about $620. Generated wastes in the study area are
broken into five categories. Results indicate that the total waste
generated is highest in the HRD followed by LRD and least in the
MRD. Food and plastic items form the highest categories of
waste generated in Lagos, followed by paper and cardboard, met-
als and glass (see Figure 3). According to Table 1, among the
service reliability variables, service affordability has the highest
mean values and consistency has the lowest mean values in the
study area. Similarly, among the operational quality variables,
results also show that vehicle maintenance and volume have the
highest mean values and trip rate has the least mean values in the
city. A cursory look at Table 1 again shows that variation charac-
terises the respondent’s attributes, waste generated and percep-
tion of PPP efficiency as a waste collection service provider.
Model results
Estimation of PPP performance based on service reliabil-
ity. The first model estimated in this study is the service
reliability based on the perception of PPP services on a number of
variables. The model is estimated separately for the three density
areas as well as for the pooled total sample. As stated earlier, the
dependent variable, SRI, is the composite value of all the reli-
ability variables. However, the reliability variables were inter-
acted with the economic status variable of residents and the
results are presented in Table 2. As shown in Models I, II and III
of the table, the most influential predictor of PPP reliability is
spatial coverage followed by consistency, affordability and
accessibility. The perception of PPP services based on reliability
in the study is highly influenced by these four variables, as the
coefficients are all significant at p < 0.01. While the variables are
extremely influential on the pooled data (Model I) there are some
variations in their performances based upon the density areas
(Table 2 – Models II, III and IV).
Unexpectedly, household economic status, which is very sig-
nificant in the pooled data, is insignificant in the HRD and flexi-
bility of payment is not significant in the LRD. The summary
parameters indicate well-fitted models for the OLS equations.
For instance Models I, II and IV have intercept βo values that are
all significant at p  < 0.01. However, Model III intercept βo,
which estimates the PPP performance for MRD is not significant
at p < 0.05. More importantly, the coefficients of determination
(R2) indicate that the service reliability variables accounted for
91% in the pooled data, 85% in the HRD, 96% in the MRD and
90% in the LRD areas, for variations in the prediction of PPP
performance in the study area.
Estimation of PPP performance based on operational
quality. Beside the contextual reliability variables, operational
variables are used to explain PPP performance in the study area.
Using the OQI, the influence of individual independent variables
is estimated. The OLS regression models in Table 3 illustrate the
influence of operational quality variables, namely vehicle mainte-
nance, number of vehicle, vehicle volume (capacity), number of
personnel, quality of personnel, frequency of operation and trip
rate. Like the SRI, four models are estimated separately for the
pooled sample and the three density areas. The dependent variable
OQI is the composite value of all the operational quality variables.
In a similar fashion as the estimation done for SRI, the operational
quality variables are interacted with the economic status variable
of residents and the results are presented in Table 3.
According to Table 3, the resident perception of PPP based
on operational quality is driven by the level of equipment and
personnel quality at the disposal of the PPP service providers.
As such the influence of residents’ economic status is of little
contribution. As shown in Models V, VI, VII and VIII, the
most influential predictors of PPP operational quality are
waste collection time, number of vehicles and number of per-
sonnel handling waste collection at a given point. The vehicle
volume capacity is insignificant in the HRD as personnel
quality is also insignificant in the LRD areas at p < 0.05, even
after the vehicle maintenance variable was removed for incon-
sistency. The summary parameters indicate well-fitted models
for the OLS equations. For instance Models V, VI and VIII
with intercept βo values are all significant at p  < 0.01.
However, Model VII, which estimates the PPP performance
Aliu et al. 73

Table 1.  Summary of variables used in the study.

Variable Total HRD MRD LRD

  Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

Monthly income (US dollar) 372.88 156.67 301.29 56.57 339.84 101.26 615.16 195.53
Service affordability 4.78 0.98 4.69 0.95 4.90 1.00 4.78 0.98
Flexibility 4.44 0.86 4.25 0.73 4.61 0.92 4.65 0.94
Cleanliness 3.25 1.17 3.24 0.97 2.70 1.10 4.38 1.06
Consistency 2.15 0.75 1.91 0.42 2.60 1.00 1.95 0.45
Coverage 3.39 0.96 3.68 0.80 2.86 1.00 3.60 0.87
Accessibility 4.20 0.65 4.28 0.76 4.18 0.57 4.03 0.39
Number of vehicles 4.12 1.66 3.38 1.84 4.86 0.99 4.88 1.10
Vehicle maintenance 4.03 0.27 3.96 0.59 4.10 0.43 4.00 0.55
Vehicle volume capacity 3.98 0.34 3.99 0.29 4.00 0.45 3.85 0.53
Frequency of waste collection 4.13 0.70 4.35 0.76 3.91 0.61 3.90 0.44
Trip rate 2.66 0.96 2.32 0.78 2.80 0.98 3.40 0.92
Number of personnel 3.46 1.00 3.62 1.03 3.04 1.00 3.85 0.53
Quality of personnel 3.68 0.80 4.02 0.55 3.03 1.10 4.00 0.55
Total waste* 26.81 7.84 30.39 7.58 22.75 4.69 24.19 8.66
Metal* 3.94 1.95 4.21 2.14 3.19 0.95 4.63 2.36
Paper and cardboard* 4.68 2.39 5.73 2.54 3.00 0.00 4.88 2.44
Food items* 7.28 3.04 8.16 3.36 6.75 2.17 5.69 2.63
Glass* 3.91 1.93 4.60 2.34 3.13 0.78 3.38 1.33
Plastic and nylon* 7.35 2.91 8.40 2.99 6.69 2.21 5.56 2.64
Service reliability index 21.95 3.10 21.75 2.14 21.80 4.23 22.88 2.66
Operational quality index 26.11 3.09 25.72 2.56 25.86 3.94 27.78 1.88

HRD: high residential density; LRD: low residential density; MRD: medium residential density; SD: standard deviation.
*Kilogram per household per week.
Source: Authors Field Survey, 2013.

35
30.4 kg
30
Waste generated in Kg/Hh/Wk

total
24.2kg
25 22.8 kg
metal
20
paper
15
food

10 8.1 8.4
6.8 6.7 glass
5.7 5.7 5.6
4.2 4.6 4.6 4.9
5 3.2 3 3.1 3.4 plasc

0
HRD MRD LRD
Residenal Density Areas

Figure 3.  Mean household solid wastes generated in Lagos.

HRD: high residential density; LRD: low residential density; MRD: medium residential density.

for MRD, is not significant at p < 0.05. More importantly, the
coefficients of determination (R2) indicate that the operational
quality variables accounted for 94%, 97%, 93% and 90% of
variations in the prediction of PPP performance, respectively,
in the pooled sample, HRD, MRD and LRD areas of Lagos.
Using one way analysis of variance, it is quite clear that the
F-ratio value for the SRI is significant at p < 0.05, while the
F-ratio value for the OQI is significant at p < 0.01 (Table 4).
This shows that significant variations exist in the resident’s
perception of PPP performance in the three regions of the city.
Discussion
The results from this study provide striking evidence on the
changes that PPP service providers have brought to waste collec-
tion and management in Lagos. Our interest in the study is to see
74 Waste Management & Research 32(9) Supplement

Table 2.  OLS Regression Estimates of SRI.

Variable Model I Model II Model III Model IV

  Total HRD MRD LRD
  Coefficient (β) Coefficient (β) Coefficient (β) Coefficient (β)
Intercept βo 2.839*** 3.933*** 1.291 4.321***
  (0.387) (0.569) (0.792) (1.651)
Economic status −5.466E-006*** 2.049E-006 −1.551E-005** −2.620E-005***
(monthly income) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
Service affordability 0.935*** 0.853*** 0.911*** 1.032***
  (0.051) (0.063) (0.144) (0.392)
Flexibility 0.639*** 0.631*** 0.890*** 0.124
  (0.064) (7.790) (0.135) (0.508)
Cleanliness 0.827*** 0.848*** 0.919*** 0.598
  (0.044) (0.069) (0.095) (0.186)
Consistency 1.217*** 0.847*** 0.935*** 1.569***
  (0.063) (0.156) (0.148) (0.350)
Coverage 1.100*** 1.043*** 1.244*** 1.656***
  (0.055) (0.392) (0.195) (0.184)
Accessibility 0.741*** 0.660*** 1.008*** 0.991***
  (0.068) (0.078) (0.130) (0.286)
Model summary  
R 0.956 0.923 0.980 0.947
R2 0.914 0.851 0.960 0.898
R2 adjusted 0.913 0.847 0.958 0.888

HRD: high residential density; LRD: low residential density; MRD: medium residential density.
***Significant at p < 0.01.
**Significant at p < 0.05.
Values in parentheses are estimated errors.

how effectively the city-wide policy of waste collection through
PPP strategy has performed in the last few years of its operation.
However, research has revealed that, within spatially polarised
cities like Lagos, undifferentiated analysis may be grossly mis-
leading because phenomena often display wide variations (Aliu
and Ajala, 2014). Hence, based on the information in Table 4, the
analyses in this study are tailored at explaining waste collection
service performance in Lagos along the three residentially differ-
ent regions where the PPP policy currently operates. From the
study, we find that the amount of MSW generated in the city var-
ies according to the density regions. While the highest amount is
recorded in the HRD, the least is recorded in the MRD, and also
interesting is the fact that food items contribute most to the
household waste in the city. These results actually reaffirm the
findings by other intra-city studies in Jos, Akure, Owerri, Nsukka,
Benin and Ibadan, which have shown notable disparities in the
amount and diversity of MSW generated owing to socio-
economic differences (Babalola, 2008; Egbere et al., 2000;
Igbinomwanhia and Ohwovoriole, 2012; Kayode and Omole,
2011; Nkwocha et al., 2011; Ogwueleka, 2003). These disparities
only become more pronounced in Lagos owing to higher social
polarisation of the megacity.
Since the essential goal of this study is to assess the perfor-
mance of PPP services by the residents of Lagos in MSW collec-
tion, it is imperative that we discuss more deeply the outcomes of
the estimated models. First, on the strength of reliability of
services, the PPP providers are adjudged better and the judgment
comes from the perception of performance through the multiple
factors of affordability, flexibility, consistency, street cleanliness,
coverage and accessibility to every household. One of the most
fundamental constraints against private sector involvement in
many social services in the developing economies is cost to the
consumers (Agunwamba, 1998; Ogwueleka, 2009). In Lagos,
enormous evidence is in support of the fact that the generality of
the residents are of low socio-economic status and often find it
unbearable to compete in free market situation (Aliu and Ajala,
2014; Kofoworola, 2007; Odumosu, 2000). At a monthly cost as
low as $6.25 per dwelling, translating to a monthly cost of about
$0.63 per household, many Lagosians find the PPP waste collec-
tion services quite affordable. This is an improvement upon what
is experienced in other parts of Nigerian cities where residents
are not willing to pay for waste collection and disposal (Abel,
2007; Afon and Okewole, 2007; Ogwueleka, 2003). Since more
wastes are generated in the HRD areas than in the LRD regions,
the residents in the HRD are equally more interested in the PPP
strategy that provides MSW services at affordable costs.
Flexibility of payment for waste services has greatly influ-
enced the high performance rating of PPP services in Lagos meg-
acity regions, as the residents are permitted to pay either at the
service provider offices or at the nearest designated bank. These
modes of payment encourage promptness and preclude indebted-
ness. In rental dwellings, tenants share the waste charges among
Aliu et al. 75

Table 3.  OLS Regression Estimates of OQI.

Variables Model V Model VI Model VII Model VIII

  Total HRD MRD LRD
Coefficient (β) Coefficient (β) Coefficient (β) Coefficient (β)
Intercept βo 1.508*** 9.882*** –0.710 9.255***
  (0.585) (1.271) (1.434) (1.221)
Economic status –1.099E-006 –7.281E-007 4.059E-006 6.539E-007
(monthly income) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
Number of vehicles 1.009*** 0.997*** 1.258*** 0.952***
  (0.022) (0.017) (0.181) (0.073)
Vehicle maintenance 0.761*** 0.190** 0.882*** XX
  (0.074) (0.096) (0.212) XX
Vehicle volume capacity 0.965*** 0.212 1.043*** 0.744***
  (0.095) (0.144) (0.214) (0.165)
Frequency of waste collection 1.010*** 0.980*** 1.043*** 1.020***
  (0.055) (0.043) (0.217) (0.162)
Trip rate 0.986*** 0.983*** 0.908*** 1.270***
  (0.048) (0.046) (0.193) (0.096)
Number of waste collection 1.058*** 0.961*** 1.297*** 0.753***
personnel
  (0.043) (0.035) (0.190) (0.144)
Quality of personnel 0.859*** 0.223*** 0.631*** –0.061
  (0.050) (0.107) (0.171) (0.131)
Model summary  
R 0.968 0.984 0.964 0.950
R2 0.937 0.968 0.928 0.903
R2 adjusted 0.936 0.967 0.925 0.895

HRD: high residential density; LRD: low residential density; MRD: medium residential density.
***Significant at p < 0.01.
**Significant at p < 0.05.
Values in parentheses are estimated errors.

Table 4.  Test of variation in the PPP performance based on the SRI and OQI in Lagos megacity.

Source of variation Sum of squares Df Mean square F Significance

Service Between-group variation 81.642 2 40.821 4.322 0.014
reliability Within-group variation 4505.350 477 9.445  
index Total variation 4586.992 479  
Operational Between-group variation 268.708 2 134.354 14.871 0.000
quality index Within-group variation 4309.658 477 9.035  
Total variation 4578.367 479  

themselves and in most cases the landlords or their representa-
tives are directly in charge and ensure that payments are made
upfront along with the tenant’s rent. PPP service performance is
also explainable from the perspective of the consistency of ser-
vices rendered to the residents. In this study, it is well established
that the residents evaluated the PPP performance from the fre-
quency and consistency of services. The service providers come
on every chosen day in the week – usually Tuesday or Thursday
– to collect household wastes, which often are placed in provided
or self-procured bags at the front of residential buildings. The
residents are confident that the PPP service providers will defi-
nitely come within the week to upload the wastes. This confi-
dence has been gradually built over time, when the democratic
government in place then established the PPP and ensured that
the possible bottlenecks that could hamstring its performance
were removed. Some of the bottlenecks that frustrated the previ-
ous efforts were funds, uncommitted workers and lack of equip-
ment (see Agunwamba, 1998, 2003). An important aspect of the
MSW service provision is the state of the street after wastes have
been removed. Before the adoption of the PPP method, whenever
wastes were removed the streets were usually littered with
patches of wastes and mud that defaced the neighbourhood in an
unacceptable way. These were owing to poor vehicles and waste
handling methods employed then. But since the advent of PPP,
the streets are often kept clean and this has been acknowledged
from the impact cleanliness makes on the assessment of the PPP
performance in Lagos. In addition, there is also the issue of cov-
erage and accessibility. Coverage in this study is taken as the
76 Waste Management & Research 32(9) Supplement
ability of PPP to cover all parts of the neighbourhood that the
providers are supposed to service. The rapid disappearance of
heaps of wastes on streets and major roads in the last few years is
an apparent testimony to the efficiency of PPP waste collection
services in Lagos. The level of accessibility, which is indirectly
supported by the improved road network in the state, is a key fac-
tor in explaining the performance of PPP in waste collection in
Lagos. In contrast to Ogwueleka (2009), the results show that
residents have access to the services and feel the positive impacts
of PPP in the city.
Second, the PPP performance can also be explained through
the operational quality of the service providers in terms of
equipment and their quality, vehicle capacity, vehicle mainte-
nance, trip rate, number of personnel and their quality. As
revealed in this study, the type and quality of equipment and
personnel managing them have gone a long way to improve the
overall quality and efficiency of MSW collection services in
Lagos (see Figures 4 and 5 in the Appendix). The literature has
continuously documented the level of improvement recorded in
the area of innovation and technology of waste collection and
management in the city globally (Arribas et al., 2010; Faccio
et al., 2011). Although these improvements have largely con-
centrated in the developed economies, it is evident that cities in
developing economies are gradually catching on to the latest
technologies (Kofoworola, 2007; Nkwocha et al., 2011; Rathis,
2006). As noted in this study, the operational quality of PPP
performance in Lagos is enhanced by the high number of vehi-
cles and equipment at the disposal of PPP service providers in
the state. The number and the diversity of equipment do not
only increase the efficiency of services rendered, but also
reduce risk to injuries by the PPP workers. It is observed that
the equipment, especially the compactor vehicles, are better
maintained in the PPP model than when the government was
solely in charge of MSW collection in Lagos. The study reveals
that the efficiency of the PPP services in Lagos is highly
dependent upon the capacity of the vehicles used for waste col-
lection. The waste collection vehicles are in three dimensions:
small, medium and large size compactor vehicles. The small
volume vehicles complement the large volume vehicles, as the
former can easily be used in water-logged neighbourhoods,
while the large volume vehicles are used in dry and populous
neighbourhoods. The study also found that there is an improved
trip rate by the PPP vehicles compared with the formal public
arrangement of the past years. The support given to the PPP
performance owing to the trip rate of waste collection vehicles
is actually understandable, as it is tangential to the many and
well maintained vehicles being provided by the PPP to service
Lagosians, unlike those in Nsukka and other parts of the coun-
try (Nkwocha et al., 2011; Ogwueleka, 2003). What immensely
influences the performance level of PPP in the sight of the resi-
dents of Lagos are the number and quality of personnel that
handle waste collection in the neighbourhoods. In many cases,
the workers are from the neighbourhood and are young ener-
getic men who are well motivated to do the job.
The findings have theoretical, policy and practical implica-
tions. Although the theories of waste collection management,
such as waste minimisation, waste behaviour, waste collection
multi-objective and integrated solid waste management models
are extremely tenuous (see Al-Ansari et al., 2012; Arribas et al.,
2010; Faccio et al., 2011; Pohjola, 2002; Pohjola and Pongracz,
2002; Shamshiry et al., 2011; Teo and Loosemore, 2001; Wilson
and Scheinberg, 2010), yet an assessment of waste service pro-
vider’s performance adds to the growing attempts at unravelling
the key factors needed in achieving sustainable waste manage-
ment in urban areas. In light of questions raised in the introduction
section, two performance indicators, namely the SRI and OQI,
have been identified to advance the cause of explaining service
delivery dynamics of waste service providers in a rapidly chang-
ing urban environment like Lagos. Besides, the findings also have
great policy implications. The high perception of PPP in Lagos
shows that the collaboration between the government and the pri-
vate sectors has brought some improvement to the modus oper-
andi of waste collection and treatment. These collaborative efforts
must be strengthened in order to realise the millennium goal of
keeping the city clean by 2015, stimulate alternative job provision
and engender waste to energy innovation. This study buttresses
the positive role that private sector can play in urban waste man-
agement (also see Wilson and Scheinberg, 2010). In developing
economies, policies that can engender stronger collaborations
between the two sectors are needed to strengthen the financial,
infrastructural and institutional capacity of service providers in
many areas, including waste management. The practical implica-
tions of the findings are obvious. To the urban stakeholders, espe-
cially urban designers and planners, as well as urban administrators,
an evaluation of the place of PPP in Lagos waste management
provides an opportunity for directing urban planning expertise to
the realisation of a sustainable waste collection strategy in Lagos.
This will not only aid the cause of urban sustainability by enhanc-
ing environmental conviviality, but will also improve urban
health, property values and residential choices in the city (Aliu
and Adebayo, 2013; Aliu and Ajala, 2014).
Finally, three potential limitations of our study require further
elucidation. First, while MSW management covers storage, col-
lection, transport, treatment and disposal of waste (Pongracz,
2002), this study, however, is limited only to the collection and
transportation of household wastes in the residential areas of
Lagos megacity. Second, the quantitative method employed in
evaluating PPP in Lagos, though provides robust and rational evi-
dence on the subject matter, could be combined with qualitative
data support like focus group discussion for deeper explanation.
Third, it is probable that longitudinal studies could be veritable
alternatives for explaining the progressive improvement in the
performance level of PPP. This, however, will require enormous
secondary data that are not readily available in this region of the
world. Regardless of these limitations, this study has provided a
critical impetus to the compelling debate on the need to accord
PPP high policy priority in waste collection and management
processes in developing economies.
Aliu et al. 77
Conclusions
This study has become more important in the light of the increas-
ing challenge of urban population in Lagos and the need to for-
mulate a workable policy for urban sustainability. Strategies
directed at advancing the cause of urban MSW improvement are
essential to the realisation of urban sustainability in the 21st cen-
tury. This study is set out to achieve a number of objectives,
namely to describe the resident’s peculiarities and waste genera-
tion, to analyse the reliability and operational quality of PPP ser-
vices in waste collection in the study area, and suggest
implications of findings. The findings are revealing. First, the
nature and distribution of household waste generation in Lagos
follow residential density regions such that the heaviest amount
of wastes are generated in the HRD and the least in the MRD and
LRD areas. Second, two key indicators of PPP performance in
waste collection services are reliability and operational quality
indicators. Third, on the strength of reliability, PPP performance
is enhanced by service affordability, payment flexibility, cleanli-
ness, coverage and accessibility. Fourth, on the strength of oper-
ational quality, PPP performance is enhanced by vehicle number,
maintenance, capacity, frequency of collection, trip rate, number
of personnel and quality of personnel. However, when control-
ling for economic status of residents, it is noted that its perfor-
mance in the SRI model is very high, while its performance in
the OQI model is low. Hence, it is apparent that economic status
is important for explaining PPP service reliability performance,
even though it is less relevant for evaluating the PPP operational
performance.
As much as the study covers the major density areas, the
results are indicative of a modestly improved waste management
strategy in Lagos megacity. But what happens to the non-megac-
ity regions of Lagos and sustainability of the PPP? These ques-
tions are put forward given the policy and institutional instability
in developing economies. While results from the study call for
cautious optimism, we strongly suggest that the PPP strategy is
strengthened and monitored for greater efficiency. Community
development associations and non-governmental organisations
should be more involved in waste collection processes to increase
the PPP efficiency. The PPP strategy should be modified to
accommodate integrated solid waste management. The enthusi-
asm of Lagos residents over the PPP performance in waste ser-
vices is not unconnected with the poor performance of LAWMA
before the involvement of the private sector, rather than the abso-
lute efficiency of the PPP. Further longitudinal research will
show that the PPP innovative approach can ensure a sustainable
solid waste collection and management in Lagos, especially as
the city continually experiences uncontrollable population
growth. This study might, nonetheless, be very useful for evalu-
ating the role of PPP in urban waste governance in other develop-
ing economies.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in
the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
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Figure 4.  A PSP waste collection vehicle on duty in Lagos.
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Figure 5.  A PSP compactor vehicle waiting for household
wastes in Lagos.