Domestic Wiring

Consumer protection using an RCD

15 DOMESTIC The risk of a dangerous electric shock by a
person accidentally coming into contact with a
WIRING bare cable is minimised by the use of an RCD.
RCD’s must be used on all pico hydro schemes.
15.1 Main Issues Ideally each household should have its own RCD.
15.2 Wiring Harness
However RCD’s are expensive and therefore it is
15.3 The Load Limiter
15.4 Load limiter design usual to share an RCD between several
households or on small schemes just to have an
RCD in the powerhouse. The level of protection is
just as high with just an RCD in the powerhouse,
though it is more inconvenient as a fault in one
house trips the supply to all houses. This is
explained in Figure 15-2. This device cannot
however, remove the danger of a serious shock if
someone touches both conductors at the same
time. Local people should therefore be warned
about the dangers of touching the cable,
particularly when non-insulated cable is used for
distribution.

Figure 15-1 Installation of domestic wiring circuit (Nepal)

Supply
L L
15.1 Main Issues RCD
N N 1. A person
The main considerations for house wiring are: 3. In a fraction of a second,
the RCD disconnects the supply
accidentally
touches a live wire.
• Consumer safety and a dangerous electric shock
is avoided.
• Reliability 2. The person is standing in water
and conducts easily to earth.
• Versatility in terms of positioning Current flows though them
and back to the earth electrode.
• Limiting the size of the connected load
• Keeping the cost low
Figure 15-2 The danger of electric shock from a bare
• Ease of installation cable is reduced by fitting an RCD.

Safety 15.2 Wiring Harness

The greatest risk to consumer safety is from
This is a “ready-to-install” domestic circuit. It is
electric shocks and fires. These risks are
assembled by a trained person, is safe and
minimised as follows:
reliable, and contains all the necessary
1) Connect an RCD
components (load limiter, light bulb sockets,
2) Provide an isolation switch for each house
electrical sockets, etc.).
3) Earth all metal cased electrical devices
The use of wiring harnesses is particularly
4) Use correctly-sized double-insulated cable
suitable for village electrification using pico
and a wiring harness for house wiring
hydro. Rural houses rarely require complicated
5) Make sure there is no exposed wiring
domestic circuits. People who receive an
6) Position sockets out of reach of small
electrical connection for the first time usually
children
do not have many electrical appliances which to
7) Use a suitably sized fuse or MCB to
connect. In many cases the only devices used will
protect all wiring.
be light bulbs and a radio or television.
8) Give advice about electrical safety and
Consumers who use many loads will benefit more
position a danger notice on the load limiter
from a fixed wiring circuit as this is likely to be
9) Don’t allow hot light bulbs and cookers to
more cost-effective.
touch materials that burn easily.

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15-1
 Domestic Wiring

live, the RCD will operate and disconnect the

3 metres
To Load Limiter
supply, protecting the user. Otherwise there is a
Live
risk of electric shock. This is explained in Figure
Neutral
15-4
Mains socket 1. Faulty live wire
touches metal
In-line case and makes
switch L it live L
Supply RCD Load
N N
Compact 3. RCD disconnects the circuit
Fluorescent lamp after detecting change in Earth connection
neutral current. to metal case

Figure 15-3 Circuit diagram of a typical wiring harness

2. Current is conducted to earth,
and by-passes the neutral wire.

Design of Wiring Harnesses

Flexibility: Many new consumers will want to
change the position of their light bulbs after
they are first installed. This is partly due to a
lack of experience with electricity. If spare
cable is provided and the sockets are already
connected, then the lights can be positioned in a
variety of ways without risk to the consumer.
The harness is installed by strapping the cables
securely to suitable wooden beams. Unused cable
is coiled up and suspended out of the way. The
amount of cable provided will depend on the size
of the local houses.
Load connected: The number of plug and light
bulb sockets connected to the harness will
depend on the power that the consumer has
subscribed to. A typical harness such as the one
illustrated in Figure 15-3, has one plug socket
and two light sockets. The connected load could
be 2 CFL’s lights (9W each) and a radio
connected using the 2-pin socket (2W) giving a
total of 20W. This load is used to determine the
load limiter current rating (see Section 15.4).
Figure 15-4 Protecting consumer loads using an RCD
If earthing is required, an electrode should be
provided near to the consumer house. For
information about earth electrodes, see Section
9.3. The earth cable from the electrode is
connected to a spare section of the connection
block in the service box and the cable junction
box. The domestic cable should be of the twin
and earth type. A 3-pin plug and socket is then
used to connect the device to the supply. The
earth wire should be connected internally to the
metal case of the device.
A 3 pin plug
is used to
connect a
metal-cased
appliance
The metal case
is connected to
the earth wire

Cable: The current rating of the cable used for

wiring harnesses and all fixed domestic wiring, Figure 15-5 Metal-cased devices should be earthed
should be at least 40% higher than the current
rating of the fuse or MCB protecting the house To Load Limiter
wiring (see Section 15.3 and 15.4). It should also Live
be double insulated for additional consumer Neutral
safety. Earth

Consumer Earthing
3-pin socket
There is no need for a consumer earth to be for metal-cased
provided unless metal-cased appliances are likely devices

to be used.
Consumer loads that have metal cases such as
cookers, must have an earth connection. Then, if
Figure 15-6 An earth connection must be provided if
a wiring fault develops making the metal case metal cased loads are likely to be connected.

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15-2
 Domestic Wiring

15.3 The Load Limiter 15.4 Load limiter design

Conventionally the consumer is charged for their A low cost design of load limiter is shown in
electricity consumption by means of an Figure 15-7
electricity meter that records the number of Panel-mounting
kilowatt-hours drawn from the supply. This is not fuse holder or
in-line fuse holder
appropriate for pico hydro schemes as it does Positive
Temperature
not prevent overloading of the small generator Coefficient
Thermistor
or encourage consumption of electricity during (PTC)
“off-peak” periods such as at night when Panel-mounting
mains switch
electricity is still available and often goes to (Double-pole with Varistor (metal
insulated lever L N N L oxide varistor)
waste. A better option is a limited current and casing) for lightning
protection of
connection, where the consumer pays a fixed mov electronic loads
(See Section 15)
monthly fee that allows them to draw a current Terminal block

up to a prescribed limit on a continuous basis. Plastic box with

screw-on lid
This prevents overloading and encourages ‘off- (50mm x 75mm)

peak’ power consumption. A load-limiting device Supply from

distribution
prevents the consumer drawing more current system
To junction box

than they subscribe for by temporarily

disconnecting them. Some types of load limiter
reconnect automatically, others must be manually
reset. The use of load limiters is strongly
recommended for the following reasons:
• Load limiters are less expensive and more
easily installed than electricity meters.
Consumers cannot draw more power than
they have subscribed to.
• The collection of revenue from the scheme is
simplified if the tariff is a fixed amount each
month.
• The total consumer load can be matched to
the generator output. This means that the
generator will not become overloaded and the
system voltage and frequency will be
maintained.
• Domestic wiring is automatically protected
from high currents
The type of load limiter used, depends on the
amount of current which is drawn:
If less than 0.5 Amps is drawn use a PTC
(Positive Temperature Coefficient Thermistor)
If more than 0.5 Amps is drawn use an MCB or
an Electronic Current Cut-out (ECC).
If a PTC is used then a fuse and an isolation
switch are also required. The fuse prevents the
PTC from being damaged by high currents. The
switch allows safe rewiring in the house and
makes fault-finding easier.
Figure 15-7 A load limiter should connect the service
wire from the distribution system to the domestic wiring
in the house. A PTC is used as a load limiter if less than
0.5 Amps is drawn.
Selection of PTC’s
The PTC has a current level at or below which, it
is guaranteed not to trip (Int). This is used to
determine which PTC should be used to limit a
particular load.
The switch allows safe rewiring of domestic
circuits and increases the ease of fault
detection by allowing the domestic circuit to be
isolated easily from the supply. A fuse must be
connected in series with the switch in the live
and sized to protect the PTC from high currents
that could cause it to fail.
A double-pole switch is used to ensure that both
the live and neutral can be disconnected. A
single-pole switch would make faults that caused
the RCD to trip difficult to isolate because the
neutral would still be connected. A double-pole
switch also offers greater protection to loads
from lightning strikes, provided that consumer
disconnect their loads using the switch during
storms. The current rating of the switch should
be at least two times the rating of the fuse. The
voltage rating must be greater than or equal to
the generator voltage rating.
Selection of Fuses
There are five considerations for fuse selection
to include in a load limiter of the design
described.

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15-3

1) The first consideration is the current rating
(Fuse Irated) The fuse must be designed to blow
below the PTC maximum current (PTC Imax). The
current rating must however be well above the
guaranteed ‘no trip’ current of the PTC (Int).
PTC Int< Fuse Irated < PTC Imax
2) The second consideration for fuse selection is
the breaking capacity. This is the current at
which there is a danger of the circuit reforming
because of arcing across the fuse contacts. The
breaking capacity must be greater than the
highest continuous overload current that the
generator is able to produce. The highest
continuous current occurs when the generator is
overloaded. This is typically twice its operating
current (Iop). Size the fuse as follows, so that
there is no danger of the breaking capacity being
exceeded:
Breaking Capacity ≥ 3.0 x Iop
3) Fuses are available with glass and ceramic
cases. The advantage with glass is that it is easy
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Domestic Wiring
to identify whether the fuse wire is still intact.
Ceramic fuses, however, have higher breaking
capacity. A fuse with a glass case should
preferably be selected, if available with
sufficient current rating and breaking capacity.
4) The voltage rating of the fuse must be
greater than or equal to the voltage rating of
the generator (i.e.250V or 125V as necessary)
5) The final consideration is the size of fuse.
This depends on the dimensions of the fuse
holder. Ensure that new fuses are always
identical to those being replaced.
6) Fuse Type: Fast-acting fuses should be
selected as delay types are too slow to protect
the PTC.
Note: Bypass prevention
Some form of protection is required to stop the
load limiter from being bypassed. Suitable
methods are using a seal or a small padlock on
the service box to discourage tampering.
15-4

16 LIGHTNING
PROTECTION OF
PICO HYDRO
SCHEMES
16.1 Direct Lightning Strikes
16.2 Indirect Lightning Strikes
16.3 Lightning Arrestor Types
16.4 Protection of Powerhouse Equipment
16.5 Protection of Consumer Loads
Lightning can cause death and injury and damage
to buildings and equipment. Measures must be
taken to minimise these risks, especially in areas
of high lightning activity.
Risk Estimation
Weighting Factor A: Degree of Isolation
Structure located in a large area 0.4
of structures or trees of the
same or greater height e.g. in a
forest
Structure located in an area with 1.0
few other structures or trees of
similar height
Structure is completely isolated 2.0
or exceeding at least twice the
height of surrounding trees
Weighting Factor B: Type of Country
Flat country at any level 0.3
Hill country 1.0
Mountain country between 300m 1.3
and 900m
Mountain country above 900m 1.7
Try to identify on the map (Figure 16-4) the
number of thunderstorm days per year in the
region closest to you. Multiply by Weighting
Factors A and B and use the following table to
estimate the risk of lightning.
Risk Estimation by number of
thunderstorm days per year
High Risk More than 100
Medium Risk 25 to 100
Low Risk Less than 25
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Lightning Protection
This is a very rough guide. To obtain an accurate
estimate about the risk of lightning, talk to
people from the community where the
distribution system will be installed to find out if
local lightning is frequent or rare.
This section deals with lightning protection from
direct and indirect strikes on the distribution
lines.
16.1 Direct Lightning Strikes
No equipment exists that provides full
protection in the event of direct strikes. For
this reason it is essential that the risk of direct
strikes is reduced as much as possible by careful
routing of the distribution system. The risk of
direct strikes is reduced if the distribution is
run through a large area of trees as there is a
good chance that lightning will strike a tall tree
some distance away rather than the cables
themselves. When the number of trees is small,
it is best to keep the distribution at least 10m
away as the lightning may jump across from a
tree which is struck. This is because cables
provide a lower resistance path to earth.
Avoid routing the distribution along exposed
ridges, particularly in lightning prone areas. If it
is essential to do this, then use buried, armoured
cable. Whenever possible, route the distribution
in valleys.
Note on Overhead Ground Wires (OGW)
Some people have recommended the fitting of an
overhead earthed wire, above the line and
neutral conductors with the aim of conducting
lightning discharges to earth. This is not
recommended for low voltage distribution
networks. The reason is that the lightning may
jump between this wire and the line and/or
neutral causing a dangerous voltage on these
conductors. This approach only works on very
high-voltage transmission systems due to the
much larger air gap between the OGW and the
conductors and frequent earthing of the OGW.
16.2 Indirect Lightning Strikes
An indirect strike is where lightning strikes
close to the distribution line as this will induce
high voltages in the cables. Whilst these
voltages are not as high as the ones which can
16-1
 Lightning Protection

result from a direct strike, they are still becomes an excellent conductor above the
dangerous, particularly for electronic equipment. threshold. They are faster acting and usually
Voltages are induced both between live and clamp to lower voltages than spark-gap
neutral and neutral and earth. The “line-to- arrestors, therefore providing better protection
neutral” voltage surge can be reduced by twisting for electronic equipment such as TVs, CFLs with
the cables together if insulated conductors are electronic ballasts, and generator controllers.
used. For low current ratings, they are very cheap
(about $1) as they are mass-produced for use in
domestic appliances. However, for the higher
16.3 Lightning Arrestor Types current ratings designed for use on overhead
Spark-gap lines, they are expensive ($50 to $100)
especially when compared to spark-gap devices.
The conventional lightning arrestor consists of a
spark gap for the lightning to arc across and a Powerhouse Distribution Consumer
series resistance to limit the flow of current Ballast
System Loads
after the voltage surge. They are generally Induction
Load Lightning
isolation Arrestor Lightning Mains switch
switch on 1st pole Arrestor at consumer
slower acting than more modern arrestors and do Generator
RCD
L IGC L L
connection

not clamp the voltage at as low a value. They

N N N
offer reasonable protection to electrical
500m max.
equipment such as wiring and motors but little Earth L
Connection
protection to electronics. Prices are typically Varistors may
also be connected
$10 to $20. Select the voltage rating so that across the consum
supply if a PTC is
the arrestor does not operate under normal Extra varistors
N used.
connected
voltage conditions but comes into operation if across output
terminals of IGC.
the voltage exceeds maximum setting of the
over-voltage trip on the IGC (see Section 9.6). It
is important the voltage rating is low enough to Figure 16-2 Connection of lightning arrestors to prevent
damage to electrical equipment and reduce danger to
protect the generator but not so low that the
electricity consumers
arrestor is triggered by fluctuations in the
generator voltage (for example, this can happen
if the load is suddenly disconnected). The life of 16.4 Protection of Powerhouse Equipment
lightning arrestors can be shortened if they are A lightning arrestor is connected line-to-neutral
triggered in this way. on the first distribution pole immediately outside
the powerhouse as shown in Figure 16-2. A
single-pole load isolation switch is used instead
of a double-pole one so that the neutral is
earthed even when the load is isolated. This
ensures that there is always a path to earth.
Whenever possible during lightning storms, the
distribution system should be disconnected using
this switch and the generator shut down.

Protection of the IGC

Figure 16-1 Spark gap lightning arrestors
Varistors
Varistors have neither a spark gap or series
resistance. They consist of two electrodes
separated by a material that is a good insulator
below a certain threshold voltage and which
A varistor is fitted (soldered) to the IGC circuit
board to protect the more sensitive electronic
components. It is recommended that in medium
and high risk areas, additional varistors are
fitted to provide extra protection. These should
be connected in parallel across the output
terminals as shown in Figure 16-2. Several
devices connected in parallel allow greater

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16-2

current handling to reduce the voltage across
the sensitive electronic components in the IGC.
The additional varistors should have a voltage
rating at least 25% above the rated voltage of
the distribution system. This will avoid them
being damaged under normal operating
conditions. However, their voltage rating should
be less than the voltage rating of the soldered
varistor. If they are damaged then they can
easily be replaced on site as they are not
soldered. For example, if a varistor with an AC
voltage rating of 420V (usually the case) is
already fitted to the IGC then additional
lightning protection can be achieved by
connecting devices with 320V rating.
16.5 Protection of Consumer Loads
It is difficult to specify the number of lightning
arrestors required for a scheme as it depends on
many factors, including the frequency of
lightning, expense of replacing damaged
appliances and the cost of the arrestors.
Electrical guidelines for micro hydro in Nepal
state that the maximum distance of a consumer
from an arrestor is 500m and less in areas where
the risk of lightning strikes is high. When
selecting the precise location to protect a
number of consumers, preference should be
given to points in the system which are near to
areas where lightning is more likely to strike.
When fitting arrestors, the neutral is normally
earthed at the lightning arrestor to minimise the
neutral to ground voltage surge, as this can cause
the insulation to break down. This is not
achievable when an RCD is fitted in the
powerhouse, as earthing the neutral will cause
the RCD to trip. However, the neutral can be
earthed through an additional lightning arrestor,
as shown in Figure 16-3.
Selection of Lightning Arrestors
The neutral-to-ground lighting arrestor can be a
conventional spark-gap type, since it is only
required to prevent insulation breakdown.
The selection of the line-to-neutral lightning
arrestor depends on the type and value of the
loads to be protected. Loads such as
incandescent light bulbs, motors and heaters
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Lightning Protection
that do not contain electronics are reasonably
well protected by spark-gap arrestors. However,
loads that contain electronics, such as TV’s,
radios and CFL’s are much more sensitive and
require varistors for protection. The best
protection is provided by pole mountable
varistors with current rating of more than
50,000 Amps as these can withstand very high-
energy discharges.
A cheaper alternative that works particularly
well with PTC themistor load-limiters (see Figure
15-7) is to fit a disk-type varistor between line
and neutral on the load side of the limiter and
have a pole mounted spark-gap arrestor. In the
event of lightning induced surge, the varistor will
clamp the voltage in the house, with the
additional voltage being dropped across the PTC.
Once the voltage is high enough, the spark-gap
arrestor will operate and conduct most of the
current. Note that this puts extra stresses on
the PTC. However, these are cheaper to replace
than most domestic appliances.
During stormy weather, consumers should be
encouraged to disconnect their supply via the
mains switch at the entrance to their house.
Note the use of a double pole switch at the
consumer service entrance to isolate the live and
the neutral (Section 14.4). This is the most
secure method to prevent damage to delicate
loads such as CFL’s. Where the consumer
premises require an earth, it is important that
the consumer earth is separate from the earth
to which the lightning arrestor is connected and
preferably 10m or more away. This is because
high currents to earth can result in dangerous
voltage potentials close to the earth connection.
Earthed
Consumer
Load
min. 10m
Figure 16-3 Ensure that the consumer earth
electrode (if used) is at least ten metres from
the neutral-earth arrestor electrode.
16-3
 Lightning Protection

Figure 16-4 Map showing thunderstorm days per year

throughout the world (based on World Meteorological
records for 1955)

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16-4

17 TESTING,
COMMISSIONING
AND OPERATION
17.1 Final Checks
Check the following before starting the turbine
for the first time.
• The generator, motor protection switch and
connecting cable have been correctly sized
(Section 9.8)
• The generator, capacitors, controller,
ballast, RCD, motor protection switch and
earth-electrode have been connected
according to Figure 9-7 and manufacturers
instructions.
• All connections are tight and cable insulation
has not be stripped back further than
necessary (no bare cable should be exposed
at connection blocks).
• The turbine and generator are free to
rotate.
• Any moving parts such as pulleys and belts
have safety guards to protect people in the
powerhouse.
• The motor protection switch and RCD are
switched on.
• The tailrace is free from obstruction
• The penstock joints are watertight and the
penstock is anchored or buried.
• The penstock filter is free from debris.
17.2 Start-up
• Disconnect user loads connected to the
distribution system using the mains switch
located near the controller (Note: MCB and
RCD should be in ON position).
• Open the gate valve near the nozzle slowly to
about half full flow. Wait 60 seconds to allow
any soil and air in the penstock to be flushed
out.
• Turn off the valve and remove the turbine
cover. Inspect the nozzle for any
obstructions. If any are found, disconnect
the nozzle to remove them.
• Replace the cover and slowly open the valve.
• The generator should excite and this will be
indicated by a reading on the volt meter.
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Testing, Commissioning and Operation
This voltage should rise to approximately the
•
same voltage as the generator.
Check the ballast meter to ensure that the
reading is greater than zero. This indicates
that the controller and ballast are
functioning. If no voltage is produce or the
ballast meter reading is zero, refer to
Section 18.
• Adjust the position of the nozzle plate to
give the highest ballast reading.
17.3 Generator connection
There are two possible connections for the
generator. Only one is acceptable. Continuous
operation with the wrong connection is likely to
damage the generator.
• Note the ballast reading when the valve is
fully open.
• Close the valve and remove the cover on the
generator terminal box when the generator
has stopped rotating.
• Reverse the connections labelled “L” and “2C”
(see Figure 9-7).
• Replace the cover, start the turbine by fully
opening the valve.
• If the new ballast meter reading is greater
than before then this is the correct
connection. If not, restore the connections
to their original position after closing the
valve and waiting for the generator to stop.
Note: That with the correct connection the
generator will run more quietly less hot.
17.4 Adjusting voltage and frequency.
• The voltage (indicated by the voltmeter) is
set by the controller. Adjust the setting on
the controller by following manufacturers
instructions in order to obtain the required
value.
• The frequency value should be 49 Hz to 52.5
Hz for a 50 Hz system (59 Hz to 63 Hz for a
60 Hz system).
• Do not operate below the minimum
frequency values given. The life of the
generator and other devices connected will
be reduced.
• A frequency slightly above these ranges will
not usually have a detrimental effect unless
speed dependant motor loads such as pumps
or fans are connected.
17-1
 Testing, Commissioning and Operation

• To measure the frequency use a frequency 17.6 Commissioning the distribution

meter or use a tachometer and calculate system.
from the speed (generator shaft rpm’s) as
• Check all distribution poles and cables to
follows:
ensure that they have been installed safely
paying particular attention to ground
Number of poles Frequency (Hz)
clearance and cable sag.
2 Shaft speed / 63
• Check all house wiring has been safely
4 Shaft speed / 31.5
installed and that consumers have been
6 Shaft speed / 21
instructed about the dangers of electricity.
• If inductive loads such as tube lights or
• Calculating frequency from the speed is
motors are connected, measure the
accurate to about 5%.
frequency when these are operating. If
• The frequency can be adjusted by altering
frequency is too high then apply power
the amount of capacitors connected.
factor correction to the significant inductive
Removing capacitors increases the frequency.
loads.
Twice the amount of capacitance must be
added or removed from the 2C as from C
17.7 Operation
(see Figure 9-7).
• If the turbine will be operated over a range To start the generator:
of flows, then check the frequency over the • disconnect the consumer loads.
whole range and correct if necessary. • open the flow control valve slowly until fully
Note that changing the frequency will effect the open or desired power output is achieved.
power output as it will change the turbine • connect consumer loads.
efficiency and generator efficiency. The change • If a large amount of power is being
is best observed by reading the ballast meter dissipated in the ballast, consider reducing
with no user loads connected. the flow in order to reduce the temperature
of the ballast and increase its life.
17.5 Size of ballast load
To stop the generator:
The ballast meter should read between 40% and
• disconnect the consumer loads
100% when no user loads are connected.
• slowly close the flow control valve until it is
• If below 40% then the ballast is too large
completely closed.
and should be replaced by a smaller one. For
example, some of the resistive elements (e.g.
the cooking rings) can be disconnected.
• If 100% then check that all elements are
heating up. If some elements are cold, check
connections and, if possible, the resistance
of the element.
• If all the elements are working and the
reading is still 100%, increase the size of the
ballast load without exceeding the maximum
rating for the controller or generator.
• If this is not possible, then operate the
turbine at reduced power output.
Alternatively increase the capacity of the
controller and/or the generator.

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17-2

18 FAULT-FINDING
Problem Possible Causes
No voltage/low power Insufficient turbine power
output
Wiring fault
Capacitor values incorrect
Generator has lost residual
magnetism
Ballast loads not connected
Over-voltage trip properly (ballast meter reads
operates 100%)
Generator output higher than IGC
rating
Controller damaged and fails to
deliver power to ballast (ballast
meter does not operate or only
over a limited range),
Ballast trip lamp lit Ballast short circuited
Ballast load too large
Light bulbs flicker Response speed of controller
incorrect.
Ballast load much greater than
generator rating.
Uneven turbine output
Motor protection switch Generator connection incorrect
operates
Too much excitation current
(motor protection switch operates
even when turbine operating at
reduced power output)
Too much load current (motor
protection switch operates with
turbine operating at full power
output)
Short circuit in distribution
system
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Fault-finding
Solution
• Check water supply, nozzle and generator
speed.
• Check wiring and MCB and RCD are switched
on.
• Check capacitors are connected as shown in
the wiring diagram.
• Check capacitor values are correct for
generator.
• Disconnect consumer load. When generator is
stationary, connect a battery of 6V or more
across any two generator terminals for one or
two seconds. Re-start with no user load
connected.
• Check for loose or missing connections
• Check that any switches in the ballast circuit
are on.
• Check that all ballast loads become hot. If
not, measure resistance and replace if
necessary.
• Operate turbine at reduced power output or
replace IGC with one of higher rating
• Check whether fault is due to incorrect wiring
of IGC. If not, then replace circuit board.
• Check resistance between ballast leads and
between each ballast lead and earth to test
for short circuits. Repair or replace faulty
wiring / ballast loads.
• Check that the power rating of ballast is less
than or equal to the power rating of the IGC.
• Alter setting of response speed
potentiometer on circuit board.
• Reduce capacity of ballast load.
• Check turbine for misalignment, damage or
blockage.
• Check for badly worn bearings.
• Check generator connections.
• Reduce the amount of capacitance connected.
• Increase rating of motor protection switch
and generator if necessary.
• Operate turbine at reduce power output
• Avoid overloading the generator
• Isolate sections of the distribution system
until the fault is found. Alternatively measure
the resistance at different sections to
identify the fault.
18-1
 Fault-finding

RCD operates Current leaking to ground either • Disconnect consumer loads and restart to
in powerhouse or elsewhere establish if the fault is in the powerhouse. If
in powerhouse check wiring of earthed
devices (e.g. controller casing) to locate
earth fault.
• If fault is elsewhere in the system,
disconnect all earthed consumer loads
• Check lightning arrestors for short to ground
by temporarily disconnecting.
Individual house Load limiter tripped • disconnect all domestic loads and wait for 5
without power minutes. Reconnect less loads than before
load limiter fuse blown • check fuse.
Wiring fault • check service wire connection
• check domestic wiring
Group of houses Wiring fault • check distribution cable connected to the
without power houses for a fault
All houses without Wiring fault • check wiring of main consumer switch in
power (generator, powerhouse
controller and ballast • check first section of distribution cable for
breaks .
working normally)
•
Further notes on fault finding:

1. Loss of Residual Magnetism

If consumer loads are left connected when an
induction generator is stopped it is likely that
the residual magnetism will be lost. This small
magnetic field is required to build up the
excitation currents and allow the induction
generator to work at the voltage required. If
excitation does not occur, then the voltage (and
power) will be approximately zero when the
turbine is rotating. If this is the case, then a dc
power source such as a battery should be
connected across any two of the generator
terminals before starting the turbine. A 6V, 9V
or 12V lead acid battery would be suitable for
this or several large torch batteries connected
in series and should be connected for 1-2
seconds only. Note: Care must be taken when
using lead acid batteries not to short-circuit the
terminals as the battery can explode!

2. Check for damaged capacitors

Ideally check the capacitor value with a
capacitor meter. Otherwise the operation of
capacitors can be verified with a multimeter -
measure the resistance (should be high and
increasing as capacitor is charged by meter
battery) A low resistance indicates that the
capacitor is damaged and it should be replaced.

pmaher 31/05/01
18-2
 Appendices

19 APPENDICIES
Appendix A Basic Electricity

Voltage, Current, Power

Electricity is a very convenient form of energy.
It can be generated in one place and then
transported to where it is needed. At the flick Series = 2 x voltage
of a switch, it can be made to do useful work Connection of one battery
such as create light, heat or run motors. The
driving force that causes electricity to flow is
called the voltage. The electricity flow itself is
known as current. Electrical power is a
combination of voltage and current. The power,
measured in watts or kilowatts is used to Parallel
Connection
describe the rate at which the energy is used.
= 2 x current
of one battery
Resistance
Figure 19-1 Series and parallel connection of batteries
The amount of current which flows depends not
only on the voltage which is driving but also on
the resistance of the material through which it Direct current at 12V can be produced using a
is passing. Materials such as copper have a low car alternator. The maximum power however, is
resistance allowing current to pass easily. These limited to about 500W.
are called conductors. Materials that have a high
resistance, such as most plastics, are called Alternating current (ac) is used to describe
insulators. electricity that is repeatedly changing direction.
The rate at which this happens is called the
AC and DC Electricity frequency. Induction generators and synchronous
generators produce ac electricity. One major
Direct Current (dc) is the type of electricity
advantage of ac is that the electricity can be
that is stored in a battery. The current flows
generated at a much higher voltage, e.g. 120V or
from positive (+) to negative (-) if the battery is
220V than that of dc systems using batteries.
connected to a load. Battery voltages vary. For
example, they may be 1.5V, 6V, 9V or 12V. If two
Higher generator voltage means that the current
batteries are connected in a line (series), then
required to deliver a certain power is less. If the
the voltage is doubled. If both batteries are
current is less then the power losses in cables
connected in parallel then the currents capability
are also less. This means that with ac, it is
is doubled. Never short the terminals of a
possible to transport electricity efficiently over
battery as they explode.
long distances.

The time over which a particular current can be

The following ac and dc system have been
produced, also varies from battery to battery.
compared for a supply to five 40W light bulbs:
For example, a sixty amp-hour (Ah) battery could
Alternating current system (ac)
produce one ampere of current for sixty hours
1) Power required by load is 200W
or twenty amperes for three hours. Only
2) Voltage is 220V ac
batteries with identical voltage and amp-hour
I = P/V
rating should be connected together in the same
= 200/220
circuit. For more information about battery
= 0.91 Amps
types, see Section 13.1.

pmaher 31/05/01
19-1
 Appendices

Direct current system (dc)

1) Power required by load is 200W
2) Voltage is 12V dc Current

V oltage
Pow er

I = P/V
= 200/12
0
π

= 16.7 Amps
High current means high losses in electric cables φ = − 90°

because of the cable resistance.

Figure 19-4 If the load is a pure inductor, then the
AC Waveforms current lags the voltage by 90°. The average power
The AC voltage which is produced by a consumed is still = 0 Watts
synchronous or induction generator has
approximately the same shape as a sine wave.
When a load is connected, the current will have a
similar shape and the same period ( period = time
for one complete wave ). The frequency is the Voltage Power C urrent

number of complete waves in 1 second. For 0

π

example, the complete wave shown in Figure 19-2 φ = −30°

is repeated 50 times in one second if the

frequency is 50 Hertz.

If the load is purely resistive (for example a

heater or light-bulb), then the current then the
current will alternate at exactly the time as the
voltage. The current and voltage are said to be
“in phase”
Figure 19-5 General circuits are combinations of
resistance, capacitance and inductance. Here the current
lags the voltage by 30° as the load is both resistive and
inductive. The power factor (cosφ
φ) is close to 1 and the
amount of reactive power consumed is small but must still
be supplied by the generator.

V oltage
Real and Apparent Power
The basic formula for power is current times
Pow er voltage:
0

19.2 Power (apparent) = I x V

φ = 0° π /2 π 3π / 2

Current

However, for ac circuits this is not the whole

Figure 19-2 AC waveforms can be approximated to a sine
wave. If the load is a pure resistor, then the current
which flows is in phase with the generated voltage
story as this is only the apparent power. To
calculate the real power an additional factor is
needed called the Power factor.
Using the Power factor (Pf) the real power can
be calculated:

Power (real) = V x I x Power factor

V oltage

Current Real power is measured in Watts (W) and

Pow er
apparent power in Volt-amps (VA).
0

π
The reason for this difference is that there are
φ = 90°
two types of electrical loads; resistive loads and
reactive loads. With resistive loads the current
is in phase with the voltage as shown in Figure
Figure 19-3 If the load is a pure capacitor, then the
current leads the voltage by 90° and the average power
19-2 and in this case the power factor=1 and the
consumed = 0 Watts real power equals the apparent power. Reactive

pmaher 31/05/01
19-2

loads may be either inductive or capacitive.
Purely reactive loads draw current consume no
net power as shown in Figure 19-3 and Figure
19-4 as for half a cycle the power dissipated is
positive and for half a cycle it is negative. In
these cases the power factor=0 and real
power=0. The combination of resistive and
reactive requirements of a particular circuit is
referred to as the impedance. A leading power
factor (p.f. > 1.0) indicates that a load is more
capacitive than inductive. A lagging power factor
(p.f.<1.0) indicates that the load is more
inductive than capacitive.
When the power factor equals 1.0, then the net
requirement for reactive power is zero and only
resistive power is supplied. Power factor
correction means to bring the power factor
closer to one and reduce the reactive power
consumption. In practice this usually means
connecting capacitors in parallel with an inductive
load to raise the power factor.
Since the reactive power does not show up on an
electricity meter, domestic consumers are not
normally charged for reactive power. However
this extra reactive power must still be provided
by the generator. So to prevent a pico hydro
system from becoming overloaded, power factor
correction is often an important consideration
for the developer.
A power factor of 1.0 means that a load is purely
resistive. No reactive power is used and real and
apparent power have the same value. If the
power factor is less than one, then the load is
partly inductive. Power factors of some typical
loads are given in the following table:
Load Power factor
Incandescent lamp 1.0
Fluorescent lamps 0.5 - 0.7
Motors 0.2 - 0.95
Table 19-1 Variation of power factors for common loads
Power Triangle
The relationship between real and apparent
power and power factor can be summarised in a
“power triangle.”
pmaher 31/05/01
Appendices
Apparent Power S (VA)
Reactive
Power Q
(VAR)
φ
Real Power P (Watts)
So
P= S x cosφ
(Power factor = cosφ)
and
S = P2 × Q2
Figure 19-6 Power triangle showing relationship between
real and apparent power.
Power Factor Correction
Circuits which have a lagging power factor
caused by inductive loads (see Figure 19-4) such
as electric motors or fluorescent lamps, require
a supply of reactive power. For small loads
connected to the electricity grid, this does not
present a problem as the reactive power can
easily be supplied. However, this may not be the
case with small stand-alone induction generators.
Power factor correction is sometimes necessary
in these situations to allow the most efficient
use to be made out of the power available.
The term “power factor correction” means to
increase a lagging power factor towards 1 so that
the amount of reactive power required by a
circuit is reduced (see Figure 19-5.). This can be
achieved by connecting capacitors across the
load. Capacitance causes the current to lead the
voltage rather than lag behind. This can be
understood by comparing Figure 19-3 and Figure
19-4. The net effect of this is that the total
reactive power requirement of the circuit is
reduced. Additional considerations are the
availability and cost of suitable capacitors and
how much capacitance to connect. These may
determine to what extent the power factor can
be corrected. However, it is important to avoid
over-correction of the power factor. Selection
of capacitors for power factor correction is
explained in Section 13.1.
19-3
 Appendices

Appendix C Turbine Operating Speeds for A useful guideline is to use the synchronous
Mechanical Loads speed of the motor. This will be slightly less than
the operating speed when the generator is being
A Operating speed under driven (synchronous speed + 3% slip) This will
mean that under normal conditions of operating
heavy mechanical load
Power (kW)

(synchronous speed - 10%)

Pelton turbine B Operating speed under
speed characteristic light mechanical load
under changing load (syncronous speed)
Pmax
C Operating speed when
generator only is connected
(syncronous speed + slip)
the mechanical load electricity will not be
generated, but the turbine will still be deliver
maximum power. The synchronous speeds for 2
pole (3000rpm), 4 pole (1500rpm) and 6 pole
(1000rpm) induction machines have been used in
the “Power per Belt” tables (Table 13-5 and
Table 13-6)

Appendix D: Additional Notes on Belt

A B C Speed (rpm)
Sizing
Figure 19-7 Ideal operating speeds of Pelton turbine The guidelines given in Sections 13.5 and 13.6 are
under different load conditions sufficient for approximate matching of pulleys
and belts to loads. However, the following two
If the speed of the turbine for driving the
factors have not been taken into account in the
mechanical load is carefully chosen, then it is
“Power per Belt” tables.
possible to allow the induction generator to be
used as a brake for the mechanical load thus
1) Long belts can deliver more power than short
regulating its speed. This reduces wear and has
ones.
advantages during processes such as milling, for
2) A pulley ratio which is speed reducing (a
example, producing a more evenly ground flour.
small pulley is driving a larger one) can also
Any surplus power, not required by the
deliver more power than a drive which has
mechanical load will be dissipated in the
two pulleys of equal size.
generator or ballast, preventing the load and
turbine from over-speeding.
Ratio SPZ SPA SPB
The operating speed of an induction generator is 1:1 >550 >760 >1050
typically the synchronous speed +3%. This is the 2:1 >600 >850 >1150
speed when electrical power is delivered to the 3:1 >600 >850 >1200
controller and consumers. At about 10% below 4:1 >650 >900 >1260
the synchronous speed, there is no net 5:1 >650 >950 >1260
generation of electricity. Table 19-2 Add 5% to power per belt if Centre
Distance (mm) is greater than the above value.
The use of an induction generator controller
The pulley belt can be sized to a greater level of
regulates the turbine speed under both varying
accuracy if Table 19-2 and Table 19-3 are used.
mechanical and electrical load conditions. When
For a belt which is longer than the values given in
the mechanical load is reduced causing the speed
Table 19-2 (values in mm), 5% can be added to
of the turbine to increase, the controller begins
the power. For example, If an SPZ belt is used
to divert the excess power to the ballast. This
on a pulley system that has a ratio of up to 2:1,
increases the load on the turbine and therefore
the power can be increased by 5% when the
is able to control its speed. The action is similar
centre distance is greater than 600 mm.
to a mechanical brake.

So what speed should be chosen as the design

speed for the turbine shaft when sizing a pulley
system for a mechanical drive?

pmaher 31/05/01
19-4
 Appendices

SPZ SPA SPB

rpm’s of
turbine
shaft

1000 0.15 0.39 0.81

1500 0.23 0.58 1.21
3000 0.46 1.17 2.42
Table 19-3 Additional kW per belt if Ratio is 1.95
or greater and turbine pulley smaller than the load
pulley

If the pulley ratio is 1.95 (1.95:1) or greater,

then the power can be increased by the amount
shown in Table 19-3. For example, if an SPA belt
is chosen and the turbine speed is around 1500
rpm, the power which that belt can deliver
increases by 0.58 kW if the ratio is 1.95 or
more.

pmaher 31/05/01
19-5
20 USEFUL REFERENCES AND ADDRESSES
References:

1. Harvey, A. et al. ‘Micro Hydro Design Manual,’ Intermediate Technology Publications, 1993.

2. Inversin, A. ‘Mini Grid Design Manual,’ ESMAP, World Bank, 2000.

Editorial Address
Micro Hydro Research Group
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
The Nottingham Trent University
Burton Street
Nottingham
NG7 4BU

Tel. +44 (0) 115 848 2885

Fax: +44 (0) 115 948 6567
Email: phillip.maher@ntu.ac.uk
Web: http://eee.ntu.ac.uk/research/microhydro/picosite

Intermediate Technology Publications

103-105 Southampton Row
London WC1B 4HH

Tel: +44(0) 171 436 9761

Fax: +44(0) 171 436 2013
Email: orders@itpubs.org.uk
Web: http://www.oneworld.org/itdg/publications.html

ESMAP
C/o Energy, Mining and Telecommunications Department
The World Bank
1818H Street, NW
Washington, DC 20433
U.S.A.

pmaher 31/05/01
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21 GLOSSARY
Abney level a device used for measuring the incline of a slope; can be used to calculate the head

ac alternating current; electric current which changes direction at frequent intervals .e.g. at 50Hz or
50 times per second

Altimeter a device which uses air pressure to calculate difference in vertical height between two points

Ballast load usually an electrical heating element which consumes any unused power produced by the generator

Battery used for storing dc electricity; re-chargeable batteries (e.g. lead-acid, Nickel Cadmium) can be used
to light houses which are too far from the generator to have a connection

Belt drive system for transferring rotating mechanical power from one shaft to another using pulley wheels and
belts

Bucket method method of flow measurement using a bucket of known volume and a stopwatch

Canal can be a practical and low cost method in some rural areas of transporting water to the forebay and
reducing the length of penstock required

Capacitor electronic device used to allow induction motors to work as generators; also used for power factor
correction; capacitance is measured in micro Farads (μF)

CFL Compact Fluorescent Lamp; energy efficient light bulb requiring less power than other varieties

Current the rate of flow of electrons through a circuit; measured in Amps

dc direct current; electric current flowing in one direction

Demand survey Assessment of the power requirements and ability to pay of a community

Distribution system wiring system which connects houses to the generator

Distribution pole supports for distribution cable

Domestic wiring electrical system inside a house

Earth-fault a wiring fault allowing current to leak to the ground

Efficiency the word used to describe how ell the power is converted from one form to another; it is the ratio of
the output power to the input power expressed as a percentage; the efficiency of a pico hydro
system is usually about 45%.

Emergency lighting tube light with rechargeable battery which can be switched on when the electricity supply fails

Energy storage energy storage may be required if the flow of water cannot be guaranteed to be high enough
throughout the year; batteries and reservoirs are examples of how energy can be stored

Flow measurement of the quantity of water flowing past a point in one second; measured in metres per
second or litres per second and used to calculate the hydraulic power

Forebay structure which is sometimes used for pico hydro at the start of the penstock ensuring that the
water is sufficiently deep

Frequency the switching backwards and forwards of alternating current; measured in Hertz (cycles per second)

Fuse electrical safety device which prevents damage to circuits or appliances caused by short circuits or
overloading

pmaher 31/05/01
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Head the vertical drop of a water in a stream or in the penstock; measured in metres

IGC Induction Generator Controller – and electronic device used to keep the voltage and frequency steady

Incandescent lamp simple lamp with a wire filament

Induction generator source of ac electricity

Induction motor electrical machine which can be used to drive mechanical loads

Intake point where water enters the penstock

Lighting package an electricity supply suitable for one lamp and possibly a radio

Lightning arrestor a device which allows current surges caused by lighting strikes to be conducted away to ground

Load a device which uses the power produced by the generator

Load control a system to keep the amount of load on the generator constant

Load limiter a device which prevents too much current being taken by a consumer

Low-pressure pipe can be used as a cost-effective alternative to a canal to bring water to the mouth of the penstock

MCB Miniature Circuit Breaker; alternative safety device to the fuse with the advantage that it can be
reset after tripping due to a short circuit or overloading

Meter device which displays the level of generator voltage or ballast power

Motor Protection Safety device which disconnects if too much current is drawn. Unlike an MCB, which operates at only
one current level, the tripping current can be selected from a range, e.g. 6 to 10 amps.
Switch
Over-voltage trip protection circuit built into the IGC which automatically disconnects the supply to protect the
consumer loads if the voltage rises too high

Pelton turbine rotating wheel with buckets around the outside which absorb the power of a water jet and convert it
into rotating mechanical power; most Pelton designs require a head of 20 metres or more to work
efficiently

Peltric Set design of pico hydro unit which is popular in Nepal

Penstock pipe containing water under pressure: brings water from forebay to powerhouse

Pico hydro hydro power with a maximum electrical output of 5kW

p.c.d. pitch circle diameter; diameter line around a Pelton turbine at the centre of jet interaction

PTC Positive Temperature Coefficient Thermistor; electronic device which can be used as a low-cost form
of load limiting

Power measurement of energy supply and demand; given in Watts(W) or Kilowatts(kW); may be hydraulic
power, mechanical power or electrical power.

Power factor reducing the reactive power requirements of loads such as induction motors and fluorescent lighting
by connecting capacitors of certain value across the supply.
correction

Powerhouse building which contains the turbine, generator and any directly driven mechanical loads

RCD Residual Current Device; used to disconnect the supply in the event of an earth
fault

Reservoir small scale energy storage; sometimes used during the dry season if flows are insufficient; water

pmaher 31/05/01
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 collected during the day so that the turbine can be run in the evening for lighting

Resistance property of materials related to how well they conduct electric current e.g. plastic has a high
resistance and is called and insulator, copper has a low resistance and is called a conductor;
resistance is measured in ohms (Ω)
Salt Gulp method of flow measurement by adding salt to the water and measuring the conductivity change

Stand-alone system Electricity system which is not connected to the National Grid

Transformer A device with allows the voltage of an ac circuit to be changed up or down by a fixed amount
(e.g. 240v to 12v) Sometimes the distribution voltage is raised so that houses further than 1km from
the generator can be connected. Higher voltage reduces losses in the cables.
Turbine nozzle restricts the flow of water at the end of the penstock to produce a high velocity jet

Valve device used to regulate the flow of water in the penstock. A gate valve is preferred

Voltage measurement of “electrical pressure” which is required in order for current to flow around a circuit;
measured in volts (v)

Voltage drop loss of voltage across the distribution system because of the cable resistance. A voltage drop of up
to ±6% is acceptable

pmaher 31/05/01
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22 INDEX
Abney Level (Clinometer), 7-1, 7-3 mechanical, 2-3, 9-9, 12-3, 13-1, 13-7, 13-8, 13-
Ballast Heaters, 9-5 12
Battery charging, 5-4, 9-3 Meters
Canals, 6-3, 10-1, 10-2, 10-4 ballast meter, 9-6
Capacitance voltmeter, 9-6
excitation, 9-3 Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB), 9-8, 9-9, 13-6,
power factor correction, 13-2, 13-3, 13-4 14-3, 14-7, 14-13, 15-3, 17-1, 18-1
Current, 8-2, 9-1, 9-8, 13-3, 14-8, 14-9, 14-10, Over-voltage trip, 9-6, 18-1
15-3, 18-2 Pelton turbine, 1-1
Distribution Peltric Set, 8-1, 8-2
cable, 14-1, 14-3 Penstock
layout, 14-2 diameter, 11-1
poles, 14-1, 14-4 materials, 11-2
service connections, 14-7 pressure rating, 11-1
Distribution System, 2-3, 14-1 Penstock Filters, 10-2
Domestic Wiring, 15-1 Pico hydro, 1-1, 2-1, 2-2, 4-1, 5-4, 8-1, 8-2, 9-3
Earth-fault protection, 9-1 Pipe
Efficiency, 2-2 drainage, 6-3, 10-4, 10-5
Energy storage, 6-3, 10-6, 13-4 flushing, 10-6, 11-2
Flow measurement, 7-1, 7-4, 7-9 Pitch circle diameter (p.c.d.), 8-3
Forebay tanks, 2-1, 6-2, 7-1, 7-2, 10-5, 11-2 Positive temperature coefficient thermistor
Frequency, 9-5, 9-7, 17-2 (PTC), 15-3
Fuses, 15-3, 15-4 Power
Head measurement, 7-1, 7-2 electrical, 2-2, 2-3, 4-1, 9-8, 9-9, 14-11
IGC hydraulic, 2-2, 2-3, 8-3, 9-8
installation of, 9-11 mechanical, 2-2, 2-3, 4-1, 8-2, 8-3, 10-7, 13-7,
Induction Generator Controller (IGC), 9-5 13-8, 14-11
Induction generators, 1-1, 9-3, 9-5, 9-7, 14-12 Power factor correction, 13-2, 13-3, 13-4
Induction motors, 1-1, 8-1, 9-3, 9-8, 9-9, 13-6, Powerhouse, 12-1
13-7, 13-9, 14-12 Reservoirs, 2-1, 6-3, 10-1, 10-2, 10-6, 10-7, 12-3
Intake design, 10-1 Residual current device (RCD), 9-1, 9-2, 9-9, 9-
Lighting 10, 15-1, 15-2, 17-1, 18-1, 18-2
compact fluorescent, 13-2, 13-4 Safety, 9-1
emergency, 13-5 Salt Gulp Method, 7-4, 7-7
incandescent, 13-1, 13-4 Scheme
packages, 5-2 layout, 6-1
tube, 7-2, 13-1 Scheme layout, 6-1
Lightning Arrestors, 9-9, 12-3, 18-2 Survey
Load Control, 9-1, 9-5 demand, 5-1
Load limiters, 15-3 site, 7-1
Loads Turbine nozzle, 2-1, 2-2, 8-2, 8-3, 9-5, 10-2, 11-1,
consumer, 2-3, 14-10 11-2, 11-3, 17-1, 18-1
electrical, 2-2, 2-3, 9-1, 9-2, 13-1, 13-4, 13-7, Voltage, 9-5, 13-3, 14-3, 14-9, 14-10, 14-12
14-8 Voltage drop, 14-8, 14-11
Water source, 2-1, 5-3, 6-2, 11-1, 14-1

pmaher 31/05/01
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