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RSO Book - Technology Experts
RSO Book - Technology Experts
RSO Book - Technology Experts
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
RADIATION PROTECTION
FOR RPO
Prepared by
RIYADH
APR. 2006
2
FOREWORD
The use of man-made ionizing radiation and radioactive sources
are now a day widespread, and continue to increase around the world.
Nuclear techniques are in growing use in industry, agriculture, medicine,
well logging, and research benefiting the society as a whole. Irradiation
is used around the world to preserve foodstuffs. Sterilization techniques
have been used to eradicate diseases and ionizing radiation are widely
used in diagnosis and therapy of different diseases. Industrial
radiography is widely used to examine welds and detect cracks and
microscopic bubbles in metallic pipes, tanks and other devices, and help
prevent the failure of engineered structures.
It has been recognized that exposure to a an acute dose of ionizing
radiation causes clinical damage to the tissues of the human body. In
addition, long term studies of populations exposed to ionizing radiation
have demonstrated that this exposure has a potential for the delayed
induction of malignancies. Due to these risks all activities involving
radiation exposure shall be subjected to certain national and international
safety standards, in order to protect radiation workers, general public and
environment from exposure to ionizing radiation.
One of the requirement of the national and international safety
standards is that any installation, that is acquiring any of the radiation
sources shall appoint a radiation protection officer, RPO, (or officers), to
oversee the application of the requirements of the radiation protection
and safety of radiation sources. According to the Saudi national and
international regulations, this individual shall be technically competent
in radiation protection scientific and organizational matters, relevant for
a given type of practice. In Accordance with Saudi national regulations
shall be licensed by the national regulatory authority through passing a
qualification exam, which is held periodically by this authority.
For successfully passing this qualification exam, one should study
different scientific and organizational topics, which are existing in
different English books, and are specialized very deep in the subjects of
interest. It may be very difficult for individuals non specialized in
radiation physics to follow this subjects.
For this reason this booklet is prepared, and will be issued, by the
technology experts group, to cover the fundamentals and all scientific
3
and organizational topics that are necessary for any radiation protection
officer to be qualified as a RPO. Together with the included topics in this
booklet the practical lessons are essential part of the qualification of the
RPO. This practice in the different relevant fields may be gained easily
through these practical lessons.
We hope that the booklet will be helpful in acquiring the necessary
knowledge in the field.
4
PATRT 1
OF RADIATION PROTECTION
5
CONTENTS
6
4.4 Relation between the counting rate and source activity.
4.5 Other factors affecting the measurements.
4.6 Dead time correction.
4.7 The statistical fluctuation of radiation measurements.
7
Part 2:Organizational aspects of radiation protection.
Responsibilities of parties.
1- Responsible parties for radiation protection.
2- Responsibilities of the licensee.
3- Cooperation between licensees and employers.
8
CHAPTER 1
RADIOACTIVITY AND RADIOACTIVE DECAY
9
different forms of the same element are called isotopes of the element.
For example, hydrogen exists in three forms (the nucleus of each
contains one proton), 11 H without any neutron, 12 H (or deuterium) with
one neutron and, 13 H (or tritium) with two neutrons. The isotopes of the
element are characterized by the same chemical properties while they
have different physical properties. Some Elements have more than 40
isotopes.
- Some nuclides are stable, while some others are unstable and
they may, spontaneously, decay to daughter nuclides through the
emission of alpha or beta particle, or may disintegrate through the
emission of gamma radiation. These nuclides are called radio-nuclides
and there atoms are called radio-active isotopes. So, there are three types
of the radioactive decay, which are:
a) alpha decay (α decay)
b) beta decay (β decay), and
c) gamma disintegration (γ disintegration)
10
words, it is known that 238
92 U (for example) emits α particles with two
energy values which are 4.196 and 4.149 MeV. So, if these two energy
values for any alpha emitter are detected, then it mean that this emitter is
238
92 U .
11
continuous one for different types of beta decay, and by studying beta
spectra it is impossible to identify the beta-emitting radionuclide.
- In beta-negative decay the mass number A of both parent and
daughter radio-nuclides remains constant and does not change, while the
atomic number Z of the daughter nuclide is increased by one with
respect to that of the parent one, since a neutron is converted into a
proton in the nucleus.
12
22 22
e- + 11 Na 10 Ne + υ
13
60
disintegration of 28 Ni * , and hence for the decay of the
60
27 Co to
60
28 Ni * . So, the detection of two gamma ray lines with energies 1173
60
and 1332 KeV is an indication that the original radio-nuclide is 27 Co .
60
27 Co
2505 KeV
1332 KeV
60
28 Ni
Fig (1-1): β decay of Co-60 and gamma disintegration of Nickel-60
14
137
56 Ba *
137
55 Cs to . So, the detection of one gamma ray line with
137
energy 662 KeV is an indication that the original radio-nuclide is 55 Cs .
137
55 Cs
β1
15
56 Ba
Ba*137
137
56
16
emitted from all atoms of same element with the same definite energy
values, which are characteristic values for this element.
17
produces a neutron source, with a neutron yield of about,
2.2x106 neutrons / second. Earlier, neutron sources were
made of radium-226 or Po-210, (as alpha emitters) with
beryllium-9. However, but the production of such sources has
been stopped due to the explosion hazards of Ra-226 or
relatively short half life time of Po-210. In all alpha beryllium
neutron sources, fast neutrons are emitted with energies
varying between zero and about 10 MeV
using a potential difference of about 150 Kilo- Volt (KV), to gain energy
of about 150 KeV, and then they collide a tritium (denoted as 13 H or
3
1T ) target (tritium is another isotope of the hydrogen) to yield an alpha
18
particle and fast neutrons in accordance with the following nuclear
reaction:
2
1 D + T
3
1
4
2 He + 1
0 n
19
1-9 The decay (or disintegration) constant λ:
The probability for a single atom of a certain radionuclide to
decay per second is called the decay constant λ of this nuclide and its
unit in SI system is (1/s) i,e s-1.
20
sample of that nuclide containing 4000 radioactive atoms, then during
5.27 years 2000 atoms decay and the other 2000 remain without decay.
During the second 5.27 years one half of the remaining atoms decays
(e.g 1000 atoms decay and the other 1000 remain without decay).
During the third 5.27 years 500 atoms decay and the other 500 remain
without decay etc.
21
- This law relates the number of remaining atom without decay N
with respect to its initial number N0 as a function of the time t. This
relation is expressed as:
N = N0 e – λ t (1-3)
- The same law is used to express the exponential decrease of a
sample activity A with respect to its reference activity A0 at a certain
reference moment t = 0, as a function of time t. It is expressed in the
following form:
A = A0 e – λ t (1-4)
1-14 The relation between decay constant λ and the half- life time
T1/2:
- Using the radioactive decay law and the definition of the half-life
time T1/2 it is easy to show that the decay constant λ is related with the
half-life time T1/2 by the following simple relation:
λ = ln2 / T1/2 or
λ = 0.693 / T1/2 (1-5)
- The biological decay constant λb is related with the biological
half-life time Tb1/2 with a relation of the similar form e.g:
λb = 0.693 / Tb1/2
and the effective decay constant λe is related with the effective
half-life time Tb1/2 with a relation of the form:
λe = 0.693 / Te1/2
- The effective decay constant λe is related with the effective the
physical decay constant and the biological decay constant as:
λe = λp + λb (1-6)
22
1-15 Some important multipliers
Subscripts Notation The multiplier
1 deci 1d 1 x 10-1
1centi 1c 1 x 10-2
1 milli 1m 1 x 10-3
1 micro 1μ 1 x 10-6
1 nano 1n 1 x 10-9
1 pico 1p 1 x 10-12
1 femto 1f 1 x 10-15
Superscripts
1 Deco 1D 1 x 101
1 Hekto 1H 1 x 102
1 Kilo 1K 1 x 103
1 Mega 1M 1 x 106
1 Gega 1G 1 x 109
1 Tera 1T 1 x 1012
1 Exa 1E 1 x 1015
23
24
CHAPTER 2
INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER
2-1 Introduction
From the view point of interaction between particles or radiations
and matter, particles and radiations are divided into four different
groups. These are:
a- Heavy charged particles, such as alpha particles, deuterons, and
protons.
b- Light charged particles, such as beta particles (which are
electrons and positrons).
c- Electromagnetic radiations, such as x-rays and gamma radiations.
d- neutral particles such as neutrons.
25
electron-ion pair or pairs. In this case electrons are called delta ()
electrons. The main properties of the interaction between heavy charged
particles and matter can be summarized in the following:
- The main processes by which alpha particles with relatively low
energies (5-10 MeV) transfer their energy to the matter is the ionization
and excitation.
- The track of any heavy charged particle in the matter is a straight
line (due to the large mass of the incident particle with respect to the
electron mass).
- The energy is transferred from the incident heavy charged
particle to the electrons in relatively very small portions. This means
that the energy of the incident heavy charged particle is reduced
gradually as it penetrates through the matter. At the end of the track, the
alpha particle will capture two electrons from the neighbor atoms
forming an inert atom of helium-4.
- The average energy w, which is required to form one
electron-ion pair in air or human tissue is about 34 eV, so that, the
average number of electron-ion pairs formed in the whole range of 5 MeV
alpha particles is about 150000 pairs.
- The delta electrons represent about 70 % of the total number
of free electrons, while the primary electrons represent about 30 %
only.
- Different particles with the same incident energy will have
slightly different rang inside the matter. This effect is called :stragling".
- the range of 5 MeV alpha particles is about 35- 40 mm in air at
standard temperature and pressure, and about 40 micrometers in water or
human tissues.
- The specific ionization s of alpha particles with about 5 MeV
energy in air, which is defined as the number of electron - ion pairs,
formed in 1 mm of their track, varies from about 2000 pairs/mm at the
beginning of the track to more than 6000 pairs/mm at the end of the track.
Fig. (2-1) shows the variation of s as a function of penetration distance
in the matter.
- The stopping power (dE/dx) of alpha particles in a matter, which
is defined as the amount of energy transferred per unit length of the track
26
is given as the product of the energy w needed to form one electron- ion
pair by the specific ionization s, e.g:
dE/dx = w . s (MeV/ cm) (2-1)
R
Fig. (2-1): Dependence of the specific ionization s of alpha particles
on the depth x in the stopping material.
27
matter. This mechanism is the emission of electromagnetic radiation (x-
ray) known as bremstrahlung radiation.
- As the velocities of beta particles are very high comparing with
alpha particles with the same energies, the interaction time between the
incident beta particle and the orbital electrons and the nuclei of the
atoms is very small, in comparison with the interaction time of an alpha
particle. Moreover, the beta particle and orbital electrons are of the same
mass. So, all these factors strongly affect the character of interaction
between beta particles and matter. The main discrepancies between beta
and alpha interaction with matter can be summarized in the following:
- Beta particles transfer their energy to the matter via two
mechanisms which are: ionization and excitation, and emission of
bremstrahlung radiation. At comparatively low energy of particles
(few hundreds KeV) the main process for energy loss is the ionization
and excitation. As the energy of these particles increases the contribution
of emission of bremstrahlung radiation increasesd ant at very high
energies, this contribution becomes the predominant process of energy
loss. Moreover, the role of emission of bremstrahlung radiation is
strongly dependent on the atomic number Z of the matter, where it
increases with the increase of Z. For this reason high Z material should
not be used for shielding sources. The best material that can be used to
shield sources are the light solid material, such as plastic or aluminum
to reduce the emission of bremstrahlung radiation (x-ray).
- The energy percentage f of beta particles, which is lost via the
emission of bremstrahlung radiation as a function of both beta particles
maximum energy Emax and the atomic number Z is determined as:
f = 0.035 Emax Z %
- The track of any beta particle in the matter takes the form of a
broken line (due to the similar mass of the two interacting particles).
- The energy transferred from the incident beta particle to the
orbital electron in a single collision varies from a very low portion of the
particle energy up be very high portion of this energy, so that the
complete energy of the incident particle may be transferred in a single
collision. This means that the delta electrons are predominant in
interaction with matter.
28
Fig. (2-2): The broken track of particles in the material
29
- Due to the above mentioned factors, the number of β particles
which penetrate a certain thickness of matter x is decreased
exponentially, in accordance with the following (2-2) relation:
N = N0 e – μ x (2-2)
where N is the number of particles penetrating the thickness x, N0
is the number of particles reaching the same point in the absence of the
absorber, and μ is known as the attenuation factor. This factor is strongly
dependent on both atomic number Z of the absorber and energy E of the
particles.
2.4 Interaction of x-ray and gamma radiation with matter:
- When a beam of x-ray or mono-energetic gamma radiation fall
on a matter, its photons may interact with this matter via one of the
following mechanisms, depending on the photon energy as well as on
the atomic number of the matter:
a- The photo-electric effect,
b- Compton scattering, and
c- The pair production.
- Other types of interaction between incident photons and the
matter, such as the interaction with the atomic nuclei, is considered
negligible from the point of view of radiation protection.
2-4-1 The photo-electric effect:
- In this process, the incident photon interacts with one of the
strongly bound orbital electrons of the atom (e.g. with any of electrons
belonging mainly to K or L shells, which are the closest shells to the
nucleus). In this type of interaction the photon delivers its total energy
Eγ to the orbital electron and completely vanishes, and correspondingly,
the electron will be knocked out from the atom, carrying an amount of
energy Ee equal to:
Ee = Eγ – B (2-3)
where, B is the binding energy of the electron in the corresponding shell,
defined as the amount of energy that should be delivered to the electron
just enough to liberate it from this shell (it varies from less than 1 to
about 100 KeV depending on the atomic number Z of the matter). If Eγ <
B, then the process will not occur. Correspondingly, the photo-electric
30
effect will yield one electron which carries approximately the photon
energy.
- The cross- section σph (sigma) of the photo-electric effect, which
is defined as the probability of occurrence of this effect, when a single
photon is incident on a unit area (1 cm2) containing a single atom,
strongly depends on the photon energy Eγ as well as on the atomic
number of the matter Z. This probability σph decreases very fast with
increasing the photon energy Eγ, while it increases very rapidly with
increasing Z, as Z4 up to Z5. The unit of σph is barn(1 barn = 10-24 cm2).
- Dependence of the photo-electric cross section σph on photon
energy Eγ is shown 0n figure (2-3) where the photon energy is expressed
in a logarithmic scale.
K-edge
σph
ln Eγ
Fig: (2-3): Dependence of the photo-electric cross section on photon
energy
31
σc
ln Eγ
Fig: (2-4): Dependence of the Compton cross section on photon energy
- The electron and the positrons behave inside the stopping matter
in the same way as beta particles, e.g. they loose there energy on
ionization and excitation of the atoms of this matter as will as on
emission of bremstrahlung radiation, depending on the atomic number of
the atoms of the absorbing matter. When its energy becomes very low
each positron annihilates with one of the orbital electrons, (e.g. this
positron and electron vanish as a mass converting into two photons, each
with energy of 511 KeV). These two photons may interact with matter via
photo-electric process or Compton scattering, or they both may escape
out from the matter without interaction, in a process known as a double
32
escape, or one photon may interact while the other may escape in a
process known as a single escape.
σp
1022 KeV ln E γ
Fig: (2-5): Dependence of the pair production cross section on photon
energy
33
- By definition, the linear attenuation coefficient μ for a certain
matter and at a certain photon energy, is defined as the probability of the
interaction of a single photon that have this energy with all atoms
existing in a cube of 1 cm3 (1 cm2 area and 1 cm depth) of this matter, on
which it falls by all the three processes. So, if the number of atoms in 1
cm3 is n, and the total interaction cross-section is σ, then it is clear that:
μ = nσ
1022 KeV ln Eγ
34
considered, approximately, constant for different attenuating materials,
for the same photon energy.
35
- The exponential attenuation of x-rays and gamma radiation
makes the concept of the range for this type of electromagnetic radiation
is not valid. A definite portion of the incident beam will penetrate
through the attenuating matter, even when its thickness is too large. For
example, if a Co-60 source is shielded (surrounded) by more than 2 m
thick concrete wall some emitted photons from this cobalt will penetrate
through this shield, without suffering any kind of interaction.
36
(e.g. in dose calculations). It should be mentioned that authors of some
references are using, by fault, this coefficient to express the attenuation
coefficient μ. These Two coefficient (μa and μ, both linear and mass)
have different values, specially at medium and high photon energies, and
should not replace each other, except at very low photon energies (less
than few hundreds of KeV) where they are very close to each other.
- The reason of the discrepancy between μa and μ is the Compton
scattering and the pair production. In Compton scattering the photon is
deviated from its original direction, transferring only undefined part of
its energy to the matter, and the scattered photon may escape out from
this matter, so that although it has been omitted out from the beam, it
does not transfer its complete energy to the matter. In the pair production
the energy may not be transferred completely to the matter, since one or
even the two photons, resulting from the annihilation of the positron
with one electron may escape out of the matter.
- Due to the above mentioned reasons μ is almost higher than μa ,
specially with increasing the photon energy
37
- Since the recoil protons are heavy charged particles, they ionize
the matter. So, the neutrons are considered as indirectly ionizing
particles.
38
occurs depend on the absorbing nuclide. For example for 11447 Cd , it has
been found that the resonance capture occurs at thermal and low
energies, and the capture probability at resonance reaches extremely
114
high values. For this reason 47 Cd is considered one of the best
absorber for thermal and slow neutrons.
- One of the most effective method to shield a neutron source and
to reduce effective doses around it is to put three layers of different
materials in the following consequence from the source: a) About 20 cm
of wax, plastic or any other solid (or liquid) material, rich with hydrogen
content to moderate fast neutron and convert them into thermal or slow
neutrons, then b) A thin sheet of 114
47 Cd (with about 1 mm thickness) to
39
CHAPTER 3
RADIATION DETECTORS, SURVEY METERS
AND CONTAMINATION MONITORS
3-1 General:
- The main two processes which are used for detection of different
types of ionizing radiation are based on the use of:
a) Ionization of the detector material and formation of
electron-ion pairs, or electron hole pairs, and collection of this
charges or their current.
b) Excitation of the detector material and then measurement
of the emitted light during the de-excitation process, and
collection of this light or their current.
- There are other processes, which are used for detection and
counting of ionizing radiation. For example, one of these processes is the
use of activation of a certain nuclides by irradiation of certain material
by neutrons and then by measurement of the induced activity due to the
neutron capture.
- The type of the detector that should be used for detection and
counting and identifying of ionizing radiation depends strongly on:
a) The type of the radiation (e.g. heavy or light charged particles,
neutrons, x, or gamma radiation.
b) The energy of the measured particles or photons.
c) The intensity of the radiation field (e.g. the particle or photon
flounce).
d) The purpose of detection and measurement.
40
the detector vessel. The average number of the resulting primary
electron-ion pairs in the detector is defined by dividing the particle
energy (in eV) by 34 eV, which is the average energy needed to form one
electron- ion pair. For detection of heavy charged particles (such as
alpha), the detector wall should be equipped with a very thin window of
low Z material (less than 40 gm/cm2 of a light material) to permit the
entrance of these particles inside the detector, without loosing a
considerable part of its energy in this window. For the detection of beta
particles the window can be done from a thicker material, since the
range of these particles is much higher than that of alpha particles.
- For the indirectly ionizing radiation, namely x and gamma
radiation, ionization of the detector’s gas is done by the primary charged
electrons and positrons, emitted as a result of the interaction of the
incident photons with a very thin layer of a heavy material, such as lead,
fixed inside the wall of the detector. For detection of x and gamma
photons, There is no need to make a window in the detector wall due to
the very large range of photons.
- For neutrons, which are indirectly ionizing radiation too, the
ionization is done by charged particles such as protons emitted as a
result of the elastic scattering of the incident fast neutrons with hydrogen
nuclei existing in a very thin layer of polyethylene fixed inside the
detector wall, or by alpha particles, which are emitted as a result of the
neutron capture of thermal neutrons in certain gas materials with high
reaction cross-section, which is filling the detector, such as BF3 gas
(Boron tri-Fluoride) or others. Due to the high penetrability of neutrons,
there is no need to make any window in neutron detectors.
- There are three types of gas detectors which are:
a) the ionization chamber,
b) the proportional counter, and
c) the Geiger- Muller (GM) counter.
- For all types of gas detectors, the intrinsic detection efficiency
is 100 % only for all heavy charged particles. For beta particles the
efficiency is slightly less than 100 %, due to their continuous energy
spectrum, so that a part of the low energy particles will be absorbed
inside the window thickness. The efficiency of all gas detectors for
measuring photons or neutrons is extremely low, and strongly dependent
on their energy. For example the intrinsic efficiency of these detectors
41
for photons may vary from few percents (2-4 %) to very low values (less
by many orders of magnitude) with increasing the energy of photons.
Remark: the intrinsic efficiency of a detector, for a certain type of
indirectly ionizing radiation at a certain energy, is defined as the ratio of
the number of particles or photons with the mentioned energy detected
by the detector from a given source, in a certain time period to the total
number of these particles or photons, with the same energy, incident
from the source on the detector surface, during the same time period. To
get the efficiency in percent this ratio should be multiplied by 100. For
example, if the intrinsic detector efficiency for photons with 662 KeV
energy is 2.5 % then this detector will detect only 2.5 % of photons
incident on its sensitive surface with this energy.
42
connected with a direct current amplifier (or pulse height amplifier) with
a very high amplification gain (thousands or more).
a C
g c V R
43
c) Relatively, a constant energy response curve in a wide
range of energies, comparing with all other detectors, when the
chamber is used as a detector in dose or dose-rate survey meters.
A constant energy response means that the ratio of the
measured dose (or electric current) from ionizing radiation with a
given energy E to that at a reference one Er remains constant in a
wide range of energies when the radiation field is homogeneous.
This is a very important property of ionization chambers.
d) In some cases the wall of the chamber is made from a
material having a similar composition as air to correct for energy
absorption in different materials, for more accurate determination
of doses or dose rates. In these cases the chamber is known as
air-wall ionization chamber.
e) For measurement of relatively high energy beta particle
or photons, it is necessary to increase the gas pressure inside the
chamber to secure full stopping of the ionizing beta particles
within it. In This case the chamber is known as a pressurized
ionization chamber. Such cambers are important for dose
measurements in a radiation field with a wide energy range.
44
The pulse amplitude
45
the electric current caused by ionizing radiations. So, the proportional
counter is acting as a detector and a current multiplier.
V
Fig. (3-3): A diagram of a proportional counter
46
- From the construction point of view the GM counters are exactly
similar to the proportional counters. The main difference is that the GM
counter is operated at relatively higher potential difference between the
anode and the cathode.
- With increasing the applied voltage the current multiplication in
the gas of the tube becomes very high and almost reaches infinity. When
an ionizing particle or photon inters the GM tube, and when it interacts
with the detector material causing even one electron– ion pair a series of
consequent ionization occurs making avalanche multiplication. This will
cause occurring of electric discharge of the detector gas.
- The gas discharge will continue unless, it will be stopped by
internal or external reason in a process called quenching. The external
quenching is secured by inserting a large Ohmic resistance R in series
with the high voltage source, while the internal quenching is secured by
the addition of a certain ratio of a mono-atomic gas. The second
technique of quenching is preferred, since the first one leads to a serious
increase in the detector dead time, due to the increase of the magnitude
of the resistance.
- As a result of infinite amplification of the GM tubes, particles or
photons with different energies will give the same electronic signals with
the same pulse amplitude, so that, it can be measured without further
amplification.
- Due to the complete discharge through the detector tube, the
proportionality between the energy of the particle and the pulse height of
corresponding signal is completely lost. In other words the GM counter,
completely, does not differentiate between different energies, and it can
be only used to count the number of pulses (detected particles or
photons) independent of their energies.
- The dead time of a pulse type detector is defined as the time
period through which the electrons and ions are collected and treated as
a pulse. During the dead time the detector will not detect any other
ionization event, so If the time separation between two sequent ionizing
events (e.g. two consequent registered particles or photons) is less than
the detector dead time, then they will be detected as a single particle or
photon, and hence there will be some loss of the detected number of
particles or photons.
47
- The energy response curve of the GM counter is, comparatively,
worse than that of the proportional counter. For this reason, special
filters are used with the GM counters to correct for the non-constancy of
the response curve.
- It should be mentioned that dose survey meters that use GM
counters as a detector, should not be used in any place containing high
radio-frequency (rf) source, such as linear accelerators, since they are
very sensitive to high frequencies and they almost give full scale reading
in these fields without the presence of any type of the ionizing radiation.
The PMT
48
which is acting as a light conductor to transfer light photons emitted
from the crystal (or liquid scintillator) to the photo-cathode of the PMT.
- All the components are matched together, without any air voids
or bubbles by putting a small drop of silicon oil between any of these
components and pressing so that no air bubbles are existing in between.
The detector components are enclosed inside a hermetically sealed
metallic enclosure, so that no light can penetrate through it.
- The function of the scintillator is to emit photons of visible light,
The number of these photons is linearly dependent on the energy of the
incident particle. As these emitted photons fall on the photo-cathode of
the PMT, a limited number of electrons will be emitted from this photo-
cathode. The number of these photo-electrons is linearly dependent on
the number of the incident photons on the photo-cathode, and
consequently, on the energy of the incident particle on the scintillator.
- The role of the photo-multiplier tube (PMT) is to multiply the
number of emitted electrons from the photo-cathode, by a very large
factor (at least some thousands times and much more). For this purpose
the PMT contains a large number of dynodes (about 9- 13 dynodes),
each of which is covered with a material with high coefficient of the
secondary emission. The emitted photo-electrons are accelerated toward
the first dynode by a positive voltage difference V, so that they gain an
amount of kinetic energy equal V electron volts, and become capable to
induce secondary electron emission from the dynode, so that their
number will be multiplied by a factor equal to the coefficient of
secondary emission . This coefficient is strongly dependent on the
voltage difference V and may reach, relatively, high values (up to 3 and
more) with the increase of V. Electrons emitted from the first dynode are,
again, accelerated toward the second dynode by another positive voltage
difference V, giving rise to another step of a secondary emission from
this second dynode, and yielding second multiplication . Then the
consequent acceleration processes toward the next dynodes with a
multiplication factors of on each one of these dynodes will yield a total
multiplication factor of n (if the value of is the same for all dynodes),
where n is the number of dynodes in the PMT. After multiplication a
huge number of electrons are emitted from the last dynode and they are
collected on the anode of the PMT, giving a negative pulse on the output
of this anode due to the presence of a high ohmic resistance.
49
- The anode pulse represents the registration of a single particle in
the detector, and the amplitude of this pulse is proportional to the energy
of the particle. So, the number of the registered pulses is proportional to
the number of the incident particles or photons, while the amplitude of
each pulse represents the energy of the registered particle or photon.
Output pulses on the anode of the PMT have a similar form of the pulses
from an ionization chamber shown on fig. (3-2), but the time duration of
the pulse may be more less than that of the ionization chamber for some
types of scintillation crystals.
- It should be mentioned that the electron multiplication gain M of
the PMT, (which is approximately equal to the coefficient raised to the
power n (i.e. M n)) is strongly dependent on the biasing voltage V
which is supplied to the PMT Anode or cathode. This voltage is divided
by a potential divider using a set of resistances to bias the cathode, all
dynodes and the anode with the nominal voltages. It is recommended to
supply the PMT with the nominal voltage, since the increase of V will
increase the factor M, but at the same time it will shorten, strongly, the
service life-time of the PMT.
- different types of radiations are detected using different
scintillators. Table (3-1) represents the most widely used scintillators for
different types of radiations. All these scintillators emit violet light with
wave length shown in table (3-1).
- Alpha particles and protons can be easily detected using a thin
layer (about 1mm thickness) zinc sulphide crystal doped with silver ZnS
(Ag), while electrons and positrons can be detected using organic
crystals or liquids.
- The Sodium Iodide crystal with Thallium NaI(Tl) is the best
scintillation crystal that can be used to detect gamma radiation with a
higher efficiency, due to its high density. Moreover, the addition of a
small ratio of Thallium to the Sodium iodide makes the crystal capable
for emission of light photons at room temperature. To meat the required
detection efficiency of gamma radiation, the NaI(Tl) crystal is grown
with a different thicknesses. These crystals are available in the market,
mainly, in a cylindrical form with dimensions ranging from 1/2 inch
diameter x 1/2 inch height, up to more than 10 " x 10 ". Generally
speaking, the scintillation gamma detectors are much sensitive to detect
gamma radiation, in comparison with gas detectors, and the detector
with 3" x 3" NaI(Tl) crystal is considered as a reference one, so that, the
50
relative efficiency of any other gas and solid detectors, is given referring
to this reference one.
51
value of r varies between about 2.5 and 10 %, depending on the volume
of the crystal.
- However the efficiency of the scintillation detectors for x and
gamma radiations is much higher than that of all gas detectors, its
response curve to dose variation with radiation energy is very poor,
comparing with all other detectors. For this reason scintillation detectors
are not widely used in different survey meters, for dose or dose-rates
measurements or.for radiation dosimetry, but they are very widely used
to search for a lost gamma source as will as for radiation counting
and spectroscopic measurements as well as in surveying ground
resources of nuclear ores.
52
to the 3" x 3" NaI(Tl) detector. The only disadvantage of these detectors
is that they required a very deep cooling, prior to their operation, and
this is achieved, mainly, through cooling by liquid nitrogen (- 189 oC) or
by electric cooling.
- Silicon surface-barrier detectors are produced, since the sixties of
th
the 20 century up to now, with different shapes and thicknesses, to
detect heavy charged particles of different energies, and they are widely
used in high resolution alpha spectrometry, as well as in spectroscopic
measurements of heavy charged particles (such as protons, deuterons
and others). Their energy resolution is as good as about 0.4- 0.5 %, and
they do not require any cooling.
- Other pure silicon crystals are produced to be used for high
energy resolution spectroscopic measurements of x-ray and low energy
gamma radiation up to about 100 KeV. These detectors, again. require
the deep cooling as germanium ones prior to their operation.
53
d- A devise, which convert the current intensity or the pulse
rate or the number of pulses to dose rate or accumulated dose
through the defined time.
e- Some types of survey meters are equipped with a sound
device that gives sound clicks as an larm indicating pulse
counting. This is essential to demonstrate by sound the radiation
level, without the need to look to the scale of the survey meter.
- Any survey meter should be characterized by a constant relative
response curve over the whole energy range existing in the surveyed
radiation field. The relative energy response of a survey meter is defined
as the ratio of the current intensity at different energies, to that current
intensity at a certain definite energy (or the ratio of the pulse number per
unit time at different energies to the pluses number per unit time at a
certain definite energy), when the radiation field is homogenous and
constant. Fig. (3-5) represents the relative response curves for an
ionization chamber (curve a), GM counter (curve b), and NaI(Tl)
scintillation detector. From this curve it is easily seen that the ionization
chamber is characterized by a relatively constant response curve, in the
energy range from about 100 KeV, up to about 2 MeV, while the GM
counter, and specially the scintillation detector, have a strongly varying
response with energy. With respect to the GM counter, better response
may be attained by using a set of filters, made from different materials
such as lead and others.
54
Fig. (3-5): Energy response for some detectors
An ionization chamber.
A GM counter.
A scintillation detector.
required to carry out the recalibration each six months, while for other
practices with lower source activities, the recalibration may be repeated
yearly.
- The recalibration should be conducted, only, by recognized and
authorized laboratories, and by qualified persons from the national
regulatory authority. The recalibration should cover all ranges and scales
of the survey meter. Moreover, each scale should be recalibrated, at
least, at two points, to assure the accuracy in the full range of the scale.
A recalibration certificate should be issued, showing the date of
recalibration, the name of the specialist, who conducted it, the
recommended date for the next recalibration, and comments about the
constancy of the calibration constants of the device.
55
b) Cesium-137 and Cobalt-60 sources for calibration of
gamma survey meters.
c) Sr-90 sources for calibration of beta survey meters.
d) Am-Be source or Cf-252 sources for calibration of
neutron survey meters
56
appropriate gross alpha beta counter should be used for high
contamination levels.
- For detecting surface contaminations, of low contamination
levels, with alpha emitters or with low energy beta emitters, such as
tritium (H-3), using a wipe test, a liquid scintillation detector should be
used for increasing the solid angle and the detection probability.
- The wipe test, for detection of any contamination on the outside
surface of any radio-active source should be conducted, periodically,
each six months. If the counting facilities needed to detect the surface
contamination of the sources are not available at the licensee, then he
should contract a qualified and recognized party to conduct these tests
on behave of him.
57
- Another, internationally recognized, personal dosimeter is the, so
called "film badge", consisting a plastic film covered with a silver
bromide (AgBr) emulsion. When ionizing radiations interact with the
emulsion some electrons are ejected out, breaking the covalent bond
between silver and brome. When the film is processed the silver atoms
are collected in dots forming some darkness in the plastic film. This
darkness is a measure of the amount of radiation energy, to which the
film was exposed. To differentiate between different radiations and
energies, different filters are used between the film and its badge.
- The advantages of the film badge, in comparison with the TLD,
is that it is much cheaper, and it is considered as a document, since the
darkness remains for long time, together with its simplicity. Its
disadvantages, with respect to the TLD, is its limited accuracy and the
need to isolate it from the direct light.
_ In the supervised areas personal doses may be evaluated by
measuring the maximum dose rates in the place where the workers are
working, and by registering the total time during which the worker is
existing inside the area. In this case the dose rate should be measured as
the maximum value between the head and the knee.
58
CHAPTER FOUR
SOME RADIOATION MEASURMENT TEQNIQUES
AND STATISTICAL FLUCTUATIONS
4-1 Introduction:
- In this chapter a very limited number of radiation measurement
techniques, including both relative and absolute measurements, together
with some factors affecting the accuracy of these measurements, will be
touched.
- Our discussion will be limited to the case when the radiation
source is located outside the radiation detector. In this case, there are
different source-detector configurations, described as good or bad
geometrical configurations, depending on the source and detector sizes,
as well as on the distance R between the source and the detector.
- The good geometrical configuration is defined as that one, at
which the size of the source can be considered as a point, and the source
detector distance R is than the largest dimension of the detector, so
that the different rays emerged from the source toward the detector are
approximately parallel in the detector. For realistic situations, with some
approximation, the good geometrical configuration is considered that
one, in which the source-detector distance R is, at least, ten times larger
than the larger dimension of the source or the detector. For radioactive
sources, with relatively low activity, it is impossible to realize a good
geometrical configuration, since the number of particles or photons
emitted from the source toward the detector will be too limited, so that
the measurement can consume a very long time, or it cannot be carried
out due to the existence of an intensive background radiation, which may
much exceed the intended radiation emitted from the source. In these
conditions, the measurements can be conducted, with a good accuracy, in
the so called bad geometrical configuration. So, one can conclude that
the source detector configuration is determined by many factors, such as
size and shape of the source and the detector, the source activity, the type
of radiation, and purpose of measurements. Fig. 4-1 represents some of
the experimentally used source-detector configurations both good and
bad.
- The advantages of a good geometrical configuration is that the
detector solid angle , (fig. 4-1 a) through which the detector sees the
59
source, can be easily and accurately calculated. Moreover, in this
configuration the detector intrinsic efficiency is constant and does not
change with relatively small variations of the source location.
60
The Source R The detector
(a) Good geometrical configuration
The source
The source The detector
The detector
(b) (c)
(d) (e)
Fig. (4-1)
61
- If the activity of the alpha or beta source is A Bq then it emits A
alpha or beta particles per second in all directions. If the resultant
daughter radionuclide is a gamma emitter, and if the probability of
emission of a gamma ray line with a definite energy E is f, then the
number of photons emitted with this energy in all direction, in one
second, is defined as (f A) photons. For example, it is known, that f =
0.85, for the 662 KeV gamma ray line emitted from barium 137, formed
by the beta decay of Cs-137. Then the number of 662 KeV photons
emitted from 1 Ci Cs-137 source is = f A = 31450 photons per second.
From this last number only 31450 x 6.25 x 10-4 = 19.66 photons will
impinge on the sensitive area of the detector in the configuration
mentioned previously.
- Finally, one can defined the total number N of photons with
known probability f, that impinge on the detector surface from a source
with activity A, when the detector solid angle is as:
N = fA
62
not be used for another detector or at other radiation energy or for a
source of other density or shape.
63
4-5-1 Role of the source effects:
- One of the important effects of the source is the self absorption
inside the source. The size, and in particular the way the source is made
may have strong effect on the measurement results. Whether the source
is a solid material or a thin deposited evaporated layer on a metal disc
this may make a difference. For gamma and neutron measurements, the
effect of the source thickness is relatively limited, while it is very strong
in measurement of charged particles, and specially alpha particles. In all
cases, self absorption factor fa in the source should be taken into
consideration, since it reduces the experimentally determined activity.
For this reason, sources of the charged particles (especially alpha) should
be very thin (not more than few micrograms/cm2
- The second important effect of the source is the backscattering
effect on source backing. The source is, always, deposited on a metallic
backing or support. This backing may lead to the scattering of particles,
(especially beta particles). The particles which are directed from the
source toward the backing may suffer backscattering, so that they will be
reflected back to the detector, increasing the count rate over the real
value. The backscattering factor fb, strongly depends, on the atomic
number Z of the backing material, backing thickness X and kinetic
energy E of the particles. Increasing Z, X or E will strongly increase the
backscattering factor fb. For this reason the source backing should be
made from a material with low Z and should have the minimum
thickness. The backscattering may increase the real count rate by a value
up to 70 – 80 %.
64
- To demonstrate the role of the medium, it is important to remind
that alpha particles with energy 5 MeV loose completely, their energy
during about 4 cm of air, while beta particles with an end point of about
1 MeV loose their energy in the air within a layer of 4- 5 meters.
65
relation between the true counting rate Ctr, the measured count rate C,
and the system dead time is:
Ctr = C / (1 – C )
- For clarifying the role of the dead time suppose that the dead
time of a system is 400 microseconds (s), and that the measured
counting rate is 30000 counts per minute (cpm). In this case the system
will be dead for 400 x 10-6 x ( 30000 / 60) = 0.2 seconds during the one
second, which means that the percentage of the dead time is 0.2 x 100 =
20 %. The true counting rate is then:
Ctr = 30000 / (1-0.2) = 30000 / 0.8 = 37500 counts per minute.
- For more clarification, suppose that the same system will be used
to register a measured counting rate of 150000 (cpm). In this case the
system, during one second, will be dead for 400 x 10-6 x ( 150000 / 60) =
1 second, which means that the percentage of the dead time is 1 x 100 =
100 %, i. e. the system will be dead all the time and it will stop counting.
= [(1/ N) ( ni – n )2 ]1/2
66
So, any measured value is reported as m = m (m)1/2.
- the percentage statistical error E is defined as:
E % = ( / m) x 100 = 100 / (m)1/2 %
So, it is seen that the percentage statistical error E % decreases
when the amount of the measured counts m is increased. This fact is
represented in table (4-2), showing the number of the registered counts
in each measurement, together with its standard deviation and
percentage error in three cases known as; lower, medium and higher
confidence level, corresponding to 1 , 2 , and 3 respectively.
Table (4-2)
Nmber of The standard The percentage Error %
counts in the deviation 1 2 3
reading
1 1 100 200 300
4 2 50 100 150
16 4 25 50 75
25 5 20 40 60
100 10 10 20 30
400 20 5 15 20
1000 31.6 3.16 6.32 9.48
10000 100 1 2 3
100000 316 0.316 0.632 0.948
1000000 1000 0.1 0.2 0.3
67
certain time period of measurement tg. However, the reported result is
the counting rate, i.e., counts recorded per unit time (namely per
second), which is Cg = (G / tg). In some cases, especially, when dealing
with a gamma source, the amount of the background gamma radiation
may be comparable with that radiation emitted from this source, and it
should be taken into consideration, to get the net count rate Cnet from the
source.
For this reason, the background counts B should be measured, in
the absence of the source, during an appropriate time period tb, and the
background count rate Cb = (B / tb) is determined. To get the net count
rate Cnet, resulting from the source alone, the background count rate Cb
should be subtracted from the gross count rate Cg, i.e.,
Cnet = Cg – Cb = ( G / tg ) – ( B / tb )
Table: (4-3)
The range of the experimental readings among The number of readings
the thousand readings
380 – 420 which meat (m ) 680
360 – 380 which lie between [(m-2) and (m-) 136
420 – 440 which lie between [(m+) and 136
(m+2)
340 – 360 which lie between [(m-3) and (m- 23
2)
440 – 460 which lie between [(m+2) and 23
(m+3)
Less than 340 1
More than 460 1
The lower confidence level includes all reading higher than (m-1) i.e higher
than 380 or lower than (m+1), i.e. lower than 420. These are 680 +136 + 23
+1 = 840 readings among the thousand, with 84 % confidence
The medium confidence level includes all reading higher than (m-2) i.e higher
than 360 or lower than (m+2) i.e. lower than 440. These are 680 +136 +136 +
23 +1 = 976 readings among the thousand, with 97.6 % confidence.
The higher confidence level includes all reading higher than (m-3) i.e higher
than 340 or lower than (m+3), i.e. lower than 460. These are 680 +136 + 136
+ 23 + 23 +1 = 999 readings among the thousand, with 99.9 % confidence
68
- The standard deviation net in the net count rate Cnet is defined as:
net = [G /( tg)2 + B /( tb)2 ]1/2
- To reduce the error which may arise due to the background
radiation in measurements of low activity gamma sources, both the
source and the detector are placed inside a special shield.
69
CHAPTER FIVE
DOSIMETRY QUANTITIES AND THEIR UNITS
70
gram of matter. The word rad is the abbreviation of a sentence which is
"radiation absorbed dose”..
1 rad = 100 erg / 1 gram
- The Gray "Gy" is the SI unit of the absorbed dose (e.g. in MKS
system of units, Meter, Kilogram, Second). One Gray is defined as 1
Joule of energy imparted into one Kilogram of matter.
- It should be mentioned that the absorbed dose is defined in terms
that allow it to be specified at a point, but it is used to mean the average
dose over a tissue or organ.
- Using the relation between Joule and erg which is 1 Joule = 107
erg, it is clear that
1 Gy = 100 rad
71
- It has been found that the probability of the so called stochastic
effects depends not only on magnitude of the absorbed dose, but also on
the type and energy of radiation delivering this dose. This is taken into
account by weighting the absorbed dose by a factor related to the quality
of the radiation for causing health effects. In the past, this weighting
factor has been applied to the absorbed dose at a point and was called the
quality factor Q. The weighted absorbed dose by the Q factor was called
the dose equivalent.
- The radiation weighting factor WR is a multiplier of the
absorbed dose to account for the relative effectiveness of different types
of radiation in inducing health effects. The values of this factor for
different types and energies of radiation are given in table (5-1).
R
Table (5-1): The values of W
72
HT = R
WR * DT, R
E= T
WT * HT
73
- The units of the effective dose are the same units which are used
for effective dose in both CGS, and SI systems, i.e: the "rem" and the
Seivert "Sv' .
- Both effective and equivalent doses are quantities intended for
use in radiation protection including the assessment of the risks in
general terms. They provide a basis for estimating probability of
stochastic effects, for absorbed doses well below the thresholds for
deterministic effects.
Table (5-2): Tissue weighting factors averaged over the sexes and ages
74
5-10 The collective equivalent or collective effective dose:
- All the dosimetric quantities mentioned before relate to the
exposure of an individual. However, other quantities related to the
exposure of a group of workers or population are necessary. These
quantities are the collective equivalent dose ST, in a certain tissue of a
group of people and the collective effective dose S of this group.
- The collective equivalent dose ST is the equivalent dose
incurred in a defined tissue or organ by a group of workers or by a
critical group of people. The collective equivalent dose is defined as
the product of the number N of exposed individuals and their
average equivalent dose HT, when the amount of this dose is equal
for each member of the group.
- The collective effective dose S is the effective dose incurred by
a group of workers or by a critical group. The collective effective dose
is defined as the product of the number N of exposed individuals and
their average effective dose E.
- If several groups are involved, in the exposure, then the total
collective effective dose is the sum of the collective doses for all groups.
- The old unit of the collective equivalent dose or collective
effective dose is the "man.rem", while the SI unit is man.Seivert"
man.Sv".
- The collective quantities represent the total consequences of
exposure of a population or group of workers. For example, when the
risk factor R for lethal cancer is given, it is easy to assess the additional
cancer deaths, induced by radiation, among a group of exposed people
by multiplying their collective dose and the risk factor R.
75
CHAPTER SIX
BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION
76
neutrons. This combination yield a hydrogen peroxide molecule, which
is a stable compound and capable to diffuse far from the point of its
generation.
OH + OH O2H2
Moreover H2O2 is a very powerful oxidizing agent and can affect
cells and molecules that did not suffer radiation damage directly. If the
irradiated water contains dissolved oxygen molecules, then the free
hydrogen radical may combine with the oxygen, to form the hydro-
peroxyl radical:
H + O2 HO2
This radical has a greater stability and can diffuse away and
combine with a free H radical to form hydrogen peroxide, thereby
further enhancing the toxicity of the ionizing radiation.
- Our knowledge is still too limited concerning the gross of
biological effects, that may occur long after irradiation.
77
conditions in which the proliferation of modified cells is uncontrolled.
Such condition are grouped together and called cancer. A modified germ
cell in the gonads will transfer genetic information to the descendants of
an exposed individual, which may cause severe harm to some of these
descendants, known as hereditary effects. The somatic and hereditary
effects are known as "stochastic effects".
- There is some experimental evidence that radiation appears to
enhance immunological responses and to modify the balance of
hormones in the body, thus strengthening the natural defense
mechanisms of the body. Most of the data on such effects termed
"hormesis" have been inconclusive because of statistical difficulties at
low doses.
78
a) The hemopoietic syndrome.
b) The gastrointestinal syndrome
c) The central nervous system syndrome
Certain diseases or effects are common to all these classes, which
are grouped under one name as "radiation disease or sickness", which
includes nausea and vomiting, malaise and fatigue, increased
temperature, and blood changes.
- The blood changes is reflected in the changes of the blood count.
These changes, usually, do not appear before gamma ray doses of 250-
500 mGy, but they, certainly, appear after 500 mGy. The white blood
cells known as leucocytes, which are counted in healthy adults as
7000/mm3 of blood are responsible for combating the infecting
organisms. There are two main types of the leucocytes, which are
granulocytes and lymphocytes, with relative proportion of 70- 75 %
and 30- 25 % respectively. The granulocytes are produced in the red
bone marrow and circulate for about 3 days before death, while
lymphocytes are produced in the lymph nodes and spleen, and remain
alive for 24 hours. After an acute exposure in the sub-lethal range there
is a sharp increase in the number of granulocytes, followed within a day
by a very sharp decrease to reach the minimum for several weeks or
months after exposure. The lymphocytes drop sharply after the
exposure, and remain depressed for several months.
- The hemopoietic syndrome appears after a gamma dose of about
2 Gy. This disease is characterized by depression or ablation of the red
bone marrow. The onset of the disease is, rather, sudden, and is heralded
by nausea and vomiting within several hours after overexposure. At 4-6
Gy complete ablation of the bone marrow occurs. An exposure of about
7-8 Gy or greater leads to irriversable ablation of the bone marrow. The
LD-50/30 is in the range of 3-5 Gy.
- The gastrointestinal disorders may appear from relatively small
doses (about 1-2 Gy) due to the death of a part of cells of the intestinal
epithelium, but the syndrome is severe after about 10 Gy. This
syndrome is a consequence of the desquamation of the intestinal
epithelium, and its signs are severe nausea, vomiting and diarrhea,
which begins very soon or immediately after exposure and the death
within 1-2 weeks is the most likely outcome.
79
- Central nervous system syndrome occurs, after relatively high
dose of acute exposure which is not less than 20 Gy. Its sign is the
occurring of unconsciousness, within minutes after exposure, and the
death occurs during several hours to few days.
- The skin may be subjected, due to its location to more radiation
exposure, especially in the case of low energy x-ray and beta particles.
An exposure of the skin to about 300 R in the diagnostic x-ray
(approximately 3 Gy) results in erythema, while higher doses may cause
pigmentation, blistering and ulceration.
- The gonads are particularly radiosensitive. A dose of about 150-
200 mGy to the tests in a single exposure results in temporary sterility
among men, but in case of prolonged exposure the dose rate threshold is
0.4 Gy/year The corresponding values for permanent sterility are about
3-6 Gy for acute exposure and 2 Gy/year for prolonged one. For women,
the threshold for permanent sterility is an acute absorbed dose to the
ovaries, in the rang of about 2.5- 6 Gy.
- The threshold for opacities of the eye lens (cataract), which occur
after some delay, seems to be in the range of about 5-10 Gy for an acute
exposure to low LET radiation. For high LET radiation the absorbed
dose threshold is 2 -3 times less.
80
accepted evaluation model for excess cancer deaths due to radiation is
based on a linear zero threshold for the extrapolation to low doses. A
typical dose to cancer relationship for low and high-LET radiations is
illustrated on fig. (6-1).
Fig. (6-1): A typical dose effect relationship for low and high- LET
radiations
81
Table (6-1) The excess mortality from all cancers,
attributed to a collective effective dose of 1 man.Sv,
Source of estimate The risk factor per 1 man.Sv
Additive model Multiplicative model
BEIR I, 1972 1.2 x 10 -2 6.2 x 10 -2
UNSCEAR, 1977 2.5 x 10 -2 -
BEIR II, 1980 0.8 x 10 -2 – 2.5 x 10 -2 2.3 x 10 -2 - 5.0 x 10 -2
NUREG, 1985 2.9 x 10 -2 5.2 x 10 -2
-2 -2
UNSCEAR, 1988 4.0 x 10 – 5.0 x 10 7 x 10 -2 – 11 x 10 -2
BEIR V, 1990 - 8.85 x 10-2
82
Table (6-2): Relative probabilities of fatal cancers in different
organs and the total Risk factor for Japanese population
The relative probability
Organ Multiplicative model NIH
0- 90 y 0- 19 y 20- 64 0- 90 y 0- 19 y 20- 64
y y
Oesophagos 0.038 0.021 0.061 0.042 0.024 0.063
Stomach 0.291 0.266 0.305 0.268 0.225 0.301
Colon 0.180 0.255 0.089 0.121 0.171 0.066
Lung 0.174 0.191 0.159 0.221 0.297 0.129
Breast 0.023 0.025 0.022 0.027 0.034 0.019
Ovary 0.014 0.009 0.023 0.019 0.013 0.025
Bladder 0.052 0.030 0.082 0.052 0.028 0.080
Bone marrow 0.077 0.052 0.109 0.100 0.055 0.165
Remainder 0.150 0.050 0.150 0.150 0.150 0.150
All cancers 0.999 1.000 1.000 0.998 1.000 1.000
total probability
(10-2per man.Sv) 10.7 24.6 7.8 9.7 21.5 7.3
83
exposed which became severely mentally retarded increased by
approximately 0.4 per Sv. For exposure during weeks 16-25, it
increased by about 0.1 per Sv. Moreover mental impairment of lower
severity is also apparent in children exposed in uteri. Evidence of such
impairment is still being collected.
- Irradiated fetuses seem to be susceptible to childhood leukemias
and the childhood cancers, which are expressed during, approximately,
the first decade of life. The risk of fetal childhood cancer due to prenatal
exposure has been estimated to be 2.8 x 10 -2 Per Sv. Constancy of risk
throughout the pregnancy was assumed.
84
CHAPTER SEVEN
DOSE CALCULATION
85
of beta particles in air, which may play a considerable role, specially
when the emitted particles are of relatively low energy.
- When the average energy, Eav of the beta particles is relatively
small, then energy absorption in the source material, air and detector
window should be taken into consideration. The percentage of the
absorbed energy in these media should be subtracted from the dose rate
calculated by equation (7-1).
- If the source emits more than one gamma ray line (i.e. it emits
gamma ray with different fixed energy values Ei , then the dose rate is
calculated using equation (7-3);
Ė (Sv/h) = 0.142 A ∑i (fi Ei) / d2 (7-3)
where, the summation ∑i is taken for all gamma ray lines i , and
the product fi Ei represents the product of fi for the i line, and its energy
Ei .
- It is faster to calculate the effective dose rate Ė from any exposed
gamma source if the gamma specific constant G (or factor) for this
source is known. The gamma specific constant (or factor) G for a certain
radionuclide (in the SI system of units) is defined as the dose rate (in
Sv/h), at a distance of 1 m from the source of this radionuclide,
activity of which A is one Mega Becquerell. When this constant G is
available then equations (7-2) and (7-3), for a single line emitters or
multiple lines emitters will look as equation (7-4).
86
Ė (Sv/h) = G A / d2 (7-4)
- Comparing equations (7-2) and (7-3) with (7-4), it is clear that
the gamma specific constant G for a gamma emitter which emits a single
gamma ray line is:
G = 0.142 f E (7-5)
While, the gamma specific constant, G, for a radionuclide which
emits multiple gamma ray lines is:
G = 0.142 ∑i (fi Ei) (7-6)
and the quantities are defined in the same manner as in equation
(7-2) and (7-3).
- It should be mentioned that the unit of the gamma specific
constant (or factor) G, in the SI system of units is (Sv. m2/h. MBq). In
this system of units the gamma specific factor G is defined as the dose
rate at adistance one meter of a source, nactivity of which is one Mega
Becquerel. In the classic system of units, the gamma specific constant G
is defined as the dose rate (in Roetgen/hour R/h), at a distance of 1 m
from a source of a radionuclide, activity of which A is one Curie (Ci).
So, the unit of G in the classic system of units is (R. m2/ h. Ci). Up to
now, some books and references are using the classic system of units.
For this reason, one should be capable of transferring this G constant
between the two systems of units. For this purpose, equation (7-7)
represents the relation between them.
G(Sv.m2/h.MBq) = G(R.m2/h.Curie) / 3.7 (7-7)
- Table (7-1) gives the values for the gamma specific factor for
some widely used radionuclides in some practices, in the two systems of
units.
87
- Neutron sources, with isotropic neutron distribution, may be
considered as a point source. The dose rate Ė (in microSeivert/hour
Sv/h) resulting at a point p, which exists at a distance d (in meters)
from the source, can be easily calculated using eq.(7-8).
Ė (Sv/h) = (0.08 C N) / d2 (7-8)
88
7-5 The Inverse square law for external exposure:
- This law is applicable to all gamma and neutron point sources.
For beta particle sources, the law may be applied, only for relatively
small distances d, due to the absorption of a fraction of beta particles
energy in air. This law states that, the effective dose rate Ė from a point
source inversely depends on the square of the distance d between the
source and the intended point. This means that when the distance from
the source is doubled the dose rate will decrease four times, and when
the distance is increased three times, the dose rate will decrease 9 times
(32 = 9). In mathematical representation, when there are two points from
a source, located at distances d1 and d2 , and the dose rates at these
points are Ė1, and Ė2 respectively, then the inverse square law states that,
the dose rates and their distances are related by the following equation:
Ė1 d12 = E2 d2 2 (7-9)
89
through skin), as well as on the chemical and physical form of the
intaked radionuclide and on the solubility of the chemical compound in
which it is existing. Moreover the factor is strongly age dependent. For
this reason The ICRP, IAEA and UNSCEAR have Published these
factors separatelely for ingestion and inhalation and for different age
groups (less than 1 year, from 1- 2 years, from 2- 7, from 7- 17, and
adults). The obtained committed doses using these conversion factors
refer to the dose incurred up to 70 years age.
90
inhaled volume of air during the 2000 working hours/year is 2500 m3.
So, the (DAC) is defined in terms of ALI, as:
(DAC)I (Bq/m3) = (ALI)I / 2500 (7-12)
- It should be mentioned that inhalation of 2000 DAC hours by
any worker in one year is equivalent to an effective committed dose of
20 mSv/year
91
CHAPTER EIGHT
RADDIATION SHIELDING
- To make a proper shield for a beta source one should use, only,
light rigid material, with low atomic mass number Z, since high Z
materials interact with these particles, yielding a considerable portion of
highly penetrating x rays. The portion f (in percent) of beta particle
energy transferred to emit bremstrahlung radiation (i.e x-ray) is defined
from the maximum energy of the beta spectrum Emax (in MeV), and the
atomic number Z of the interacting material as:
92
- Equation (8-3) is applied when the beta particles maximum
energy is in the range between 0 up to 2.5 MeV. At higher beta particles
energies other equation is used for determination of Rm, which is:
Rm (gm/cm2) = 0.53 Emax - o.106 (8-4)
93
coefficient μa instead of the mass attenuation coefficient μm, due to the
reasons, mentioned in chapter 2. So, the relation between the dose rate Ė
in the presence of the shield of a thickness x and dose rate without this
shield Ė0 is:
Ė = Ė0 e – μa x (8-5)
- In all other cases, when the photon beam is not narrow, or the
shield is relatively not thin, this exponential law is not valid, due to the
so called " build up" of photons in the point of interest. This build up
arises due to two modes of photon interaction with the matter, which
are: Compton scattering and pair production, while the photoelectric
effect does not yield any build up. Due to Compton scattering some
photons, which are emerged far away from the point of interest may be
scattered and as a result of this scattering it may reach the point of
interest (see the photon 1 in fig 8-1). Additionally, multiple Compton
scattering may arise due to the large thickness of the shield, increasing
the number of photons that may reach the point of interest (see the
photon 2 on fig. 8-1). In the pair production the energy may not be
transferred completely to the matter, since one or even the two photons,
resulting from the annihilation of the positron with one electron may
escape out of the matter, reaching the point of interest (the photon 3 on
fig 8-1).
e+
3
Fig. (8-1)
94
B = It / Id =
= ( I s + Id ) / I d (8-6)
95
neutrons, and finally, to attenuate the gamma radiation emitted during
the neutron capture.
- There are some elements, such as cadmium, boron and others,
which are characterized by a very high cross section for thermal and
slow neutron radiative capture (i.e. thermal neutron absorption with the
emission of gamma photon). So, after moderation of fast neutrons, a
layer of 1 mm thick of cadmium (Cd) is sufficient to absorb the majority
of the moderated neutrons.
- Due to the radiative capture of the thermal neutrons gamma ray
photons will be emitted, so that, an additional layer of a material with
high atomic number Z, such as lead (Pb) is required to attenuate these
radiations. For this reason, a third layer, with a reasonable thickness of
lead, is used to absorb gamma photons emitted from cadmium layer.
- So the ideal shield fort neutron sources consists of three
consequent layers which are: 20-25 cm wax, plastic or water, surrounded
by about 1 mm cadmium sheet, which in its turn, is surrounded by a
reasonable thickness of lead or any other high Z material.
- Neutron shields may be made by a single layer of a low Z
material, such as paraffin wax, plastic, water or others. This is related
with the limited ability of hydrogen and some other light (or low Z)
material to absorb thermal neutrons after their moderation. The main
requirement for such shields is to increase the thickness of the layer to a
sufficient value, so that the reduction of the dose rate, arising from the
neutron source outside the shield is achieved. Examples of such shields
are the neutron semi-spherical howitzers made of wax around the
neutron sources used for educational and other purposes. The thickness
of the paraffin wax or the water around the source may vary from about
50 to more than150 cm, depending on the neutron yield of the source.
- In case of accidents with neutron sources, one may use any
available light materials to shield the exposed neutron source, including
water bags, sands and rocks, and even pieces of wood.
96
THE ORGANIZATIONAL ASPECTS
OF RADIATION PROTECTION
97
GENERAL FRAMEWORK AND REQUIREMENTS
FOR RADSIATION PROTECTION
1. INTRODUCTION:
- Occupational exposure to radiation can occur as a result of
various human activities, including the use of radioactive sources and x-
ray machines in medicine, scientific research, agriculture and industry,
work associated with the different stages of the nuclear fuel cycle, and
occupations that involve the handling of materials containing enhanced
concentrations of naturally occurring radionuclides
- This lecture addresses the organizational aspects of radiation
protection, in situations of both normal and potential exposure. The
intention is to provide an integrated approach to the control of normal
and potential exposures due to external and internal irradiation from both
artificial and natural sources of radiation.
2. ADMINISTARATIVE REQUIREMENTS:
98
applicable, be mined, milled, processed, designed, manufactured,
constructed, assembled, acquired, imported, exported, distributed, sold,
loaned, hired, received, sited, located, commissioned, possessed, used,
operated, maintained, repaired, transferred, decommissioned,
disassembled, transported, stored or disposed of, except in accordance
with the national requirements, unless the exposure from such practice
or source is excluded from the requirements, including the requirements
of notification and authorization.
b- The notification
- Any legal person, who intends to carry out any of the actions
specified under the basic obligation for a practice or source shall submit
a notification to the Regulatory Authority of such an intention.
99
necessary steps for the protection and safety of both workers and
the public; and
(d) if the potential for an exposure is greater than any level
specified by the regulatory authority, have a safety assessment
made and submitted to the regulatory authority as part of the
application.
- The legal person responsible for a source to be used for medical
exposure shall include in the application for authorization:
(a) the qualifications in radiation protection of the medical
practitioners who are to be so designated by name in the
registration or license; or
(b) a statement that only medical practitioners with the
qualifications in radiation protection specified in the relevant
regulations or to be specified in the license will be permitted to
prescribe medical exposure by means of the authorized source.
- Licensee shall bear the responsibility for setting up and
implementing the technical and organizational measures that are needed
for ensuring protection and safety for the sources for which he is
authorized. He may appoint other people to carry out actions and tasks
related to these responsibilities, but He shall retain the responsibility for
the actions and tasks himself.
- licensee shall specifically identify the individuals responsible for
ensuring compliance with the national requirements.
- licensee shall notify the Regulatory Authority of his intentions to
introduce modifications to any practice or source for which he is
authorized, whenever the modifications could have implications for
protection or safety, and shall not carry out any such modification unless
specifically authorized by the Regulatory Authority.
d- Inspection:
- The Licensee shall permit duly authorized representatives of the
Regulatory Authority, and of the relevant Sponsoring Organizations
when applicable, to inspect their protection and safety records and to
carry out appropriate inspections of their authorized activities. Some
inspection should be announced and the others must not be announced.
100
e- None-compliance
- In the event of a breach of any applicable requirement of the
regulations, the licensee shall investigate the breach and its causes,
circumstances and consequences, take appropriate action to remedy the
circumstances that led to the breach and to prevent a recurrence of
similar breaches, and communicate to the regulatory authority on the
causes of the breach and on the corrective or preventive actions taken or
to be taken.
- The communication of a breach of the regulations shall be
prompt and it shall be immediate whenever an emergency exposure
situation has developed or is developing. Failure to take corrective or
preventive actions within a reasonable time in accordance with national
regulations shall be grounds for modifying, suspending or withdrawing
any authorization that had been granted by the Regulatory Authority.
101
and social factors being taken into account, with the restriction that the
doses to individuals delivered by the source be subject to dose
constraints.
- Senior management should translate their commitment to
optimization of radiation protection into effective action by establishing
appropriate radiation protection program, and rules commensurate with
the level and the nature of the radiological risk presented by the practice.
- In order to reduce or avert exposures in intervention situations,
protective actions or remedial actions shall be undertaken whenever they
are justified.
102
3- MANAGEMENT REQUIREMENTS FOR PROTECTION:
103
4- THE PRINCIPAL REQUIREMENTS:
4-1 Security of sources:
5- VERIFICATION OF SAFETY:
5-1 Safety assessments:
- Safety assessments related to protection and safety measures for
sources within practices shall be made at different stages, including
sitting, design, manufacture, construction, assembly, commissioning,
operation, maintenance and decommissioning, as appropriate, in order to
identify the ways in which normal and potential exposures could be
104
incurred, account being taken of the effect of events external to the
sources, as well as events directly involving the sources and their
associated equipment and to assess the quality and extent of the
protection and safety provisions.
5-3 Records:
- Different records shall be maintained for the practices and
sources and of the results of monitoring and verification of compliance,
including records of the tests and calibrations carried out in accordance
with the Standards.
6- CONDITION OF SERVICE:
6-1 Pregnant workers:
- A female worker should, on becoming aware that she is pregnant,
notify the employer in order that her working conditions may be
modified if necessary. The notification of pregnancy shall not be
considered a reason to exclude a female worker from work; however, the
employer of a female worker who has notified pregnancy shall adapt the
working conditions in respect of occupational exposure so as to ensure
that the embryo or foetus is afforded the same broad level of protection
as required for members of the public.
105
6-3 Classification of areas
- The licensee shall designate controlled and supervised areas, in which
specific protective measures or safety provisions are required for
controlling normal exposures or preventing the spread of contamination
during normal working conditions. The licensee shall delineate
controlled and supervised areas by physical means.
- According to Saudi national regulation, the controlled area is
defined as the area in which the annual effective dose may reach 3/10 the
occupational annual dose limit (i.e may reach 6 mSv/year).
- According to Saudi national regulation, the supervised area is
defined as the area in which the annual effective dose may reach 1/10 the
occupational annual dose limit (i.e may reach 2 mSv/year).
106
107
RESPONSIBILITIES OF PARTIES
108
(c) to determine the measures and resources needed to achieve the
protection and safety objectives and to ensure that the resources
are provided, and the measures are properly implemented.
(d) to keep the measures and resources continually under review, and
to verify that the protection and safety objectives are being
achieved.
(e) to identify any failures and shortcomings in the protection and
safety measures and resources, and to take steps to correct them
and prevent heir recurrence.
109
which are commensurate with the expected magnitude and
likelihood of the occupational exposure.
(f) Necessary health surveillance and health services are provided.
(g) Appropriate protective devices and monitoring equipment are
provided and arrangements are made for its proper use.
(h) Suitable and adequate human resources and appropriate training
in protection and safety are provided, as well as periodic
retraining and updating, as required, in order to ensure the
necessary level of competence
(i) Adequate records are maintained as required by the regulations
(j) Arrangements are made to facilitate consultation and co-
operation with workers with respect to protection and safety.
110
(d) Co-operate with the licensee and the regulatory authority with
respect to protection and safety and the operation of radiological
health surveillance and dose assessment programs.
(e) Register all technical data and personal dose information in the
records timely, and notify the workers who approach dose limit,
and discuss all protection affairs with workers and involved
parties.
(f) Conduct demonstrations and technical training on job concerning
radiation protection and safety of the authorized practices.
(g) Stop, promptly, any violation of the local rules or regulation, and
report to both the licensee and regulatory authority.
111
- Female workers have responsibilities regarding the protection of
the embryo or foetus. The worker herself “should, on becoming aware
that she is pregnant, notify the licensee in order that her working
conditions may be modified if necessary.
112
113
NATIONAL (SA) DOSE LIMITS
FOR RADIATION EXPOSURES
114
emergency exposure situation or chronic exposure situation. The
use of this term is normally confined to interventions related to
the protection of members of the public.
(e) The investigation level: The value of a quantity such as
effective dose, intake, or contamination per unit area or volume
at which an investigation should be conducted.
(f) The recording level: is a level of dose, exposure or intake
specified by the Regulatory Authority at which values of dose,
exposure or intake received by workers are to be entered in their
individual exposure records.
(g) The Reference level: is defined as a general term that can refer
to an action level, an intervention level, an investigation level or
a recording level. Such levels are helpful in the management of
operations as ‘trigger levels’ above which some specified action
or decision should be taken.
2- RADIATION EXPOSURES:
- Radiation exposure is, generally, defined as the act or condition
of being subject to irradiation by ionizing radiation. The term exposure
is also used, in radiodosimetry, to express the amount of ionization,
produced in dry air by x-ray and low energy gamma radiation.
- In the general definition, exposure can be either external
exposure, when the irradiating source or sources are located outside the
body, or internal exposure when the source or sources are inside the
body (by inhalation, ingestion, injection or any other pathway of intake).
Moreover, exposure can be classified as:
(a) either normal or potential exposure.
(b) either occupational, medical or general public exposure.
(c) in intervention situation, either emergency or chronic exposure.
115
2-2 The potential exposure:
116
2-6 Acute exposure:
- It is defined as exposure incurred in a short time interval
(minutes, hours or days) with very high dose rate.
2-6 Emergency exposure:
- It is defined as exposure incurred in an emergency situation.
117
(c) an equivalent dose to the extremities or the skin of 150 mSv in a
year.
(d) an equivalent dose to the extremities (hands and feet) or the skin
of 50 mSv in a year.
118
6- THE DOSE LIMITS FOR EMERGENCY EXPOSURES:
- For emergency situations the objective should be to keep doses to
intervening personnel below an effective dose of 100 mSv or equivalent
doses of 1 Sv to the skin and 300 mSv to the lens of the eye in some
situations.
- However, where life saving actions are concerned significantly
higher levels of dose could be justified, although every effort should be
made to keep doses below ten times the maximum single year dose limit
(i.e. below 500 mSv) in order to avoid deterministic effects on health.
119
THE RADIATION PROTECTION PROGRAM (RPP)
1. INTRODUCTION
- It has been mentioned that the licensee shall establish a radiation
protection program (RPP), which is one of the requirements for all
phases of a practice, and to the lifetime of a facility, from design through
process control to decommissioning. The general objective of RPP is to
reflect the application of the management responsibility for radiation
protection and safety through the adoption of management structures,
policies, procedures and organizational arrangements that are
commensurate with the nature and extent of the risks.
- Prior to establishment of the RPP for a practice, a radiological
evaluation shall be conducted to describe, as precisely as necessary, the
situation involving occupational, medical and public exposures. This
evaluation should include, all aspects of operations an identification of
the sources of routine and potential exposures and a realistic estimate of
the relevant doses and probabilities
120
(e) A proper quality assurance program.
(f) An emergency response plan.
2-1. A COMMITTED ADMINISTRATION AND ASSIGNMENT OF
RESPONSIBILITIES
- The highest managerial level should submit, in written, the
policy statements which ensure that radiation protection in the practices,
related with radiation exposure, deserves the highest consideration at all
levels. The licensee shall appoint other people to carry out actions and
tasks related to responsibilities in radiation protection aspects, but he
shall retain the responsibility for the actions and tasks himself. The
licensee shall specifically identify the individuals responsible for
ensuring compliance with the national regulations. The responsibilities
of each level, from the top management to the workers, regarding each
aspect of the RPP should be clearly delineated and documented in
written policy statements to ensure that all are aware of them. Radiation
protection officer (or officers) must be appointed, to oversee the
application of the regulatory requirements.
- The organizational structures at the licensee should reflect the
assignment of responsibilities, and the commitment of the organization
to protection and safety. The management structure should facilitate co-
operation between the various individuals involved. The RPP should be
designed in such a way that the relevant information is provided to the .
121
main responsibilities regarding radiation risk management and the
principal elements of the RPP.
- Training for those workers directly involved in work with
radiation sources should include relevant information, presented in the
form of documents, lectures and applied training, which emphasizes
procedures specific to the worker’s job assignment.
- Training programs should be documented and approved at an
appropriate level within the organization. Such programs should be
reviewed periodically to ensure that they remain up to date.
122
- A radiological monitoring program for workplaces shall be
established and implemented. The nature and extent of the monitoring
program shall provide the primary justification for radiological
protection Monitoring program can be divided and subdivided into a
number of different types. The first division relates to the objectives of
the monitoring. At this level, three types of monitoring are conducted for
radiation protection purposes. These are routine monitoring, which is
associated with continuing operations and is intended to demonstrate
that the working conditions, including the levels of individual dose,
remain satisfactory, and to meet regulatory requirements, task related
monitoring which applies to a specific operatio, and special monitoring
which is investigative in nature and typically covers a situation in the
workplace for which insufficient information is available to demonstrate
adequate control.
- Individual monitoring for internal or external dose assassment
shall be undertaken for any worker who is regularly employed in a
controlled or supervised areas or who enters a controlled area only
occasionally. Individual monitoring in a supervised area shall not be
required but the occupational exposure of the worker shall be assessed
This assessment shall be on the basis of the results of monitoring of the
workplace or individual monitoring. The nature, frequency and precision
of individual monitoring shall be determined with consideration of the
magnitude and possible fluctuations of exposure levels and the
likelihood and magnitude of potential exposures.
- To secure the necessary accuracy and precision, individual
dosimetry should be performed, whenever possible, by an approved
dosimetry service. The regulatory authority should give consideration to
the establishment of a national accreditation procedure as a basis for the
approval of dosimetry services.
- Record keeping is an essential part of the individual monitoring
process. In making records of dose assessments it is important to
establish the
- Many of records, for example the full details of a particular
radiation survey, are transitory in nature are only relevant for the lifetime
of an established review period, and there may be no need to retain such
records for extended periods. Other records may be related to decisions
123
about the definition of the workplace, and these records may be relevant
for the lifetime of the workplace.
- Exposure records for each worker shall be preserved during the
worker’s working life and afterwards at least until the worker attains or
would have attained the age of 75 years, and for not less than 30 years
after the termination of the work involving occupational exposure.
individual or if required by regulation.
124
- Record keeping, of all information related with all radioactive
releases, waste generation, and waste disposal of used sources,
radionuclides, or wastes.
- Establishment of measures, rules and procedures, that should be
implemented for safe transport of the radioactive material, and record
keeping for all transport process, so that to minimize the general public
exposures from the transport activities.
125
management problems that may prevent the achievement of program
objectives. Audits and reviews should be conducted by persons who are
technically competent to evaluate the processes and procedures being
assessed, but do not have any direct responsibility for those activities.
- Audits and reviews should be performed in accordance with
written procedures and checklists.
126
- An emergency team should be formed, and this team should be
trained on actions hat should be undertaken in different scenarios.
Additional training should be provided on use of protective clothing,
respiratory protective equipments, the means of shielding, and iodine
prophylaxis. Where workers may be exposed to radiation fields with
relatively high dose rates, pre-established guidance should be given on
dose, dose rates and air concentrations for the appropriate time period.
127
SAFE TRANSPORT OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL
1. INTRODUCTION
- The transport regulations establish standards of safety which
provide an acceptable level of protection against radiation and thermal
hazards to persons, property and the environment that are associated
with the transport of radioactive material. This protection is achieved by
requiring:
(a) proper containment of the radioactive contents.
(b) control of the external radiation levels
(d) prevention of damage caused by heat.
- These requirements are satisfied firstly, by applying a graded
approach to contents limits for packages and conveyances, to the
performance standards applied to package designs depending upon the
hazard of the radioactive contents. Secondly, they are satisfied by
imposing requirements on the design and operation of packages and on
the maintenance of packaging, including a consideration of the nature of
the radioactive contents. Finally, they are satisfied by requiring
administrative controls including, approval by regulatory authorities.
2. DEFINITIONS
- For safe transport of radioactive material, special
definitions are applied. Some of these definitions are:
2-1 A1 and A2
- A1 means the activity value of a special form
radioactive material which is used to determine the
activity limits in a type A package.
- A2 means the activity value of a radioactive
material, other than special form radioactive material,
which is used to determine the activity limits in a type A
package.
2-2 Approval
128
- Unilateral approval means an approval of a design
which is required to be given by the regulatory authority
of the country of origin of the design only
- Multilateral approval means approval by the
regulatory authority of the country of origin of the design
or shipment and also, where the consignment is to be
transported through or into any other country, approval
by the regulatory authority of that country. The term
“through or into” specifically excludes “over”, i.e. the
approval shall not apply to a country over which
radioactive material is carried in an aircraft, provided that
there is no scheduled stop in that country.
2-3 Carrier
- Carrier means any person, organization or
undertaking the carriage of radioactive material by any
means of transport. The term includes both carriers for
hire or reward (known as common or contract carriers in
some countries) and carriers on own account (known as
private carriers in some countries).
2-4 Consignee
- Consignee means any person, organization or
government which receives a consignment.
2-5 Consignment
- Consignment means any package or packages, or
load of radioactive material, presented by a consignor for
transport.
2-6 Consignor
- Consignor means any person, organization or
government which prepares a consignment for transport.
2-7 Contamination
129
- Contamination means the presence of a radioactive
substance on a surface in quantities in excess of 0.4
Bq/cm2 for beta and gamma emitters and low toxicity
alpha emitters, or 0.04 Bq/cm2 for all other alpha
emitters.
- Non-fixed contamination means contamination
that can be removed from a surface during routine
conditions of transport.
- Fixed contamination means contamination other
than non-fixed
contamination.
2-8 Conveyance
- Conveyance means:
130
- Low specific activity (LSA) material means radioactive material
which by its nature has a limited specific activity, or radioactive material
for which limits of estimated average specific activity apply. External
shielding materials surrounding the LSA material shall not be considered
in determining the estimated average specific activity. LSA material
shall be in one of three groups:
(a) LSA-I (b) LSA-II (c) LSA-III
2-12 Overpack
- Overpack means an enclosure such as a box or bag, used by a
single consignor to facilitate as a handling unit a consignment of one or
more packages for convenience of handling, stowage and carriage.
2-13 Package
- Package means the packaging with its radioactive contents as
presented for transport. The types of packages which are subject to the
activity limits and material restrictions are:
2-14 Packaging
- Packaging means the assembly of components necessary to
enclose the radioactive contents completely. It may, in particular, consist
of one or more receptacles, absorbent materials, spacing structures,
radiation shielding and service equipment for filling, emptying, venting
and pressure relief; devices for cooling, or absorbing mechanical shocks.
131
2-16 Shipment
- Shipment means the specific movement of a consignment from
origin to destination.
3. GENERAL PROVISIONS
3-1 Radiation protection
- Doses to persons shall be below the relevant dose limits.
Protection and safety shall be optimized in order that the magnitude of
individual doses, the number of persons exposed, and the likelihood of
incurring exposure shall be kept as low as reasonably achievable,
economic and social factors being taken into account.
132
- A Radiation Protection Program shall be established for the
transport of radioactive material. The nature and extent of the measures
to be employed in the program shall be related to the magnitude and
likelihood of radiation exposures.
- A radioactive material shall be segregated from the transport
workers and from members of the public. For the purpose of calculation
of segregation distance, the following values should be used:
133
(a) 4 Bq/cm2 for beta and gamma emitters and low toxicity alpha
emitters, and
(b) 0.4 Bq/cm2 for all other alpha emitters.
These limits are applicable when averaged over any area of 300
cm2 of any part of the surface.
- If it is evident that a package is damaged or leaking, or if it is
suspected that the package may have leaked or been damaged, access to
the package shall be restricted and a qualified person shall, as soon as
possible, assess the extent of contamination and the resultant radiation
level of the package. The scope of the assessment shall include the
package, the conveyance, the adjacent loading and unloading areas, and,
if necessary, all other material which has been carried
134
Table 1: Multiplication factors for large dimension load
Size (i.e area) of load Multiplication factor
£ 1 m2 1
1 m < area £ 5 m2
2
2
5 m2 < area £ 20 m2 3
20 m2 < area 10
(c) The value obtained in steps (a) and (b) above shall be rounded
up to the first decimal place (e.g. 1.13 becomes 1.2), except that
a value of 0.05 or less may be considered as zero.
- The transport index for each overpack, freight container or
conveyance shall be determined as either the sum of the TIs of all the
packages contained, or by direct measurement of radiation level, except
in the case of non-rigid overpacks, for which the transport index shall be
determined only as the sum of the TIs of all the packages.
5. CATEGORIES OF PACKAGES:
- Packages and overpacks shall be assigned to either category
WHITE-I, YELLOW-II or YELLOW-III in accordance with the
conditions specified in Table 2 and with the following requirements:
(a) For a package or overpack, both the transport index and
the surface radiation level conditions shall be taken into account
in determining the appropriate category for it. Where the
transport index satisfies the condition for one category but the
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surface radiation level satisfies the condition for a different
category, the package or overpack shall be assigned to the higher
category. For this purpose, category WHITE-I shall be regarded
as the lowest category.
(b) If the surface radiation level is greater than 2 mSv/h, the
package or overpack shall be transported under exclusive use.
(c) A package transported under a special arrangement shall be
assigned to category YELLOW-III.
Table 2: Categories of packages and overpacks
Conditions
Transport Index Maximum radiation level at Category
any point on the surface
0 Not more than 0.005 mSv/h WHITE -I
0 < TI £ 1 More than 0.005 mSv/h, but YELLOW-II
not more than 0.5 mSv/h
1 < TI £ 10 More than 0.5 mSv/h, but not YELLOW-III
more than 2 mSv/h
10 < TI More than 2 mSv/h YELLOW-III
under exclusive use
6-2 Labelling:
- Each package, overpack and freight container shall bear the
labels which conform to the models in Fig. 1, Fig. 2 or Fig. 4, except as
allowed under the alternative provisions for large freight containers and
tanks, according to the appropriate category. Any labels which do not
relate to the contents shall be removed or covered.
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- The labels conforming to the models in Fig. 1, Fig. 2 and Fig. 3
shall be affixed to two opposite sides of the outside of a package or
overpack or on the outside of all four sides of a freight container or tank.
7. STORAGE IN TRANSIT:
7-1 Segregation during transport and storage in transit:
- Packages, overpacks and freight containers containing
radioactive material and unpackaged radioactive material shall be
segregated during transport and during storage in transit:
(a) from workers in regularly occupied working areas by
distances calculated using a dose criterion of 5 mSv in a year and
conservative model parameters.
(b) from members of the critical group of the public, in areas
where the public has regular access, by distances calculated using
a dose criterion of 1 mSv in a year and conservative model
parameters;
(c) from undeveloped photographic film by distances calculated
using aradiation exposure criterion for undeveloped photographic
film due to the transport of radioactive material of 0.1 mSv per
consignment of such film; and
(d) from other dangerous goods.
- Category II-YELLOW or III-YELLOW packages or overpacks
shall not be carried in compartments occupied by passengers, except
those exclusively reserved for couriers specially authorized to
accompany such packages or overpacks.
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- Loading of freight containers and accumulation of packages,
overpacks and freight containers shall be controlled as follows:
(a) Except under the condition of exclusive use, and for
consignments of LSA-I material, the total number of packages,
overpacks and freight containers aboard a single conveyance
shall be so limited that the total sum of the transport indexes
aboard the conveyance does not exceed the values 50. The same
rule is applied for storage in transit. For this purpose packages
are grouped in separate groups each with TI not exceeding 50.
(b) The radiation level under routine conditions of transport shall
not exceed 2 mSv/h, at any point on the external surface, and 0.1
mSv/h at 2 m from the external surface of the conveyance,
except for consignments transported under exclusive use, by road
or railways.
- Any package or overpack having a transport index greater than
10 shall be transported, only, under exclusive use.
- groups of packages shall be stored so as to maintain a spacing of
at least 6 m between any two groups.
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Fig. 1: Label for the category WHITE- I
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Fig. 2: Label for the category YELLOW-II
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a
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