A

SEMINAR REPORT

ON

GRINDING

Submitted

By

RAJSHREE

B. Tech (MECHANICAL ENGINEERING) Third Year

Roll No: 160180104039

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

BIPIN TRIPATHI KUMAUN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DWARAHAT, ALMORA

(Year 2018-2019)

1
 INDEX

S. No. Content Page no.

1 Abstract 4

2 Introduction 5

3 Grinding 6

4 Grinding wheel 7

5 Truing of grinding wheel 10

6 Dressing of grinding wheel 12

7 Grinding operation and grinding machine 13

8 Other grinding operation 19

9 Conclusion 20

10 Reference 21

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude to my project guide
and Professor of Mechanical Engineering Mr. Saumy Agrawal, for his patience, guidance and
support enabled me to feel of an understanding of the present project work and most important
thing is that without his help the work would not have been its present shape.
I would like to thank Mr. Mahendra Singh Chauhan, also a professor of Mechanical
Engineering, Bipin Chandra Tripathi Kumaun Institute Of Technology, for his support and a lot
of encouragement.

I would like to thank our head of department Dr. Satyendra Singh, Head of Mechanical
Engineering Department, Bipin Chandra Tripathi Kamaun Institute of Technology, for providing
necessary help to carry out this project work.

We express our deep sense of gratitude to our beloved parents and friends for giving us
moral support and encouragement which helped us in completion of this project.

3
 Abstract

Grinding is a material removal process accomplished by abrasive particles that contained in a

bonded grinding wheel rotating at a very high speed. The grinding wheel is usually disk shaped
and is precisely balanced for high rotational speeds

4
 Introduction

Abrasive machining involves material removal by the actionof hard, abrasive particles that are
usually in the form of abonded wheel. Grinding is the most important abrasiveprocess. In terms
of number of machine tools in use, grindingis the most common of all metalworking operations.
Other traditional abrasive processes include honing, lapping,superfinishing, polishing, and
buffing. The abrasive machiningprocesses are generally used as finishing operations,although
some abrasive processes are capable of high materialremoval rates rivaling those of conventional
machiningoperations.

The use of abrasives to shape parts is probably the oldest material removal process .
Abrasive processes are important commercially and technologicallyfor the following reasons:
1. They can be used on all types of materials ranging fromsoft metals to hardened steels and
hard nonmetallic materials such as ceramics and silicon.
2. Some of these processes can produce extremely fine surface finishes, to 0.025 mm.
3. For certain abrasive processes, dimensions can be held to extremely close tolerances.

Abrasive water jet cutting and ultrasonicmachining are

also abrasive processes, because material removal is accomplished
by means of abrasives. However, they are commonly
classified as nontraditional processes

5
 Grinding
Grinding is a material removal process accomplished by abrasive particles that are contained in a
bonded grinding wheel rotating at very high surface speeds. The grinding wheel is usually disk-
shaped, and is precisely balanced for high rotational speeds.

Grinding can be likened to the milling process. Cutting occurs on either the
periphery or the face of the grinding wheel, similar to peripheral and face milling.
Peripheral grinding is much more common than face grinding. The rotating grinding
wheel consists of many cutting teeth (the abrasive particles), and the work is fed relative
to the wheel to accomplish material removal. Despite these similarities, there are
significant differences between grinding and milling: (1) the abrasive grains in the wheel
are much smaller and more numerous than the teeth on a milling cutter; (2) cutting speeds
in grinding are much higher than in milling; (3) the abrasive grits in a grinding wheel are
randomly oriented and possess on average a very high negative rake angle; and (4) a
grinding wheel is self-sharpening—as the wheel wears, the abrasive particles become dull
and either fracture to create fresh cutting edges or are pulled out of the surface of the wheel to
expose new grains

Application Of Grinding

1. To remove small amount of metal from work pieces and finish then to close tolerances.
2. To obtain a better surface finish.
3. To machine hard surfaces that cannot be machined by high-speed steels.
4. Grinding of tools and cutters and resharpening of the same.
5. Grinding of threads.
6. Stock removal (abrasive milling) finishing of flat as well as cylindrical surface.
7. Slitting and parting.
8. Descaling and deburring.

Advantages of grinding

1. Dimensional accuracy and good surface finish.
2. Good form and locational accuracy.
3. Applicable to both hardened and unhardened material

 

6
 Grinding Wheel
A grinding wheel consists of abrasive particles and bonding material. The bonding material
holds the particles in place and establishes the shape and structure of the wheel. These two
ingredients and the way they are fabricated determine the five basic parameters of a
grinding wheel: (1) abrasive material, (2) grain size, (3) bonding material, (4) wheel grade,
and (5) wheel structure. To achieve the desired performance in a given application, each of
the parameters must be carefully selected.

Abrasive Material
Different abrasive materials are appropriate for grinding different
work materials. General properties of an abrasive material used in grinding wheels include
high hardness, wear resistance, toughness, and friability. Hardness, wear resistance, and
toughness are desirable properties of any cutting-tool material. Friability refers to the
capacity of the abrasive material to fracture when the cutting edge of the grain becomes
dull, thereby exposing a new sharp edge.
The development of grinding abrasives is described in our historical note. Today, the
abrasive materials of greatest commercial importance are aluminum oxide, silicon carbide,
cubic boron nitride, and diamond. They are briefly described in Table 25.1, together with
their relative hardness values.

Grain Size

The grain size of the abrasive particle is important in determining surface

finish and material removal rate. Small grit sizes produce better finishes, whereas larger
grain sizes permit largermaterialremoval rates.Thus, a choicemust bemade between these
two objectives when selecting abrasive grain size. The selection of grit size also depends to
some extent on the hardness of the work material. Harder work materials require smaller
grain sizes to cut effectively, whereas softer materials require larger grit sizes.
The grit size is measured using a screen mesh procedure.
In this procedure, smaller grit sizes have larger numbers and vice versa. Grain sizes used in
grinding wheels typically range between 8 and 250. Grit size 8 is very coarse and size 250 is
very fine. Even finer grit sizes are used for lapping and superfinishing .

7
Bonding Materials
The bonding material holds the abrasive grains and establishes the shape and structural integrity
of the grinding wheel. Desirable properties of the bond material include strength, toughness,
hardness, and temperature resistance. The bonding material must be able to withstand the
centrifugal forces and high temperatures experienced by the grinding wheel, resist shattering in
shock loading of the wheel, and hold theabrasive grains rigidly in place to accomplish the cutting
action while allowing those grainsthat are worn to be dislodged so that new grains can be
exposed.

Wheel Structure and Wheel Grade

Wheel structure refers to the relative spacing of the abrasive grains in the wheel. In addition to
the abrasive grains and bond material,grinding wheels contain air gaps or pores. The volumetric
proportions of grains, bond material, and pores can be expressed as

Pg + Pb + Pp =1:0

where Pg = proportion of abrasive grains in the total wheel volume, Pb = proportion of bond
material, and Pp = proportion of pores (air gaps).
Wheel structure ismeasured on a scale that ranges between ‘‘open’’ and ‘‘dense.’’An open
structure is one in which Pp is relatively large, and Pg is relatively small. That is, there are more
pores and fewer grains per unit volumein a wheel of open structure. By contrast ,a dense
structure is one in which Pp is relatively small, and Pg is larger. Generally, open structures are
recommended in situations in which clearance for chips must be provided.
Dense structures are used to obtain better surface finish and dimensional control. Wheel grade
indicates the grinding wheel’s bond strength in retaining the abrasive grits during cutting. This is
largely dependent on the amount of bonding material present in the wheel structure. Grade is
measured on a scale that ranges between soft and hard. ‘‘Soft’’ wheels lose grains readily,
whereas ‘‘hard’’ wheels retain their abrasive grains. Soft wheels are generally used for
applications requiring low material removal rates and grinding of hard work materials. Hard
wheels are typically used to achieve high stock removal rates and for grinding of relative soft
work materials.

8
 Fig.1. Grinding wheel structure[1]

Grinding Wheel Specification

The preceding parameters can be concisely designated in a standard grinding wheel marking
system defined by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) . This marking system uses
numbers and letters to specify abrasive type, grit size, grade, structure, and bond material. The
standard also provides for additional identifications that might be used by the grinding wheel
manufacturers. The ANSI Standard for diamond and cubic boron nitride grinding wheels is
slightly different than for conventional wheel.

9
 Fig.2.Grinding wheel standard marking sysrem[1]

Truing of Grinding Wheel

Truing is the act of regenerating the required geometry on the grinding wheel, whether the
geometry is a special form or flat profile. Therefore, truing produces the macro-geometry of the
grinding wheel.
Truing is also required on a new conventional wheel to ensure concentricity with specific
mounting system. In practice the effective macro-geometry of a grinding wheel is of vital
importance and accuracy of the finished work piece is directly related to effective wheel
geometry.

10
Truing tools
There are four major types of truing tools:
1. Steel cutter: These are used to roughly true coarse grit conventional abrasive wheel to ensure
freeness of cut.

2. Steel or carbide crash roll: It is used to crush-true the profile on vitrified bond grinding wheel

3. Vitrified abrasive stick and wheel: It is used for off hand truing of conventional abrasive
wheel. These are used for truing resin bonded super abrasive wheel.

4. Diamond truing tool:

 Single point diamond truing tools.

 Multi stone diamond truing tools.
 Impregnated diamond truing tools.
 Rotary powered diamond truing wheels.
 Surface set truing wheels
 Impregnated truing wheels.
 Electroplated truing tools.
 Diamond from truing biocks

11
 Fig.3.Truing of grinding wheel[2]

Dressing of grinding wheel

Dressing is the conditioning of the wheel surface which ensures that grit cutting edges are
exposed from the bond and thus able to penetrate into the work piece material. Also, in dressing
attempts are made to splinter the abrasive grains to make them sharp and free cutting and also to
remove any residue left by material being ground. Dressing therefore produces micro-geometry.
The structure of micro-geometry of grinding wheel determines its cutting ability with a wheel of
given composition.
Dressing can substantially influence the condition of the grinding tool.
Truing and dressing are commonly combined into one operation for conventional abrasive
grinding wheels, but are usually two distinctly separate operation for super abrasive wheel.

Dressing of super abrasive wheel

12
Dressing of the super abrasive wheel is commonly done with soft conventional abrasive vitrified
stick, which relieves the bond without affecting the super abrasive grits. However, modern
technique like electrochemical dressing has been successfully used in metal bonded super
abrasive wheel. The wheel acts like an anode while a cathode plate is placed in front of the wheel
working surface to allow electrochemical dissolution.
Electro discharge dressing is another alternative route for dressing metal bonded super abrasive
wheel. In this case a dielectric medium is used in place of an electrolyte. Touch-dressing, a new
concept differs from conventional dressing in that bond material is not relieved. In contrast the
dressing depth is precisely controlled in micron level to obtain better uniformity of grit height
resulting in improvement of work piece surface finish.

GRINDING OPERATIONS AND GRINDING MACHINE

Grinding is traditionally used to finish parts whose geometries have already been created
by other operations. Accordingly, grinding machines have been developed to grind plain
flat surfaces, external and internal cylinders, and contour shapes such as threads. The
contour shapes are often created by special formed wheels that have the opposite of the
desired contour to be imparted to the work. Grinding is also used in tool rooms to form
the geometries on cutting tools. In addition to these traditional uses, applications of
grinding are expanding to include more high speed, high material removal operations.
Our discussion of operations and machines in this section includes the following types:
(1) surface grinding, (2) cylindrical grinding, (3) centerless grinding, (4) creep feed
grinding, and (5) other grinding operations.

Surface Grinding

Surface grinding is normally used to grind plain flat surfaces. It is performed using either the
periphery of the grinding wheel or the flat face of the wheel. Because the work is normally held
in a horizontal orientation, peripheral grinding is performed by rotating the wheel about a
horizontal axis, and face grinding is performed by rotating the wheel about a vertical axis. In
either case, the relativemotion of the workpart is achieved by reciprocating the work past the
wheel or by rotating it.

Of the four types, the horizontal spindle machine with reciprocating worktable is the

13
most common. Grinding is accomplished by reciprocating the work longitudinally under the
wheel at a very small depth (infeed) and by feeding the wheel transversely into thework a certain
distance between strokes. In these operations, the width of the wheel is usually less than that of
the workpiece.

In addition to its conventional application, a grinding machine with horizontal

spindle and reciprocating table can be used to form special contoured surfaces by employing
a formed grinding wheel. The shape of the formed wheel is therefore imparted to the work
surface.
Grinding machines with vertical spindles and reciprocating tables are set up so that
the wheel diameter is greater than the work width. Accordingly, these operations can be
performed without using a transverse feed motion. Instead, grinding is accomplished by
reciprocating the work past the wheel, and feeding the wheel vertically into the work to the
desired dimension.This configuration is capable of achieving a very flat surface on the work.

14
 Fig.4.Surface grinding operation[2]

Cylindrical Grinding
As its name suggests, cylindrical grinding is used for rotational
parts. These grinding operations divide into two basic types:
(a) externalcylindrical grinding and (b) internal cylindrical grinding.

Exteral cylindrical grinding (also called center-type grinding to distinguish it from

centerless grinding) is performed much like a turning operation. The grinding machines
used for these operations closely resemble a lathe in which the tool post has been replaced
by a high-speed motor to rotate the grinding wheel. The cylindrical workpiece is rotated
between centers to provide a surface speed of 18 to 30 m/min (60 to 100 ft/min), and the
grinding wheel, rotating at 1200 to 2000 m/min (4000 to 6500 ft/min), is engaged to perform

15
the cut.There are two types of feedmotion possible, traverse feed and plunge-cut. In traverse
feed, the grinding wheel is fed in a direction parallel to the axis of
rotation of the workpart. The infeed is set within a range typically from0.0075 to 0.075mm
(0.0003 to 0.003 in). A longitudinal reciprocating motion is sometimes given to either the work
or the wheel to improve surface finish. In plunge-cut, the grindingwheel is fed radially
into the work. Formed grinding wheels use this type of feed motion.
External cylindrical grinding is used to finish parts that have been machined to
approximate size and heat treated to desired hardness. The parts include axles, crankshafts,
spindles, bearings and bushings, and rolls for rolling mills. The grinding operation
produces the final size and required surface finish on these hardened parts.

Internal cylindrical grinding operates somewhat like a boring operation. The workpiece
is usually held in a chuck and rotated to provide surface speeds of 20 to 60m/min (75 to
200 ft/min) [16].Wheel surface speeds similar to external cylindrical grinding are used. The
wheel is fed in either of two ways: traverse feed, Figure 25.9(b), or plunge feed.Obviously, the
wheel diameter in internal cylindrical grinding must be smaller than the original bore hole.
This often means that the wheel diameter is quite small, necessitating very high rotational
speeds in order to achieve the desired surface speed. Internal cylindrical grinding is used to
finish the hardened inside surfaces of bearing races and bushing surfaces.

16
Fig.5.Cylindricalgrindingoperation[1]

17
Centerless Grinding
Centerless grinding is an alternative process for grinding external and internal cylindrical
surfaces. As its name suggests, the workpiece is not held between centers.This results in a
reduction inwork handling time; hence, centerless grinding is often used for high-production
work. The setup for external centerless grinding consists of two wheels: the grinding wheel and
a regulating wheel.
The workparts, whichmay bemany individual short pieces or long rods (e.g., 3 to 4mlong), are
supported by a rest blade and fed through between the two wheels. The grinding wheel does the
cutting, rotating at surface speeds of 1200 to 1800 m/min (4000 to 6000 ft/min).The regulating
wheel rotates at much lower speeds and is inclined at a slight angle I to control throughfeed of
the work.
In place of the rest blade, two support rolls are used to maintain the position of the work. The
regulating wheel is tilted at a small inclination angle to control the feed of the work past
the grinding wheel. Because of the need to support the grinding wheel, throughfeed of the
work as in external centerless grinding is not possible. Therefore this grinding operation
cannot achieve the same high-production rates as in the external centerless process. Its
advantage is that it is capable of providing very close concentricity between internal and
external diameters on a tubular part such as a roller bearing race.

Fig.6.Centerless grinding operation[1]

18
 Other Grinding Operations
Several other grinding operations should be briefly mentioned to complete our review. These
include tool grinding, jig grinding, disk grinding, snag grinding, and abrasive belt grinding.
Cutting tools are made of hardened tool steel and other hard materials.
Tool grinders are special grinding machines of various designs to sharpen and recondition
cutting tools. They have devices for positioning and orienting the tools to grind the
desired surfaces at specified angles and radii. Some tool grinders are general purpose
while others cut the unique geometries of specific tool types. General-purpose tool and
cutter grinders use special attachments and adjustments to accommodate a variety of tool
geometries. Single-purpose tool grinders include gear cutter sharpeners, milling cutter
grinders of various types, broach sharpeners, and drill point grinders.

Jig grinders are grinding machines traditionally used to grind holes in hardened
steel parts to high accuracies. The original applications included pressworking dies and
tools. Although these applications are still important, jig grinders are used today in a
broader range of applications in which high accuracy and good finish are required on
hardened components. Numerical control is available on modern jig grinding machines to
achieve automated operation.

Disk grinders are grindingmachineswith large abrasive disksmounted on either end of

a horizontal spindle. The work is held (usually manually) against the flat surface of the wheel to
accomplish the grinding operation. Somedisk grindingmachines have
double opposing spindles. By setting the disks at the desired separation, the workpart can be
fed automatically between the two disks and ground simultaneously on opposite sides.
Advantages of the disk grinder are good flatness and parallelism at high production rates.

Snag grinders is similar in configuration to a disk grinder. The difference is that

the grinding is done on the outside periphery of the wheel rather than on the side flat
surface. The grinding wheels are therefore different in design than those in disk grinding.
Snag grinding is generally a manual operation, used for rough grinding operations such as
removing the flash from castings and forgings, and smoothing weld joints.
Abrasive belt grinding uses abrasive particles bonded to a flexible (cloth) belt. A
typical setup is illustrated in Figure 25.15. Support of the belt is required when the work is
pressed against it, and this support is provided by a roll or platen located behind the belt.A
flat platen is used for work that will have a flat surface. A soft platen can be used if it is
desirable for the abrasive belt to conformto the general contour of the part during grinding.
Belt speed depends on the material being ground; a range of 750 to 1700 m/min (2500 to
5500 ft/min) is typical [16]. Owing to improvements in abrasives and bonding materials,
abrasive belt grinding is being used increasingly for heavy stock removal rates, rather than
light grinding,which was its traditional application.The term belt sending refers to the light
grinding applications in which the workpart is pressed against the belt to remove burrs and
high spots, and produce an improved finish quickly by hand.
25.2 RELATED

19
 Conclusion

Grinding is the most common form of abrasive machining. The art of grinding goes back many
centuries. Over 5000 years ago the Egyptians abraded and polished building stones to hairline
fits for the pyramids. Grinding is a metal cutting process which engages an abrasive tool whose
cutting elements are grains of abrasive material known as grit. These grits are characterized by
sharp cutting points, high hot hardness, wear resistance and chemical stability. The grits are held
together by a suitable bonding material to give shape of an abrasive tool. Simply it is a metal
removal process in which the metal is removed with the help of rotating grinding wheel.

20
 References

[1]P N RAO Manufacturing Technology Metal Cutting And Machine Tools

[2] Fundamentals of modern manufacturing by Mikell P.Groover
[3] ANSI Standard B74. 13-1977, ‘‘Markings for Identifying Grinding Wheels and OtherBonded
Abrasives.’’American National Standards Institute, NewYork, 1977.
[4] Armarego, E. J. A., and Brown, R. H. The Machining of Metals. Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey, 1969.
[5] Bacher, W. R., and Merchant, M. E.‘‘On the Basic Mechanics of the Grinding
Process,’’TransactionsASME, Series B, Vol. 80 No. 1, 1958, pp. 141.
[6] Black, J, and Kohser, R. DeGarmo’s Materials and Processes in Manufacturing, 10th ed. John
Wiley &Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey, 2008.

21