Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Jehovahs Witness
Jehovahs Witness
Healthcare Decisions
the value and meaning of life in all its spiritual Although the Witnesses' rejection of blood
and physical aspects (Watch Tower Society 1990: transfusions is well known, many healthcare
6; Watch Tower Society 1989: 14). From the providers have little knowledge of the wider
beginning of the movement, Witnesses have context of their views concerning health and
stressed publishing and preaching above curing illness. The Governing Body of Jehovah's
physical and social ills. When the Millennium Witnesses has therefore encouraged the
arrives, they believe, all problems, including formation of hospital liaison committees in
those related to health, will he solved. Russell, major cities with large medical institutions.
for example, felt that suffering could he By 1992, over one hundred committees existed
redemptive, that instead of making one rebel in major cities in the United States to improve
lious, it could refine one's character through the understanding between providers and the
"blessings of afilictions and sorrows" and would Witness community (Awake! 22 November
help prepare one for the end time (Cumberland 1990, 21; Kingdom Ministry, September 1992,
1986: 472). Suffering, patiently borne, 3-5). In recent years Witnesses have generally
strengthened character. sought and accepted qualified professional
Russell also believed that disease was a health care within religious parameters such as
degenerative process that began with Adam's fall refusal of blood transfusions (Tabbert 1992: 2).
from grace and would not he reversed until after The majority rely on biomedical science and
Armageddon. He also recognized a psychoso trained medical personnel for their health care
matic element in illness, asserting that "one half (Watch Tower Society 1977: 27).
of the people in the world are sick because they
e
.
.
Watch Tower Society 1977). Many Witnesses
carry a MedicAlert card instructing that no
blood products he administered; the card,
confidentiality, a Witness should consider how
allegiance to Scripture might conflict with profes
sional, institutional, and legal requirements.
prepared with legal and medical consultation, is
signed and dated annually. Whether health insti Proxy decision-making and advance
tutions are hound legally by these instructions is directives
debatable because state statutes in this area are In cases involving the possibility of blood trans
lacking (Fontanarosa and Giorgio 1989: 1092; fusion for a Jehovah's Witness patient
Dixon and Smalley 1981: 2472). Witnesses are considered incompetent, a surrogate decision
well advised to discuss their religious beliefs maker who best understands the wishes of the
regarding blood with their regular physicians patient should be identified or appointed
and thoroughly document their views in advance (Awake! 8 September 1986). The courts have
of a clinical situation. Clinicians treating generally applied the doctrine of "substituted
Jehovah's Witnesses should discuss in detail the judgment" to determine the appropriate medical
types of blood products and the specific proce treatment for incompetent patients: a surrogate
dures with which the individual Witness is decision maker, focusing on the particular
comfortable. desires of the patient involved, judges what the
patient would have wanted if he or she had
Telling the truth and confidentiality been competent to make the decision
The obligations to tell the truth and maintain (Fontanarosa and Giorgio 1989: 1093). The
confidentiality are commonly seen as integral to advance medical directive or release commonly
the patient-caregiver relationship. "'The superior used by Witnesses includes a clause naming and
demands of divine law," however, might require a authorizing a surrogate decision maker.
Jehovah's Witness healthcare worker to breach Although no specific Governing Body statement
the requirements of patient confidentiality to was found, it seems clear that Jehovah's
preserve the purity of a Witness congregation by Witnesses strongly support proxy decision
reporting to local elders for discipline a fellow making in clinical issues.
Witness who had broken some Governing Body
rule. A Watchtower article observes that the
Witness healthcare worker may aid an "apparent
sinner" by taking such action, hut also acknowl
edges that employers have a right to expect
employees to preserve confidentiality
(Watchtower, 1 September 1987, 12-15). Thus,
Contraception
total commitment to the cause, however, Watch Because birth control is a personal matter, the
Tower leaders for years discouraged members Governing Body permits with some reservation
from marrying and, if they did marry, from the use of contraceptives. Regarding the use of
having children (Penton 1997: 265). In 1951 the intrauterine devices, which may cause abortions,
Governing Body changed its position, with some each concerned married couple is instructed to
ambivalence, to approval of marriages among make a conscientious decision in light of a
Witnesses (Cumberland 1986: 480). Basing their Bible-based respect for the sanctity of life and
views on Scripture, Witnesses believe that a the Witness opposition to abortion (Watchtower,
husband should treat his wife with respect, 15 May 1979, 31).
understanding, and concern, "giving her special
attention:' A wife should be a helper to her Sterilization
husband, "supporting his decisions and cooper For years the Watch Tower Society opposed .
ating with him to achieve family goals" (Watch voluntary sterilization, arguing that it violated
Tower Society 1992: 5-6). the natural procreative powers provided by
Although Witness writings commonly assign Jehovah and threatened marital harmony if one
women to positions subordinate to their husbands, marriage partner later desired a family. In the
women are encouraged to exercise a degree of 1980s, in response to the possibility of
autonomy over their bodies by such means as successful reversals of sterilization procedures,
giving birth at home, breast-feeding, and using the Society began treating the issue as a private
contraceptives (Cumberland 1986: 480). and personal matter, arguing that preaching was
Parents should give time, attention, and disci more important than having children
pline to their children, teaching them right (Watchtawer, 1 May 1985, 31). More recently,
principles according to Scripture. Children are however, the Society seems to have reverted to
to obey their parents (Watch Tower Society its earlier stance, holding that individuals who
1992: 5-6). seek voluntary sterilization (except when a wife's
In the matter of sexual ethics, the Witnesses life may be endangered by pregnancy) may be
agree with the traditional Christian view that denied privileges in Witness congregations
limits sexual activity to marriage. In addition, they (Watchtawer, 15 June 1999, 27-28).
hold that oral and anal sexual intercourse are
wrong, even within marriage. Homosexuality is Abortion and the status of the fetus
denounced in the strongest terms as ungodly and Abortion is not permitted even when the
unhealthful (Watchtawer, 15 March 1983, 31). mother's life is in danger or birth defects seem
likely. For Witnesses life begins at conception;
therefore, the age of the embryo or the issue of
a woman's rights is never a factor in deter
mining the morality of abortion (Awake! 22
August 1975; 8 November 1986; 8 October --d.:
GENETICS
{,~~
'V
THE PARK RIDGE CENI'ER 7
ORGAN AND TISSUE TRANSPLANTATION
C.
;
.
MENTAL HEALTH
Involuntary commitment
1990, 3-4). Fearful that non-Christian therapists No statement was found on involuntary
may trace the roots of emotional problems to commitment.
their patients' peculiar faith, however, leaders of
the movement at times discouraged Witnesses Psychotherapy and behavior modification
from seeking professional help for mental health Accepting treatment from a psychiatrist or
concerns. They argued that relief from psychologist is a personal decision to be
depression and anxiety could he found in made with due caution. Some well-intentioned
regular Bible study and congregational meetings, practitioners fail to understand Christian
an approach to mental distress that is still principles and give "advice that flatly
followed. In this view, elders in a congregation contradicts the Bible" (Watchtower, 15 October
provide support for the person through 1988, 29).
counseling that stresses willpower, reassurance,
and prayer (Watchtower, 1 March 1990, 5-9). Psychopharmacology
Leaders now state that when severe distress Witnesses recognize that medically supervised
persists, elders and family members should use of some medications may permit severely ill
encourage the person to seek medical attention, people to function normally. Although some
particularly from physicians and therapists who "well-intentioned brothers" have discouraged
understand and respect the beliefs of Jehovah's patients from taking prescribed medication,
Witnesses (Watchtower, 15 October 1988). fearing that it will be harmful or addictive,
others note that many psychiatric drugs serve
merely to correct chemical imbalances in the
brain and that such drug therapy can be viewed
and families are encouraged to be patient and they would leave decisions about electro
1988, 28-29).
! !
\'0
13:1) and to obey the laws of the land. in light of relevant biblical texts and the partic
Therefore, ulars of the given situation. For example, given
the tradition's respect for the dead body and its
in Jehovah's Witness thinking, active euthanasia is views on blood transfusion, some Witnesses feel
murder. Because [Witnesses] respect God's view of that unless there is a compelling reason, the
the sanctity of life, out of regard for their own body of a relative should not be subjected to a
consciences and in obedience to governmental laws, postmortem dissection, especially one in which
those desiring to conform their lives to Bible blood is taken from the cadaver and used for
principles would never resort to positive euthanasia.6 transfusion or some other purpose, of which they
would want no part. When the law mandates an
Jehovah's Witnesses do not, however, oppose autopsy, however, Christians should bear in mind
passive euthanasia: the counsel "to he in subjection to the superior
authorities" (Watchtower, 1 April 1987).
Where there is clear evidence that death is
imminent and unavoidable, the Scriptures do not Last rites, burial, and mourning customs
require that extraordinary (and perhaps costly) There is no biblical command for or against
means be employed to stretch out the dying either burial or cremation. Nor does burial
process. In such a case, allowing death to take its instead of cremation help distinguish "true"
course uninhibited would not violate any law of Christians from pagans. The dead should he
God. However, there is need for caution before dealt with in a dignified, respectful way, hut
people decide that a patient is beyond all hope of whether a family, for emotional, economic, or
recovery. (Larue 1985: 117) other reasons, has someone cremated is a
personal matter (Awake! 8 August 1976).
Although no reference to assisted suicide was
found, assisting in suicide would be considered
murder.
SPECIAL CONCERNS
According to Charles Russell, the Bible Jehovah's Witnesses do not vote or engage
allows complete freedom in matters of diet actively in politics, and because of their
(Cumberland 1986: 479). According to modern commitment to their community and preaching
Watch Tower thinking, Jehovah's Witnesses work, they tend not to he involved in non
are to use food and drink in moderation religious activities of any kind. They respect
(Watchtower, 15 September 1987, 18). government officials as "superior authorities"
and generally have the reputation of being law
ahiding citizens; however, they consider such
RELIGIOUS OBSERVANCES patriotic exercises or acts as saluting the flag of
any country or standing for nati<?nal anthems as
Jehovah's Witnesses do not celebrate birthdays, idolatrous state worship and contrary to
Thanksgiving, Christmas, Lent, or Easter. Nor do Scripture (Watch Tower Society 1995: 123-4).
they celebrate national holidays. In fact, they
have only one holy day, the Memorial of the
Lord's Supper or, as they call it, the Lord's
Evening Meal, which they celebrate on 14 Nisan
of the Jewish calendar. Thereby, they pay special
attention to the significance of Jesus' death.
NOTES
1. The difficult issues involved in formulating policy 5. For fuller discussions of the subject of suicide, see
about Jehovah's Witnesses and blood transfusions are Watchtower, 1 August 1983; Awake! 8 March 1978, 28.
recounted in Macklin 1988. For critical discussions
6. This material was drawn from "What about 'Mercy
challenging the Witnesses' stance on blood transfu
Killing'?'' Awake! 8 May 1974, 27-28.
sions, see Franz 1991, chap. 9; Associated Jehovah's
Witnesses for Reform on Blood 2001 and Muramoto 7. "Only the flesh with its soul-its blood-you must not
2001. Regular information on changes in Watch Tower eat" (Gen. 9:4); "I shall certainly set my face against
Society teachings regarding blood therapy are given by the soul that is eating the blood, and I shall indeed
Associated Jehovah's Witnesses for Reform on Blood cut him off from among his people" (Lev. 17:10);
on their Internet website: http.www.ajwrb.org "keep abstaining from things sacrificed to idols and
from blood" (Acts 15:29). For a general discussion
2. For an interesting discussion of this issue, see Davis
of the doctrine concerning blood transfusion, see
1994.
Watch Tower Society 1990, How Can Blood Save Your
3. See for example, In re Charles P. Osborne, 294 A.2d Life?
372 (D.C. 1972) in Fontarosa and Grigorio 1989:
8. See Parlwm v. I.R., cited in How Can Blood Save Your
1090.
Life? (Watch Tower Society 1990: 21).
4. Fontarosa and Grigorio 1989: 1090; Powell v.
Columbia Presbyterian Medical Center, 49 Misc. 2d
215, 216, 267 N.Y.S2d 450, 452 (N.Y. Sup. Ct. 1965).
0
Internet Brochure at Jehovah's Witnesses." British Medical Journal 322
Campbell, Courtney S. 1988. '"The Pure Church and the Penton, M. James. 1997. Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of
Problem of Confidentiality:' Hastings Center Report 18 Jehovah's Witnesses. Toronto: University of Toronto
(February-March): 2. Press.
Cumberland, William H. 1986. '"The Jehovah's Witness Stroup, Herbert Hewitt. 1987. "Jehovah's Witnesses:•
Tradition:• In Caring and Curing: Health and Medicine In The Encyclopedia ofReligion, ed. Mircea Eliade,
in the Western Religious Traditions, ed. Ronald L. 564-66. New York: Macmillan.
Numbers and Darrel W. Amundsen, 468-85.
Tabbert, Ralph. 1992. "Jehovah's Witnesses and Blood
New York: Macmillan.
Transfusion?' Update 8 (February): 2-4.
Davis, Dena. 1994. "Does 'No' Mean 'Yes'? Jehovah's
Vmicky, J. K., M. L. Smith, R. B. Connors, and W. E.
Witnesses and Refusal of Blood Products:' Second
Kozachuk. 1990. '"The Jehovah's Witness and Blood:
Opinion 19, no. 3 (January): 35-43.
New Perspectives on an old Dilemma?' Journal of
Dixon, J. Lowell, and M. G. Smalley. 1981. "Jehovah's Clinical Ethics 1 (Spring): 65-74.
Witnesses: The Surgical/Ethical Challenge:' Journal of
Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. 1974.
the American Medical Association 246 (27 November):
1975 Yearbook ofJehovah's Witnesses. Brooklyn, N.Y.:
2471-72.
Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of New York.
Fontanarosa, Phil B., and G. T. Giorgio. 1989. '"The Role of
_ _. 1977. Jehovah's Witnesses and the Question of
the Emergency Physician in the Management of
Blood. Brooklyn, N.Y.: Watchtower Bible and Tract
Jehovah's Witnesses:' Annals of Emergency Medicine
A
18 (10 October): 1089-95.
New York.
2473-77.
___. 2002. Watchtower: Official Web Site of Jehovah's
Witnesses. http://www.watchtower.org
___. 1993. Encyclopedia ofAmerican Religions. Detroit: Transfusion:' Clinical Ethics Report 5: 1-16.
Gale Research.
1973. "Keeping God's Congregation Clean:' Watchtower 94 1981. "You Can Cope with Life-Why Do Some Choose
(1 June): 336-43. Suicide?" Awake! 62 (8 August): 5-10.
1979. "Questions from Readers:' Watchtower 100 1981. "So Glad to Be Alive!" Awake! 62 (8 August):
(15 May): 30-31. 10-12.
1980. "Questions from Readers:' Watchtower 101 1986. "Shock Therapy-Controversial:' Awake! 67
(15 March): 31. (8 September): 8.
1983. "Drinking Problems: What Can Elders Do?" 1986. "'The Right to Die'-Whose Decision?" Awake!
Watchtower 104 (1 May): 25-27. 67 (8 September): 20-21.
1983. "Why So Many Suicides?" Watchtower 104 1986. ''Abortion-Whose Rights Are Involved?" Awake!
(1August):3-11. 67 (8 November): 9.
1984. "Questions from Readers:' Watchtower 105 1986. "AIDS and Transplants:' Awake! 67
(15 May): 31. (22 November): 29.
1984. "Surrogate Mothers:' Watchtower 105 1987. "What About Your Own Health?'' Awake! 68
(15 August): 26. (8 May): 6-7.
0
.
.
1987. "Questions from Readers:' Watchtower 108
(1 April): 31.
1990. "Winning the Battle against Depression." Watchtower 1990. "Drugs for Pleasure-Why Not?" Awake! 71
lll (1 March): 5-9. (8 November): 26-27.
•
.
. 1974. "What about 'Mercy Killing'?" Awake! (8 May):
27-28 .
eligious beliefs provide meaning for people should he used to supplement information com
R confronting illness and seeking health, partic ing directly from patients and families, and used
ularly during times of crisis. Increasingly, health as a primary source only when such firsthand
care workers face the challenge of providing information is not available.
appropriate care and services to people of different We hope that these booklets will help practi
religious backgrounds. Unfortunately, many tioners see that religious backgrounds and beliefs
healthcare w~rkers are unfamiliar with the reli play a part in the way patients deal with pain, ill
gious beliefs and moral positions of traditions ness, and the decisions that arise in the course of
other than their own. This booklet is one of a treatment. Greater understanding of religious tra
series that aims to provide accessible and practical ditions on the part· of care providers, we believe,
information about the values and beliefs of differ will increase the quality of care received by the
ent religious traditions. It should assist nurses, patient.
physicians, chaplains, social workers, and adminis
trators in their decision making and care giving. It
can also serve as a reference for believers who
desire to learn more about their own traditions.
Each booklet gives an introduction to the his
tory of the tradition, including its perspectives on
health and illness. Each also covers the tradi
tion's positions on a variety of clinical issues,
with attention to the points at which moral
dilemmas often arise in the clinical setting. Final
ly, each booklet offers information on special
concerns relevant to the particular tradition.
The editors have tried to he succinct, objec
tive, and informative. Wherever possible, we have
included the tradition's positions as reflected in
official statements by a governing or other formal
body, or by reference to positions formulated by
authorities within the tradition. Bear in mind
that within any religious tradition, there may he
more than one denomination or sect that holds
views in opposition to mainstream positions, or
@
sions about clinical issues to individual enhances the interaction of health, faith,
conscience. We would therefore caution the read and ethics through research, education, and