Formation Permeability
Damage Induced by
Completion Brines
Mehdl Azari, SPE, Halliburton Reservoir Services and
"'.M. Leimkuhler, Shell Offshore Inc.
Summary. In a laboratory study to Introduction
determine permeability changes in- To control formation pressure during work-
over operations, kill-weight fluids are pre-
duced by flooding large Berea and
pared by suspending insolubles in the fluid
Gasper sandstone cores with NaGI
or by dissolving soluble salts in water to
and KGI brine, the concentration of make a clear brine. Using suspended parti-
each brine was incrementally in- cles may lead to formation plugging, requir-
ing additional acidizing of the well. Often
creased from 0 to 22 wt% and then
the best alternative to control formation
decreased from 22 to 0 wt%. In both pressures during workovers is a kill-weight
sandstones, the permeability to KGI fluid composed of a clear NaCI or KCI
brine. Brine densities up to 9.8 Ibm/gal
brines increased noticeably with in-
[1174 kg/m3] can be produced by NaCI or
creases in KGI concentration up to 10
KCI brines.
wt%. Permeability remained at the
The composition of completion and injec-
higher levels throughout the re- tion fluids rarely matches that of the forma-
mainder of each flood until a critically tion water. Because of the difficulty and cost
of duplicating the exact formation-water
low salinity level was reached, where
composition, a composition contrast often
dispersion of the interstitial fines took exists between the two fluids. Several
place. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis authors 1-13 have reported the effects ofvar-
ious completion brines on sandstone perme-
of the produced formation fines and
ability. Their studies were limited to either
scanning electron micrographs of the singular brine concentrations, 1-6 a series of
sandstone pore surfaces indicated low brine concentrations «6wt%), 7-11 or
high-density calcium and zinc bromide
that the improved permeability was
brines. 12,13 Coreflooding experiments in-
primarily a result of alteration of illite in
vestigating the permeability change as NaCl
the clay minerals in the sandstones. and KCI brine concentrations vary between
o wt% and saturation have not been pub-
lished.
Early studies concerned primarily the
relationships between swelling and salini-
ty.14-16 As the pore-fluid salinity decreas-
TABLE 1-FORMATION MINERAL es, osmotic forces allow water layers to be
COMPOSITION (wt%)*
added to the interlayer region. The salinity
level also affects the bound or crystalline
Mineral Berea Casper
water on the clay surfaces.
Quartz 84 51
Baptist and Sweeney 7 were the first to
Clay minerals 10 17
conclude that the absence of 2: 1 montmoril-
Kaolinite 76 63
Illite lonites. does not guarantee that a sandstone
20 34
Chlorite 4 3 is insensitive to water. They reported per-
Mixed layer Trace Trace meability reductions up to 60% in "non-
100 100 swelling" cores flooded with fresh water
after saturation with 2% NaCI brine.
Dolomite 1 28
Calcite 1
Mungan 6 demonstrated that dispersion of
1 will be removed.
Siderite 1 Trace any clay is possible when monovalent cat-
K-Feldspars 3 3 ions are on the exchange sites. This classifies
most sandstones containing any type of clay
100 100
as water-sensitive.
·Whole rock analysis by powder XRD. Clay analysis
by oriented XRD.
Copyright 1990 Society of Petroleum Engineers
486
'
Khilar 8 showed that for clay-bearing
sandstones, a critical salt saturation (CSS)
exists below which clays start to disperse.
Sharma et al. 17 supported the CSS theory
by demonstrating that particle-release and
particle-deposition regimes-functions of the
electrostatic potential between the clay and
pore-wall surfaces and the fluid velocity-
exist. The electrostatic potential is controlled
partly by the ionic strength of the pore
fluids. 17 As the pore-fluid salinity declines
ionic strength decreases to where the releas~
regime dominates the depositional regime
and dispersion occurs. This point closely
corresponds to the CSS determined by
Khilar.
Clay Minerai Influences on
Permeability
Formation permeability changes are often
the result of the amount, location, and type
of clay minerals in the formation. The
amount of clay minerals in a formation can
be a misleading indicator of potential perme-
ability changes. The relative abundance of
specific clay types in the matrix and pore
spaces must be known in addition to the total
amount of clays present.
Moore 18 demonstrated that a sand with
< 4 wt % clay minerals could have an ap-
preciable amount of its pore spaces (> 20 %)
filled with clay. Almon 19 showed that
some pores may be entirely lined with authi-
genic clays so that the pore fluids do not con-
tact the large quartz, feldspar, or carbonate
grains. Numerous acid jobs and waterfloods
have had disastrous results because the en-
gineer or geologist failed to recognize the
i~portan~e of the location of certain clay
mmerals m the formation. 19
Grim 20 showed the replacement order of
one monovalent cation for another to be
Li+ <Na+ <K+ <H+. For example, in
pore fluids with equal equivalent fractions
of K + and Na + , more K + will occupy the
exchange sites than Na + . Not all the Na +
When the clay lattices align in booklets,
the exchange sites sreated in the opposing
layers ar~ about 2.8A [0.28 nm] in diameter
and 2.4A [0.24 nm] deep. 21 The closer the
monovalent cation's diameter is to 2.8A
[0.28 nmj, the lower the degree of bond-
April 1990 • JPT
Fig. i-Berea sandstone pore space.
angle realignment within the clay lattice re-
quired to accept the ion on the exchange
site. 22 This explains why K + (diameter
2.66A [0.27 nm]) is preferred to Na + (di-
ameter 1.90A [0.19 nm])23 on the ex-
change site.
When both monovalent and divalent cat-
ions are in solution, for a constant divalent/
monovalent concentration ratio, the divalent
cation will be preferred on the exchange site
at low concentrations, while the monovalent
cation will be preferred at high concentra-
tions. If the concentration of one cation is
held constant, the degree of preference for
the other cation will increase or decrease
with its concentration.
Clay Swelling. Clays swell by two estab-
lished mechanisms. The first is known as
crystalline adsorption of water. 24 All clays,
including illite and kaolinite,25.26 adsorb
some water in this manner. This highly or-
dered crystalline water is held tightly to the
clay surfaces. The second swelling mecha-
nism, often called free or osmotic swelling,
results from concentration imbalances be-
tween the ions held at the exchange sites on
the clays and the solute content of the con-
tacting fluid. 21 When the ionic concentra-
tion in the interlayer region between the clay
platelets is greater than the ionic concentra-
tion in the contacting fluid, the clay will
swell. Water is drawn into the interlayer
region, increasing the effective size of the
clay/water system.
Exchangeable cations affect swelling in
two ways: (1) the exchangeable cations
bring a fixed amount of associated water
with them when they enter the interlayer
region, and (2) the size of the exchangeable
cation may allow the opposing clay lattices
to collapse around the exchange sites. Once
the two clay platelets collapse, their tenden-
cy to swell is decreased. All cations that lie
between two clay platelets are interlayer cat-
ions. The collapse of two clay lattices around
the exchange site occurs when the elec-
trostatic forces between the clay surfaces and
the exchangeable cations becomes great
enough to force out the interlayer water.
JPT • April 1990
Fig. 2-Casper sandstone pore space.
This is true of most divalent cations. Col-
lapse of the clay lattices around the exchange
sites also occurs with potassium. Although
potassium is monovalent, it is large enough
to fit nicely into the excha:nge sites created
by two opposing clay platelets.
All cations tend to surround themselves
with jackets of polar water molecules. The
degree of cation hydration depends on the
valency and size of the cations and the ion
concentration in the water phase. 23 In
general, the stronger the charge density of
the cation, the larger the water jacket. So-
dium's higher charge density allows it to
surround itself with twice as many water
molecules as potassium. When sodium is
drawn to the exchange site, the interlayer
water, and therefore swelling, is greatly in- "The amount of clay
creased. Divalent cations tend to have even
larger water jackets than sodium. Because
minerals in a formation
of their tendency to collapse the clays around can be a misleading
the exchange site, however, they limit the indicator of potential
amount of interlayer water present between
clay lattices. permeability changes.
The relative abundance
Clay Dispersion. Clay platelets and book- of specific clay types
lets often line the walls of pore surfaces.
Dispersion is the separation of clay plate- in the matrix and pore
lets from the pore surfaces or other plate- spaces must be known
lets. Once the clays disperse, they are free in addition to the total
to move and can form small filter cakes at
pore constrictions. 2 Dispersion of small amount of clays
amounts of clay can cause serious formation present."
damage. Because of this phenomenon, par-
ticle dispersion and migration present a
greater problem than clay swelling in sand-
stone reservoirs. 1.2.17.23
Flow-Revers•• Effects
After a formation has been damaged through
foreign fluid invasion, some of the perme-
ability can be restored when production re-
sumes. Hewitt lO recovered 60% of the
original permeability in Nugget sandstone
cores that lost 98 % of their permeability ow-
ing to freshwater dispersion. Khilar 8 re-
covered 83 % of the original permeability of
Berea sandstone cores similarly damaged.
Both Hewitt and Khilar used re-exposure to
NaCI brines (4 to 6 wt%) to recover per-
487
Fig. 3-Casper sandstone pore wall surfaces with intermixed
dolomite and kaolinite crystals.
meability. Khilar reported that two mecha-
nisms are responsible for the improvement
in permeability: reduction of swelling in
swelling clays and redeposition of clays on
the pore walls when salinity returns to previ-
ous'levels. For these two processes to take
place, the clays must contact the formation
water. If clays are simply moved to the con-
striction at the opposite end of the pore,
before recontacting the higher-salinity for-
mation water, the permeability will remain
significantly damaged.
Formations Tested
Two formations, Berea and Casper sand-
stones, were selected for testing. Berea
sandstone has a homogeneous permeability
and porosity and contains such dispersible
clays as kaolinite, illite, and minimal mont-
morillonite and chlorite. Casper sandstone,
used as a building material, was obtained
from a quarry north of Laramie, WY. Be-
cause of extensive crossbedding, all the
Casper cores were cut from as small an area
as possible (1 x I x2 ft [30.5 x30.5 x61
Fig. 5-Casper sandstone illite laths.
488
Fig. 4-Berea sandstone kaolinite clay platelets.
cm]). The Casper sandstone contains more
clay minerals in the pore spaces than Berea
sandstone. Secondary dolomite grains are
also intermixed with the authigenic clays.
Table 1 presents results of the entire rock
XRD analysis for Berea and Casper sand-
stones. The major differences between the
two formations are the higher percentages
of dolomite and clay minerals in the Casper
sandstone.
The scanning electron microscope (SEM)
images confirm the XRD results of higher
clay concentration in the Casper sandstone.
Fig. 1 shows the relatively clean surfaces
of the Berea pores, with only scattered clay
particles adhering to the pore walls. In con-
trast, the Casper sandstone pores presented
in Fig. 2 appear to be almost full of clays
and rhombohedral dolomite crystals. Fig. 3
shows that the dolomite crystals are inter-
mixed with the clay booklets lining the
Casper sandstone pore walls. Fig. 4 illus-
trates the kaolinite clay platelets in Berea
sandstone. Fig. 5 exhibits the illite laths in
Casper sandstone.
The cores used in this study (3.7-in.
[9.5-cm] diameter, 3.4-in. [8.7-cmllength)
were at least 10 times larger than cores in
previous studies. 6 ,7,9,I0,12 The larger cores
allowed a greater amount of movable fines
to be collected for X-ray analysis. The small
cores used in past studies (0.7-in. [1.9-cm]
diameter, I-in. [2.5-cm] length) produced
amounts of movable fines that were too
small for representative X-ray analysis.
Experimental Apparatus
Fig. 6 is a diagram of the complete ex-
perimental apparatus. Because of the highly
corrosive brines being used, all the compo-
nents in contact with the fluids were either
stainless steel, teflon, or plastic.
The paraffin-coated core was enclosed in
a rubber sleeve, and a 25-psig [l72.4-kPa]
overburden pressure prevented any radial
fluid flow. Initially, before brines were in-
troduced into the core, overburden pressure
was monitored for 30 minutes. If any leaks
were detected, the core was disassembled
and the seals checked. Special O-ring de-
signs effectively prevented any fluid flow
around the core. An Omega OM 205™
data logger provided a printout of the inlet,
outlet, and overburden pressures every 12
minutes. Pressures were recorded to 0.01
psi [0.07 kPa]. The accuracy of the pressure
measurements was verified by measuring the
hydrostatic pressure between transducers
under static conditions.
Filtration problems were eliminated by
use of commercial fIlter packs developed for
filtering plasma solutions. All fluids were
filtered by a Millipore™ 0.22-Jtm filter ini-
tially and after exiting the pump.
All brines were placed on a 23-in. [58-cm]
vacuum (11.3 psi [78 kPal) to allow any en-
trained air in the fluids to break out of the
solution. A 5-psig [34.5-kPa] average pres-
sure prevented any entrained air from break-
ing out of the brine inside the core.
Each brine concentration was pumped
through the core for a minimum of 6 hours.
If the core permeability was not stable over
the last 2 hours of the period, flooding con-
tinued until the permeability stabilized. Sta-
April 1990 • JPT
bility was defined as no measurable trend
in permeability over a 2-hour period. Be-
cause flow rates were held constant, stability
-r-
~
Heedle Ualue
Preeeure Transducer
was easily determined from recorded
pressures.

Brlne-Concentratlonl
Permeability Relationships
Ouerburden Rir_....;;;~_ _
The permeability data are expressed in terms Pressure Li ne
of permeability ratio klk i , where k i = initial
permeability to distilled water established at
the start of each coreflood.

Berea Sandstone/NaCI Brine. Figs. 7 and

8 show the results for two Berea cores
flooded with NaCI brines. In all the Berea
cores, permeability increased as the NaCl
brine concentration was increased from 0 to
10%. From 10 to 22%, the permeability
either remained constant at a higher level
(Core 1) or continued to increase (Core 2).
In cores where the NaCl brine concentration
was reduced incrementally (Core 2), perme-
ability decreased approximately along the
same trend established earlier by the increas-
ing brine concentrations. This repeatability
indicates that for Berea sandstone, permea-
bility is a function of the NaCl concen-
tration.
The NaCI concentration can affect perme-
ability in two ways. First, as the NaCI brine
concentration increases, the amount of water
between the clay platelets decreases. As the
clay/water system achieves osmotic equilib-
rium, water is drawn from between the clay
platelets. If the amount of water associated
with the clays is decreased, the effective size
of the clay minerals decreases. This in-
creases the effective flow area within the
pore spaces. Second, NaCI places Na + on
the exchange sites of the clays. In Berea
sandstone, Ca +2 and Mg +2 are initially on
the exchange sites of the clays. 6,' In this
state, the clay platelets do not disperse in
fresh water; thus a reference permeability,
k i , is established with distilled water. When
NaCI brines are passed through the core,
Na + becomes the dominant cation on the
exchange sites. The Na + increases the
clays' tendency to disperse when the core
is exposed to fluids with salinities below the
CSS. Clay dispersion and migration oc-
curred between 0.5 and 0% NaCI in all
Berea sandstone cores flooded with NaCl
brine. This caused a total loss of permea-
Strip Chart
Not Drawn to scale Recorder
Fig. 6-Layout of experimental apparatus.
difference is the magnitude of permeability sites further collapses the edges of the iHite
improvement. For Berea sandstones, perme- platelets around the exchange sites. The col-
ability improved 7 to 18 % with NaCI floods, lapsed illite is more uniform and less sus-
while improvements as high as 30 % were ceptible to swelling. At lower levels of
associated with KCl floods. The hysteresis swelling, the repulsion forces associated
effect and higher level of permeability im- with the electrical double layer are not as
provement indicate that mechanisms other great as when Na + is on the exchange
than reduction of clay swelling took place sites. This reduces the dispersion tendency
when Berea sandstone cores were flooded of the clay/water system in the pores.
with KCl brines. These mechanisms will be
covered in detail in the discussion of XRD Casper Sandstone/NaCI Brine. Results
data. similar to the Berea/NaCl floods generally
When the KCl brine concentration was re- were obtained for Casper sandstones flooded
duced from 1 to 0%, dispersion and migra- with NaCI brines (Fig. 10). Approximately
tion of clay particles occurred. The the same permeability ratio curve obtained
permeability damage after KCI floods was when the NaCI brine concentration was iq-
lower than the dispersion damage after NaCI creased to 22 % was followed when brine
floods. After the core permeability stabilized concentration was incrementally decreased
to the distilled water, 60 % of the original from 22 to 0.5 %. This indicates that rever-
permeability remained. KCl probably had sible clay swelling controls the relationship
the greatest effect on illite clays. By flooding between NaCI concentration and permeabil-
the core with high levels of KCl, most of ity for both Casper al1d I}erea sandstones.
the exchangeable cations on the illite clays The major difference between Berea/
were replaced by K + . Reed * has demon- NaCI and Casper/NaCI floods is the
strated that additional K + on the exchange decrease in permeability of the Casper core
"" ,------------------------------------,
(\j

bility in all cores. The dantaged permeability

values given in Figs. 7 and 8 are the last un- 0<

stable values measured before the pressure ~ ~-~ - ~- -- - - - - - -- - _.. - -- _. - - -- - -- - -- -- - - ....... -- -

limit of the seals was exceeded. o

~ co
«
([ 22%' ~O% NaCI In One- .~\:.I'l'
Berea Sandstone/KCl Brine. Fig. 9 shows ~
----.-~-.---

U) "
the change in permeability of Berea sand- ~~ 0
" /

"'-~ ....... /'

stone for brine concentrations from 0 to 22 H

f!l. ~ ~---------~

wt% KCl. The brine permeability increased Ie Core: # 1 Berea Sandstone.

L 0
Porosity: 0.21, k,~525md
rr
as the KCI concentration was increased from Flow Rate: 8.0 cc/min.
oto 10%. However, in contrastto the NaCI '"
IL (\j

o
Flow Time: 6 Hrs/Conc.
brine floods, the permeability of the core re- o
/

/..;;- Final Permeability 2.0 md. (Unstable)

mained at the higher level even after flood- o
ing with lower KCl concentrations. Another o 2 4 6 8 10 12
14 16 18 20 22
NaCI Concentration (% of Total Weight)

• Personal communication with M.G. Reed. Chevron Oil

Field Research Co .• La Habra. CA. Jan.-March 1987. Fig. 7-Permeability ratio VS. NaCI concentration for Berea sandstone, Core 1.

JPT • April 1990 489

 (\J

Core:#2 Berea Sandstone. ~ to A_/-Flnal Permeability 325 md. (Stable)

Porosity: 0.22, k,=496 md
Flow Rate: B. 0 cc/min "_1
-" " Flow Time: 6.0 Hrs/Conc.
H

~
'"w
E
0
W
"1
Core: #3 Berea Sandstone.
'- '"
a: 0 Porosity: 0.195,k,=546.4md
~ (\J w Flow Rate: 8.0 cc/min
Q. ru
o Stabilization Time >2.0 Hrs
(Unstable)

2 4 6 B 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 2 4 6 8 10 12 j.j 16 18 20 22
NaCI Brine Concentration (% of Total Weight) KC] Concentration (% of Total Weight)

Fig. 8-Permeability ratio VS. NaCI concentration for Berea sand- Fig. 9-Permeability ratio VS. KCI concentration for Berea sand-
stone, Core 2. stone, Core 3.

as the NaCI brine concentration is increased the clay platelets increases. Once Na + be- sion damage relative to the NaCI floods.
from 0 to 4 % and the subsequent increase comes the dominant exchange-site cation, Collapse of the illites around the K + placed
ip permeability as the NaCI concentration the amount of water between the platelets in the outer exchange sites appears to have
increased above 4 %. The permeability is controlled by osmotic forces. As the brine taken place in Casper as well as Berea sand-
decrease could be a result of experimental concentration continues to increase, osmotic stones.
variation of the data. Alymore and Quirk 26 forces increase and swelling decreases.
examined the relationship between swelling As the NaCI brine concentration was re- XRD Analysis of Movable
in kaolinites and NaCI brine concentrations. duced to 0 %, the permeability of the Casper CI"y Minerals
In one kaolinite sample examined, the water core was totally damaged, as in the During the brine-concentration/permeability
associated with the kaolinite slightly in- Berea/NaCl floods. This was expected be- experiments, movable fines were suspended
creased and then decreased as the NaCI con- cause the clay mineralogy of the Casper in the produced fluids only during the initial
centration increased. If the kaolinite in the generally is similar to that of the Berea sand- and final freshwater floods. In both sand-
Casper sandstone behaves similarly, the ob- stone (Table I). stones, the ampunt of movable fines in the
served inversion in permeability trend with produced fluids was greater during the final
increasing NaCI concentration would be re- Casper Sandstone/KCI Brine. The perme- freshwater floods. This is a result of greater
lated to kaolinite swelling. ability behavior of Casper sandstone flooded clay dispersion of fresh water after the cores
A second possible explanation for the in- with KCI brines reinforced the relationships were flooded with KCI and NaCl brines.
itial decrease in permeability relates swell- established by the Berea/KCI brine floods. Mungan 6 showed that dispersion of any
ing levels to the dominapt exchangeable As the KCI concentration increased to 8 %, clay is possible when monovalent cations are
cation on the clays. At one time, the the permeability ratio increased to a maxi- present on the exchange sites. When the
Ca + 2 /Na + ratio in the pore fluids of the rnllm value (Fig. 11). While the increase is Na + and K + replaced the Ca +2 and
Casper sandstone may have been higher than small ( "" 4 %), it is significant. Once perme- Mg + 2 on the exchange sites, the dispersion
that in the Berea sandstone. As a result, the ability increased to this level, it did not vary tendencies of the clays increased.
equivalent fraction Ca +2 on the exchange appreciably while the KCI brine concentra- For Berea sandstone, the composition of
sites of the clays would be higher in the tion was incrementally increased to 22 % and the movable fines did not change after expo-
Casper than in the Berea. As the NaCI brine then decreased to 0.5 %. sure to either NaCI or KCI brines (Table 2).
invades the Casper core, Na + with its large After the final distilled waterflood induced While only 20 % of the total clays in Berea
associated water jacket replaces Ca +2 and. dispersion of the clays, 59% of the original are illite (Table 1), about 69% of the mov-
Mg +2 on the exchange sites. When this permeability remained. As in Berea sand- able fines are illite clays (Table 2). The illite
reaction initially occurs, swelling between stone, the KCllimited the extent of disper- in Berea was more susceptible to migration

.~ ex:
+-' 0

'">-
cc Final Permeability
:!::
10
0 Core: 114 Casper Sandstone
/45 md. (Stable) 'C-o-re-:-#-5-C-as-p-e-r-S=-.-n-'-ds-t-o-ne---'
Porosity: 0.17. k, =77md.
Porosity: 0.17, k,=88 md .
Flow Rate: 6.0 cc/min.
"'"w " 0
Flow Rate: 5.5 cc/min. g " Flow Time: 6 Hrs/Conc.
E Flow Time: 6 Hrs/Conc. ~ 0 Stabilization Times >2 Hrs.
'- Stabilization Time >2 Hrs. '-
& C\J
'"
n. (\J
o o
o /Fina] Permeability3.5md. (Unstable)

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
NaCI Brine Concentration (X of Total Weight) KC] Brine Concentration (% of Total Weight)

Fig. 10.....Permeability ratio VS. NaCI concentration for Casper Fig. 11-Permeability ratio VS. KCI concentration for Casper
sandstone, Cor~ 4. sandstone, Core 5.

490 April 1990 • JPT

than kaolinite before and after the NaCI and dencies of kaolinite. If this interaction is TABLE 2-MOVABLE FINES
KCI brine floods. reversible, any decrease in the swelling of ANALYSIS, BEREA SANDSTONE
During the initial freshwater floods in the illite should cause a greater decrease in the (Relative Percentage of Clay-Sized
Casper sandstone, the composition of the dispersion tendency of kaolinite relative to Minerai. Produced After
movable fines was primarily dolomite and illite. Swelling in illite has been shown to Fre.hwater Flood.)
kaolinite (Table 3). The amount of illite be reduced after exposure to KCI brines. 21
relative to the other minerals produced from The more stable illite, while still susceptible Clay Initial Post-NaCI Initial Post-KCI
to dispersion, may reduce the dispersion ten- Type Flood Flood Flood Flood
the cores during the initial freshwater flood
was minimal. After flooding with NaCI dencies of kaolinite. Illite 69 62 77 72
Kaolinite 25 29 17 19
brine, 26% of the fines dispersed by the Chlorite 6 9 6 9
fresh water were illite clays. The concentra- -
100
-100
-
100
-
100
tion of illite in the movable fines increased Conclu.lon.
from 6 to 26 %. An even greater change took For Berea and Casper sandstones, as well
place after the KCI brine floods. The illite as other sandstones with similar mineralogy ,
concentration rose from a trace during the the following conclusions apply. TABLE 3-MOVABLE FINES
initial freshwater flood to 95 % of the mov- 1. In cores flooded with KCI or NaCI ANALYSIS, CASPER SANDSTONE
able fines in the final freshwater flood (Table brines of different concentrations, permea- (Relative Percentage of Clay.Slzed
3). This can occur by either greatly increas- bility increases as the brine concentration in- Minerai. In Sample)
ing the movable illite or decreasing the mov- creases to 10 wt%. For KCI floods, the
permeability increase results not only from Clay Initial Post-NaCI Initial Post-KCI
able dolomite and kaolinite in the sample. Flood Flood
Type Flood Flood
The dolomite concentration can be re- lower amounts of water associated with the
duced by greater removal of small dolomite clay minerals, but also from collapse of the Illite 6 26 Trace 95
illite clay platelets around the outer exchange Kaolinite 42 30 40 4
crystals during the initial freshwater floods Chlorite Trace Trace Trace Trace
or by dissolution of the dolomite crystals in sites. 44 60
the brines. The SEM images in Figs. 2 and 2. Increases in permeability associated -- -- -- - -
Dolomite 52
100 100 100 100
1

3 show that rhombohedral dolomite crystals
exist over a wide range of particle sizes. If
most of the smaller, easily movable dolomite
crystals are swept away by the initial fresh-
water floods, only the larger crystals remain.
The second mechanism consists of dis-
solving the dolomite crystals in the brines.
At first this reaction does not seem likely
because dolomite dissolves slowly in fresh
water and even more slowly in saline
water. 27 While the brine pH (6.5 to 7.5)
was too high for acidic brine dissolution, the
acidity may have come from the other min-
erals present in the cores. Siderite, chlorite,
and the dolomite end members of the dolo-
mite/ankerite solid solution series all contain
some iron. As the brines flowed through the
cores, the iron in these minerals oxidized.
Rust spots on the surfaces and inside the
cores were observed. When the siderite (iron
carbonate) is oxidized, CO 2 is released:
2 FeC0 3 + lh0 2 +3H 20
~2 Fe(OHh +2 CO 2 ,
The CO 2 tends to combine with water to
form carbonic acid, which reduces the pH.
The lower pH increases the solubility of
dolomite. Studies by NL Baroid 28 have
shown that iron oxidation rates are higher
in KCI brines than in NaCI brines over the
full range of brine concentrations.
The high relative percentage of illite in the
post-KCI freshwater floods in Casper sand-
stone may also result from a decrease in the
amount of kaolinite moving through the
core. The permeability damage resulting
from freshwater dispersion was considerably
less in both sandstones after flooding with
KCI brines. It may be possible that the KCI
stabilized the kaolinite to a greater degree
than illite in Casper sandstone. Sharma et
al. 17 reported increased dispersion of kao-
linite when illite is present. Although swell-
ing in illite is limited, it is enough to create
instabilities that increase the dispersion ten-
with NaCI brine invasion are a function of
the NaCI brine concentration. Upon re-
exposure of the formation to lower NaCI
brine concentrations, the permeability will
revert to lower levels.
3. Permeability improvements are greater
when KCI, rather than NaCI, is the invading
brine, provided that equal concentrations of
each brine are used.
4. In low-salinity formations « 2 wt %
NaCI) , dispersion of clay particles may
occur after invasion by NaCI and KCI com-
pletion fluids. The permeability damage will
be lower if KCI, rather than NaCI, brine was
used as the completion fluid.
5. Permeability increases associated with
KCI brine invasion may remain stable upon
re-exposure to fluids of a lower salinity. The
"For KCI floods, the
degree of residual permeability improve-
ment is a function of the type and amount permeability Increase
of clays present in the formation and the results not only from
Na + /K + ratio of the formation brine. The
more illite in the formation and the lower
lower amounts of
the Na + /K + ratio of the formation brine, water associated with
the greater the potential for residual in- the clay minerals, but
creases in permeability.
6. When Casper sandstone is exposed to also from collapse of
a brine whose salinity is below the CSS, the Illite clay platelets
prior exposure to KCI brine increases the around the outer
tendency of illite to disperse and migrate
relative to kaolinite. exchange sites."
7. When Berea sandstone is flooded with
a brine whose salinity is below the CSS, pri-
or exposure to NaCI or KCI brines does not
affect the dispersion and migration of one
clay relative to other clays.
Reference.
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Damage in Sandstones Caused by Clay Dis-
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Clays and Clay Minerals Conference (1965)
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2. Reed, M.G.: "Stabilization of Fonnation
Clays With Hydroxy-Aluminum Solutions,"
JPT(July 1972) 860-64; Trans., AIME, 253.

JPT • April 1990 4-91


Authors
Azari Lelmkuhler
Mehdl Azari Is a senior reservoir engi-
neer with Halliburton Reservoir Services
In Dallas. He previously worked for Hal-
liburton Services In Duncan, OK; as an
assistant professor of petroleum engi-
neering at the U. of Wyoming; for the
OSCO Computer Center In Abadan, Iran;
and for the Natl. Iranian Gas Co. In Te-
heran. He holds a BS degree In chemi-
cal engineering from the Abadan Inst.
of Technology and MS and PhD degrees
In petroleum engineering from the U. of
Southern California. Joseph M. Lelm-
kuhler, an associate drilling engineer for
Shell Offshore Inc. In New Orleans,
previously worked for MI Drilling Fluids
In Evanston, WV. He holds a BS degree
In geology from the U. of Montana and
an MS degree In petroleum engineering
from the U. of Wyoming.
492
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81 Metric Conversion Factor
md x 9.869233 E-04 = ILm 2
Provenance
Original SPE manuscript, Permeability
Changes Resulting From Invasion of So-
dium- and Potassium-Based Completion
Brines in Berea and Casper Sandstones,
received for review Feb. 8, 1988. Paper ac-
cepted for publication Nov. 15, 1989. Re-
vised manuscript received July 13, 1989.
Paper (SPE 17149) first presented at the
1988 SPE Formation Damage Control Sym-
posium held in Bakersfield, CA, Feb. 8-9.
JPT
April 1990 • JPT