Radiative Transfer: Radiation

Radiation Radiative transfer equation Discrete ordinate method Single scattering properties Molecular absorption
Radiative transfer
1 Radiation
What is radiation?
Radiance I and irradiance E
Blackbody radiation
2 Radiative transfer equation
Derivation
Direct-diffuse splitting of radiation field
Horizontally homogeneous atmosphere
3 Discrete ordinate method
Solution of RTE using the DOM
DOM - Impact of number of streams
DOM - Deltascaling and intensity correction
4 Single scattering properties
Single scattering theory
Size distribution
Examples
5 Molecular absorption
Introduction
Line-by-line calculations
Broad-band calculations
Radiative transfer 10. February 2010 1 / 52
What is radiation?
Two pictures:
1 electromagnetic waves that propagate with speed of light

(c = 2.998·108 m/s)
2 photons having zero mass and energy E=hν
(Planck constant h = 6.626·10−34 Js, frequency ν [1/s])
The wavelength λ of the radiation can be obtained from the relation
c =λ·ν

Radiation balance of the Earth

Electromagnetic spectrum
Copyright: http://scipp.ucsc.edu

Radiance Lν :
dω
dQν = Iν cos θdνdσdωdt
Unit:
W/(m2 Hz sr) or W/(m2 nm sr) θ
Irradiance Eν :
dσ
Z
Eν = Iν cos θdω
Unit:
Figure: Definition of radiance.
W/(m2 Hz) or W/(m2 nm)

Blackbody radiation
Planck function
2hν 3 1
B(ν, T ) =
c 2 exp hν − 1

kB T
Unit: W/(m2 Hz sr)

Wien’s displacement law
(Maximum of Planck function)
2897
λm =
T Figure: An opaque container at absolute
temperature T encloses a “gas” of photons
Stefan-Boltzmann’s law emitted by its walls. At equilibrium, the
(integrated Planck function) distribution of photon energies is determined
solely by this temperature. The distribution
E = σSB T 4 function is called Planck (distribution) function
(Figure from Bohren and Clothiaux, 2006)

Planck radiation
109
108
6000 K
300 K
107
106
irradiance [W/(m2 µm]
105
104
103
102
101
100
10-1 -2
10 10-1 100 101 102 103
wavelength [µm]
Figure: Planck functions for surface temperature of sun (≈ 6000 K, blue

line), surface temperature of earth (≈ 300 K) and solar irradiance at top of
atmosphere (dotted green line).

Radiative transfer
1 Radiation
What is radiation?
Blackbody radiation
Derivation
Size distribution
Examples
Introduction
Radiative transfer equation
Z
ksca,ν
~n∇Iν = −kext,ν Iν + Pν (~n0 → ~n)Iν (~n0 )dω + kabs,ν Bν
4π 4π
(integro-differential equation for radiance for specific direction ~n)

RTE includes the following processes:
Exchange of photons with surrounding of volume element
∆V ∆ω∆ν
Extinction
Absorption
Outscattering: Scattering of photons from ~n into n~0
Inscattering: Scattering of photons from n~0 into ~n
Emission of photons into ~n
Stationary form of RTE because time dependence can be neglected
in Earth’s atmosphere

total solar radiation field = diffuse solar radiation + direct solar beam
Iν = Id,ν + Sν δ(~n − n~0 )
Direct radiation Sν can be separated and calculated using

Lambert-Beer’s law:
dSν
= −kext,ν Sν , ~n = n~0
ds
RTE for diffuse solar radiation must be further simplified


plane-parallel approximation:
curvature of Earth’s atmosphere is neglected
all optical properties are independent of horizontal position
solar beam independent on horizontal position
only one spatial coordinate
Rz required, altitude z or
optical thickness τ = 0 kext (z 0 )dz 0
approximation not valid for e.g. inhomogeneous clouds or very
low sun
Figure from Mayer 2009

Radiative transfer
1 Radiation
What is radiation?
Blackbody radiation
Derivation
Size distribution
Examples
Introduction
Separation of µ and φ
Assumption: Phase function is rotationally symmetric along
direction of incident light, correct for spherical and randomly
oriented particles
Phase function expansion in Legendre series
∞
X
P(cos Θ) = pl Pl (cos Θ)
l=0
1
1
Z
p0 = P(cos Θ)d cos Θ = 1 (normalization of P)
2 −1
Z 1
3
p1 = cos ΘP(cos Θ)d cos Θ = g (asymmetry parameter )
2 −1
Phase function with µ = cos θ and φ separated using addition

theorem of associated Legendre polynomials:
∞
X ∞
X
P(cos Θ) = (2 − δ0m ) plm Plm (µ)Plm (µ0 ) cos m(φ − φ0 )
m=0 l=m

System of differential equations for each Fourier

mode of radiance field
Fourier expansion of the radiance field:

∞
X
I(τ, µ, φ) = (2 − δ0m )I m (τ, µ) cos φ
m=0
DE for each Fourier mode of radiance field, depends only on 2

variables τ and µ:
d m
µ I (τ, µ) = I m (τ, µ) − J m (τ, µ) m = 0, 1, ..., Λ
dτ

Scattering integral – Gaussian quadrature
Gaussian quadrature: method to approximate integral of

functions which can well be approximated by a polynomial
function
Separate differential equation (DE) for each quadrature point
(also called stream):
r ∞
dI m (τ, µi ) ω0 X m X
µi =I m (τ, µ) − wj I (τ, µj ) plm Plm (µi )Plm (µj )
dτ 2
j=1 l=m

ω0 τ
− S0 exp − P(µi , µ0 ) − (1 − ω0 )B(τ )δ0m
4π µ0
Inhomogeneous DE ⇒ solution= particular solution for

inhomogeneous DE + general solution for homogeneous DE

clearsky radiance
field
no aerosol ⇒ only
Rayleigh scattering
Figure: Clearsky radiance field, no

aerosol (exercise 6).

12 asymmetry parameter 0.65 nmom: 4

approx
10 HG phase function
8
phase function
20 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

theta [degrees]
Figure: Legendre
decomposition of Heney
Greenstein phase function Figure: Clearsky radiance field, default
(exercise 5). aerosol (exercise 6).


approx
8
phase function
20 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

theta [degrees]
Figure: Legendre


approx
8
phase function
20 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

theta [degrees]
Figure: Legendre


approx
HG phase function
10
8
phase function
00 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

theta [degrees]
Figure: Legendre


approx
HG phase function
10
8
phase function
00 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

theta [degrees]
Figure: Legendre

Calculation for water cloud - no deltascaling
104
8
103 16
32
102 64
128
101 3000
phase function
100
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-4 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

theta [degress]
Figure: Legendre
decomposition of Mie phase
function (exercise 7).
Figure: Cloudy radiance field, TOA,
DISORT, nstr=16 without delta-scaling
(exercise 8).

Calculation for water cloud - deltascaling on
P(cos Θ) ≈
2s−1
X
2f δ(1 − cos Θ) + (2l + 1)pl0 Pl (cos Θ)
l=0
104
8
103 16
32
102 64
128
101 3000
phase function
100
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-4 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

theta [degress]
Figure: Legendre
decomposition of Figure: Cloudy radiance field, TOA.
delta-scaled Mie phase DISORT, nstr=16 with delta-scaling
function (exercise 7). (exercise 8).

Calculation for water cloud - intensity correction
DISORT2 includes
intensity correction
method by Nakakjima
and Tanaka (1988),
which calculates the first
and second orders of
scattering using the
correct phase function
Figure: Cloudy radiance field, TOA.

DISORT2, nstr=16 with intensity correction
(exercise 8).

Radiative transfer
1 Radiation
What is radiation?
Blackbody radiation
Derivation
Size distribution
Examples
Introduction

Scattering calculations in planetary atmospheres:
1 single scattering by small volume element
(Mie theory, geometrical optics ...)
2 multiple scattering by entire atmosphere
(solution of RTE, e.g. DOM)
Assumption: scattering particles are sufficiently separated so
that they can be treated as independent scatterers (no
interference of radiation scattered by independent particles)
Scattered radiance at distance

R in far field:
~I sca = ksca P dV
4πR 2
Figure from Hansen and Travis, 1974

Geometrical optics method
Geometrical optics method can be applied for particles that are

large compared to the wavelength, e.g. cloud droplets in UV/Vis
2πr
size parameter x = λ 1
Trace individual rays through particle
Snell’s law: direction of refracted rays
n1 sin α = n2 sin β
Fresnel equations: Intensity and polarization of radiation

reflected and refracted by particle surface

Geometrical optics

Rayleigh scattering

Mie theory
Calculation of optical properties (P, qsca , qabs ) of spherical

particles (Mie, 2008)
Solution of Maxwell equations (Input: refractive index, size
parameter)
physical explanation: multipole expansion of scattered radiation

Size distributions
A cloud consists of droplets of various sizes following a size

distribution n(r): Z rmax
N= n(r )dr
rmin
optical properties are averaged over size distribution

Z rmax
ksca = σsca n(r )dr
rmin
Z rmax
kext = σext n(r )dr
rmin
4π rmax
Z
P(cos Θ) = P0 (cos Θ, r )n(r )dr
k 2 ksca rmin

Effective radius
A “mean radius” for scattering may be defined as follows (scattering
cross section σsca = πr 2 Qsca ):
r πr 2 Qsca (r )n(r )dr
R rmax
r
rsca = Rmin rmax
r
πr 2 Qsca (r )n(r )dr
min
In the UV/VIS water cloud droplets fulfill x 1 and ω0 ≈ 1 , then

Qsca ≈ 2
1 rmax
Z
reff = r πr 2 n(r )dr
G rmin
Generalization for non-spherical particles (e.g. ice crystals or aerosols)
R rmax
r
V (r )n(r )dr
reff = R min
rmax
r
A(r )n(r )dr
min
r – equivalent sphere radius; A – geometrical cross section averaged

over all possible orientations
Effective variance of a size distribution:
1
Z rmax
veff = 2
(r − reff )2 A(r )n(r )dr
Greff rmin
Extinction efficiency
4.0 major maxima and minima

single particle
3.5 gamma size distribution caused by interference of
diffracted radiation (l=0) and
3.0
transmitted radiation (l=2)
extinction efficiency Qext
2.5 phase shift for ray passing

2.0
through sphere ρ = 2x(nr − 1)
1.5
superimposed “ripple” structure
last few sigificant terms in Mie
1.0
series
0.5 explanation: surface waves
0.0 0 vanish by integration over size
10 101 102 103
size parameter x distribution
Figure from exercise 14 geometrical optics limit of 2 for
large x

Asymmetry parameter
0.9
0.8
0.7
asymmetry parameter g
0.6
0.5
0.4 geometrical optics limit of 0.87 for
0.3
large x
0.2 Rayleigh limit of 0 for small x
0.1 single particle
gamma size distribution
0.0 0
10 101 102 103
size parameter x
Figure from exercise 14

Size distributions
Mie calculations for size distributions Gamma distribution, reff =10µm
with the same reff =10 µm and 240
220
different veff (exercise 15)
]
m·g/m3
200
1
180
Optical properties in UV/Vis/NIR for 160
qext [
all size distibutions very similar, but 140
120
larger differences in thermal spectral 100
103 104
region 1.0
0.045 0.8
veff=0.15 veff = 0.15
0.040 veff=0.10 0.6
ω0
veff = 0.1
veff=0.05 0.4
veff = 0.05
0.035 veff=0.01 0.2 veff = 0.01
0.030 0.0
103 104
0.025 1.00
n(r)
0.95
0.020 0.90
0.015 0.85
g
0.80
0.010 0.75
0.005 0.70
103 104
λ [nm]
0.0000 5 10 15 20
r [micrometer]
Dependence on effective radius

Mie calculations for size distributions
2500
with different reff and the same 2000
veff =0.1 (exercise 16)
]
m·g/m3
1500
1
Optical properties in UV/Vis/NIR for 1000
qext [
all size distibutions very similar, but 500
larger differences in thermal spectral 0

103 104
region 1.0
reff = 1
0.8
reff=1.00 reff = 4
1.0 reff=5.00 0.6
ω0
reff = 7
reff=10.00 0.4
reff = 10
reff=20.00 0.2
0.8 reff=40.00 reff = 13
reff=80.00 0.0
103 104
1.0
0.6
n(r)
0.8
0.6
0.4
g
0.4
0.2
0.2 0.0
103 104
λ [nm]
0.00 20 40 60 80 100 120
r [micrometer]
Scattering phase functions
105
reff = 1 µm
4 reff = 2 µm
10
reff = 4 µm
reff = 8 µm
3
10
reff = 15 µm
reff = 20 µm
phase function
102
101
100
10−1
10−2
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
scattering angle [deg]
Figure: Phase functions for different effective radii at 550 nm (exercise 17).

Remote sensing of clouds
radiance [mW / (m2 nm sr)] @ 750 nm radiance [mW / (m2 nm sr)] @ 2160 nm
320 17.5
25 280 25 15.0
240
12.5
cloud optical thickness
cloud optical thickness

20 20
200
10.0
15 160 15
7.5
120
10 10
5.0
80
5 5
2.5
40
0 0 0 0.0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
effective radius [µm] effective radius [µm]
Remote sensing of optical thickness in visible channels, effective radius in NIR
channels, exercise 19.

Radiative transfer
1 Radiation
What is radiation?
Blackbody radiation
Derivation
Size distribution
Examples
Introduction
Solar irradiance spectrum (surface)
2500 irradiance spectrum at the surface

irradiance
TOA
Planck
2000
irradiance [mW/ (m^2 nm)]
1500
1000
500
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

wavelength [nm]
result from exercise 2

Solar transmittance spectrum (surface), O2A-Band
1.0
0.8
Transmittance
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0750 755 760 765 770 775 780

Wavelength (nm)
libradtran calculation (line-by-line)

Thermal irradiance spectrum (TOA)
0.030 LW spectrum
surface
TOA
0.025 Planck
irradiance [W/ (m^2 nm)]
0.020
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000

wavelength [nm]
result from exercise 3

Absorption coefficients in atmospheric window

(8–14µm)
10−1
10−2
10−3
absorption coefficient [1/m]
10−4
10−5
10−6
10−7
10−8
10−9
10−10
H2O
CO2
10−11 O3
10−12 N2O
10−13 CH4
10−14 HNO3
10−15
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
wavelength [µm]
altitude: 0.5 km, ARTS calculation

Molecular physics
Molecules have 3 forms of internal energy
Eint = Erot + Evib + Eel
According to quantum mechanics energy states are quantized:

Erot - rotational energy (microwave)
Evib - vibrational energy (IR)
Eel - electronic energy (NIR/Vis/UV)
Erot < Evib < Eel
absorption: transition from lower to higher energy state
emission: transition from higher to lower energy state
absorption/emission lines characteristic for particular molecule

Line broadening
1 Natural broadening
Heisenberg’s uncertainty priciple ∆E∆t & h
lifetime of molecule in excited state is finite
emitted energy is distributed over finite frequency interval ∆ν
negligible in Earth’s atmosphere
2 Collision / Pressure broadening
during emission molecule collides with other molecules
lifetime is shortened
interaction causes line-broadening (larger than natural broadening
because lifetime of molecule much longer than time between
collisions)
dominant below 20 km in Earth’s atmosphere
3 Doppler broadening
random thermal motion of molecules
different relative velocities between molecules and radiation source
causes Doppler broadening of emission lines
dominant above 50 km in Earth’s atmosphere

Line-shapes
Figure from Zdunkowski et al.

k-distribution method
aim: obtain average transmission in a particular spectral band

resort frequency grid according to absorption coefficient k and
replace wavenumber integration by integration over k:
Z Z ∞
dν
Tν̄ = e−k(ν)ds = e−kds h(k)dk
∆ν ∆s 0
h(k) - probability density function (pdf) for occurence of k

Rk
integration over cumulative pdf g(k) = 0 h(k)dk :
Z 1
Tν̄ = e−k(g)ds dg
0
g(k) is a smooth monotonically increasing function between 0

and 1 and the integral can be approximated by very few grid
points (e.g. using Gaussian quadrature)

k-distribution method
Illustration of k-distribution method.

Figures from Zdunkowski et al.

correlated-k-distribution method
k-distribution method exact only for homogeneous layer

for inhomogeneous atmosphere correlated-k method may be
used
Transmission for 2 trace gases:
Z
dν
Tν̄ )(1, 2) = Tν (1)Tν (2)
∆ν ∆s
Approach results in integration over two cumulative PDFs

approximate method, accuracy investigated in e.g. Fu and Liao
(1992)

Radiative transfer
1 Radiation
What is radiation?
Blackbody radiation
Derivation
Size distribution
Examples
Introduction
Radiative transfer applications

Monte Carlo radiative transfer course
3D radiative transfer simulation using MYSTIC

Monte Carlo RT course: program your own code within 1 week!

Radiative Transfer: Radiation

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Radiative Transfer: Radiation

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Radiation Radiative transfer equation Discrete ordinate method Single scattering properties Molecular absorption

1 electromagnetic waves that propagate with speed of light

The wavelength λ of the radiation can be obtained from the relation

Radiative transfer 10. February 2010 2 / 52

Radiation balance of the Earth

Radiative transfer 10. February 2010 3 / 52

Radiative transfer 10. February 2010 4 / 52

Radiance I and irradiance E

Radiative transfer 10. February 2010 5 / 52

Unit: W/(m2 Hz sr)

Radiative transfer 10. February 2010 6 / 52

Figure: Planck functions for surface temperature of sun (≈ 6000 K, blue

Radiative transfer 10. February 2010 7 / 52

Radiative transfer equation

(integro-differential equation for radiance for specific direction ~n)

Radiative transfer 10. February 2010 9 / 52

Direct-diffuse splitting of radiation field

Iν = Id,ν + Sν δ(~n − n~0 )

Direct radiation Sν can be separated and calculated using

Radiative transfer 10. February 2010 10 / 52

Horizontally homogeneous atmosphere

Figure from Mayer 2009

Radiative transfer 10. February 2010 11 / 52

Phase function with µ = cos θ and φ separated using addition

Radiative transfer 10. February 2010 13 / 52

System of differential equations for each Fourier

Fourier expansion of the radiance field:

DE for each Fourier mode of radiance field, depends only on 2

Radiative transfer 10. February 2010 14 / 52

Scattering integral – Gaussian quadrature

Gaussian quadrature: method to approximate integral of

Inhomogeneous DE ⇒ solution= particular solution for

Radiative transfer 10. February 2010 15 / 52

DOM - Impact of number of streams

Figure: Clearsky radiance field, no

Radiative transfer 10. February 2010 16 / 52

DOM - Impact of number of streams

12 asymmetry parameter 0.65 nmom: 4

20 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Radiative transfer 10. February 2010 17 / 52

DOM - Impact of number of streams

12 asymmetry parameter 0.65 nmom: 6

20 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Radiative transfer 10. February 2010 18 / 52

DOM - Impact of number of streams

12 asymmetry parameter 0.65 nmom: 8

20 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Radiative transfer 10. February 2010 19 / 52

DOM - Impact of number of streams

12 asymmetry parameter 0.65 nmom: 16

00 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Radiative transfer 10. February 2010 20 / 52

DOM - Impact of number of streams

12 asymmetry parameter 0.65 nmom: 32

00 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Radiative transfer 10. February 2010 21 / 52

Calculation for water cloud - no deltascaling

10-4 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Radiative transfer 10. February 2010 22 / 52

Calculation for water cloud - deltascaling on

10-4 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Radiative transfer 10. February 2010 23 / 52

Calculation for water cloud - intensity correction

In the UV/VIS water cloud droplets fulfill x 1 and ω0 ≈ 1 , then