7 - Minerals and Energy

CHAPTER 7 - MINERALS AND ENERGY

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Introduction

1. Minerals - They are natural substances of organic or inorganic origin, with definite
physical and chemical properties, and with uniform composition and structure. They
are the most valuable natural resources and are associated with igneous or
metamorphic rocks.

2. Ores - These are naturally occurring deposits (rocks), which contain a mineral, or
minerals, in sufficient concentration, to justify commercial exploitation. After
refining, minerals present in them can be extracted and used.

3. Conventional Sources of Energy - These are energy sources which have been
used by man for a long time and are still being used abundantly. They are non-
renewable and cannot be used again. Examples include coal, petroleum and natural
gas.

4. Non-Conventional Sources of Energy - These are energy sources which have

been developed in the recent past as an alternative to conventional sources of energy.
They are renewable, inexhaustible, non-polluting, less expensive and easy to
maintain. They are considered to be the energy resources of the future. Examples
include solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, geothermal energy, nuclear energy
and biogas.

5. Classification of Minerals - Minerals are classified into two categories, based on

their physical and chemical properties. These include:-
 Metallic minerals - These are ores from which metals can be extracted. Iron,
copper, gold, silver, lead, aluminium and tin are important examples of
metallic minerals. They provide a strong base for the development of
metallurgical industry, and hence are vital for the industrialization and
economic growth of the country. Based on their iron content, metallic
minerals can be further classified as:
— Ferrous minerals - These are metallic minerals which have iron
content in them, like iron ore.
— Non ferrous minerals - These are metallic minerals which do not
have iron content in them, like copper and bauxite.
 Non-metallic minerals - These are ores which do not contain metals. Coal,
petroleum, mica and manganese are some important examples of non-
metallic minerals. Based on their origin, non-metallic minerals can be further
classified as:
— Organic minerals - These are non-metallic minerals which include
fossil fuels or mineral fuels which are derived from the buried plant
and animal life, such as coal and petroleum.

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— Inorganic minerals - These are non-metallic minerals which

include mica, limestone and graphite.

6. Characteristics of Minerals
 uneven distribution: minerals are not evenly distributed over space;
 quality and quantity: are inversely proportional, that is, good quality
minerals are lesser in quantity, while low quality minerals are higher in
quantity;
 non-renewable: exhaustible over time; take a long time to develop
geologically, and cannot be replenished immediately when needed, and
therefore, need to be conserved as they do not have the second crop.

7. Effect of Minerals on the Economy of a Country

 industrialisation: minerals are excavated in a country can be used to develop
industries;
 export: excess of raw minerals can be exported; and
 agriculture: minerals can be used to make fertilizers, which can help in the
development of agriculture.
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Iron Ore

1. General information
a. backbone of modern civilization and foundation of basic industry: not only for
India, but for the whole world;
b. deposits in India: fairly rich; practically all parts of the country have some
amount of iron; occur as hill masses and are easily accessible; found in close
proximity to areas producing coal, dolomite, limestone and manganese; hence
are well utilized in several iron and steel plants;
c. position of India: largest producer of iron ore in Asia; sixth largest producer of
iron ore, with six percentage global output.

2. Varieties
Parameter iron % special feature location
Haematite 60 to 70 red in colour, and Odisha, Jharkhand, Chattisgarh,
therefore known as Karnataka and Maharashtra
red ore
Magnetite > 70 dark brown to black Tamil Nadu and Karnataka
in colour, and --------------------------------------------------
therefore known as possesses magnetic property, and
black ore; therefore known as magnetite
Limonite 35 to 50 inferior quality of main location for limonite :
iron Raniganj coalfield (West Bengal)
Siderite 10 to 40 inferior quality ore below are other limonite not
with many siderite zones :
impurities Garhwal (Uttarkhand) Mizapur
district (Uttar Pradesh) and
Kangra valley (Himachal Pradesh)

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3. Uses
a. steel: 90 % of the iron ore is used to prepare an alloy, steel; steel is harder
than pure iron and therefore it is used in construction, automobiles, etc;
b. powdered iron: used in manufacturing metallurgy products, magnets, auto
parts, etc;
c. radioactive iron: contains 59 % of iron; used in medicine as a tracer element
and in biochemical and metallurgical research;
d. iron blue: used in paints, printing inks, plastics, paper dying, etc; and
e. black iron oxide: used as a pigment in polishing compounds, medicine, etc.

4. Distribution
State Feature Cities
Odisha largest producer Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar
Jharkhand - Singhbum, Palamau (producers),
Noamundi town, Gua town (mining areas
in Singhbum district)
Karnataka - Kudremukh mountain range,
Chikmagalur district
Chattisgarh - Bastar, Durg (producers), Bailadila (in
Bastar), Palli Rajhara (in Durg) (mining
areas)
Goa 4 largest producer; 17
th Sanquelim town, Bicholim town (both in
% of country production North Goa district)
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Manganese

1. General information
a. description: a black, hard and iron-like metal; occurs as a natural oxide;
b. importance: an important raw material for smelting of iron ore; also used for
manufacturing ferro alloys;
c. Indian manganese: manganese ore found in India is of good quality, and is
therefore in great demand in the world market - USA, Japan, France, the
Netherlands, West Germany and Belgium are its main buyers.

2. Uses
a. steel: manganese is used to make steel tough and resistant to rusting, and is
therefore an important raw material in the iron and steel industry;
b. manufacture: of black enamel (in chemical industries), and in electrical and
glass industries;
c. alloys: used to form a number of important alloys;
d. cells: used in dry cell batteries;
e. body: used to manufacture vital enzymes for the metabolism of fats and
proteins; can also regulate the blood sugar levels; supports the immune
system;
f. plants: essential to plant growth; involved in the reduction of nitrates in
green plants and algae; and

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g. other uses: an essential trace element in higher animals; aids in the action of
many enzymes; lack of manganese causes testicular atrophy, while an excess
of this element in plants and animals is toxic.

3. Distribution
State Feature Cities
Odisha largest producer; one-third of Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj,
production Keonjhar
Karnataka largest reserves; fourth largest Bellary, Shimoga, Chitradurga,
producer; 14 % of production Tumkur, Belgaum
Madhya Pradesh third largest producer; 20 % of Balaghat, Chindwara,
production Jabalpur, Jhabua
production means country's production
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Copper

1. General information
a. description: an important non-ferrous metal; the earliest metal discovered by
man;
b. occurrence: in nature, copper occurs in the native form, and in three possible
combinations, that is, sulphides, oxides and carbonates;
c. India's position: critically deficient of copper and has to depend upon exports
for its needs.

2. Uses
a. electric wires: copper is a good conductor of electricity, highly ductile and
malleable, and is therefore used for making electric wires and other
equipment;
b. industries: used in the automobile and space programming industries, etc;
c. stainless steel: alloyed with iron and nickel to make stainless steel; used to
make utensils and other objects;
d. brass: alloyed with zinc to form brass; used
e. bronze: alloyed with tin to make bronze; used to make statues; and
f. building: used for building construction.

3. Distribution
State Feature Cities
Madhya Pradesh - Balaghat, Jabalpur
Rajasthan major zone: Khetri belt Jaipur, Udaipur
Maharashtra - Chandrapur, Nagpur
Andhra Pradesh - Kurnool, Guntur
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Bauxite

1. General information
a. description: an ore of aluminium; a rock consisting of aluminium oxides;

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b. occurrence: found mainly in tertiary deposits; is associated with laterite rocks

occurring extensively either on the plateau or hill ranges of Peninsular India
and also in coastal tracts of the country;
c. India's position: extensive deposits of bauxite found in India; India is a major
bauxite producer in South Asia.

2. Uses
a. source of aluminium: the main source of aluminium, which is a lightweight,
strong and rust resistant metal;
b. electrical industry: used in electrical equipment industry and for transmitting
electricity, as it is a good conductor of electricity;
c. light purposes: best material for making headlight reflectors and for mirrors
in telescopes; and
d. other uses: aluminium is used in aircrafts, automobiles and household
appliances.

3. Distribution
State Feature Cities
Odisha 45 % of production Kalahandi, Sundergarh, Sambalpur
Jharkhand - Ranchi, Palamau, Gumla
Gujarat 15 % of production Jamnagar, Sabarkantha, Surat
Maharashtra 12 % of production Kolhapur, Ratnagiri, Thane, Pune
Madhya Pradesh together contribute Amarkantak plateau, Maikala range,
Chattisgarh to 10 % of production Katni area of Jabalpur district
Tamil Nadu - Kotagiri in Nilgiri hills, Palani and
Kodaikanal hills in Dindugal district,
Shevaroy hills in Salem district
production refers to the country's production
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Coal

1. General information
a. definition: a combustible solid stratified rock of organic and inorganic matter;
b. composition: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur;
c. occurrence: occurs as sedimentary rock in association with carbonaceous
shale, sandstone and even fine clay;
d. formation: formed due to accumulation of vegetable matter in swampy or
broad deltas, coastal plains and basin lowlands, which are subjected to
geological processes, which resulted in physical and chemical changes; the
mass of vegetative matter was subjected to heat and pressure generated by
the increasing weight of the overlying sediments and earth movements and
was converted into coal.

2. Varieties
Parameter Anthracite Bituminous Lignite Peat
% carbon 90 80 (steam coal 20 to 50 < 20
- best variety),

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50 to 80
(household
coal)
colour jet black (dark black brown -
black)
feature shiny and hard; 80 % of low grade coal first stage of
lustrous; hard; coal in India transformation
completely of wood to coal;
compressed (no accumulation
branded of vegetable
structure); matter which
India's has undergone
reserves are various degrees
not sufficient of
decomposition
and
carbonisation
burns very slowly; - leaving behind -
without smoke; smoke and
leaving very ash, which
little ash pollutes the
behind air
moisture - - more high
content
use domestic use domestic generation of no use
(smokeless fuel purposes electricity
with high (household
calorific value), coal),
metallurgical production of
processes, iron coke, coal gas,
and steel steam coal,
industry iron and steel
smelting in
blast furnaces
(coking coal)
location Assam Bihar and Tamil Nadu Nilgiris ( in
(Lakhimpur), Jharkhand (Neyveli) patches),
Jammu and (Chotanagpur Kashmir Valley
Kashmir plateau)

3. Advantages
a. power: a source of power;
b. manufacture: of iron and steel;
c. heat: a direct source of heat, like steam locomotion;
d. smelting: used in smelting purposes;
e. thermal power: used in extraction of thermal power;
f. by-products: by-products like ammonia and benzol are formed on burning,
which are used in the chemical industry; and
g. building materials: like cement, burning of bricks and tiles, iron and brass
foundries, pottery, etc.

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4. Disadvantages
a. calorific value: less in India;
b. distribution: uneven, mainly distributed in the eastern parts of India;
c. cost of production and transportation: high (bulky goods);
d. reserves: limited reserves; and
e. pollution: at the site of mining and use (smoke and ash).

5. Distribution
State Cities
Jharkhand Jharia (largest), Bokaro
West Bengal Raniganj (oldest - 1814 in Damodar valley), Bardhamon
Odisha Sambalpur, Sundergarh, Talcher
Madhya Pradesh Singrauli, Chindwara
Maharashtra Chandrapur, Wardha Valley
Andhra Pradesh East and West Godavari
Telangana Adilabad, Warrangal, Singareni
Chattisgarh Bilaspur

6. Types of coalfields
Parameter Gondwana Tertiary
quality best poor
% distribution 98 (anthracite and 2 (lignite and peat); one-
bituminous); four-fifths of fifth of reserves
reserves
moisture content almost moisture free more moisture content
phosphorous and sulphur variable quantities more sulphur
special features important coal bearing associated with marine
formations collectively sediments
known as Damudas belong
to the lower Gondwana
system;
location river valleys of Damodar, North-East, Gujarat,
Mahanadi and Godavari Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu
(Neyveli - lignite)
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Petroleum

1. General information
a. word: the word petroleum has been derived from the words petra meaning
rock and oleum meaning oil; so petroleum means rock oil;
b. composition: a complex mixture of hydrocarbons;
c. different states of petroleum:
— liquid petroleum: crude oil;
— petroleum gas: natural gas; and
— semi-solid to solid petroleum: asphalt, tar, pitch and bitumen.
d. occurrence: found in underground reservoirs in sedimentary rock formations
like sandstone, shale and limestone;

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e. products obtained during petroleum refining: petrol, diesel, kerosene, tar,

LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas), lubricants and paraffin wax;
f. Indian refineries: public sector - 17; private sector - 2; joint sector - 2.

2. Advantages
a. high density: 1 kg of petroleum can produce 10000 kcal of energy, which can
be used as a fuel;
b. ease of transport: petroleum is in liquid form, and so can be easily transported
through pipes or vehicles;
c. by-products: are used in manufacturing several petrochemical products;
d. power generation; and
e. relatively clean: emits no smoke and leaves no ash on burning;

3. Disadvantages
a. non-renewable: it is a natural fossil fuel, and so is non-renewable and has
limited availability;
b. pollution: during extraction and burning, greenhouse gases are formed, which
cause environmental pollution and global warming;
c. cost: high cost due to limited supply and high demand;
d. dangerous: highly inflammable and can cause fires; and
e. oil spills: during extraction from the sea or during transportation, there is a
chance of oil spilling in the water, leading to the death of marine animals.

4. Distribution
Region Features Oilfields' Location
North-East India 17 % of country's Digboi, Lakhimpur district,
production Assam (major and first oilfield),
Noonmati, Rudrasagar, Moran
and Naharakitur in Assam
Mumbai High most productive oilfield (5 176 km off Mumbai in the
crore tonnes of oil reserve); Arabian Sea
named so because of the --------------------------------------------
height of the syncline of oil is taken from 1400 m and
the rock structure in over depth with a specially
which oil has been struck designed platform, Sagar
Samrat
Bassein new oilfield south of Mumbai High
Aliabhet Island new oilfield 45 km from Bhavnagar,
Gujarat, in Gulf of Khambat
Others in West India 18 % of country Khambat region (Gujarat),
production; 65 % Ankleshwar, Koyali and Kalol
contributed by offshore
oilfields
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Natural Gas

1. General information

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a. definition: a fossil fuel mainly composed of methane (95 %), with small
amounts of propane and ethane;
b. occurrence: occurs in association with mineral oil; an oilfield yields natural
gas almost inevitably; natural gas deposits generally accompany oil deposits
because it has been formed by decomposing remains of dead animals and
plants buried under the earth;
c. liquefied petroleum gas (LPG):
— definition: gas obtained after refining crude oil;
— composition: butane (mainly), propane and ethane;
— use: household purposes;
— odour: odourless; but ethyl mercaptan, a foul smelling gas is added
so that any leakage from the cylinder can be instantly detected;
d. piped natural gas (PNG): in many cases, LPG is replaced by PNG, where the
gas is not stored in the cylinder, but continuously supplied through pipeline
from the source;
e. compressed natural gas (CNG): used as an alternative to petrol and diesel for
transport of vehicles; Delhi has totally switched over to CNG where buses and
autorickshaws run on this fuel.

2. Advantages
a. clean: methane gives out less carbon emissions; so causes less damage to the
environment; cleaner than petrol or diesel;
b. storage and transport: easy to preserve than other fuels; stored and
transported through pipes;
c. cost: cheaper than petrol or diesel;
d. dissipation: lighter than air, so tends to dissipate when there is a leakage,
making it safer as it is easily detectable; and
e. uses: piped into house for heating and cooking purposes and running several
appliances; used in production of hydrogen, ammonia (fertilizers), paints and
plastics.

3. Disadvantages
a. dangerous: leakage is dangerous; it causes explosion, which is highly toxic if
inhaled; methane is more dangerous than carbon monoxide;
b. extraction: all constituents of natural gas have to be extracted through heavy
processes;
c. non-renewable: non-renewable, limited and exhaustible energy source;
d. cost: infrastructure to produce and distribute is costly; and
e. mileage: as a fuel, provides less mileage than gasoline.

4. Distribution
West North-East North-East South North
Mumbai High Assam Tripura Tamil Nadu Rajasthan
three-fourths of the reserves are from Mumbai High
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Hydel Power (or) Hydroelectricity

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1. General information
a. definition: electricity generated from water;
b. principle: water from the river is collected and stored in a dam; this water is
allowed to fall from a height; blades of the turbine located at the bottom of the
dam move with the force of falling water; this rotates the generator which in
turn produces electricity;
c. total power generation capacity: depends on the head of water and volume of
water flowing towards the water turbine.

2. Advantages
a. clean: clean, non-polluting (no greenhouse gases, so no greenhouse effect, and
so no global warming);
b. renewable: inexhaustible;
c. water: when dams produce hydroelectricity, they save and restore water; and
d. economical and sustainable: saves on fuels; cheaper than thermal power and
nuclear power.

3. Disadvantages
a. cost: initial cost of building the dam is high;
b. water table: alters the natural water table;
c. natural disasters: causes earthquakes;
d. ecological imbalance: for example silting; and
e. homes: people have to be evacuated from their homes, if they are located at
the site of building the dam.

4. Bhakra Nangal Dam

a. Bhakra Dam:
— feature: second highest dam in India (226 m);
— reservoir: name of the reservoir is Gobind Sagar;
— water capacity: 9.3 billion m3; third largest reservoir in India.
b. Nangal Dam:
— location: river Satluj (Punjab), 13 km downstream of Bhakra Dam;
— length and depth: 64 km and 44 m;
— use: supplies water to Bhakra irrigation canals, which irrigates
27.41 lack hectares.
c. power houses: 4 power houses, namely Ganguwal, Kotla, left bank power
house and right bank power house, with combined installed capacity of 1204
mW.
d. aim of projects:
— water: provides water for irrigation;
— electricity: generates hydroelectricity; and
— prevent flooding: prevent flooding from the Satluj-Beas rivers.

5. Hirakund Dam
a. location: across river Mahanadi, 15 km from Sambalpur (Odisha).

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b. feature: longest major earthen dam in Asia; biggest artificial lake in Asia with
reservoir holding 743 km2 at full capacity, with 639 km shoreline.
c. dam structure: 25.8 km including dykes:
— main dam: overall length of 4.8 km;
— earthen dykes: main dam flanked by 21 km of earthen dykes on
both sides.
d. observation towers: two; Gandhi Minar and Nehru Minar.
e. power houses: two different hydroelectric power houses with entire installed
capacity of 307.5 mW.
f. uses:
— regulation: regulates the flow of river Mahanadi;
— flood control: prevents and controls floods in the Mahanadi delta;
— power: produces hydroelectricity; and
— water: irrigates 75000 km2 of land.
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Solar Energy

1. General information
a. definition: energy obtained from the sun (the ultimate source of energy);
b. traditional uses: drying clothes, drying food-grains, preservation of eatables
and obtaining salt from sea-water;
c. advantages of India: receives about 5000 trillion kWh of solar energy
annually (Tropic of Cancer); most parts of India have 300 clear sunny days
annually; availability of solar energy per hour per square kilometre is 5 to 7
kW.

2. Solar Cells (or) Photovoltaic Cells

a. composition: thin wafers of semi-conductor materials from silicon & gallium;
b. principle: when the sun’s radiations strike on solar cells, the sun’s energy is
converted into electricity;
c. usage: calculators, electronic watches, street lighting, traffic signals, water
pumps, etc.
d. solar panel: a group of solar cells joined together, which can give out a large
amount of solar energy; can produce enough electricity to run street-lights,
run irrigation water pumps, heat houses, etc.

3. Solar Cooker
a. definition: a device which is used to cook food using solar energy;
b. principle: they use solar heat, by reflecting the solar radiations, using a
mirror, on to a glass sheet, which covers the black insulated box;
c. raw materials: raw food is kept in the box;
d. black painting: inside walls of the sides are painted black, for efficient
absorption of light;
e. insulation: box is insulated on the outside, so that the heat cannot escape;

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f. retention of heat: the heated inside of the box emits infra red radiation to
which the glass window is opaque; in this way a significant amount of energy
entering the oven is retained;
g. cooking: cooking pot placed inside the box; so cooking is made possible.
h. spherical mirror: a new design of solar cooker is now available, which involves
spherical reflector instead of plane mirror, that has more heating effect and
greater efficiency.

4. Solar Water Heater

a. usage: heating water; one of the most successful applications of solar energy;
b. source of power: sunlight; it is allowed to fall on flat-plate collectors, which
are shallow rectangular trays filled with water;
c. inclination: collectors properly inclined so that the efficiency of collection is
the highest;
d. structure: insulated box, painted black from inside and having a glass lid to
collect and store solar heat; inside the box, a black painted copper coil is
there, through which cold water is made to flow in;
e. principle: coil gets heated and flows into the storage tank.

5. Advantages
a. renewable: so, it can be harnessed in most areas of the world;
b. diverse purposes: production of electricity in areas without access to the
energy grid, distillation of water in regions with limited clean water supplies,
powering of satellites in space, etc.
c. cost: less maintenance required; 20 to 25 years of warranty; no wear and tear
(no moving parts); only initial cost; and
d. reduction in usage of fossil fuels: saves the fossil fuels like coal and petroleum,
which are used to produce electricity, and also reduce electricity bills.
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Wind Energy

1. General information
a. definition: energy obtained from moving air or wind;
b. position of Indian energy programme: sixth largest in the world, after
Germany, Denmark, the USA, Spain and the UK.

2. Generation - windmills; blades of the windmill rotate due to the force of the wind;
this rotational motion of the wind drives a number of machines, like electric
generators (to produce electricity), water pumps and flourmills.

3. Wind Farms - a number of windmills, installed in coastal regions, open grasslands,

or hilly regions, in a definite pattern in clusters, which generate a large amount of
electricity; In India, the largest wind farm cluster is situated from Nagercoil to
Madurai in Tamilnadu. Besides, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala,
Lakshadweep and Maharashtra have important wind farms.

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4. Advantages
a. renewable: can be produced again and again;
b. clean: cleanest form of energy producing no pollution;
c. reduced dependence on fossil fuels;
d. additional income: land owners can look for additional income by installing
wind turbines on land that can even be used for agricultural purposes;
e. domestic consumption: electricity generated by wind power can be used for
domestic consumption and reduce monthly electricity bills; and
f. export: surplus electricity generated by land owners can be sold back to the
local grid, which can result in more savings.
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Tidal Energy

1. General information
a. definition: the periodic rise and fall of the waters of the ocean, produced by
attraction of the moon and the sun (referred to as tide), produces a large
amount of energy;
b. sites of harnessing: there are only a few sites in the world where tidal energy
can be suitably harnessed; in India, the prospective sites for the exploitation
of tidal energy include the Gulf of Kutch, the Gulf of Cambay, the
Sunderbans, the Lakshadweep islands and the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.

2. Generation
a. method of harnessing: construction a tidal barrage.
b. high tide phenomenon: sea-water flows into the reservoir of the barrage and
turns the turbine, which in turn produces electricity by rotating the
generators.
c. low-tide phenomenon: sea-water stored in the reservoir of the barrage flows
out, and while doing so, it rotates the turbines to produce electricity.

3. Advantages
a. easy to harness: because massive amounts of water in the oceans move in
extremely predictable patterns;
b. inexhaustible: tides are controlled by the gravitational pull between the earth,
sun and moon; this means that as long as the earth is being orbited by the
moon, the tides will continue to be there producing energy, and therefore tidal
energy is an inexhaustible source of energy;
c. cost: only initial construction costs; very few additional costs; little
maintenance; minimum personnel;
d. low water speed: can be produced even if the water moves at low speed; and
e. no carbon emissions: does not negatively affect the global environment.
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Geothermal Energy

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1. General information - The heat energy contained in the rock and fluid, that fills
the fractures and pores within the rock in the earth's crust, is known as geothermal
energy.

2. Generation
a. resources: range from the shallow ground to steam, hot water and hot rock
accessed by drilling wells upto thousands of feet beneath the earth's surface.
b. conditions: extremely high temperatures in the deeper geothermal reservoirs
are used for the generation of electricity;
c. production of steam: hot water is pumped from deep underground through a
well under high pressure; when the water reaches the surface, the pressure is
dropped, which causes the water to turn into steam;
d. production of electricity: the high-pressure steam spins a turbine, which is
connected to a turbine that produces electricity;
e. cooling of steam: steam cools off in a cooling tower & condenses back to water;
f. repetition of process: the cooled water is pumped back into the Earth to begin
the process again.

3. Advantages
a. easy accessibility: due to its extensive distribution;
b. environment friendly: due to low emissions of sulphur, carbon-dioxide and
other greenhouse gases;
c. independent of external supply: independent; demand effects and fluctuations
in exchange rates; and
d. independent of weather: independent of weather and season.
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Nuclear Energy

1. General information - The energy obtained from energy stored in the nuclei of
atoms of naturally occurring radioactive elements like uranium, thorium and
plutonium is known as nuclear energy.

2. Generation
a. Pressurized Water Reactors (PWR): atoms of radioactive substances split,
releasing heat (nuclear fission); water is thereby heated; water however
doesn't boil due to pressure; heated water is circulated through tubes in
steam generators; as a result water in the steam generators turns into steam;
steam rotates turbines of a generator to produce electricity; and
b. Boiling Water Reactors (BWR): heat from nuclear fission converts water into
steam; steam rotates turbines of a generator to produce electricity.

3. Advantages
a. reduced use of fossil fuels: reduces the amount of energy generated from fossil
fuels (coal and oil), and therefore, reduces the use of fossil fuels and lowers
greenhouse gas emissions.

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b. cost: saves on raw materials, transport, handling and extraction of nuclear

fuel; the cost of nuclear fuel (overall uranium) is 20 % of the cost of energy
generated; and
c. continuous production: production of electricity from nuclear energy is
continuous; a nuclear power plant generates electricity for almost 90 % of
annual time; reduces the price volatility of other fuels such as petrol.
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Biogas

1. General information
a. definition: a source of energy produced by the anaerobic degradation of
animal and plant wastes in the presence of water;
b. anaerobic degradation: breaking down of organic matter by bacteria in the
absence of oxygen;
c. fermentation of waste products: carried out by bacteria to produce
hydrocarbon gas, predominantly methane and alcohol;
d. residue: left behind in tank; rich in nutrients; can be used as valuable
manure;
e. gobar gas plants: plants using cattle dung; set up in many villages; provide
twin benefits to farmers, that is, energy, and good quality manure;
f. usage of gas: cooking, lighting and pumping water from wells.

2. Generation
a. digester tank: placed underground; has a gas outlet connected by a pipe;
b. two pipes of the tank: inlet pipe receives the dung-water mixture; outlet pipe
on the other side discharges the spent slurry;
c. Waste Recycling and Resources Recovery Programme (WARSE): used from
organic plant waste and night soil; helps in improving sanitary conditions in
villages and cities;
d. manure: plants generate enriched organic manure used for supplementing
chemical fertilizers.

3. Advantages
a. quality: clean, non-polluting, cheap;
b. no storage problem: due to direct supply of gas from the plant; and
c. fertilizer: sludge left behind is a rich fertilizer containing the bacterial
biomass.
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