Acknowledgement

I would like to thank my chemistry teacher Mrs. Amudha for her

constant guidance, motivation, moral encouragement and sympathetic
attitude towards the success of this project. I also want to thank the
principal and the institution for providing the necessary materials. I
would also like to extend my gratitude towards the lab attendant, my
parents and everyone who has helped me in completing the project
successfully.
DRUPAD P

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Bonafide certificate
This is to certify that DRUPAD P of class XII has successfully
completed the investigatory project on “TO STUDY VARIATION OF
CURRENT USING A LDR" under the guidance of Mrs. Amudha. This project
is absolutely genuine and doesn't not involve in any kind of
plagiarism. This is in partial fulfillment of Physics practical
examination AISSCE 2013.

Department of Physics (AMUDHA)

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INDEX
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE i ii

INTRODUCTION APPLICATIONS AIM & APPARATUS THEORY PROCEDURE

OBSERVATIONS RESULT & CONCLUSION SOURCES OF ERROR BIBLIOGRAPHY

01 02 03 04 09 10 12 13 14

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INTRODUCTION
The general purpose photoconductive cell is also known as LDR –
light dependent resistor. It is a type of semiconductor and its
conductivity changes with proportional change in the intensity of
light. There are two common types of materials used to manufacture the
photoconductive cells. They are Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) and Cadmium
Selenide (CdSe). Extrinsic devices have impurities added, which have a
ground state energy closer to the conduction band since the electrons
don't have as far to jump, lower energy photons (i.e. longer
wavelengths and lower frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the
device. Two of its earliest applications were as part of smoke and
fire detection systems and camera light meters. The structure is
covered with glass sheet to protect it from moisture and dust and
allows only light to fall on it.

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Applications
Lead sulfide (PbS) and indium antimonide (InSb) LDRs are used for the
mid infrared spectral region. GeCu photoconductors are among the best
farinfrared detectors available, and are used for infrared astronomy
and infrared spectroscopy. Analog Applications · Camera Exposure
Control · Auto Slide Focus - dual cell · Photocopy Machines -
density of toner · Colorimetric Test Equipment · Densitometer ·
Electronic Scales - dual cell · Automatic Gain Control – modulated
light source · Automated Rear View Mirror Digital Applications ·
Automatic Headlight Dimmer · Night Light Control · Oil Burner Flame
Out · Street Light Control · Position Sensor
*LDR has a disadvantage that when its temperature changes, its
resistance changes drastically for a particular light intensity.

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AIM & APPARATUS
AIM: To study the variations, in current flowing in a circuit
containing a LDR, because of a variation:(a) In the power of the
incandescent lamp, used to ‘illuminate’ the LDR. (Keeping all the
lamps at a fixed distance). (b) In the distance of a incandescent
lamp, (of fixed power), used to ‘illuminate’ the LDR. APPARATUS:
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) Connecting Wires Source of different
power rating (bulbs) Bulb Holder Metre scale Multi Meter Battery

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THEORY
1.) LDR and its characteristics When light is incident on it, a photon
is absorbed and thereby it excites an electron from valence band into
conduction band. Due to such new electrons coming up in conduction
band area, the electrical resistance of the device decreases. Thus the
LDR or photo-conductive transducer has the resistance which is the
inverse function of radiation intensity.

λ0 = threshold wavelength, in meters e = charge on one electron, in

Coulombs Ew = work function of the metal used, in Ev

Here we must note that any radiation with wavelength greater than the
value obtained in above equation CANNOT PRODUCE any change in the
resistance of this device. The band gap energy of Cadmium Sulphide is
2.42eV and for Cadmium Selenide it is1.74eV. Due to such large energy
gaps, both the materials have extremely high resistivity at room
temperature.

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Characteristics of photoconductive cells Now when the device is kept
in darkness, its resistance is called as dark resistance. This
resistance is typically of the order of 1013 ohms. When light falls on
it, its resistance decreases up to several kilo ohms or even hundreds
of ohms, depending on the intensity of light, falling on it. The
spectral response characteristics of two commercial cells were
compared in our laboratory. And we found that there is almost no
response to the radiation of a wavelength which was shorter than
300nm. It was very interesting to note that the Cadmium Sulphide cell
has a peak response nearer or within the green color of the spectrum
within a range of 520nm. Thus it can be used nearer to the infra-red
region up to 750nm. It was found that the maximum response of Cadmium
Sulphoselenide is in the yellow-orange range at 615nm and also it can
be used in the infra-red region up to about 970nm.

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Sensitivity The sensitivity of a photo detector is the relationship
between the light falling on the device and the resulting output
signal. In the case of a photocell, one is dealing with the
relationship between the incident light and the corresponding
resistance of the cell.

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Spectral Response Like the human eye, the relative sensitivity of a
photoconductive cell is dependent on the wavelength (color) of the
incident light. Each photoconductor material type has its own unique
spectral response curve or plot of the relative response of the
photocell versus wavelength of light.

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2.) luminous flux variation:
Considering the source to be a point radiating in all directions;
consider a steradian (or even a simple sphere), take a small element
dA on the steradian at a distance ‘r’ from the source. It
comprises a small part of the energy radiated (dEr). Now, go further
to a distance ‘R’ (R>r) from the source, consider the same area
element dA, it comprises a much smaller part of energy radiated (dER).
[dEr > dER]. It varies inversely as the square of the distance.

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PROCEDURE
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Choose a specific position for the source and mount it using a holder,
make sure it is stable. Select the bulb with the lowest power rating
and connect it to the holder as shown in the figure. Connect the LDR,
battery(6V) and the multimeter in series. Set the multimeter to ohm
section and select suitable range and measure the resistance with a
bulb on. Similarly switch to current section and move to micro ampere
in the multimeter. This gives the value of the current. Repeat these
steps with different power sources at different distances and note
down observations.

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OBSERVATIONS
The experiment has been conducted by using various sources with
different power ratings. Voltage of the battery = 6 V 1.) 15 watts
(yellow) (wavelength = 570nm)
Serial No 1. 2. 3. 4. DISTANCE FROM SOURCE (cm) 50 40 30 20 RESISTANCE
(Kilo ohm) 142.5 69 41 21 CURRENT (micro ampere) 40 80 150 300

2.) 15 watts (incandescent) (mean wavelength = 610nm

Serial No 1. 2. 3. 4. DISTANCE FROM SOURCE (cm) 50 40 30 20 RESISTANCE
(Kilo ohm) 51 35 22 11 CURRENT (micro ampere) 120 170 270 540

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3.) 40 watts (incandescent) (mean wavelength = 610nm)
Serial No DISTANCE FROM SOURCE (cm) 50 40 30 20 RESISTANCE (Kilo ohm)
CURRENT (micro ampere)

1. 2. 3. 4.

20 13 8.5 4.5

300 460 700 1330

4.) 20 watts (CFL) (white light)

Serial No DISTANCE FROM SOURCE (cm) 50 40 30 20 RESISTANCE (Kilo ohm)
CURRENT (micro ampere)

1. 2. 3. 4.

15.5 10 6 3

380 600 1000 2000

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CONCLUSION & RESULT
The LDR resistance decreases with increase in intensity of light and
hence there is an increase in the flow of current. There is an
increase in the current as the distance from the source decreases. The
intensity decreases as the distance from the source increases The
error lies within the experimental limit.

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SOURCES OF ERROR
The LDR may not be perpendicular to the source. Connections may be
faulty. The experiment should be conducted in a dark room.
Measurements should be taken accurately.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
NCERT physics class XII Art of Electronics by paul worowitz
www.wikipedia.com/ www.electronics2000.co.uk/links/education-hobby/
www.ecelab.com/

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