UNIT – 3

OPTOELECTRONIC DEVICES
Optoelectronics is the study and application of electronic devices and systems thatsource, detect
and control light. Optoelectronic devices are those that convert light energy to electrical energy
and light energy into electrical energy making use of semiconductors. These devices are used in
many optoelectronic applications like military services, telecommunications, medical
equipment’s, etc. Optoelectronic devices are basically classified into two categories: Light
generating devices and Light detecting devices. Different optoelectronic devices are:
 Photodiode
 Solar Cells
 Light Emitting Diodes
 Optical Fiber
 Laser Diodes
Radiative Recombination and Non radiative Recombination
Generation is the process by which covalent bonds are broken to form electron hole pair. When an
external energy like temperature or an optical energy is supplied atoms of the crystal lattice called
phonons start vibrating breaking the covalent bond. As a result free electron generated is excited to
conduction band leaving a hole in valence band. Thus an electron hole pair is created. If temperature
is fixed then carrier concentration in conduction band and valence band should not be changing
with respect to time. So there should be an opposite process that compensates the generation.
Electron in conduction band should fill the hole in valence band. This is called as recombination.
Thus the formation of covalent bonds by bringing electron and hole pair together.
Consider valence band and conduction band If a photon with energy h is incident. Electron at the
top of valence band excites to bottom of conduction band then the energy difference is E g. If the
electron is at the bottom of valence band is excited to top of the conduction band then suppose the
energy as Eg’.
The energy with which the photon should be incident lies in between the Eg and E’g.
i.e. 𝐸𝑔 ≤ ℎ𝜗 ≤ 𝐸𝑔′
ℎ𝑐
ℎ𝜗 =
𝜆
h is the plancks constant; ℎ = 6.62 × 10−34

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c is the velocity of light 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
expressing in eV 1𝑒𝑉 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽

ℎ𝑐 6.62 × 10−34 × 3 × 108

𝐸 = ℎ𝜗 = =
𝜆 𝜆(𝜇𝑚) × 1.6 × 10−19 × 10−6
1.24
𝐸(𝑒𝑉) =
𝜆𝜇𝑚
1.24 1.24 1.24 1 1 1
So . 𝐸𝑔 ≤ ℎ𝜗 ≤ 𝐸𝑔′ = ≤ ≤ = ≤ ≤
𝜆𝑔 𝜇𝑚 𝜆𝜇𝑚 𝜆𝑔 ′ 𝜇𝑚 𝜆𝑔 𝜇𝑚 𝜆𝜇𝑚 𝜆𝑔 ′ 𝜇𝑚

Hence 𝐸𝑔 ≤ ℎ𝜗 ≤ 𝐸𝑔′ = 𝜆𝑔 ≥ 𝜆 ≥ 𝜆′𝑔

The wavelength of the photon to be incident to absorb the electron in valence ban and excite to
conduction band is in the limit 𝜆𝑔 ≥ 𝜆 ≥ 𝜆′𝑔 .
This recombination is classified as Direct Recombination and indirect recombination
Direct Recombination:
In direct band gap materials, the minimum energy of the conduction band lies directly above the
maximum energy of the valence band in momentum space energy. In this material, free electrons
at the bottom of the conduction band can recombine directly with free holes at the top of the valence
band, as the momentum of the two particles is the same. This transition from conduction band to
valence band involves photon emission (takes care of the principle of energy conservation). This
is known as direct recombination. Direct recombination occurs spontaneously. GaAs is an example
of a direct band-gap material.
When an electron is excited if the energy released is high the process is called as direct
recombination
Indirect recombination:
In the indirect band gap materials, the minimum energy in the conduction band is shifted by a k-
vector relative to the valence band. The k-vector difference represents a difference in momentum.
Due to this difference in momentum, the probability of direct electronhole recombination is less.
In these materials, additional dopants(impurities) are added which form very shallow donor states.
These donor states capture the free electrons locally; provides the necessary momentum shift for
recombination. These donor states serve as the recombination centers. This is called Indirect (non-
radiative) Recombination.
GaP is an example of an indirect band-gap material.

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When an electron is excited if the energy released is non radiative that is simply heat the process is
called as indirect recombination.
Light emitting Diode:
Light Emitting Diodes are semiconductor devices that convert electrical energy into light energy.
The wavelength emitted by the LED depends on the type of semiconducting material used. These
diodes emit light only when forward biased. They are formed from a PN junction.
Construction: It has a normal Pn-junction structure with two terminals anode and cathode. An
LED is constructed by coating or depositing highly doped P-type semiconductor layer on highly
doped N-type semiconductor substrate. Hence they are in direct contact. The region where the N-
type semiconductor comes in contact with the P-type semiconductor is known as the P-N junction.
The pn junction acts as active region emitting light in all directions when recombination occurs.
The junction is surrounded by a transparent hard plastic epoxy material that is hemispherical in
shape to protect diode from external shock.

LED symbol

Schematic representation of LED

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Directband gap semiconducting materials like Galium-Arsenide-phosphorous (GaAsP) and
Galium-phosphorous (GaP) semiconductors are used to construct LED.
Working:
A Led consists of two semiconducting material i.e. p-type material and n-type material. Current in
a diode flows when free electrons and holes flow. When p-n junction is forward biased holes
injected by positive terminal migrate towards n-region and electrons injected by negative terminal
migrate towards positive region. During this process of flow of holes and free electrons there will
be recombination. That means free electrons will recombine with holes to produce recombination.
During recombination free electrons in conduction band jump to hole in valence band. During this
jump electron emits energy in the form of photon. This energy is equal to the forbidden energy
gap between Conduction band and valence band. Conduction band is at higher energy level than
valence band. During the recombination of electrons and holes, some portion of energy is
dissipated or emitted in the form of heat and light. The phenomenon into which light emitted from
the semiconductor under the influence of electric field is known as electroluminescence. The
majority of light is produced from the junction nearer to the p-type region

Energy of photon is ℎ𝜗 . Suppose 𝐸 = ℎ𝜗. h is plancks constant and 𝜗 is the frequency of radiation.
Photon is released in all the recombination but light is radiated only by LED. Velocity of
electromagnetic radiation is fixed and equal to speed of light c. The frequency of radiation is
related to velocity of light
𝑐
𝜗=
𝜆

ℎ𝑐
λ is the wavelength of electromagnetic wave radiation. 𝐸 = ℎ𝜗 = Thus Wavelength of
𝜆

electromagnetic wave radiation is inversely proportional to energy gap. In semiconductor (like Ge,

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Si) this entire radiation of electromagnetic wave during recombination is in the form of infra red
radiation which is out of visible region. It is simply heat. As silicon and germanium are indirect
gap semiconductor. In indirect semiconductor the maximum energy level of Condution band and
minimum energy level of valence band do not occur at same momentum of electron. During
recombination the momentum of electrons change. Photons originated will be mostly utilized for
electron momentum.
In direct band gap semiconductor materials Maximum energy level of valence band minimum
energy level of conduction band occur at same electron momentum. So there will be no change of
momentum electrons during recombination. Photons originated due to this recombination do not
provide momentum to electrons.
The electrons dissipate energy in different forms depends on the nature of the diode used. Only
radioactive recombination results in emission of light during non-radioactive recombination heat is
released.
For silicon and germanium diodes energy is dissipated in the form of heat while for gallium
phosphide (GaP) and gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) semiconductors, it dissipates energy by
emitting photons. For the emission of different colours different semiconductors are used.
Characteristics of LED:
 Forward voltage across LED is greater than an ordinary diode.
 Voltage is between 1.2V and 3.2V.
 The amount of light emitted is directly proportional to forward current.
 The minimum voltage at which LED glows is called threshold voltage.
 Reverse breakdown voltage of LED is of the order 3V and is never operated in reverse
bias.

Applications:

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 1. These are used in security alarm system such as burglar alarm system.
2. There are used in electronic calculators for showing the digital data.
3. These are used in mobile phones for taking the pictures.
4. These are used in traffic signals for controlling the traffic crowds in cites.
5. These are used for lighting purpose such as in homes lights, factory lights and street lights
etc. Instead of incandescent lamps for saving the energy.
6. These are used in digital computers for displaying the computer data.
7. These are used in digital multimeter for showing the current, voltage and resistance in digital
form.
8. These are used in aviation lights for air craft warning signal.
9. There are used in remote control systems such TV or LCD remote.
10. There are also used in digital watches and automotive heat lamps
Advantages of LED’s
 Very low voltage and current are enough to drive the LED.
 Voltage range – 1 to 2 volts.
 Current – 5 to 20 milliamperes.
 Total power output will be less than 150 milliwatts.
 The response time is very less – only about 10 nanoseconds.
 The device does not need any heating and warm up time.
 Smaller in size and hence light weight.
Disadvantages
 A slight excess in voltage or current can damage the device.
 The device is known to have a much wider bandwidth compared to the laser.
 The temperature depends on the radiant output power and wavelength.
Photodiode:
It is a semiconductor device that converts light into an electrical current i.e. it generates voltage or
current when photons are absorbed in the photodiode. It is operated in reverse bias. Photodiode is
very sensitive to light so when light or photons falls on the photodiode it easily converts light into
electric current.
Photodiode symbol

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The symbol of photodiode is similar to the normal p-n junction diode except that it contains arrows
striking the diode. The arrows striking the diode represent light or photons.

PN junction photodiode

PN junction photodiodes are the first form of photodiodes. They are the most widely used
photodiodes before the development of PIN photodiodes. PN junction photodiode is also simply
referred as photodiode. Nowadays, PN junction photodiodes are not widely used.

When external light energy greater than band gap of semiconducting material is applied , electrons
is separated from parent atom leaving a hole. Thus, both free electrons and holes are generated as
pairs. Free electrons moves freely from one place to another place by carrying the electric current.
The minority carriers in the depletion region experience force due to the depletion region and the
external electric field. For example, free electrons in the depletion region experience repulsive and
attractive force from the negative and positive ions present at the edge of depletion region at p-
side and n-side. As a result, free electrons move towards the n region. When the free electrons
reaches n region, they are attracted towards the positive terminals of the battery. In the similar
way, holes move in opposite direction.

Thus depletion region becomes stronger and the external electric field increase the drift velocity
of the free electrons. Because of this high drift velocity, the minority carriers (free electrons and

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holes) generated in the depletion region will cross the p-n junction before they recombine with
atoms. As a result, the minority carrier current increases. The electric current generated in the
photodiode due to the application of light is called photocurrent.
When no light is applied to the reverse bias photodiode, it carries a small reverse current due to
external voltage. This small electric current under the absence of light is called dark current. In a
photodiode, reverse current is independent of reverse bias voltage. Reverse current is mostly
depends on the light intensity.
The total current through the photodiode is the sum of the dark current and the photocurrent. The
dark current must be reduced to increase the sensitivity of the device.
The electric current flowing through a photodiode is directly proportional to the incident number
of photons.
PIN photodiode
PIN photodiodes are developed from the PN junction photodiodes. The operation of PIN
photodiode is similar to the PN junction photodiode except that the PIN photodiode is
manufactured differently to improve its performance.
The PIN photodiode is developed to increase the minority carrier current and response speed.
PIN photodiodes generate more electric current than the PN junction photodiodes with the same
amount of light energy.
Layers of PIN photodiode
PIN photodiode is made of three layers namely p-type, n-type and intrinsic semiconductor. An
intrinsic semiconductor is sandwiched between p-type and n-type material to increase the minority
carrier current.

In p-type semiconductors holes are the majority charge carriers and free electrons are the minority
charge carriers. In p-type semiconductors, holes carry most of the electric current. In n-type
semiconductors free electrons are the majority charge carriers and holes are the minority charge
carriers.

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Intrinsic semiconductors are the pure form of semiconductors in which the number of free
electrons in the conduction band is equal to the number of holes in the valence band. Therefore,
intrinsic semiconductor has no charge carriers to conduct electric current. However, at room
temperature a small number of charge carriers are generated. These small number of charge
carriers will carry electric current.
Working:
The photodiode is operated under a reverse bias. Under reverse bias condition, the majority charge
carriers in n region and p region moves away from the junction. As a result, the width of depletion
region becomes very wide and normally no current will flow. The diode acts as a resistor.
Depletion region increases up to an extent when the entire intrinsic layer is swept or free from
charge carriers. The value of the reverse voltage at which the whole intrinsic layer is swept of
charge carriers is called Swept-out voltage. The value is -2V.
When a light photon enters the intrinsic region it can strike an atom in the crystal lattice and
dislodge an electron. In this way a hole-electron pair is generated. The hole and electron will then
migrate in opposite directions under the action of the electric field across the intrinsic region and
a small current can be seen to flow. This current is called photocurrent. It is found that the size of
the current is proportional to the amount of light entering the intrinsic region. The more light, the
greater the numbers of hole electron pairs that are generated and the greater the current flowing.
In zero bias, light falling on the diode causes a current across the device, leading to forward bias
which in turn induces "dark current" in the opposite direction to the photocurrent. Total current in
a photodiode is sum of the dark current and photocurrent.

When the PIN diode is forward biased the width of the depletion layer decreases increasing the
current. PIN diode acts as a variable resistor by providing variable resistance in forward bias and
in reverse biased it provides infinite resistance and thus acts as a perfect switch.

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V-I characteristics:
When not exposed to light the photo diode follows a normal V-I characteristic expected of a diode.
In the reverse direction virtually no current flows, but in the forward direction it steadily increases,
especially after the knee or turn on voltage is reached. This is modified in the presence of light.
When used as a photo-diode it can be seen that the greatest effect is seen in the reverse direction.

 The wide depletion region allows the PIN diode to operate at high reverse breakdown
voltage.
 PIN diode has a lower capacitance as the depletion region will be wider than a conventional
diode.
 Light striking the crystal lattice can release holes and electrons which are drawn away out of
the depletion region by the reverse bias on the diode allowing it to be used as photodetector.

Advantages of PIN photodiode

 Wide bandwidth
 High quantum efficiency
 High response speed

Avalanche Photodiode:
Avalanche photodiode is operated in reverse bias. It consists of four layers
N+ highly doped
P slightly doped P-region
I intrinsic region
P+ highly doped P region.
Intrinsic region is also doped with p-type material.

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Heavily doped N+ and P+ regions offers high resistance

Working:
The operation of avalanche photodiode is similar to the PN junction and PIN photodiode except
that a high reverse bias voltage is applied in case of avalanche photodiode to achieve avalanche
multiplication. Applying high reverse bias voltage to the avalanche photodiode will not directly
increase the generation of charge carriers. However, it provides energy to the electron-hole pairs
generated by the incident light.

When light is incident on the atoms in intrinsic region electrons are knocked out producing more
number of electron hole pairs. When reverse bias voltage is increased electron hole pairs drift
towards N+ region via P and collide with electrons of N+ region. This creates more number of
conducting electrons. A single photon is capable to produce large number of free electrons by
avalanche effect creating output current to be increased enormously.
Advantages:

 It is a high sensitive device as a result of avalanche gain

 High frequency response
 Internal current gain is due to carrier multiplication.

Disadvantages:

 It needs higher operating voltage

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  It has higher level of noise
 Output is non linear.

Applications:
They are used in electronic device such as smoke detector, compact disk players and infrared
remote controls which are used for on the television, LCD and other devices.
They are widely used in medical equipment’s for computing the tomography.
These are also used in cameras, safety equipment, position sensors, bar code sensors, automotive
devices and surveying instruments.
Quantum Efficiency:
The number of electrons produced per incident photon is defined as the
quantum efficiency
𝐼
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒
𝜂= = 𝑃0
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡
ℎ𝜈

𝐼
𝑒 𝐼 ℎ𝜈
𝜂= =
𝑃0 𝑃0 𝑒
ℎ𝜈

Responsivity:
Responsivity of a detector is given as the ratio of the generated photocurrent (I) to the amount of
optical power (P0 ) incident on the detector
photocurrent 𝑰
𝑹= =
optical power 𝑷𝟎
Unit for responsivity is amp/Watt
𝑰 𝑒
But 𝑷 = 𝜂
𝟎 ℎ𝜈
𝑰 𝑒
So the responsivity is given as 𝑅 = = 𝜂
𝑷𝟎 ℎ𝜈

Solar Cell
It is an optical device that converts optical energy into electrical energy without any external
voltage or biasing.
Construction
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It is also a type of PN junction.
Principle: It converts optical energy into electrical. It is a type of battery which produces small
amount of current. By connecting cells in series or parallel larger amount f current can be produced.
Layer which is facing towards the source is made thin (say n-layer). Opposite side is made thick
comparatively so that light energy incident striking the upper surface can easily reach the junction.
The depletion layer consists of neutral atoms. Here silicon diode is considered as depletion layer.
Upper surface is provided with a metal finger and the lower surface is provided with a metal
contact.
Working:
When light energy is incident on the upper surface it easily penetrates and reach the depletion
region, atoms are destroyed i.e. electrons are knocked out from the atom leaving a hole. Hence
electron hole pairs are generated. The depletion region is already having electric field directing
from n to p. This electric filed exerts force on the charge carriers. Generated electron move towards
n-region and holes towards P-region. Metal fingers on the upper surface absorbs the generated
electrons, hence there is accumulation of charges on the two regions and it produces a potential
difference called photo emf of magnitude of order of 0.5V.
V-I characteristics of solar cell:

The power delivered by a solar cell is the product of current and voltage ( I x V ).
The current across the illuminated cell at zero voltage is called short circuit ISC.
The voltage across the illuminated cell at zero current is called as open circuit voltage Voc.

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I-V characteristics curve ranges from the short circuit current ( Isc ) at zero output volts, to zero
current at the full open circuit voltage ( Voc ).
The ideal operation of a photovoltaic cell (or panel) is defined to be at the maximum power point.
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 × 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
Since solar cell output voltage and current both depend on temperature, the actual output power
will vary with changes in ambient temperature.

Conversion Efficiency:
Total current in solar cell is
𝑒𝑉
𝐼 = 𝐼0 (𝑒 𝐾𝑇 − 1) − 𝐼𝐿

Short circuit current is at V=0

So
𝐼𝑠𝑐 = − 𝐼𝐿
Open circuit voltage is at I=0

𝑒𝑉
𝐼0 (𝑒 𝐾𝑇 − 1) = 𝐼𝐿

𝑒𝑉 𝐼𝐿
𝑒 𝐾𝑇 = 1 +
𝐼0
Taking log on either sides and let V=Voc
𝐾𝑇 𝐼𝐿 𝐾𝑇 𝐼𝐿
Voc = ln (1 + ) = 𝑙𝑛
𝑒 𝐼0 𝑒 𝐼0
𝑒𝑉
Out power is given by 𝑃 = 𝑉 × 𝐼 = 𝑉 (𝐼0 (𝑒 𝐾𝑇 − 1) − 𝐼𝐿 )
𝑑𝑃
Condition for maximum power is given by 𝑑𝑉 = 0

So
𝑑𝑃 𝑒𝑉 𝑒𝑉
= 𝐼0 (𝑒 𝐾𝑇 (1 + ) − 1) − 𝐼𝐿 = 0
𝑑𝑉 𝐾𝑇

𝑑𝑃
At 𝑑𝑉 = 0 V=Vm

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 𝑒𝑉𝑚 𝑒𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝐿
𝑒 𝐾𝑇 (1 + )= 1+
𝐾𝑇 𝐼0
𝐼
𝑒𝑉𝑚 1 + 𝐼𝐿
0
𝑒 𝐾𝑇 =
𝑒𝑉𝑚
1 + 𝐾𝑇

Taking log on either sides

𝐼
𝑒𝑉𝑚 1 + 𝐼𝐿
0
= ln ( )
𝐾𝑇 𝑒𝑉𝑚
1 + 𝐾𝑇

𝐼
𝐾𝑇 1 + 𝐼𝐿 𝐾𝑇 𝑒𝑉𝑚
0
𝑉𝑚 = ln ( ) = 𝑉𝑜𝑐 − 𝑙𝑛 (1 + )
𝑒 𝑒𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝐾𝑇
1 + 𝐾𝑇

Expression for Maximum current:

𝑒𝑉
𝐼 = 𝐼0 (𝑒 𝐾𝑇 − 1) − 𝐼𝐿

Maximum current
𝑒𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑚 = 𝐼0 (𝑒 𝐾𝑇 − 1) − 𝐼𝐿
𝐼
𝐾𝑇 1+ 𝐿
𝐼0
But 𝑉𝑚 = ln ( 𝑒𝑉𝑚 )
𝑒 1+
𝐾𝑇
𝐼 𝐼
𝑒 𝐾𝑇 1+ 𝐿 1+ 𝐿
𝐼0 𝐼0
So 𝐼𝑚 = 𝐼0 [exp {𝐾𝑇 . ln ( 𝑒𝑉 ) }] − (𝐼0 + 𝐼𝐿 ) = 𝐼0 {( 𝑒𝑉𝑚 ) } − (𝐼0 + 𝐼𝐿 )
𝑒 1+ 𝑚 1+
𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑇

𝐼0 + 𝐼𝐿 1 𝑒𝑉𝑚
=( 𝑒𝑉𝑚 ) − (𝐼0 + 𝐼𝐿 ) = (𝐼0 + 𝐼𝐿 ) ( 𝑒𝑉𝑚 − 1) = −(𝐼0 + 𝐼𝐿 ) (𝑒𝑉 )
1+ 1+ 𝑚 +𝐾𝑇
𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑇

Thus maximum current

𝑒𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑚 = −(𝐼0 + 𝐼𝐿 ) (𝑒𝑉 )
𝑚 +𝐾𝑇

Maximum voltage
𝐾𝑇 𝑒𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑚 = 𝑉𝑜𝑐 − 𝑙𝑛 (1 + )
𝑒 𝐾𝑇

Maximum Power

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 𝐾𝑇 𝑒𝑉𝑚 𝑒𝑉𝑚
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑚 × 𝐼𝑚 = {𝑉𝑜𝑐 − 𝑙𝑛 (1 + )} × {−(𝐼0 + 𝐼𝐿 ) ( )}
𝑒 𝐾𝑇 𝑒𝑉𝑚 + 𝐾𝑇
𝐾𝑇 𝑒𝑉𝑚 𝐾𝑇
= 𝐼𝐿 {𝑉𝑜𝑐 − 𝑙𝑛 (1 + )− }
𝑒 𝐾𝑇 𝑒
Conversion efficiency of solar cell is
𝐾𝑇 𝑒𝑉𝑚 𝐾𝑇
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑚 × 𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝐿 {𝑉𝑜𝑐 − 𝑒 𝑙𝑛 (1 + 𝐾𝑇 )− 𝑒 }
𝜂= = =
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑖 𝑃𝑖
Advantages of solar cell:

 It is present in abundance. It is a renewable source

 Solar energy can be used in remote areas where it is too expensive to extend the
electricity power grid.
 They have no moving parts they require little maintenance and have a long lifetime.
 It does not cause any environmental pollution like the fossil fuels and nuclear power
 Solar cells last a longer time and have low running costs
 It is used for satellites as they can be launched in an orbit without the added weight of a
fuel supply.

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