WELDING (UNIT IV)

Ques 1 Define welding?

Ans : Welding : A weld can be defined as a coalescence of metals produced by heating to a
suitable temperature with or without the application of pressure, and with or without the use of a
filler material.
A weld is made when separate pieces of material to be joined combine and form one piece when
heated to a temperature high enough to cause softening or melting. Filler material is typically
added to strengthen the joint.

• Welding is a dependable, efficient and economic method for permanently joining similar
metals. In other words, you can weld steel to steel or aluminum to aluminum, but you cannot
weld steel to aluminum using traditional welding processes.

• Welding is used extensively in all sectors or manufacturing, from earth moving equipment to
the aerospace industry.

Ques 2 Explain classification of welding?

Ans : CLASSIFICATION: They can also be classified, depending on the source of heat, as
follows:
1. Gas welding
 Oxy acetylene or hydrogen welding
 Air acetylene welding
2. Arc welding
 Carbon arc welding
 Metal arc welding
 Gas metal arc welding (MIG)
 Plasma arc welding
 Electro slag welding
 Submerged arc welding
 Flux cored arc welding
 Gas tungsten arc welding (TIG)
 Atomic hydrogen arc welding
3. Resistance welding
 Butt welding
 Resistance butt welding
 Spot welding
 Seam welding
 Projection welding
 Percussion welding

4. Solid state welding

 Friction welding
 Ultrasonic welding
 Diffusion welding
 Explosive welding
  Cold welding
 Forge welding
5. New welding processes
 Electron beam welding
 Laser beam welding

Ques 3 Explain gas welding with neat and clean diagram.

Ans : GAS WELDING

Principle:
Gas welding is a most important type of welding process. It is done by burning of fuel gases with
the help of oxygen which forms a concentrated flame of high temperature. This flame directly
strikes the weld area and melts the weld surface and filler material. The melted part of welding
plates diffused in one another and create a weld joint after cooling. This welding method can be
used to join most of common metals used in daily life.

Welding Torch:
Welding torches are most important part of gas welding. Both the fuel gas and oxygen at suitable
pressure fed through hoses to the welding torch. There are valves for each gas witch control the
flow of gases inside the torch. Both gases mixed there and form a flammable mixture. These
gases ignite to burn at the nozzle. The fire flame flow through nozzle and strikes at welding
plates. The nozzle thickness depends on the size of the welding plates and material to be welded.
 Oxygen Cylinder:
For proper burning of fuel, appropriate amount of oxygen required. This oxygen supplied by a
oxygen cylinder. A black line is used to indicate oxygen cylinder.

Fuel Gas Cylinder:

Gas cylinder is filled either by oxy acetylene gas, hydrogen gas, natural gas or other flammable
gas. The fuel gas selection is depends on the welding material. Mostly oxy acetylene gas is used
for all general purpose of welding. Normally these cylinders have Maroon line to indicate it. The
fuel gases passes through it.

Pressure regulator:
Both oxygen and fuel gases are filled in cylinder at high pressure. These gases cannot use at this
high pressure for welding work so a pressure regulator is used between flow. It supplies oxygen
at pressure about 70 – 130 KN / M2 and gas at 7 – 103 KN / M2 to the welding torch.

Goggles and Gloves:

These are use for safety purpose of welder. It protects eyes and hand from radiation and flame of
fire.

Working:
Gas welding process is quite simpler compare to arc welding. In this process all the equipment
are connected carefully. The gas cylinder and oxygen cylinder
connected to the welding torch through pressure regulators. Now the regulate pressure of gas and
oxygen supplied to the torch where they properly mixed. The flame is ignited by a striker. Take
care the tip of torch is pointing downward. Now the flame is controlled through valves situated
in welding torch. The flame is set at natural flame or carburizing flame or oxidizing flame
according to the welding condition. Now the welding torch moved along the line where joint to
be created. This will melt the interface part and join them permanently.

Application:
 It is used to join thin metal plates.
 It can used to join both ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
 Gas welding mostly used in fabrication of sheet metal.
 It is widely used in automobile and aircraft industries.

Advantages:
 It is easy to operate and dose not required high skill operator.
 Equipment cost is low compare to other welding processes like MIG, TIG etc.
 It can be used at site.
 Equipment’s are more portable than other type of welding.
 It can also be used as gas cutting.
Disadvantages:
 It provides low surface finish. This process needs a finishing operation after welding.
 Gas welding have large heat affected zone which can cause change in mechanical properties of
parent material.
 Higher safety issue due to naked flame of high temperature.
 It is Suitable only for soft and thin sheets.
 Slow metal joining rate.
 No shielding area which causes more welding defects.
Ques 4 Describe Tungsten Arc Welding and also explain advantage and disadvantage of
TIG welding?
Ans: Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW), also known as tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding is a
process that produces an electric arc maintained between a nonconsumable tungsten electrode
and the part to be welded. The heat-affected zone, the molten metal, and the tungsten electrode
are all shielded from atmospheric contamination by a blanket of inert gas fed through the GTAW
torch. Inert gas (usually Argon) is inactive or deficient in active chemical properties. The
shielding gas serves to blanket the weld and exclude the active properties in the surrounding air.
Inert gases, such as Argon and Helium, do not chemically react or combine with other gases.
They pose no odor and are transparent, permitting the the welder maximum visibility of the arc.
In some instances Hydrogen gas may be added to ehance travel speeds. The GTAW process can
produce temperatures of up to 35,000° F (19,426°C). The torch contributes heat only to the
workpiece. If filler metal is required to make the weld, it may be added manually in the same
manner as it is added in the oxyacetylene welding process, or in other situations may be added
using a cold wire feeder. GTAW is used to weld steel, stainless steel, nickel alloys such as
Monel® and Inconel®, titanium, aluminum, magnesium, copper, brass, bronze, and even gold.
GTAW can also weld dissimilar metals to one another such as copper to brass and stainless steel
to mild steel.

Advantages of GTAW welding:

1.Concentrated Arc - Permits pinpoint control of heat input to the workpiece resulting in a
narrow heat-affected zone.

2. No Slag - No requirement for flux with this process; therefore no slag to obscure the welder’s
vision of the molten weld pool.

3. No Sparks or Spatter - No transfer of metal across the arc. No molten globules of spatter to
contend with and no sparks produced if material being welded is free of contaminants.

4. Little Smoke or Fumes - Compared to other arc-welding processes like stick or flux cored
welding, few fumes are produced. However, the base metals being welded may contain coatings
or elements such as lead, zinc, copper, and nickel that may produce hazardous fumes. Keep your
head and helmet out of any fumes rising off the workpiece. Be sure that proper ventilation is
supplied, especially in a confined space.

5. Welds more metals and metal alloys than any other arc welding process. Good for welding
thin material. Good for welding dissimilar metals together.
Disadvantages of GTAW welding:

1.Slower travel speeds than other processes.

2. Lower filler metal deposition rates. Hand-eye coordination is a required skill. Brighter UV
rays than other processes.

3. Equipment costs can be higher than with other processes.

4. Concentrations of shielding gas may build up and displace oxygen when welding in confined
areas − ventilate the area and/or use local forced ventilation at the arc to remove welding fumes
and gases. If ventilation is poor, wear an approved air-supplied respirator.

Ques 5 What is Welding Defects, also explain types, causes and remedies of welding
defects?
Ans : Welding Defects can be defined as the irregularities formed in the given weld metal due to
wrong welding process or incorrect welding patterns, etc. The defect may differ from the desired
weld bead shape, size, and intended quality. Welding defects may occur either outside or inside
the weld metal.

Welding defects can be classified into two types as external and internal defects:

External Welding Defects:

1. Weld Crack
2. Undercut
3. Spatter
4. Porosity
5. Overlap
6. Crater

Internal Welding Defects:

1. Slag Inclusion
2. Incomplete Fusion
3. Necklace cracking
4. Incompletely filled groove or Incomplete penetration

External Welding Defects

The various types of external defects with their causes and remedies are listed below:

1. Weld Crack
This is the most unwanted defect of all the other welding defects. Welding cracks can be present
at the surface, inside of the weld material or at the heat affected zones.
Crack can also appear at different temperatures:

Hot Crack – It is more prominent during crystallization of weld joints where the temperature
can rise more than 10,000-degree Celsius.
Cold Crack – This type of crack occurs at the end of the welding process where the temperature
is quite low. Sometimes cold crack is visible several hours after welding or even after few days.
Causes Of Weld Crack:
1. Poor ductility of the given base metal.
2. The presence of residual stress can cause a crack on the weld metal.
3. The rigidity of the joint which makes it difficult to expand or contract the metals.
4. If there is high content on sulfur and carbon then also the cracks may appear.
5. Using hydrogen as a shielding gas while welding ferrous materials.

Remedies for Weld crack:

1. Using appropriate materials may decrease the chances of crack.
2. Preheating the weld and reducing the cooling speed joint helps in reducing
crack.
3. Reduce the gap between the weld joints by using reasonable weld joints.
4. While welding releases the clamping force slowly which increases fill to
capacity of welding material.

2. Undercut

When the base of metal melts away from the weld zone, then a groove is formed in the shape of
a notch, then this type of defect is known as Undercut. It reduces the fatigue strength of the joint.

Causes of Undercut:
1. If the arc voltage is very high then this defect may occur.
2. If we use the wrong electrode or if the angle of the electrode is wrong, then also the defect
may form.
3. Using a large electrode is also not advisable.
4. High electrode speed is also one of the reasons for this defect.

Remedies for Undercut:

1. Reduce the arc length or lower the arc voltage.
2. Keep the electrode angle from 30 to 45 degree with the standing leg.
3. The diameter of the electrode should be small.
4. Reduce the travel speed of the electrode.
2. Spatter: When some metal drops are expelled from the weld and remain stuck to
the surface, then this defect is known as Spatter.
 3.

Causes Of Spatter:
1. High Welding current can cause this defect.
2. The longer the arc the more chances of getting this defect.
3. Incorrect polarity.
4. Improper gas shielded may also cause this defect.

Remedies for Spatter:

1. Reducing the arc length and welding current
2. Using the right polarity and according to the conditions of the welding.
3. Increasing the plate angle and using proper gas shielding.

4.Porosity: Porosity in the condition in which the gas or small bubbles gets trapped in the
welded zone.

Causes of Porosity:
1. It occurs when the electrode is not coated properly.
2. Using a longer arc may also increase its chances.
3. Increased welding currents.
4. Rust or oil on the welding surface.

Remedies for porosity:

1. Proper selection of the electrode.
2. Decreasing the welding current.
3. Using smaller arc and slowing the process to allow the gases to escape.
4. Remove rust or oil from the surface and use a proper technique.

4.Overlap: When the weld face extends beyond the weld toe, then this defect occurs. In this
condition the weld metal rolls and forms an angle less than 90 degrees.
Causes of Overlap:
1. Improper welding technique.
2. By using large electrodes this defect may occur.
3. High welding current

Remedies for Overlap:

1. Using a proper technique for welding.
2. Use small electrode.
3. Less welding current.

6. Crater
It occurs when the crater is not filled before the arc is broken, which causes the outer edges to
cool faster than the crater. This causes a stress and then crack is formed.

Causes of the crater:

1. Incorrect torch angle.
2. Use of large electrode:
3. Improper welding technique

Remedies for crater:

1. Using a proper torch angle may reduce the stress on the metal
2. Using a small electrode may also decrease the crater.
3. Use a proper technique.

2.Internal Welding Defects

The various types of internal welding defects with their causes and remedies are listed below:

1. Slag Inclusion:

If there is any slag in the weld, then it affects the toughness and metal weldability of the given
material. This decreases the structural performance of the weld material. Slag is formed on the
surface of the weld or between the welding turns.

Causes Of Slag:
1. Slag is formed if the welding current density is very small, as it does not provide the required
amount of heat for melting the metal surface.
2. If the welding speed is too fast then also slag may occur.
3. If the edge of the weld surface is not cleaned properly then also slag may form.
4. Improper welding angle and travel rate of welding rod.

Remedies for Slag Inclusion:

1. Increase the current density
2. Adjust the welding speed so that the slag and weld pool do not mix with each
other.
 3. Clean the weld edges and remove the slags of previous weld layers
4. Have a proper electrode angle and travel rate.

2.Incomplete Fusion: Incomplete fusion occurs when the welder does not accurately weld the
material and the metal pre solidifies which leads to a gap which is not filled with the molten
metal.

Causes of Incomplete fusion:

1. It occurs because of the low heat input.
2. When the weld pool is very large and runs ahead of the arc.
3. When the angle of the joint is too low.
4. Incorrect electrode and torch angle may also lead to incomplete fusion.
5. Unproper bead position.

Remedies for Incomplete Fusion:

1. Increasing the welding current and decreasing the travel speed helps in removing the
chances of incomplete fusion.
2. Reducing the deposition rate.
3. Increasing the joint angle.
4. Try to position the electrode and torch angle properly so that the edges of the plate
melt away.
5. Positioning the bead properly so that the sharp edges with other beads can be avoided.

3. Necklace Cracking
It occurs in the use of electron beam welding where the weld does not penetrate properly.
Therefore, the molten metal does not flow into the cavity and results in a cracking known as
“Necklace Cracking”.
Causes of Necklace Cracking:
1. Improper welding technique.
2. It occurs in materials such as nickel base alloys, stainless steel, carbon steels and Tin alloys.
3. Using high speed of electron beam welding

Remedies for Necklace Cracking:

1. Using a proper welding technique reduce the chances of necklace cracking.
2. Using proper materials for welding.
3. Using a constant speed during the welding process.
3. Improper welding technique

4. Incompletely Filled Groove or Incomplete Penetration

These defects occur only in the butt welds where the groove of the metal is not filled completely.
It is also called as incomplete penetration defect.

Causes of an Incomplete filled groove are:

1. Less deposition of the weld metal
2. Use of improper size of the electrode
3. Improper welding technique

Remedies for Incomplete filled groove are:

1. More deposition of the weld metal.
2. Use a proper size of the electrode.
3. By using a proper welding technique.

Ques 6. Compare TIG welding with MIG welding.

Ans:
S.no MIG Welding
1. MIG stands for Metal Inert Gas TIG stands for Tungsten Inert Gas Welding. It is
Welding. It is also known as Gas also known as Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Metal Arc Welding (GMAW), Metal (GTAW).
Active Gas Welding (MAG).
It is a welding process in which
electric arc is formed in between a
consumable wire Electrode and
2. workpiece metal(s).
The type of electrode used is
3. consumable wire electrodes.
Most commonly it uses constant
voltage, direct current power source
for the welding. It can also use
constant current system and
4. alternating current.
The materials which it can weld are
aluminum, non-ferrous materials and
5. steels.
High skilled operator is not required
6. to perform MIG welding process.
7. It has high weld deposition rate.
8. No filler metal is required. The feed
TIG welding
It is a process in which an electric arc is formed
in between a non-consumable tungsten electrode
and workpiece metal(s)
The type of electrode used is non-consumable
tungsten electrode.
It uses constant current welding power supply for
the welding.
It is most commonly used to weld stainless steels
and non-ferrous metals like aluminum,
magnesium and copper alloys.
High skilled operator is required to perform TIG
welding process.
It has low weld deposition rate as compared with
MIG welding.
It may require filler metal from outside in some
 electrode wire melts and acts as filler
metal.
It can weld thick metal sheets upto
9. 40 mm.
It produces less quality of weld as
10. compared with TIG.
11. It uses continuous wire feed.
The equipment used in MIG welding
process is a welding gun, a welding
power supply, a feed wire unit, a
welding electrode wire and a
12. shielding gas supply.
13. It is a faster welding process.
cases if needed.
It can weld thin metal sheets upto 5 mm.
It produces high quality of weld because it
affords greater control over weld area.
It does not uses continuous wire feed.
The equipment used in TIG welding process is
welding torch, non-consumable tungsten
electrode, a constant-current welding power
supply and a shielding gas source.
It is a slower welding process.

Ques 7. Sketch the three types of gas welding flames and give differences between them.

Ans: The neutral flame has a one-to-one ratio of acetylene and oxygen. It obtains additional
oxygen from the air and provides complete combustion. It is generally preferred for welding. The
neutral flame has a clear, well-defined, or luminous cone indicating that combustion is complete.
Neutural welding flames are commonly used to weld:

 Mild steel
 Stainless steel
 Cast Iron
 Copper
 Aluminum

The welding flame should be adjusted to neutral before either the carburizing or oxidizing flame
mixture is set. There are two clearly defined zones in the neutral flame. The inner zone consists
of a luminous cone that is bluish-white. Surrounding this is a light blue flame envelope or sheath.
This neutral flame is obtained by starting with an excess acetylene flame in which there is a
"feather" extension of the inner cone. When the flow of acetylene is decreased or the flow of
oxygen increased the feather will tend to disappear. The neutral flame begins when the feather
disappears.

In the neutral flame, the temperature at the inner cone tip is approximately 5850ºF (3232ºC),
while at the end of the outer sheath or envelope the temperature drops to approximately 2300ºF
(1260ºC). This variation within the flame permits some temperature control when making a
weld. The position of the flame to the molten puddle can be changed, and the heat controlled in
this manner.

Caburizing Flame:

The carburizing flame has excess acetylene, the inner cone has a feathery edge extending beyond
it. This white feather is called the acetylene feather. If the acetylene feather is twice as long as
the inner cone it is known as a 2X flame, which is a way of expressing the amount of excess
acetylene. The carburizing flame may add carbon to the weld metal.
The reducing or carburizing flame can always be recognized by the presence of three distinct
flame zones. There is a clearly defined bluish-white inner cone, white intermediate cone
indicating the amount of excess acetylene, and a light blue outer flare envelope. This type of
flare burns with a coarse rushing sound. It has a temperature of approximately 5700ºF (3149ºC)
at the inner cone tips.

Oxidizing Flame

Oxidizing welding flames are produced when slightly more than one volume of oxygen is mixed
with one volume of acetylene. To obtain this type of flame, the torch should first be adjusted to a
neutral flame. The flow of oxygen is then increased until the inner cone is shortened to about
one-tenth of its original length. When the flame is properly adjusted, the inner cone is pointed
and slightly purple. An oxidizing flame can also be recognized by its distinct hissing sound. The
temperature of this flame is approximately 6300ºF (3482ºC) at the inner cone tip.

Oxidizing welding flames are commonly used to weld these metals:

 zinc
 copper
 maganese steel
 cast iron

When applied to steel, an oxidizing flame causes the molten metal to foam and give off sparks.
This indicates that the excess oxygen is combining with the steel and burning it. An oxidizing
flame should not be used for welding steel because the deposited metal will be porous, oxidized,
and brittle. This flame will ruin most metals and should be avoided.

Ques 8. Discuss the principle of resistance welding, Types applications, advantages and
disadvantages.

Ans: Principle:
All resistance welding like spot welding, seam welding, projection welding etc. are worked on
same principle of heat generation due to electric resistance. When a current passes through
electric resistance, it produces heat. This is same principle which is used in electric coil. The
amount of heat produced is depends on resistance of material, surface conditions, current
supplied, time duration of current supplied etc. This heat generation takes place due to
conversion of electric energy into thermal energy. The heat generation formula is

H = I2RT
Where
H = Heat generated in joule
I = Electric current in ampere
R = Electric resistance in Ohm
T = Time of current flow in second

This heat is used to melt the interface metal to form a strong weld joint by fusion. This process
produces weld without application of any filler material, flux and shielding gases.
Types:
There are four main type of resistance welding. These are

Spot Welding:
It is simplest type of resistance welding in which the work pieces are held together under
pressure of anvil face. The copper electrodes are brought in contact with work piece and current
start to flow through it. The work piece material applies some resistance in flow of current which
cause local heat generation. At the interface surfaces the resistance is high due to air gap. The
current start to flow though it which melt down the interface surface. The amount of current
supply and time should be sufficient for proper melting of interface surfaces. Now the current
stopped to flow but the pressure applied by electrode maintained for a fraction of second, while
the weld rapidly cooled. After it, the electrodes remove and brought to contact at other spot. It
will create a circular nugget. The nugget size depends on size of electrode. It is generally about
diameter 4-7 mm.

Seam Welding:
Seam welding is also called continuous spot welding in which a roller type electrode is used to
flow current through work pieces. First the rollers are brought in contact with work piece. A high
ampere current is passed through these rollers. This will melt the interface surfaces and form a
 weld joint. Now the rollers start rolling at work plates. This will create a continuous weld joint.
The timing of the weld and movement of electrode is controlled to assure that the weld overlap
and work piece does not get too hot. The welding speed is about 60 in/min in seam welding. It is
used to create air tight joints.

Application:
 Resistance welding is widely used in automotive industries.
 Projection welding is widely used in production of nut and bolt.
 Seam welding is used to produce leak prove joint required in small tanks, boilers etc.
 Flash welding is used to welding pipes and tubes.

Advantages and Disadvantages:

Advantages:
 It can weld thin (0.1 mm) as well as thick (20mm) metals.
 High welding speed.
 Easily automated.
 Both similar and dissimilar metals can be weld.
 The process is simple and fully automated so does not required high skilled labor.
 High production rate.
 It is environment friendly process.
 It does not require any filler metal, flux and shielding gases.
Disadvantages:
 High equipment cost.
 The thickness of work piece is limited due to current requirement.
 It is less efficient for high conductive materials.
 High electric power required.
 Weld joints have low tensile and fatigue strength.
Ques 9 : Write short notes on soldering and brazing.

Ans: Soldering and brazing:

Definitions: Soldering: Soldering is a process of uniting two or more metal pieces under heat
with the help of a solder and a flux. There are two types: Soft soldering Hard soldering.
Flux: it is cleaning agent used to prevent oxidation of metals at the soldering point. It helps the
solder to melt quickly and allows it to flow freely to unite more firmly. E.g. zinc chloride,
ammonium chloride, hydrochloric acid, borax, rosin, turpentine oil etc.

Solder: generally it is an alloy of lead and tin. It melts at low temperature. For strong joints a
mixture of copper and zinc is used which has high melting point.

Classification of solder:

Soft solder: for high joints using various proportions of lead and tin which has low melting
point.Hard solder: for strong joints using a mixture of copper, zinc etc. which has high melting
point.

Soft solder: generally it is composed of lead and tin. They are mixed in various proportions to
solder different metals at different temperatures. The range of melting point for such solder lies
between 150 to 300C. A suitable flux for the particular job is chosen. A small amount of bismuth
and cadmium are frequently added to lower the melting point if necessary. Soft solders are used
to join the wires and sheet metal works of light jobs which are subjected to light loads and slight
shocks. A plain soldering iron is used to heat the metal pieces during the process. Soldering
using soft solder is known as soft soldering.

Hard solder: generally it is composed of copper and zinc in 4:1 ratio. A small amount of silver
or tin and antimony are frequently added to improve the quality. The range of melting point of
such solder are lies between 350 to 900C.the fixtures for such solder will be in paste form. A
propane torch is used to heat the metal pieces during the process. Hard solders are used to make
comparatively strong joints compare to soft solder. e.g.: plumbing, heavy sheet metal works etc.

Method of soldering: The step by step general procedure for soldering is as follows:

1.The metal parts which are to be soldered must be thoroughly cleaned.

2. The type of job whether light or heavy has to be decided.

3. A good soldering iron has to be selected.

4. In case of light jobs, the tip of the heating head of the soldering iron has to be heated
sufficiently.

5. It has to be then cleaned, dipped in flux and the rubbed on the solder to tin the tip.

6. The molten solder has to be then deposited on the joint.

7.In case of heavy jobs, the surface must be tinned first by cleaning, the heating using a blow
torch.

8.The job must be dipped in flux.

9. Using a solder iron, the solder has to be applied over the parts.

10.The parts may be then assembled and heated together until the solder melts.

11. In case corrosive flux is used, the soldered job must be washed with water.

Advantages of soldering: 1. It is simple and economical.

1. Base metals are safe against the metallurgical damages due to low operating temperature.
Brazing: It is the process of uniting two or more metals of similar or dissimilar type with the
help of an alloy in the form of spelter and flux, like borax, ash etc. these are used in tanks,
radiators, carbide tips on tool holder etc.

Types of brazing: It is classified on the basis of actual heating as:-

• Torch brazing

• Electric brazing

• Immersion brazing.

Method of brazing: The step by step procedure for brazing is as follows:

The metal parts which are to be brazed must be thoroughly cleaned.

The flux must be applied to the surface.

The parts are to be clamped in the required position.

The flux ha to be applied on the surfaces.

The job has to be heated using the blow torch or the furnace etc.

The molten spelter has to be allowed to flow by capillary action into the joint.

The job has to be allowed to cool slowly.

Advantages:

1. Even dissimilar metal pieces can be united.

2. No metallurgical damage to base metals.
3. Provides stronger joints than hard soldering.