Read section SOURCES from every chapter

Name of authors and their contributions

12. ancient

Attempts to identify the makers of Painted Grey Ware with the Aryans also do
.
not receive strong support from archaeblogical evidence. If the PGW cultures
related to the Aryans, then keeping the theory of invasion in mind, we should
have found this pottery type in the areas of Bahawalpur and Punjab i.e. along the
route taken by the so-called Aryan migrants. However, we find these pottery
types confined to a particular geographical region comprising Haryana, Upper
Ganga basin and eastern Rajasthan.

Pottery analysis only helps in defining specific trait of the culture and nothing more.

Linguistic similarities between Avesta and Rigveda are not disputed but they do not show
any large scale migration.

Clashes between Aryans and non Aryans have been mentioned in the Rigveda but is not
supported by archaeology.

Rigveda is source to know the nature of economy, kingship, political organization, social
organisation, religions and cosmological beliefs

Pastoralism is a subsistence strategy ; by people in areas where large scale agri.is not feasible
due to environmental concerns as well as cultural concerns (e.g Jaina culture: don’t harm plants)

In Rigveda, a no.of references for cattle rearing and very few for agri.

Gau, gomat(rich person), gavishti, gavesana, gavyat(search for cows), gopati (chief)

Yava(barley), no other references found.

No Iron, copper not used for agri though known…stone tools (like axes) mentioned in rigveda.

Literary and archaeological evidences show no sedentary life; no concept of private property based on
land ownership.

Conquest of local inhabitants i.e. Dasas and Dasyus by Aryans led to the formation of Varna system :
Aryavarna and Dasvarna

Unequal distribution of the war booti resulted into stratification of society

Society was not static but dynamic ; it was continuously evolving in economic, social, political and
religious sphere
13

Pastoralism to agriculture
The evidence of the Later Vedic period suggests a transition from a pastoral society to
a sedentary agrarian society. Use of socketed axe to clear the forests, iron tipped ploughshare, hoes

neither purely agrarian, nor was it well advanced in iron technology, iron smelting was very
primitive.

iron tipped arrowheads, spearheads, etc. i.e. weapons found. Only one ploughshare at Jakhera was
found and that too was believed to belong to a later period.
in subsistence related activities, iron technololgy had practically no role.

Later vedic texts show continued importance of pastoralism…agri. Growth could have been possible due
to vast tracts of fertile alluvial lands of Doab.

1. Atharvaveda prescribes twelve sacrifices for acquiring material benefits…change in the status of
important deities…this shows sedentary and agri.life  importance of pastoralism declines
2. Wattle and daub or wood houses replaced by houses with earth walls…durable material was
used for construction of houses. PGW deposits found 2-3 m deep, indicate people living in the
same place…indicates sedentary life (Question on how to prove sedentary life)
Concept of janapada emerged…area where tribe settled.

Rajanya became Kshatriya- power over dominions.

Theoretical model of the Varna system could never be rigidly enforced in the post-vedic period.. society
was still flexible, where one’s occupation did not depend on birth. But the division in the society was
based on occupation alone.

Notion of untouchability was absent.

Three ashramas…later sanyasashrama was added by Upanishada

Sacrifices became very prominent. A new science of priestcraft emerged.

Atharvan(non-vedic or perhaps folk tradition) literature included in Vedic

texts shows the assimilation of different culture and tribes into vedic
religious system. (Question)
Atharvaveda is a mine of information regarding the folk tradition. Radically different from the vedic
sacrificial rituals. The term Atharvan indcates a magical formula. Superstitions and beliefs, picasas,
rakshasas were invoked. It contains :

 the cure for diseases

 prayers for health
 charms for the prosperity of home and children
 cattle and fields
 charms to produce harmony
 charms concerned with love and marriage or conversely rivalry and jealousy etc.
 14 Janapadas (6th C. BC) : USE OF IRON ON A LARGE SCALE

Settlement of agriculturists  settlers attached to a particular area..they formed

enduring ties with their surrounding landscape

Rise of Janapadas…led to the emergence of geography in Indian history (Question)

Janapadas are characterized by cohesion inside and separation from the outside world.
Hence, necessitated the growth of uniform language, customs and beliefs.

Rise of MAHAJANAPADAS :

Jana from Early Vedic age became Janapadas with the settlements in doab region. Here,
they concentrated on the expansion of agriculture, with the use of iron axes, ploughshare.

Middle Gangetic valley, east of Allahabad, reaped great dividends in wet rice
cultivation…hence, more rice than wheat per acre. Agriculture expansion along with
population. Hence, war and conquest not only to defend cattle but also to acquire more
land and safeguard people and agriculture produce. More extension of land brought many
tribes, Aryan and non Aryan in contact with each other, thus led to the formation of larger
entities. E.g Panchala represents 5 tribes.

Story of Jivaka from jataka (Question): info about physician, merchant(sreshthin), king,
Buddha, geographical extent, village as a basic unit of mahajanapadas, city, a prosperous
village, a new kind of settlement which rose in those days.

CITIES : Pura, Nigama, Nagara e.g Ayodhya, Varanasi

Rise of Urban Centres : city as focus of control and power over Mahajanapadas. Fortification
around cities like Kaushambi, Ujjain and Rajghat(Varanasi), Northern Black Polished Ware,
heterogeneous population.

Probably the Mahabharata story relates to an internecine war between two Kshatriya
lineages which became a part of the singing tradition of the bards. With the emergence of
the early historic period the social, economic and political interaction increased among the
Mahajanapadas. The singing bards and Brahmanas brought in every region of India in the
story of Mahabharata. This pleased the monarchs who could boast of an ancestor who
fought in the Mahabharata war. Thus, the epic became a mechanism for the spread of the
Brahmanical religious system. This is clear from the fact that in the prologue of the
Mahabharata it is said that an earlier version having 24,000 stanzas was still current. The
 present epic has one lakh stanzas.

Magadha : most powerful in Mahajanapada

 Location : middle gangetic valley, agriculture production…

 Easy access to metal ores, flat terrain and contiguity of settlements provided better
chance for a ruler in the middle valley
 Ruler of mahajanapadas of malwa and Punjab had to traverse empty geo. Zones to
reach these prosperous mahajanapadas.

Second urbanization (6th to 4th C BC) more significant than 1st (Harappan) (Question)
since more endured for longer time, saw beginning of literate tradition, rise of
Buddhism and Jainism and many strands of Hinduism…critical examination.. literary
texts: large settlements of 30-50 sq.km, planned layout, large palaces, monumental
buildings….archaeology : not more than 4-5 sq.km, no planned layouts, no palatial
structure except Kaushambi, houses like small humble hutments

Use of Iron and wet rice cultivation  agri. Prod. Increased  urban economy

Urban society characterized by the presence of craft specialists, rich and poor people
and a state administration.

We can say that an urban centre refers to a place where the most powerful and visible
sections of population are engaged in activities other than food production.

Middle gangetic valley vs. Upper Gangetic valley

o Wet rice cultivation ; wheat cultivation

o More hold of Vedic rituals and sacrifices over upper in which most of the
produce was gifted away during sacrifices.

16. 600 bc – 400bc : literate tradition began , introduction of coinage by guilds, rise of
Trading class…vaishyas

In this period,

Shift to new geographical region i.e.upper and middle Ganga valley,

widespread use of iron, religious sanction not to kill the cattle in sacrifices,
wet rice cultivation  agri.growth
 Appearance of sections of society who were non-agri in profession like rulers,
artists, craftemen

Inequality was institutionalized In society

Varna theory of division of society into four varnas

Panini’s Ashthadhyayi finds reference to many of the communities…

Growth of monastic orders living exclusively on alms and donations, establishments of

sixteen mahajanapadas with their rich capitals and standing armies, variety of crafts and
trades  surplus food production

Crafts : pottery (NBPW), terracotta animal and human figurines, beads, coins, stone and
glass objects, bone and ivory objects, terracotta toys and games, carpentry, tools and
weapons

Trade routes:

Linked with the growth of specialization of crafts is the development of trade.

Silk, muslin, perfume, ivory, jewellary etc.

Foreign Trade: From Tamluk in the East and Broach in the West, traders used to take
coastal voyages to Burma and Srilanka.

Domestic : Rivers were the means of transport. Main in land trade routes were : Sravasti
– Pratishthana, Rajgriha, Taxila and Kashi to western coast.

Coin, made up of copper or silver, punched mark, known as kahapana.

Who were the shudras?

Local inhabitants displaced by foreign groups, progenies of inter marriages between

Aryans and local inhabitants who were called dasas and who didn’t have any right to
claim the land acquire by the tribe. Hence, they were landless. They used to work in the
farms of vaishya, brahmana. Thus, gradually, these people were considered as a part of
the tribe but lowest in the social order.
Economic unrest in this period : Rise of Vaishyas as a trading class, rich and literate
who were not satisfied with the lower status than Kshatriya and Brahmanas

Religious Unrest : Buddhism, Jainism, Upnishadas and many heterodox religious

movements challenging the futile exercises of sacrifices and rituals backed by
Brahmanism.

Buddhism was popular :

 Simple philosophy based on practical morality, understood easily by common

masses
 Social equality, no castes, hence lower castes joined
 Vaishyas also got desired respect, hence they also joined
 Patronage extended by Kings
 Popularized ideas in Pali language
 Institution of Sangha

18.

Rise of Magadha : Rajgriha 1st capital why?

Situated south of the Ganges, not on the bank but little inside, safe from flood.

As earlier subsidence economy was basically dependent on war loot than agriculture,
alluvial plain was hardly of importance

But the southern jungle was source of vast amount of timber

Also, IRON and copper was available for the weapons and tools. Thus IRON agri. 
surplus food  urban economy  Taxes  growth in military  territorial expansion

Later on, capital shifted to Patliputra…why?

With increasing importance of agriculture, importance of alluvial plain increased.

Patliputra is situated on the confluence of several rivers like Ganga, Gandak, Son, Pun
pun…hence, can be connected easily through river routes.

Uttarapatha which lay to the north of river Ganges, along the foothills of the Himalayas
can be effectively controlled.
19. Mauryan Economy

Improved tech, circulation of coinage, growth in urban centres

Paddy cultivation is labour intensive, increased population was employed more and
more land was brought under cultivation…(Arthashastra mentions ways to how state
could make special attempts to settle new areas.

Sudras to settle in new areas. Some fiscal concessions and also a supply of cattle and
seeds along with implements…an encouragement to cultivate virgin soil

Transferring new groups from overpopulated areas or deporting them from the
defeated kingdoms (1.5lakh from kalinga war deported)

New villages to be formed by inducing foreigners to immigrate to them

Newly settled areas are part of crown lands,aka sita lands

Agrarian economy: In arthashastra, process for new settlements of villages were called
janapadanivesha. Land Tax (Bhaga) 1/4th of the produce

Sharecroppers : half of the produce

Some customary dues along with taxes, pindakara, hiranya, bali

Other Fiscal measures in case of emergency: Pranaya (gift of affection), Forced to raise 2
crops

Different villages to be taxed depending on fertility of the soil.

Facility of irrigation : Pushyagupta, governor of Chandragupta Maurya, built a dam in

Saurashtra…Sudarshana Tadaga…rules for the regulation of water supply…Magasthenes
mentions no.of officers employed for measurement of Land and distribution of water
accordingly…irrigation cess

Samaharta : assessment of land revenue

Sannidhata: chief custodian of state treasury.

Trade and Towns : Expansion of settlements and hence movement from one place to
another increased…river transport improved by clearing the forests under state
initiative…State policy under Bindusara and Ashoka peaceful and friendly relations with
the Greeks gave fillip to foreign trade…Guilds(artisans, craftsmen, merchants) were
established

Panyadhyaksha : fix the prices of goods

Samsthadhyaksha: to check wrong practices in the market

Pautavadhyaksha : in charge of weights and measures

Navadhyaksha : regulating river transport and collecting ferry charges

Sulkadhyaksha : superintendent of tolls

Lohadhyaksha, bandhnagaradhyaksha, rakshin

State economy : production of goods, tax exemption for some artisans like armourers
and ship builders, small scale industries…goods produced were called
rajapanya…yielded good revenues and essential goods were produced

Administration : King, Council of ministers, city administration, army

(chaturangbala…infantry, cavalry, chariots, elephants), espionage, justice (dharmasthiya,
kantakasodhan), public welfare

Mauryan relations with other powers :

Chandragupta : expanded till northwest by defeating selecus nikator, megasthenes was

sent as an ambassador to mauryan court

Bindusara: strabo’s account mentions Demiachos as successor of Megasthenes. Friendly

relations demonstrated from account of Athenaeus, Indian king’s request for fine wine,
figs and philosopher.

Rock edict XIII mentions names of rulers to whom missions were sent for dhammavijaya
by ashoka : Antiochus, Antigonas, Ptolemy, Alexander, Magas)
Rock edict XIII mentions dhammavijaya in southern regions like cheras , cholas, pandyas
and satiyaputras and srilanka

Dhamma : some classify it as piety, moral behavior or righteousness. But it is not any
religious faith or practice. Dhamma contains norms for social behavior and activities in a
general sense..

Growth of urban culture, transformation of rural areas into towns and cities, use of
NBPW, punch marked coins, material prosperity…needed flexible social organization.
Rigidity of brahmanical class, emergence of various heterodox sects and their popularity
created mutual enmity and religious tensions. Many tribal groups, referred as yavanas
by Ashoka needed to be integrated for the cohesion of the society and peace. Also
Ashoka’s paternalistic outlook towards people, his urge for their upliftment and welfare.
Vast and complex empire like Mauryas could have been controlled by using force which
could have controlled the different sections but could not have assimilated into a single
state. Hence an ideological path accepted and beneficial to all was promoted by Ashoka.

Emphasis on:

 Dual Toleration : among themselves and of others with various beliefs and ideas
 Consideration towards slaves and servants
 Obedience to elders
 Generosity towards needy, Brahmanas and Sramanas
 Non violence by giving up war and conquests, restraints on killing of animals
 Welfare measures

Modern writers like KERN called him ‘ a monk in a king’s garb’.

Ashoka didn’t favour Buddhism at the expense of other religious faiths…how?

- Dhammamahamatras were instituted and not the sangha to spread dhamma

- Duty of dhammamahamatras towards both Brahmanas and shramanas..hence he
wanted tolerance and respect for all sects

Some argue that emphasis of nonviolence and stopping of wars crippled the military
might and this led to the collapse. Emphasis on nonviolence did not bind him to the
needs of the state. He warns the tribes that he may be required to resort to force if
they continue to create trouble.

By the time Ashoka stopped war, he had reached natural boundaries. The plea for
tolerance was wise course of action in an ethnically diverse, religiously varied and
class divided society. Mauryan empire was conglomerate of diverse groups
containing farmers, pastoral nomads, hunter gatherers, Greeks, Kambhojas and
Bhojas. It was need of hour to make plea for tolerance.

Ashoka’s dhamma could not survive him. As such it was failure. However, it should
be remembered that he was not establishing any new religion but impressing upon
the society ethical and moral principles

Disintegration of Mauryan empire:

 Failure of Ashoka’s successors to continue his policy of Dhamma…it required

direct contact with public, strict supervision and paternal outlook towards the
people…dynastic empire depend much on the ability of its rulers

Political factors:

Dhammamahamattas might have become too strong and oppressive (even Ashoka
asks them to ensure against operation and to be just and humane. Thus, no strict
supervision on the activities of Dhammamahamattas by Ashoka’s successors might
have resulted in general discontent against dhamma

The nature of mauryan state necessitated King of strong abilities. Weak rulers came
and ruled for short durations resulting in no. of officials constantly emerging and
chauvinist attitude towards the king and no duty towards the people. Highly
centralized bureaucracy with its loyalty to the king and not to the state made admin.
Completely individual based

Extremely important system of spies collapsed later and no means to check the
public opinion and corruption among officials

Popular uprising indirectly indicate the social basis of Mauryan administration was
under stress and strain.
Ashoka’s policies:

Brahmanical reaction against ashok’s policies of condemning sacrifices and

nonviolence…but it should have happened immediately and not after such a long
duration after ashoka’s death

Pacifist policies based on nonviolence and taken basis from Divyavadana stories
telling failure of king against Greek invasions and to control oppressive officials
leading to revolts in the provinces…but practices of killing animals for food continued
though on reduced scale, death penalty was not done away with, no evidence of
army have been demobilized, had Ashoka been pacifist, he should have reinstated
Kalinga as an independent kingdom but a pragmatic ruler, he maintained supremacy
of Magadha over it, also his warning to the tribes.

According to Romila Thapar, even an entire generation of pacifism can not weaken
an empire leading to its disintegration

Economic Factors:

D.D.Kosambi points towards the financial constraints of Mauryan economy:

> increase in the taxes

> evidences of debasement of currency (reducing content of silver in punch marked

coins

Loss of monopoly over mining, costly operation to tap the iron pockets from Andhra
and Karnataka

Intensive agri, deforestation led to famines..Evidence of big famine in North Bengal

in the Mauryan period and stress on economy to provide relief on substantial scale

Large amount of public works intiated by ashoka and his tours

But, Romila thapar doesn’t support debasement of coins to the stress on economy
because it is seen that there is improvement in use of better quality materials and
there was economic prosperity during political decline.
Growth of local polities accelerated the decline of Mauryan empire.

Mahayana Buddhism:

Originated in 1st C BC in Andhra..gradually spread to all over N India under Kanishka’s

rule. Nagarjuna, most outstanding exponent…Mahayana started gaining popularity.
Essential difference bet Maha and Hin preached by mahasanghika : everybeing could
aspire Buddhahood and could attain it through various stages of bodhisaattvas by
meritorious acts or Paramitas. Other features: belief in Sunyata or void or non reality
of objects; belief in mantras; belief in numerous buddhas and bodhisattvas and
practice of worshipping various Gods and Goddesses

Sects : Theravadins (Kosambi), Sarvastavadins (Mathura), Bhadra Yanika (Nasik and

Kanheri)..
reason behind origin: geographical diversity of the country, attitudes of vaious
communities at local levels and perhaps lack of coordination between varous
exponents of sects.

Change in Buddhism:

 Buddha as God, change in the form in which he was worshipped…worship of

idols, images
 Bodhisattvas as incarnation of Buddha whereas other sect depicted him as an
unselfish individual working for good of all
 Successive rebirths was believed and emphasis on accumulation of merit
through successive births
 Merit could also be transferred from person to person by pious acts

Spread of Buddhism:

Indo-Greek : Milinda or Menander accepted Buddhism (Milind Panho) Nagasena

Kushana Kings: Kujula Kadphises and Kanishka : 4th Buddhist council under Kanishka,
discussions compiled in Vibhasha Shastras…Hinyana and Mahayana formed…
Kanishka built stupa at Peshawar…great centre for Buddhist learning and culture.
Monks spread in different parts from here
Satvahana in Deccan and Western Kshatrapas : King Pulumayi enlarged Amravati
Stupa…rock cut caves at Nasik, Kanheri, Bhaja, Karle

Cave inscriptions in Tamil region are found about Buddhism

Spread of Jainism:

Kharvela Kings: Udaygiri Hills caves

Tamil kings dedicated some caves to Jaina monks. King Anji in south Arcot destrict
and by people, cave in Sittanavasal

Missionaries to spread Jainism: Chandragupta Maurya accepted Jainism went to

ShravanBelGola along with Bhadrabahu…from here, it spread in tamil regions

Mathura region during Kanishka’s rule…Mathura school of art produced many

images of tirthankars

Hathigumpha cave inscriptions mentions migration if Jaina monks from Magadha to

eastern coasts of Andhra…also mentioned in shvetambara tradition

Another tradition mentions migration to Mathura…ruins of Kankali Tila at Mathura

and inscriptions

Story of Kalakacharya refers to migration to Malwas.

Junagarh inscription : spread of Jainism to Gujarat

Places : Broach, Sopara (West), Khandagiri and Udaygiri (East), Madurai and
Sittanavasal (South), Sircap in Taxila(North-West)

Change in Brahmanism:

Worship of Gods and goddesses got prominence than sacrifices..shift from ritual to
bhakti or devotion.

Rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism

Tamil deities from sangam literature got assimilated in Brahmanism, epic heroes like
Krishna, Rama were deified. Vasudeva, Balrama, sage Narayana deified

Shiva’s consort Parvati also known as Shakti was adored

 Post Maurya:

Pace of urbanization accelerated in post Mauryan period.

 Agri surplus, agi produce was itself an item of trade

 Buddhism and Jainism encouraged accumulation and reinvestment if
wealth…close relationship between Buddhist samghas and traders
 Growing class of consumers for subsistence and luxury good
 Rise of Roman empire in the west and later han empire in the China
 Political stability and patronization of trade by Kings like Kushana

Periplus of Erythraean Sea : maritime trade between ancient India and West.

Major ports : Barbarikon(at mouth of Indus), Broach, Tamluk

Imports : brocades, coral, frankincense, glass, wine

Imported coins were melted to reused by Kushanas and Kshatrapas to mint their
own currency

Export : spices, silk, cotton, turquoise, carnelian, lapis lazuli

Uttarpatha : Pushkalavati-Taxila-Mathura-Kosambi-Varanasi-Patliputra-Champa-
Chandraketugarh

Dakshinapatha: Mathura-Vidisha-Ujjain-Nasik-Bramhagiri-Uraiyur

Traders were organized into guilds, there were financiers who financed trades
(Setthi), leader of caravan which transported goods (sarthavaha), vanik(general
trader)

A good indicator of trade transactions in the coinage system, there was extensive
use of coinage in post mauryan period. silver punchmarked coins along with copper
coins…post mauryan perios witnessed increase in variety, type and number of
coins…several thousand moulds for casting copper coins found. Indo-Greeks
introduced portrait coinage, kshatrapa coins with saka era, kushanas minted large
no.of gold coins

In Buddhist society, identification was on the basis of occupations and traders had
high place in society. Traders in donation inscriptions mention their occupation
Growth of Urban Centres:

From early Pali ad Sanskrit texts and archaeological excavations

At Taxila: fortification walls, use of burnt bricks was more as compared to Mauryan
period, use of wedge shaped brick, tiles for roofs, settlements were prosperous,
large no.of beads show increased use of jewellary and ornaments, human and
animal figurines made of clay using moulds and has intricate carving and
ornamentation

Purana Quila, Mathura, Kaushambi, Ahichhatra, Rajghat in Varanasi(ivory working

and textiles), Tamluk and chandraketugarh, Ujjain(bead making industry)

Art and Architecture :

After Mauryan, not only by state but also patronage by different social groups hence
spread all over India and beyond.

Post mauryan art was distinct in character from earlier mauryan art. The mauryan art
described as palace art. Later art had wider social base and is different in motive,
technique and significance. Art specimens give glimpse of social and economic life of
the period. E.g.The bas relief of Mathura which depics monks, donors and attendants

Maurya period: ashokan pillars, animals and carvings on pillars-pollish smoothy

glassy surface, yakshini from Didarganj,Patna, terracotta figurines, Chandragupta’s
wooden palace from Megasthene’s account, construction of Stupas from accounts of
fa hien and Huen tsang and Buddhist literature at sanchi, sarnath, Taxila and Bharhut

Characteristics post mauryan:

 Related to religious practice followed

 Buddha image to be sculpted instead of symbols such as stupa, Bodhi
tree,foot prints
 Construction of stupa, chaitya and viharas got prominence
 Not limited for a particular religion e.g bharhut and sanchi stupa depict not
only Buddha life but also yakshas, yakshinis, nagas and other popular deities
 Secular art forms..decorations included natural scenes as well
 Interaction with other cultures and assimilation of non indian art elements
Different schools of art…chapter 26 IGNOU
 Early State and Society : chapter 27

A state is a more efficient method of controlling expanding

populations. A state exercises control over a more or less well-defined territory and
maintains an administrative machinery to collect taxes and revenue. It pays for a regular
army that enforces law and order. But together with all this, the inequality and
stratification in society also increases. There is a well-marked distinction between the
rulers and the ruled. The rulers control the resources of society for their own benefit
and use. The ruled, on the other hand, provide the revenue and the money required to
maintain the members of the ruling family, the notables in the state, the various
categories of officials and the army. Thus the basic difference between a tribal
society and a state society is in the nature of political control.
In a state system, a specialized administrative machinery separates the rulers from the
ruled. In a tribal society, political power is generally exercised by a clan which has no
authority to enforce its decisions. The position of the clan depends on the loyalty of the
members and most decisions are taken together.

Tribes : Andhras, shabaras, Pulindas etc.

Administration of Satahanas: simpler than that of Mauryas…Inscriptions refer to the

ministers who were in charge of various functions like treasury, land records.

Directly appointed by King and not hereditary, paid from the revenue collected by state
from agri and trade(inland and maritime trade)

Donating lands to Brahmana or Buddhist sangha…started by Satvahana

Procedure for donations: first proclaimed in Nigama sabha, then written down either
on copper plate or cloth by officer or minister…then this record was delivered to the
done to whom grant has been made…there was keeper of records who maintained
detailed account of these donations.

In Tamil country, no state power but only chiefdoms existed.

State would have bureaucracy, political authority that controls and regulate the
resources and taxation system in the territory while chiefdom is based on kinship ties
within a clan which is hereditary with no proper authority and taxation system evolved
in it.
The land in between Venkatam and Kanyakumari is called Tamilaham. 3 Muvendar..the
crowned kings of Tamilham, Vedar(biggest chiefs), Velir(smaller chiefs) kizar(villege
heads) of Ur(village)

Cheras : Karur in the interior and Musiris on the coast

Cholas : Uraiyur in the interior and Puhar on the coast

Pandyas : Madurai in the interior and Korkar port

Five eco zones or ain-tinai. Kurinji(Hills), Palai(Arid), Mullai(Pastoral), Marutam(Wet-

land) and Neital (Seacoast)

Different forms of subsistence determined ecological conditions

Kurinji : hunting-gathering

Palai: cattle lifting and plundering

Mullai: animal husbandry and shifting cultivation

Neital : salt and fishing

Marutam: plough farming

Barter system to exchange goods…small self sustaining tinais grew up into larger eco
zones through interaction and interdependence. Hagh productive area had
developed social division of labour while less productive area had simple and
consisted of clans. Thus, complex society of unevenly developed components which
shared a common culture.

Administration: political system was in making… traditional authority based on kinship,

Traditional assembly of elders transacted day to day affairs…assembly site is called
manram which was raised seating around foot of a tree..AKA podiyil…chief was assisted
by council of elders called Avai(sabha). Aimperumkuzu (five great groups) and
enperayam (eight great groups)
Agriculture as subsidence in Deccan :
three phases is the spread of agrarian settlements in south India.
 The first phase of primitive agriculture with a low level technology in which
cultivation was confined to the hill slopes.
 A second phase, characterised by plough agriculture with considerable advancement
in technology and spread~ofc ultivation to the river valleys.
 A third phase which witnessed the introduction of a noncultivating groups into the
agrarian sector. These groups were endowed with better knowledge of seasons,
managerial capacity and aids for method of cultivation.

Pariplus of Erythrean Sea states that slaves were brought from Arabia. Stratification of society was
visible.

An increase in population is a notable change from the new stone age to the iron age in
the Deccan andSouth India. This increase is reflected in the number of the iron age
sites. As a result of this change there was a spread of settlements from the upland areas
I to the fertile river valleys and a transformation from partly cattle rearing and partly

shifting cultivatiqn to settled agricultural economy. The main featuresof this way of life
were:
e a concentration of settlements in the river valleys,
a certain level of craft specialisation,
extensive use of iron tools and implements,
new technology of the iron ploughshare,
management of minor irrigational facilities and
a change from the dry land crops to a more surplus yielding wet land crop of paddy.
Archaeological sites which suggest these changes are scattered all over South India.
They are generally known as megalithic sites.

Magalith literally means big stone. The megaliths are associated not with the actual
settlements of the people but with the burial sites in the form of stone circles around the
graves. Some habitational sites such as Tirukkampuliyar, Alagarai etc. also have been
brought to light but they are very rare. The beginnings of the megaliths are traced to
about 1000 B.C. but in many cases they are dated in the fifth to the first century B.C.
In some places they continued'even later. The grave goods consisted of a variety of
articles like human bones, various types of pottery including the characteristic Black
and Red ware, inscribed pot sherds, tools and weapons of iron, beads and ornaments,
cult objects, and several other things. It is from these megalithic remains that we know
about the material culture of the agrarian settlemehts of the iron age in South India.
Further, they corroborate some evidence supplied by the contemporary Tamil poems. Chapter 29

Uzhavar (ploughmen) and vellalar(masters of soil) used for cultivators.

Atiyor (slaves) and vinaivalar (wage earning workers)

Irai and tirai are two types of agriculture contribution received by the chieftains.
Kara, deya, meya, bhaga other taxes

Land Grants :
o Satvahana and Kshtrapa rulers donated plots of land and even entire villages to
religious functionaries such as Buddhist monks and brahmanas. This placed them
in high powerful position. Along with spiritual control, now they exercise
economic and administrative privileges as well
o New class of non cultivating land owners emerged while land tilling class had no
right over land.
o Private ownership emerged which abolished collective ownership of forest,
pastures, fisheries and reservoirs
o Beneficiaries enjoyed rights over land and over peasants who worked on
land…this led to erosion of rights of peasants who became servile

Thus, with the introduction of land grants and several features to the introduction of
social order which is described as “Indian feudalism”

Trade :

Local : Barter system: loan of some article is called kurietirrpai

Long distance Overland : Maurya’s contact with the south for mines of silver, gold,
gems, diamonds, pearls, precious stones etc. Dakshinapatha went through centres
like Pratishthanapatha (later became capital of satvahana) . Kalinga silk, NBPW
pottery, herbas and spices were brought to south. The brisk commercial contact with
north can be confirmed by large hoards of punch marked coins

Long Distance Overseas :

o Spices and medicinal herbs(pepper, spikenard, malabathrum,cinnabar),

o precious and semi-precious stones(beryl, agate, carnelian, jasper),
o timber(ebony, sandalwood, teak,bamboo),
o Ivory, shells, pearls,
o textile (cotton and muslin), dyes like indigo and lac
1. Early stage with arabs as middlemen
2. With discovery of monsoon winds, attributed to a navigator named Hippalus,
direct contact was established with romans

Contact with Sri Lanka(ELAM) and South East Asia : camphor, spices, sandalwood

Coinage :

Each town with guild or a nigama headed by setthi.

Organisation of traders acted as a bank…received deposits and lent out money

Local coins : Kasu, kanam, pon and venu pon.

Kahapanas : silver coins, suvarnas : golden coins

Coins made of lead, potin, copper and silver in use…punch marked coins
manufactured using casting and die-striking gradually came to use.

Different principalities issued coins like satvahanas, kushanas, kshatrapas and even
local chieftains like maharathis

Roman coins : Pliny, author of “The Natural History” mostly in silver and gold and
copper

Sangam literature :

Trade brings in the immigrants and opens up avenues of interaction between local
people and outsiders. Interaction of culture helps the growth of language and
literature

Also, many Buddhist and Jaina maonks migrated to south and added words of
Sanskrit and prakrit/pali to the Tamil

By 3rd C BC, Tamil had become a literary language with its own system of writing as
evidenced from tamil brahmi inscriptions in caves from Brahmi hills.

Tamil heroic poems composed by bards in the praise of their chieftains are called
Sangam literature.
Sangam was an academy of scholars…Poems by themselves was not the product of the
Sangam. Poems belong to much earlier period. It was believed that they were
academies of court poets but now it is accepted that they were constituted by scholars
in literature. The time lag between the Sangam and the heroic poems shows that the name
Sangam literature is a misonmer.
Products of the folk. Signify the tradition of bards who roamed about singing the praise of their
patron chiefs.
Not all are by bards but some of them are composed by scholars following bardic tradition e.g.
Kapilar, Paranar, Avvayar and Gautamanar…they were pulavar(scholarly) and panar(common).
It is thus not literature of any particular social group but a part of common way of life.

Two categories of anthologies:

I.Ettutogai : Eight collections of poems

Ex. Narrinai, Kuruntokai, Ainkurunuru, Patirruppattu
II.Pattupattu : 10 idylls
Ex. Mullaipattu, Madurikkanj, Kurunjipattu

Anthologies are divided into

1. akam dealing with the themes of subjective experience like love or affection.

Subdivided into five stages of love based on tinais

2. Puram dealing with themes of objectification like raid or plunder.

Subdivided into poems based on tinais(situation) and turai(contexts)

Akananuru(400 poem based on akam) and purananuru (based on Puram) are two
examples of Ettutogai

Also, contain Tolkappiyam,a treatise on tamil grammar and Patinenkilkanakku,eighteen

didactic texts…Tirukurral by Tiruvalluvar is one of the eighteen

Silappadikaram and Manimekalai are identified as works of much later period

Tamil literature has an impact of Aryan culture since the brahmanas were also among
the scholars who composed poems. Krishna is identified with Mayon(black king).
Participation of farmers in mahabharat is mentioned by some poets while praising some
chiefs.
Harsha’s Administration:

Polity was in essence a confederate type of monarchy. But the paramount sovereignty
had a parochial connotation. PROTO FEUDAL

Land grants continued in his reign. These along with administrative, judicial and fiscal
powers gave birth to the political tendency which indicated fragmentation of the
concept of paramountacy of king. Lesser kings were known as Rajas, bhupalas, parthiva,
kumara, kshitipala, lokapala…etc as mentioned by Huen tsang. Samantas,
Mahasamantas also performed important role.

Central Government: consists of Mantri Parishad.

Smritis and inscriptions refer to the ministers as mantrin, sachiva or amatya. It appears
that council made of all four classes. It seems to be borrowed from Guptas

Administrative division:

Bhuktis or Provinces governed by Uparika appointed by King himself.

Districts or Vishayas governed by Vishayapati and held titles like Kumaramatya or

ayuktas…office of vishayapati is called adhikarana.

Pustapala…most of the terms same as Guptas administration…Varbaaaaad

Bureaucracy : same as above and of Guptas

Harshacharita by Bana calls spies as sarvagtah

Military Organisation:

According to Huen-Tsang, four wings : Infantry, cavalry, chariots and elephants but Bana
doesn’t make any reference to chariots and they were out of use from Gupta period
itself. However it includes Boats as mentioned in Bankhera and Madhuban inscription

Fiscal system :

Same as Guptas…Bhoga (1/6th of produce), bali, Hiranya, sales tax, toll tax, shulka etc.
Judicial system :

Judge designation: Prad-viveka, dharma-adhyaksha, dharma-adhikarin

Imprisonment for life was ordinary penalty for transgression of statute law and
conspiracy against sovereign. For offences against social morality and disloyal conduct,
punishment was to cut off the nose or an ear, or hand or foot or to banish offender from
the state into wilderness.Law against crime was extremely severe…Ordeals by fire,
water, weighing by poison in practice

Guptas :

Chandragupta was first independent king of Gupta dynasty with the title of
Maharajadhiraja. From coins, alliance with Lichhavis and adopted kushana weight
system.

Samudragupta : son of Chandragupta…Ashokan pillar at

Allahabad(Prayagprashasti..composed by Harishena) mentions successful campaigns by
Samudrgupta.

Skandagupta : bhitari pillar inscription

Administration :

Elaborate Admin.system..some parts directly ruled and some by states who accepted
Gupta’s suzerainty

King : to protect his countrymen, supreme judge, lead his army in war, support
brahmnanas and shramanas

Change: to allow defeated kings to continue once they accept suzerainty and Gupta king
would not interfere with their administration

Council of ministers :

To counsel king on important matters… perhaps hereditary (Udaygiri inscription of

Chandragupta II informs about Virsena saba inherited his office)

Mahadandanayaka(chief justice) to assist king , uparikas in provinces and

vishayapatisnin districts and village headmen and elders….Fa-Hien mentions that capital
punishment was not given at all
Mahapratihara (chief of palace guards) and pratihara to arrange and manage
ceremonies

Espionage system

Dutakas : to implement land grants or any gifts made o brahmanas and others

Army : Big army, minister of peace and war was Sandhi-Vigrahika, many officials like
Mahabaladhikrita, Pilupati(head of elephants), Ashvapati, Narapati, Rananbhandagarika.

Revenue administration: Land revenue was main source

In samudragupta’s time, Gopasramin working as Akshapataladhikrita whose duty was

to enter numerous matters in the accounts register, recover royal dues, to check frauds
and recover losses

Pustapala : record keeper…to enquire before recording any transaction. Department of

proper survey and measurement of land and land revenue…Kamandaka in the Nitisara
suggests king to take special care of his treasury.

Kallidasa and author of Narada smriti states one sixth of the produce as royal revenue.
Uparikara and shulka were other sources of revenue. Failure to pay taxes leads to
punishment of fine amounting to eight times the original shulka…King’s treasury had
right to treasure troves (treasures discovered from below the earth), mines and salt.

Empire was divided into Desas or Rashtras or Bhuktis.

Bhuktis governed by Uparika (directly appointed by King)

Bhuktis divided into districts or Vishayas under Ayuktas and Vishayapati.

Gupta inscription from Bengal show that office of district head (Ashtakuladhikarana)
was associated with Nagarsreshthi (Head of merchants), Sarthavaha(Head of Caravan),
Prathama-Kulika(Head of Artisans), Prathama Kayastha(Head of Kayastha)

Lowest unit of administration was village headed by Gramadhyaksha or Gramapati and

disputes were also solved by village elders or Grama Vriddhas
Economy :

Agriculture:

Land under cultivation: kshetra and not under cultivation : Khila, Aprahata etc

Inscriptions give the impression that uncultivated land was being brought under
cultivation. Classification according to soil,fertility and use was not unknown.

Nivartana, kulyavapa, Dronavapa : to measure land

Irrigation : Sudarshana Tadaga was repaired

Use of mechanism to draw water from wells and supply the water to the fields through
carefully prepared channels…Ghatiyantra also known as araghatta.

Rainwater was collected in ponds and other types of reservoirs like tanks

Sale and purchase of land had become very common…no.of ruling families had also
increased in number, practice of gifting lands to religious donees also became very
common…thus a class of people who enjoyed ownership rights but did not cultivate the
land rose into picture along with superior economic and social status.. Gupta
inscriptions mention Gramikas, kutumbis and mahattaras.

Condition of peasants as a whole reduced to a very low position but there were some
ordinary cultivators as well called as Krishibala, Karshaka, Kinass. Slaves, domestic
women slaves were cruelly exploited . Kamasutra mentions hardship faced by slaves at
the hands of their masters. Forced labour or Vishti was also in vogue. No.of taxes on
cultivators increased. Conditions of cultivators became worse than in earlier periods.

Creafts and Trade :

Items: Ivory, pottery,furniture, baskets, metal tools, jewellary, precious and semi-
precious stones, fine cloth of cotton and silk (kshauma and Pattavastra).

An inscription from Mandasor in Malwa refers to guild of silk weavers. Also, Amarkosha
and Brihatsamhita mention different crafts

Commercial centres : Patliputra, Ujjayini, Vaishali…seals, coins are found.

Dharmashastras assign different ranks to different groups of craftsmen lower than
brahmanas, kshatriyas and vaishyas. It also suggests that each group of craftsmen
formed a jati

Coinage :

Allan published in 1914 “The catalogue of the coins of the Gupta Dyanasty”. Early gold
coins resemble Kushana coins – king standing and offering incense at the altar is very
common.

Later new type of coins added. Archer type, battle-axe type, tiger slayer, lion slayer,
elephant type, horse type etc…less impact of foreign coins

Ashvamedha type of coins of Samudragupta, Lion slayer type of Chandragupta II. Also,
samudragupta playing veena showed artistic interests of Guptas.

Silver coins started by Chandragupta II after the conquest of western kshatrapas.

Very large no. of coins of Kumargupta I. most of the coins are same as issued by his
predecessors except elephant rider type. Kumargupta also issued copper coins.

Later Garuda on the reverse side was replaced by the peacock..this was followed by
Skandgupta and Buddhagupta. Skandagupta is seen with a bow and and a garuda
dhwaja.

Society:

Four Varnas…Brahmanas exerted considerable influence over Kings.

Land grants to brahmanas…settlements were called Brahmadeya, Agraharas. Along

with it, idea of Varna went on spreading.

Real society was different from ideal society since there were many groups whose
identity was not determined and varnas do not perform their duties. Hnece fictitious
explanations of the origins of various jatis like : Varna-samkara or inter marriages
between various varnas.

Various foreign ruling families were given status of Semi-kshatriya(Vratya Kshatriya)

same with tribal groups.
Brahmanas :as the purest, highest Varna

Antyajas: various groups were kept out of this scheme, were called untouchables.
Chandalas, charmakaras considered to be impure and outcastes.their conditioned
remained miserable

Women : position was low…exceotion like vakataka queen Prabhavatigupta. mainly to

function as ideal wife and ideal mother… In many brahmana texts, they are considered
to be same as Shudras. Landgrants given to brahmanas but no land grant to any
brahmana women

Changes in Economy :

System of landgrants- satvahana had given revenue rights only- from fifth century
onwards, right over mines and minerals, right to punish all offences against family,
private property and person, soldiers and officials not allowed to interfere.

Emergence of relatively closed economy. The residents of donated villages and towns
were asked to comply with the order of beneficiary besides making various payments.
Self-sustaining closed units of prod. And consumption. Local needs came to be mate
locally. Only movement of soldiers, pilgrims and brahmans for acquisition of land grants
were forms of mobility. Dharmashastras restricted movement of Brahmanas so that
vedic and domestic fires should keep burning, Sea voyages were taboo, marriages in
neighbouring areas were preferred…local identities…expressions like Gramadharma,
gramacara, sthanakara.

Two forged charters of 7th c. ascribed to Samudragupta prohibit tax paying peasants
from leaving their own villages.

Practice of transferring peasants along with land

Artisans and merchants too were tied to their habitations to serve local masters

Huen Tsang also provides evidence of such donations. Also few charters from western
deccan refer to restrictions on merchants

Decline of Urban Centres :

Two phases :

1. With the rise of Guptas

The habitational deposits of the 4th-6th centuries at many sites such as Atranjikhera,
Hastinapur, Mathura, Sravasti, Kaushambi, Chirand, Tamluk are thinner. Poorer and
lesser material remains.

Gupta layers indicate the reuse of raw materials like bricks from earlier deposits. Spatia
spread and civil amenities were nowhere near to what it was during kushana period

2.Post gupta pottery doesnot show any artistic skill. Making of stone beads, shell
objects, ivory and glass objects registered overall collapse..these object scantily found in
post 5th century habitational deposits.

Contemporary literature and inscriptions also reflect decline of towns. Upto 6 th c.

inscriptions and seals refer to importance of artisans and craftsmen…but after 6 th c, no
such info is forthcoming.

Change in the meaning of some words Sreni mean caste, nigama mean villages

Varahmihira’s Brihatsamhita mentions decline…also account of Huen Tsang.

Kuttanimata of Damodargupta(7thC) is concerned with life in countryside.

Military camps known as skandhavara in inscriptions and certain town as a result of

their conversion of pilgrimage centres continued to survive…Pura, pattan, nagara,
rajdhani were centres of consumption and not production

Caste system : Landgrants and the emerging landed intermediaries, wielding economic
power and political authority, modified the varna divided society. The unequal
distribution of landed property created social ranks which cut across social status based
on varna considerations. The samantas and the ruling
landed aristocracy, irrespective of their social origins (varnalritual ranks), emerged with a
distinctive character. The brahmana landlords constituted a section of this class. They
gave up their priestly function and diverted their attention to the management of land and
people. Such groups of brahmanas had more in common with the ruling elite than with
those who performed only priestly functions. In later times, titles such as thakur, raut
etc. were conferred on them.
Foreign rulers added as Kshatriya and accultured tribes as shudra swelled their ranks
and transformed varna divided society. Earlier distinction between dvija and sudra
began to be modified in the period..

Land came to acquire a special significance. Determined social status and was not
confined to any particular varna.

Kayasthas, traders and members of rich peasantry also were conferred titles of ranaka,
nayaka etc reserved for upper sections of society in earlier period. Brihatsamhita takes
note on these changes.

The number of mixed castes and of the

untouchable castes increased perceptibly. The transformation of craft guilds into castes as
a
result of the decline of trade and of urban centres and the localised hereditary character of
the
crafts helped the process of the formation of new jatis. The Vishnudharmottara
Purana, a work of the eighth century, mentions that thousands of mixed castes were
'produced as a result of the union of Vaisya women with men of lower castes. This is in
sharp contrast to the social situation in the early Christian centuries when the number of
mixed castes, as mentioned by Manu, was just sixty one. The acculturation and
incorporation of tribes and backward peoples as sudra castes significantly added to the
number of new castes. In addition, one may mention the untouchables who had diverse
origins.

Position of Women:

progressive decline. The law-books provide for the marriage of women at an early age,
prepuberty
marriage being preferred. Formal education was denied to them. Women and property
came to be bracketed together with adverse consequences for women's status. 'hey were
generally denied property rights. However, in the case of widows there was some
improvement in proprietarjt rights. It may be pointed out that the provision for stridhana
(which literally means: wealth of women) actually did not amount to much, for it did not
extend beyond rights to personal jewels, ornaments and gifts. The joint references to
women
and sudras in contemporary literature such as the Brihatsamhita amply demonstrates
the
plight of women. They were debarred from various sacrifices and ceremonies. The
practice of
Sati (or self-immolation by wife on the funeral pyre of her dead husband) gained social
acceptance during this period. The earliest references to sati date to the later-Gupta
period
and the times of Harsavardhana. The change of women's gotra upon marriage can be
dated
to the period after the fifth century A.D. This constituted an important development
because
it marked the curtailment of their rights in their parental home and symbolised the final
triumph of the patriarchal system of male-dominated society.

Tamil devotional cult :

The final form of theistic Bhakti was largely the result of the influence of the Tamil
devotionalism. This devotionalism was a product of the fusion between ecstatic local
tribal
cults (e.g. Velan Veriyadal ) and northern theistic schools. This cross fertilization started
at Tiruppati and Kalahasti. Then moved to Kanchipuram and then to Madurai.
Soon this Tamil devotionalism developed into a great movement when it was adapted to
the
two theistic cults, Saivism and Vaishnavism. Then Tamil Bhakti movement was
characterized not only by intense ecstatic piety for the deity, but also an aggressive
militancy against the heterodox cults which were growing in popularity among the people
with royal support.

spearheaded in the sixth century A.D. by gifted poet-saints…they sang their hymns,
danced and debated with the heterodox cults. Among these hymnal poet-saints the Saiva
saints are called Nayanmar and the Vaishnava saints as Alvars.
The hymns of the saints of this period are marked by an outspoken hatred against the
Buddhists and the Jainas. As a result, public debates, competition in the performance of
miracles and tests of the truth of their doctrines by means of ordeal became the order of
the day.
Unlike the
Brahmanas who propagated Hinduism through esoteric theories and the use of Sanskrit,
the hymnal saints sang in easily understood forms using only the popular language,
Tamil.Their Bhakti was not a reverence for a transcendent deity, but ecstatic love for an
imminent one. Being unable to stand before the force of this Bhakti wave which also
attracted royal support, Jainism and Buddhism had to retreat from the South.

Nalanda University :
  Founded in 5th c by Shakraditya, probably Kumargupta I.
 International centre for Buddhist learning. Huen Tsang tells us that whole area
was enclosed by a brick wall
 Had magnificent building. Three great libraries called Ratnasagar, Ratnadadhi
and Ratnaranjak
 10000 students including teachers…came from Korea, Mongolia, Japan, china,
Tibet, Ceylon and various parts of India. Nalanda scholars went to various
parts of world and were responsible for the spread of Buddhism.
 It was a Buddhist Vihara..primarily built for Buddhist learning but later on
many other subjects were also taught like 4 vedas, grammar, logic, medicine,
samkhya, yoga, nyaya etc
 It was kind of post graduate institute. Only very few most brilliant used to get
admission as told by Huen Tsang
 A lot of property in form of land and village was donated for the maintenance
of university
 It welcomed knowledge from all sects and crees. It was a genuine university
and not mere a sectarian university.

Kadambas :

(345 - 525 CE) was a primeval majestic dynasty of Karnataka

Kadamba dynasty is important because it was the first indigenous dynasty to use
Kannada at an administrative level. Kadambas kept paying nominal allegiance to other
major power brokers of Deccan like Yadavas and Hoysalas of Dorasamudra and thus
mantained their independence. Four different families of Kadambas ruled in southern
India which was Kadamabas of Hangal, Kadambas of Goa, Kadambas of Belur and
Kadambas of Banvasi.

Halmidi inscription gives info about use of Kannada as official language

Administration:

The prime minister (Pradhana), Steward (Manevergade), secretary of council

(Tantrapala or Sabhakarya)
 private secretary (Dharmadhyaksha) and other officials (Bhojaka and Ayukta). The army
consisted of officers like Jagadala, Dandanayaka and Senapathi.

The kingdom was divided into Mandalas (provinces) or Desha. Under a Mandala was
Vishayas (districts). A total of nine Vishaya have been identified. Under a Vishaya were
Mahagramas (Taluk) and Dashagramas (Hobli). Mahagrama had more villages than
Dashagramas. Total one sixth of land produce was collected as tax. Taxes were collected
as Perjunka (levy on load), Vaddaravula (social security tax for royal family), Bilkoda
(salex tax), Kirukula (land tax), Pannaya (betel tax) and other professional taxes on
traders etc.

The founder of the kadamba kingdom, Mayurasharma was a Brahmin by birth but later
his successors changed their surname to Varma to indicate their Kshatriya status .
The Mauryan Administration System
The Mauryan administration system was efficient and monarchical. The king of the
Mauryan government was the head of the Mauryan empire administration. The Mauryan
Empire had the privileged of having successful administrators such as Chandragupta
Maurya, Bindusara Maurya and Ashoka the Great. The administration of Mauryan
Empire was decentralized and the administrative powers were divided into convenient
administrative units. Though the units were administered on common system, they were
under a rigid central control.

The Mauryan administration can be discussed under the following headings:

 Mauryan Centralized Administration system (Mauryan centralized government)

 Mauryan Provincial Administration system (Mauryan provincial government)
 Mauryan Administration Revenue System
 Mauryan Judicial System
 Mauryan Municipal Administration System
 Mauryan Military Administration
 Mauryan Administration of Ashoka the Great

Mauryan Centralized Administration

The administration of Mauryan dynasty was controlled by the King. The king was the
supreme and sovereign authority of the Mauryan Empire Administration. He had the
supreme executive, legislative and judicial power and functions in the government.

As the head of the executive, the Mauryan king maintained social order by punishing
the guilty. He was responsible for the safety and security of his kingdom. It was his duty
to protect the life and property of his subjects. He was to collect report from the
spies. He had to plan different campaigns and movements.
He laid down the general lines of policy to be followed by his subordinate officials.
He appointed ministers and other officers of the royal administration.

The Mauryan king was the head of the judicial department. It was his duty to ensure
justice to the people and redress their grievances. The Mauryan Empire was vast and
this vastness debarred the king from personally disposing of all the cases. But he was
the final court of appeal and issued ready judgment. The Mauryan kings remained
whole day in the court to hear appeals from the people and in this course he even never
cared for these personal amenities. King Ashoka made many reforms in the judicial
system of the Mauryan Empire.

The king had the sovereign power of law making and also the power and right to
supersede usage and equity.

In addition to all these the king was the supreme commander of the army and head
of the Military administration of Mauryan Empire. The King was also the ultimate
authority of the bureaucracy. The king also controlled the Mauryan empire revenue
system.

It is true that the Mauryan kings enjoyed huge power. But, still there were several
limits upon the royal authority. We can summaries these limitations in the following
manner:

 Firstly, Mauryan Empire before Ashoka was essentially a Hindu State. According
to the Hindu concept, the Supreme Sovereign of the State was Dharma or law and
the king was merely its guardian.
 Secondly, the Mauryan king never dared to defy the ancient laws and usage.
 Thirdly, the king was aided and advised by a Mantri Parishad. In ordinary times
he could ignore the advice of his ministers. But in times of emergency it was
obligatory on him to hear the individual and collective advice of his ministers.
 Fourthly, the Brahmins had great influence over the king and even the later dared
not to disobey them. Instead he always had to look for their support.
  Fifthly, as the powers of the Mauryan government was was decentralized in
nature, the provincial governor and provincial ministers had right to be
consulted by the king especially in all provincial matters.

The Maurya kings were benevolent despots and they were always eager to do well of
their people. It was essentially for this reason that the king dared not to do anything
which make people unhappy and alienate them.

This is so far the power and position of the king is concerned. But he could not run this
vast empire alone. So he had to depend on various officials and ministers. The
Mauryan King had to depend on the council of ministers for the success of the Mauryan
administration. The Council of Ministers of Mauryan Empire were known as the
Mantri Parishad.

The number of its ministers in Mauryan administration system were not fixed and varied
according to needs. Kautilya favored a large Council as per the need to the empire. The
members of the Mantri Parishad had to qualify themselves and show their ability by
passing tests of religion, love, fear and money. In times of emergency the king
consulted with the Mantri Parisad and always guided by the majority decision of the
Mantri Parishad. Even the absentee ministers were consulted by letter correspondence.

For efficient central administration of Mauryan government there was an efficient and
well organized hierarchy of bureaucrats who filled the central executive, judicial and
revenue offices. The functionaries of the Mauryan empire administration system were
conducted by several departments, each of which was headed by a Superintendent
(Adhyaksha). In order to conduct the smooth function of the department the Adhyaksha
was assisted by a band of clerks, accountants and spies etc. Possibly the Mauryan
central government had not more than 30 Superintendents or Adhyakshas.

In addition to these posts of Superintendents there were two other posts of high officials
in Mauryan Administrative System—the “Samaharta” and the “Sannidhata.” The
Samaharta was the collector general of revenue for the whole of the Mauryan Empire.
Eventually he had control over the expenditure of the revenue as well.
Probably the post of Sannidhata was meant for the officer-in-charge of the treasury and
store. There were also other officers like Army Minister, Chief Priest, Governor of forts,
etc.

Mauryan Provincial Administration

For the Mauryan provincial administration, the entire empire was divided into two
parts, sucha as

 The kingdom under the direct rule of the king and

 The vassal states.

The Mauryan territory that was directly ruled by the king was divided into a number of
provinces ofJanapadas. Ashoka had at least five provinces whose capitals were Taxila,
Ujjain, Tosali, Suvarnagiri and Pataliputra. Each province was subdivided into number
of districts and each districts was again subdivided into number units.

However, in addition to these centrally ruled Mauryan territories, there were of vassal
states. They enjoyed a great deal of autonomy.

The Mauryan provincial administration was similar to that of the central administration.
The Maurya emperor directly ruled the central and Eastern part of the empire,
whereas the other areas were ruled by the provincial Governors.

The provincial Governors were responsible for the day-to-day administration of the
provinces. They were expected to consult important matter with the Central
Administration. There were also the district officers, reporters, clerks, etc. who helped
the smooth running of the provincial administration. In the provincial administration, the
village was at the lowest unit.

Mauryan Administration Revenue System

Kautilya, the greatest political thinker of ancient India laid greater stress on the treasury
as the smooth and successful functioning of the government depends on finance. The
main sources of Mauryan revenue were taxation and rent. The land revenue was the
main source of revenue collection. Though theoretically the rate of land revenue was
1/6 of the total produce, yet in reality much higher proportion was charged varying with
the economic and local conditions. From the writings of the Greek writers we came to
know that the whole of India was the property of the king and no private person had any
private land nor were they permitted to keep any land of their own.

In addition to land revenue, there were other sources of revenue of the state. These
included excise duty, forest taxes, water taxes, mines coinage etc. Much of the state
revenue was expended on paying the army, the officials of the royal government, on
charities and on different public works like irrigation projects, road construction etc.

Mauryan Judicial System

As regards the judicial system, the king was the head of the judiciary and he himself
was the judge. He was the highest court of appeal and personally listened to appeals
from the people. However, since the Mauryan Empire was huge, it was not possible for
the king to solve each and every case. So, he appointed many judges subordinate to
him to hear the cases.

Ordinary petty cases were generally adjudicated by the village headman. However
during Ashoka’s time many reforms were made in the judicial system. Granting of
pardon etc. was introduced from that time.

Mauryan Municipal Administration System

There were the Municipal boards. The Greek writer Megasthenes had given us an
account how the city of Pataliputra was administered. The Municipal Board was a board
of 30 members divided into six committees. Each of these committees had five
members to manage the administration of the city.

The six committees had the following duties respectively. They were industrial arts, to
take care of the foreigners, to register the birth and death of the citizens of Pataliputra,
to look after trade and commerce, to supervise different manufactures and to collect
excise duties and custom duties.

Mauryan Military Administration

It is also learnt that the war office of Mauryas were managed by a board of 30
members. They were also divided into six committees, each of the committees having
five members to look after:

 Navy,
 Transport and supply,
 Infantry,
 Cavalry,
 The war chariots and of
 War elephants .

Mauryan administration of Ashoka the great

King Ashoka, also known as Ashoka the Great, introduced innovations and reforms in
the Mauryan Empire Administration System. Ashoka improved every sphere of
administration, executive, legislative and judiciary. He had reformed many aspects of
the provincial Mauryan administration. He appointed many new officers in Mauryan
government to contribute the tasks of public welfare. In introducing these reforms he
was guided by humanitarian and paternal sentiment.

Ashoka appointed a special class of officers known as the Dhamma Mahamatras. The
Dhamma Mahamatras were appointed by him to look after the material and spiritual
well being of the people. He introduced these officers to preach the principle of
Dhamma.

But the most outstanding reforms of Mauryan Administration during the rule of Ashoka
was in the realm of judiciary. The principles of uniformity of penalty and uniformity of
judicial procedure were also enforced in Mauryan Government.