SEMICONDUCTORS

What is semiconductor? The materials having conductivity intermediate between the conductors and the insulators are
known as semiconductors. Semiconductors having moderate numbers of free electrons in the conduction band. Two major
types of semiconductors are (i) Intrinsic or pure type and (ii) Extrinsic or doped (impurity) type. (For a semiconductor, the
Fermi energy level remains equal to half of the probability value of occupying the energy level of an electron.)

Band Theory :
Insulators Conductors Semi conductors

Conduction Band Conduction Band Conduction Band

No Free Electrons Sufficient Free Electrons Few Free Electrons
Overlapping
Region Forbidden Region
Fermi Energy Level (EF) Fermi Energy Level (EF)

Forbidden Region
(Eg)
Valence Band
Valence Band (Filled by Electrons) (Filled by electrons)

Valence Band (Filled by Electrons)

From the band theory, it is found that, the valence band is completely filled by electrons which do not take part in the
conduction of current but the free electrons in the conduction band actively take part in conduction of electricity. If
sufficient amount of energy (potential difference) is applied in the material, electrons may jump from the valence band to
the conduction band. Thus the material can conduct current.
The energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band is known as the forbidden region where no electrons
can stay.

For Insulators : No free electrons remain in the conduction band and the energy gap (difference) Eg between the
conduction band and valence band is large.

For Conductors : Sufficient number of free electrons are available in the conduction band and the valence band and
conduction band energy overlap i.e, electrons easily can move from the valence band to the conduction band.

For Semiconductors : Energy gap between the conduction band and the valence band is intermediate between the
conductors and the insulators and may vary due to some external factors (doping).

Two types of semiconductors: i) Intrinsic semiconductor (pure type) and ii) Extrinsic semiconductor (doped)

What is doping? Injecting of foreign materials in a crystal is known as doping.

Two types of extrinsic semiconductors: i) p type (holes are the majority career, positively charged particle) and
ii) n type (electrons are the majority career, negatively charged particle)
Formation of n type semiconductors:

When a group V element e.g. Arsenic (having five free electrons) is injected into a group IV element (having 4 free
electrons) like Germanium (Ge), four free electrons of As makes covalent bond with Ge but one of the electrons remain
free which serves as the free electron in the crystal. Thus Ge, basically a non conductor, conducts electrons and since
electrons are the majority careers, this type of semiconductor is known as n type semiconductor.

Ge
As

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge As e-

Ge
Formation of p type semiconductors:

When a group III element e.g. Boron, Indium (having three free electrons) is injected into a group IV element (having 4
free electrons) like Germanium (Ge), three free electrons of B makes covalent bond with Ge but one deficiency of electron
remains in the crystal to produce a covalent bond. This deficiency of electron in the crystal works effectively as a positive
charge and is known as hole (h+). Thus Ge, basically a non conductor, conducts the positive charge and since holes are
the majority careers, this type of semiconductor is known as p type semiconductor.

Ge
B

Ge

Ge

Ge

Ge h+ B

Ge

Thus electrons (e-) are the majority career and the holes (h+) are the minority careers in the n type semiconductors. Since
the mass of electron is less than the mass of the proton (h+), the mobility in the n types of semiconductor is more and its
energy is given by Ee = ђ2k2/2me*. where ђ = h/2π and k = 2π/λ, known as the wave constant.

Whereas, holes (h+) are the majority career and the electrons (e-) are the minority careers in the p type semiconductors.
Since the mass of hole is more than the mass of the electron (e-), the mobility in the p types of semiconductor is less and
its energy is given by Ee = ђ2k2/2mh*.

Formation of p n junction:

Depletion Region: When a p type and a n type semiconductor are combined together by crystallographic method, it
produces a p-n junction. The electrons (e-) and the holes (h+) start to diffuse towards each other due to the electrostatic
attraction force. After sometime, when the electrons (e-) and the holes (h+) recombine, they form a neutral immobile
charge less particle and these particles remain stationary at the junction barrier produces a depletion region.
Potential Barrier : The energy of the depletion region is more than the energy of the p type or n type layer and this
energy barrier is known as potential barrier due to which electrons can not flow towards the p type region and holes also
can not flow towards the n type region. Thus after the formation of the potential barrier, the flow of electrons and the
holes towards each other is stopped.

n type region junction p type region

e- h+

n type region depletion p type region

e- e-h h+
combination

Energy of depletion region (Potential barrier)

Energy of p type region(Eh)

Energy of n type region (En)

e- e-h h+
combination

p – n junction diode : The junction of a n type and a p type semiconductor is known as p-n junction and when a p-n
junction operates between a potential difference, it is known as a p-n junction diode.

Symbol: Anode Cathode

Forward bias :
p type region n type region

h+ + - μA e-

V
In forward bias, the p type region is connected with the positive terminal of the battery and the n type region is connected
with the negative terminal of the battery.

IA Forward Bias

Forward breakdown potential VA

Explanation : The p type region, which is concentrated with the holes (positive charges) is connected with the positive
terminal of the battery from which more number of positive charges are supplied in the p type region (h+ concentration
will increase). Thus the repulsion force among the holes will increase and those will try to repel each other. Similarly, The
n type region, which is concentrated with the electrons (negative charges) is connected with the negative terminal of the
battery from which more number of negative charges are supplied in the n type region (e- concentration will increase).
Thus the repulsion force among the electrons will increase and those will try to repel each other.

Initially, when the small potential difference is applied in the circuit, very less current flows due to the flow of the
minority carriers (as potential barrier do not allow the majority carriers to conduct electricity). Thus small number of
electrons present in the hole concentrated region are attracted by the negative terminal of the battery and similarly small
number of holes present in the electron concentrated region are attracted by the positive terminal of the battery

Thus both the repulsion force due to the h+ and e- will act from opposite directions over the depletion region and with the
increase of the potential difference applied in the circuit, the thickness of the depletion region will gradually decrease and
ultimately the depletion region will break. As soon as the depletion region (potential barrier) breaks, large number of
electrons and holes will start to flow from the opposite direction and a lrge current will be established in the circuit.

Forward breakdown potential : The applied potential in the forward bias for which the potential barrier of the p-n
junction breaks and large amount of charges (e- and h+) flow in the circuit (thus large current is produced) is known as
Forward breakdown potential (Also known as Avalanche potential)
The p-n junction connected in the forward bias is known as forward bias diode.

The symbol of the forward bias diode is : A C

Reverse bias :
p type region n type region

e- - + μA h+

V
In reverse bias, the p type region is connected with the negative terminal of the battery and the n type region is connected
with the positive terminal of the battery.

IA Forward Bias

-VA Forward breakdown potential VA

Reverse break down

Potential
(Zener potential)

Reverse Bias

-IA
Explanation : The p type region, which is concentrated with the holes (positive charges) is connected with the negative
terminal of the battery from which electrons are supplied in the p type region (h+). Thus the electrons and the holes will
recombine each other to produce e-h pairs (chargeless). Similarly, The n type region, which is concentrated with the
electrons (negative charges) is connected with the positive terminal of the battery from which more number of positive
charges are supplied in the n type region (e-). Thus the electrons and the holes will recombine each other to produce e-h
pairs (chargeless).

Thus in depletion region will try to expand in both the sides and the whole p-n diode will be covered by the depletion
region.
Reverse breakdown potential : The applied opposite potential in the reverse bias for which large amount of charges (e-
and h+) flow in the circuit (thus large current is produced) is known as Reverse breakdown potential (Also known as
Zener potential)

Applications : i) Half wave (A,C.) rectification and ii) Full wave (A.C.) rectification

Properties of a p–n junction

The p–n junction possesses some interesting properties that have useful applications in modern electronics. A p-
doped semiconductor is relatively conductive. The same is true of an n-doped semiconductor, but the junction
between them can become depleted of charge carriers, and hence non-conductive, depending on the relative
voltages of the two semiconductor regions. By manipulating this non-conductive layer, p–n junctions are
commonly used as diodes: circuit elements that allow a flow of electricity in one direction but not in the other
(opposite) direction. This property is explained in terms of forward bias and reverse bias, where the term bias
refers to an application of electric voltage to the p–n junction.

Equilibrium (zero bias)

In a "p–n" junction, without an external applied voltage, an equilibrium condition is reached in which a
potential difference is formed across the junction. This potential difference is called built-in potential .

After joining p-type and n-type semiconductors, electrons near the p–n interface tend to diffuse into the p
region. As electrons diffuse, they leave positively charged ions (donors) in the n region. Likewise, holes near
the p–n interface begin to diffuse into the n-type region, leaving fixed ions (acceptors) with negative charge.
The regions nearby the p–n interfaces lose their neutrality and become charged, forming the space charge region
or depletion layer (see figure A).

Figure A. A p–n junction in thermal equilibrium with zero-bias voltage applied. Electron and hole
concentration are reported with blue and red lines, respectively. Gray regions are charge-neutral. Light-red zone
is positively charged. Light-blue zone is negatively charged. The electric field is shown on the bottom, the
electrostatic force on electrons and holes and the direction in which the diffusion tends to move electrons and
holes.

The electric field created by the space charge region opposes the diffusion process for both electrons and holes.
There are two concurrent phenomena: the diffusion process that tends to generate more space charge, and the
electric field generated by the space charge that tends to counteract the diffusion. The carrier concentration
profile at equilibrium is shown in figure A with blue and red lines. Also shown are the two counterbalancing
phenomena that establish equilibrium.

Figure B. A p–n junction in thermal equilibrium with zero-bias voltage applied. Under the junction, plots for
the charge density, the electric field, and the voltage are reported.

The space charge region is a zone with a net charge provided by the fixed ions (donors or acceptors) that have
been left uncovered by majority carrier diffusion. When equilibrium is reached, the charge density is
approximated by the displayed step function. In fact, the region is completely depleted of majority carriers
(leaving a charge density equal to the net doping level), and the edge between the space charge region and the
neutral region is quite sharp (see figure B, Q(x) graph). The space charge region has the same magnitude of
charge on both sides of the p–n interfaces, thus it extends farther on the less doped side (the n side in figures A
and B).
Forward bias
In forward bias, the p-type is connected with the positive terminal and the n-type is connected with the negative
terminal.

PN junction operation in forward-bias mode, showing reducing depletion width. Both p and n junctions are
doped at a 1e15/cm3 doping level, leading to built-in potential of ~0.59V. Reducing depletion width can be
inferred from the shrinking charge profile, as fewer dopants are exposed with increasing forward bias.

With a battery connected this way, the holes in the P-type region and the electrons in the N-type region are
pushed toward the junction. This reduces the width of the depletion zone. The positive charge applied to the P-
type material repels the holes, while the negative charge applied to the N-type material repels the electrons. As
electrons and holes are pushed toward the junction, the distance between them decreases. This lowers the barrier
in potential. With increasing forward-bias voltage, the depletion zone eventually becomes thin enough that the
zone's electric field cannot counteract charge carrier motion across the p–n junction, as a consequence reducing
electrical resistance. The electrons that cross the p–n junction into the P-type material (or holes that cross into
the N-type material) will diffuse in the near-neutral region. Therefore, the amount of minority diffusion in the
near-neutral zones determines the amount of current that may flow through the diode.

Only majority carriers (electrons in N-type material or holes in P-type) can flow through a semiconductor for a
macroscopic length. With this in mind, consider the flow of electrons across the junction. The forward bias
causes a force on the electrons pushing them from the N side toward the P side. With forward bias, the depletion
region is narrow enough that electrons can cross the junction and inject into the P-type material. However, they
do not continue to flow through the P-type material indefinitely, because it is energetically favorable for them to
recombine with holes. The average length an electron travels through the P-type material before recombining is
called the diffusion length, and it is typically on the order of microns.

Although the electrons penetrate only a short distance into the P-type material, the electric current continues
uninterrupted, because holes (the majority carriers) begin to flow in the opposite direction. The total current (the
sum of the electron and hole currents) is constant in space, because any variation would cause charge buildup
over time (this is Kirchhoff's current law). The flow of holes from the P-type region into the N-type region is
exactly analogous to the flow of electrons from N to P (electrons and holes swap roles and the signs of all
currents and voltages are reversed).

Therefore, the macroscopic picture of the current flow through the diode involves electrons flowing through the
N-type region toward the junction, holes flowing through the P-type region in the opposite direction toward the
junction, and the two species of carriers constantly recombining in the vicinity of the junction. The electrons
and holes travel in opposite directions, but they also have opposite charges, so the overall current is in the same
direction on both sides of the diode, as required.

The Shockley diode equation models the forward-bias operational characteristics of a p–n junction outside the
avalanche (reverse-biased conducting) region.

Reverse bias

A silicon p–n junction in reverse bias.

Reverse-bias usually refers to how a diode is used in a circuit. If a diode is reverse-biased, the voltage at the
cathode is higher than that at the anode. Therefore, no current will flow until the diode breaks down.
Connecting the P-type region to the negative terminal of the battery and the N-type region to the positive
terminal corresponds to reverse bias. The connections are illustrated in the following diagram:

Because the p-type material is now connected to the negative terminal of the power supply, the 'holes' in the P-
type material are pulled away from the junction, causing the width of the depletion zone to increase. Likewise,
because the N-type region is connected to the positive terminal, the electrons will also be pulled away from the
junction. Therefore, the depletion region widens, and does so increasingly with increasing reverse-bias voltage.
This increases the voltage barrier causing a high resistance to the flow of charge carriers, thus allowing minimal
electric current to cross the p–n junction. The increase in resistance of the p–n junction results in the junction
behaving as an insulator.

The strength of the depletion zone electric field increases as the reverse-bias voltage increases. Once the electric
field intensity increases beyond a critical level, the p–n junction depletion zone breaks down and current begins
to flow, usually by either the Zener or the avalanche breakdown processes. Both of these breakdown processes
are non-destructive and are reversible, as long as the amount of current flowing does not reach levels that cause
the semiconductor material to overheat and cause thermal damage.

This effect is used to one's advantage in Zener diode regulator circuits. Zener diodes have a certain – low –
breakdown voltage. A standard value for breakdown voltage is for instance 5.6 V. This means that the voltage
at the cathode can never be more than 5.6 V higher than the voltage at the anode, because the diode will break
down – and therefore conduct – if the voltage gets any higher. This in effect regulates the voltage over the
diode.

Another application where reverse biased diodes are used is in Varicap diodes. The width of the depletion zone
of any diode changes with voltage applied. This varies the capacitance of the diode.
Rectifier devices
Before the development of silicon semiconductor rectifiers, vacuum tube diodes and copper(I) oxide or
selenium rectifier stacks were used. With the introduction of semiconductor electronics, vacuum tube rectifiers
became obsolete, except for some enthusiasts of vacuum tube audio equipment. For power rectification from
very low to very high current, semiconductor diodes of various types (junction diodes, Schottky diodes, etc.) are
widely used. Other devices which have control electrodes as well as acting as unidirectional current valves are
used where more than simple rectification is required, e.g., where variable output voltage is needed. High power
rectifiers, such as are used in high-voltage direct current power transmission, employ silicon semiconductor
devices of various types. These are thyristors or other controlled switching solid-state switches which
effectively function as diodes to pass current in only one direction.

Half-wave rectification
In half wave rectification of a single-phase supply, either the positive or negative half of the AC wave is passed,
while the other half is blocked. Because only one half of the input waveform reaches the output, mean voltage is
lower. Half-wave rectification requires a single diode in a single-phase supply, or three in a three-phase supply.
Rectifiers yield a unidirectional but pulsating direct current; half-wave rectifiers produce far more ripple than
full-wave rectifiers, and much more filtering is needed to eliminate harmonics of the AC frequency from the
output.

Half-wave rectifier

The output DC voltage of an ideal half wave rectifier is:

A real rectifier will have a characteristic which drops part of the input voltage (a voltage drop, for silicon
devices, of typically 0.7 volts plus an equivalent resistance, in general non-linear), and at high frequencies will
distort waveforms in other ways; unlike an ideal rectifier, it will dissipate power.

Full-wave rectification
A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarity (positive or negative)
at its output. Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the input waveform to DC (direct current), and
yields a higher mean output voltage. Two diodes and a centre trapped Transformer, or four diodes in a bridge
confirmation and any AC source (including a transformer without center tap), are needed. Single semiconductor
diodes, double diodes with common cathode or common anode, and four-diode bridges, are manufactured as
single components.
Graetz bridge rectifier: a full-wave rectifier using 4 diodes.

For single-phase AC, if the transformer is center-tapped, then two diodes back-to-back (cathode-to-cathode or
anode-to-anode, depending upon output polarity required) can form a full-wave rectifier. Twice as many turns
are required on the transformer secondary to obtain the same output voltage than for a bridge rectifier, but the
power rating is unchanged.

Full-wave rectifier using a center tap transformer and 2 diodes.

Full-wave rectifier, with vacuum tube having two anodes.

A very common double-diode rectifier tube contained a single common cathode and two anodes inside a single
envelope, achieving full-wave rectification with positive output. The 5U4 and 5Y3 were popular examples of
this configuration.

3-phase AC input, half & full-wave rectified DC output waveforms

For three-phase AC, six diodes are used. Double diodes in series, with the anode of the first diode connected to
the cathode of the second, are manufactured as a single component for this purpose. Some commercially
available double diodes have all four terminals available so the user can configure them for single-phase split
supply use, half a bridge, or three-phase rectifier.
A three-phase bridge rectifier.
Disassembled automobile alternator, showing the six diodes that comprise a
full-wave three-phase bridge rectifier.

Many devices that generate alternating current (some such devices are called alternators) generate three-phase
AC. For example, an automobile alternator has six diodes inside it to function as a full-wave rectifier for battery
charging applications.

The average and root-mean-square output voltages of an ideal single-phase full-wave rectifier are:

For a three-phase full-wave rectifier with ideal thyristors, the average output voltage is
 Transistors :

If a n type semiconductor is sandwiched between two p type semiconductors or vice versa (i.e. a p type
semiconductor is sandwiched between two n type semiconductors), it forms a p-n-p transistor (or n-p-n
transistor.
Emitter (e) b collector (c) emitter (e) b collector (c)

p n p n p n

base base

symbol : c c

b b

e e
p-n-p transistor n-p-n transistor

Biasing: Emitter – base (e-b) junction is connected in forward bias and the collector – base (c-b) junction is connected in
the reverse bias.

e b c e b c

p n p n p n

F.B R.B. F.B. R.B.

c c
b b

e R.B.(High Tension) e R.B.(High Tension)

F.B. F.B.
(Low Tension) (Low Tension)
Modes of transistor connection:
i. Common emitter mode (CE mode)
ii. Common base mode (CB mode)
iii. Common collector mode (CC mode)

CE Mode (Emitter is common CB Mode (Base is common CC Mode (Collector is common

to both base and collector) to both emitter and collector) to both emitter and base)
Maximum used in circuits Minimum used in circuits Not used in circuits

c e c c
b b b

e b e

CE Mode CB Mode CC Mode

Transistor as an amplifier : (p-n-p Transistor)

e b c
p n p

F.B. (L.T.) R.B. (H.T.)

IB μA IC mA
- + + -

c - - (Reverse Bias)
- b VCE
VBE e +
+ + (High Tension)
 (n – p – n transistor)
e b c

n p n

IB μA IC mA
+ - - +

c + + (Reverse Bias)
+ b VCE
VBE e -
- - (High Tension)

Input characteristics of a Transistor (Base Current vs base voltage with respect to emitter)

IB

ΔIB Input conductance σInput = ΔIB/ΔVBE > 1

ΔVBE

VBE

Output Characteristics of a transistor (Collector current vs collector voltage with respect to emitter)

IC Saturation
Region

ΔIC Output conductance σoutput = ΔIc/ΔVcE < 1

ΔVCE
Active Region

Cut off region VCE

 IB4

IC Saturation
Region
IB3 Q point : Quiescent point, known as most effective
point
Active Region
Load Line IB2

Q point

IB1
Cut off region VCE

Cut off region : The minimum base current which must be supplied in the transistor in order to keep a transistor in the
working mode, below this base current the transistor becomes inactive.

Active region : The transistor remain effective in between the cut off region to the saturation region, known as the active
region (zone).

Saturation region : The collector current (output current) increases with the increase of the base current up to a particular
value. After which the collector current remains constant. This zone is known as saturation zone.

Load Line : A hypothetical line is drawn at an angle of 45⁰ with the IC or VCE line which cuts the IC line at different
points in the active region, this line is known as the load line.

Q point : Quiescent point, known as the most effective point in the active region of a transistor. The operation of a
transistor is calculated based upon this value.

emitter base collector

Ie Ic = Ie - Ib

p n p
Ib

Forward Bias Reverse Bias

(Low Tension battery) (High Tension Battery)

Thus from Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) we get, Ie = Ib + Ic ---------------------------------(i)

Here, α = Ic/Ib known as AC gain and β = Ic/Ib known as DC gain

From (i), we can write : Ie = Ib + IC => Ie/Ic = Ib /Ic + 1 [ Dividing both sides by Ic]
 1/α = 1/β + 1
 α = β / (β + 1)
or β = α / (1 – α)