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Correct identification and efficient sampling methods for beneficial and pest insects are two
critical steps toward implementation of integrated pest management (IPM) programs. IPM
includes the use of all feasible control tactics (e.g., crop rotation, resistant hybrids and
chemical control) to manage pests within a profitable, yet environmentally sound production
system. Efficient sampling methods are necessary for making accurate and timely evaluations
of insect population (infestation) levels. These estimates can then be used for comparison
with economic thresholds and consideration of appropriate management tactics.

To assist in identifying alfalfa insects and damage symptoms contact a Minnesota Extension
Service (MES) county office. Current economic or action thresholds are available at MES
county offices.

  ² Insect mortality can result from starvation, desiccation and exposure
(conditions which often occur when alfalfa is cut), as well as from predators, parasites,
disease and insecticide applications. Most insects are more vulnerable to each of these factors
when they are young. The lowest labeled rates of insecticides can often provide effective
control when treating young (immature) insects. Hence early detection is advantageous.
[evertheless, control action is still appropriate only when yield and quality savings justify
control costs.

B  T   


 
Ôor production of high yielding, high quality alfalfa, the crop should be checked weekly. In
cooler weather, sampling can be done less frequently. In hot weather, however, sampling
frequency should be increased (insects develop, feed and reproduce faster under warmer
conditions). Shorter sampling intervals are also necessary as insect populations and/or
damage approach economically damaging levels. The scouting schedule on Table 1
summarizes when sampling should be directed toward particular insect pests.

B  T   


 
Three methods of sampling are recommended in Minnesota for scouting alfalfa insects: 1)
sweep net sampling; 2) stem sampling; and 3) ground area sampling (e.g., square-foot, yard,
meter).

Samples from several different locations in a field are necessary. This ensures that insect
populations sampled are representative of insects in the field as a whole. Ôive locations are
usually advised, but more may be necessary in fields with a wide range of diversity in soil
type, crop maturity, slope, etc. Choose sampling locations in proportion to the relative area in
the field of each condition.   illustrates one way to obtain a representative sample.
 Ô    



  

  
      


 
 

 
   

   


 
 ² This is currently the most convenient method of estimating many of
the pest and beneficial insect populations in alfalfa. Although it provides only a 

estimate of insect density, it is sufficient and cost effective for most above ground insect pests
of Minnesota alfalfa. Sweep net sampling „
 recommended for determining absolute
estimates of alfalfa weevil, cutworm, armyworm, grasshopper, or aphid populations.
However, the sweep net is often useful for detecting initial low-density populations of alfalfa
weevil larvae and pea aphids.

A 15" diameter heavy-duty sweep net is required if results are to be comparable with the
thresholds provided. In Minnesota, threshold data is expressed in numbers per pendulum
sweep. With this method, the net is swung from side to side on a more-or-less vertical axis
sweeping down into the alfalfa, first in one direction and then the other (2 sweeps). It is
important to have the net as low to the ground as practical (or top 2/3 of canopy in tall alfalfa)
and to walk briskly when sampling. 180-degree sweeps, which are more horizontal and
wider, are used by some workers, but most thresholds used in the midwestern states are based
on pendulum sweeps.

After 10 or 20 pendulum sweeps, quickly shake the net contents to the bottom of the bag.
Grasp the net bag firmly above the sample to prevent escape. The sample may then be
emptied into a plastic bag for later identification and counting, or counted in the field. Insects
can also be counted in the net. Ôor this, the insects are allowed to escape very slowly, as the
base of the net is gradually opened. It is useful to carry small vials to collect insects requiring
further identification.

 
 ² Stem sampling is used for monitoring tip injury in alfalfa, and obtaining
more accurate estimates of alfalfa weevil and pea aphid abundance than is possible from
sweep samples. The only tool needed for this method is a carton or bucket in which to place
the stems, or a tray onto which to shake the aphids or larvae from the stems.

©
 ² Grasshoppers need to be estimated as the number per square
yard; cutworms, armyworms and post-harvest alfalfa weevils as the number per square foot.
A sampling frame, 1 foot square, made of heavy wire, plastic or wood, and painted a bright
color to reduce the likelihood of loss, is useful for square foot sampling of insects as well as
for measuring alfalfa stand density.
©


 

 ² Do not take sweep samples when the alfalfa is
wet, or under extremely windy conditions; the results will be meaningless. Sampling in still
air is preferable to sampling in a light breeze, but is not often possible. Wind has been shown
to reduce the efficiency of sweep-sampling adult potato leafhoppers (PLH); see PLH section
for details. Sampling in winds of more than 10 mph is not advised. Insects are more active,
and hence more visible and catchable, in warm weather. Cool conditions reduce the
efficiency of sweep sampling adult PLH (see PLH section for details). Other insects are
similarly affected; consider this when interpreting numbers caught.

Although there are several sources of sweep nets, two common sources for standard 15"
diameter sweep nets are: Wards [atural Science Estab., Inc., P.O. Box 92912, Rochester, [
14692-9012, 1-800-962-2660; and Pest Management Supply, Inc., P.O. Box 938, Amherst,
MA 01004, 1-800-272-7672.

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 ² Potato leafhopper (PLH) migrates into the state each spring (May 1 -
June 15). Consequently, only second and third cuttings or recently established
stands should be monitored. Monitoring for PLH may be concluded 7-10 days
before harvest, since PLH cause little injury to more mature growth. Ôirst growth
of spring planted seedling alfalfa should be checked closely for PLH, as it is much
more sensitive to PLH injury.

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9 164 165-194 195

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 ² Recent research from Cornell University indicates that, on average, 3-5 sets of 10
sweeps each will provide accurate estimates of PLH density. In very early regrowth, in which
it is difficult to standardize sweeping efficiency, at least four 10-sweep samples should be
taken per field. The sequential sampling plan for PLH is shown above (¦ ). As
indicated, a minimum of three 10-sweep samples must be taken (also see  ). The plan
is very useful when PLH populations are low or high, with an average time savings of 50%
when compared to a traditional 100-sweep sample (ten 10-sweep samples). As with our
traditional thresholds for PLH (¦ "#, the sequential plan accounts for differences in plant
height. When using the plan, if the total (cumulative) number of PLHs caught falls in the
"continue sampling" column, you must move to at least one more site to take an additional
sample before a treatment decision can be made. Whenever the total number of PLH falls in
the "Don't treat" categories, then you can stop sampling and advise the producer accordingly.

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 ² Cool conditions reduce the efficiency of sampling adult PLH; at 60°Ô the catch
is 56% of that at 77° Ô. The table below shows the effect of wind on the efficiency of sweep-
sampling adult PLH. Also, 180-degree sweeps are much more severely affected by wind. Use
pendulum sweeps, and do not sweep-sample when winds are over 10 mph. When sampling in
a light wind, a small, hand-held anemometer will enable you to adjust catch figures upward
according to windspeed.

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Sampling

 ² Sweep sampling does not sample potato leafhopper nymphs as effectively
as adults, but as yet there is no other method convenient enough for commercial use. When
examining the sweepnet contents, open the bag carefully since many of the adult leafhoppers
will readily escape. Total the numbers of both adults and nymphs to determine the average
number of leafhoppers/sweep. More emphasis should be placed on samples taken during 3-7
and 8-12 in. plant growth stages.

B  T   

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  ² Alfalfa needs to be checked for weevils before harvest of the first crop,
and post-harvest, on the stubble after the first cutting. The earliest larvae tend to
be found on south facing slopes, as early as May 1 in years with an early spring.
Generally, larvae are rare or absent by the time of second cut. Some larvae may
hatch from fall-laid eggs, but these rarely reach economic levels.

 ² A variety of methods are used in different parts of the United States to determine
whether economically damaging levels of alfalfa weevil are present. The Illinois method,
which measures and integrates crop growth stage, intensity of weevil infestation, and
progress of the infestation, is the most accurate, but has not yet been calibrated for Minnesota
conditions.

Meanwhile, monitoring tip injury is often recommended as a pre-harvest method. This

method is relatively simple to do and appears to be adequate for management purposes. It
provides a good rule of thumb estimate for the pre-harvest damage potential of alfalfa weevil.

Ôifty to 100 alfalfa stems, (10 to 20 randomly selected stems from each of 5 locations) are
collected and examined for whether they show obvious feeding damage²pinhole or more
severe feeding²in the rapidly growing tip leaves and leafbuds.

The number of stems with recent tip injury is divided by the total stems collected, converted
to a percent, and compared with the threshold.  confuse percent of tips showing
feeding damage with percent of stems defoliated.

Ôor post-harvest, it is necessary to monitor regrowth and potential stubble infestation. After
the hay has been picked up, the stubble and early regrowth in 20, one square foot samples (4
randomly chosen from each of 5 locations) is searched. As harvesting often concentrates
weevil larvae in the windrow areas of the field, it may be useful to sample first (or only) from
windrows. When regrowth after harvest is sufficiently long to make square-foot counts too
difficult, revert to monitoring tip injury.

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 ² The immature nymphs and subsequent adults arise from overwintered eggs
(northern states). Early spring populations are often heavily parasitized by
braconid wasps. Generally, it is not necessary to monitor or control pea aphids
earlier than 2-3 weeks before alfalfa harvest. Aphids are usually maintained
below economically damaging levels by natural enemies. Locally higher
densities are generally reduced by predators, parasites and disease. However,
under dry, warm conditions, pea aphid infestations may increase rapidly. If
aphids are extremely abundant on seedling alfalfa or early regrowth, control
may be necessary.

Alfalfa can tolerate fairly high pea aphid populations. Stem counts need not be taken until
about 1/4 cup of aphids are found per 20 sweep sample. ¦  Insecticide treatment for
pea aphid is justified if populations 14 days prior to harvest exceed an average of 1.2/stem.

 ² The simplest and most accurate method of taking actual counts of pea aphids is to
estimate numbers per stem. This is somewhat similar to stem sampling for monitoring tip
injury due to alfalfa weevil. Six to 10 stems randomly selected from each of 5 field locations
are shaken in a carton or over a tray and the average number of aphids/stem calculated. The
stems must be very carefully cut and handled since pea aphids readily fall from the plant
when disturbed.

B  T   

 ) 
Three species attack Minnesota alfalfa: Tarnished Plant Bug, Alfalfa Plant Bug and Rapid
Plant Bug. Of the three, the Tarnished and Alfalfa Plant Bugs are the more consistent pests.
Both the immature nymphs and adults (wings) suck plant juices from the stems, leaves and
flower buds. Subsequent damage may be characterized by crimpled leaves (feeding notches
from either side of the leaves), stunted plants or aborted flower buds.

 ² Plant bugs overwinter as adults. Significant nymphal populations are usually not
present until late-May to early-June, as the spring crop approaches maturity. Populations are
usually highest on the second and third regrowth cycles.

 ² Although plant bugs are often considered significant pests in seed production fields,
recent research (University of Wisconsin) suggests forage yields may also be reduced by their
direct feeding on vegetative growth. Action thresholds resulting from this research range
from 3-5 bugs/pendulum sweep (nymphs + adults of both species combined). If the Alfalfa
plant bug is the dominant species, the threshold should be lowered to 2-3/sweep. Check for
plant bugs when sampling potato leafhopper; for plant bugs, 4-5 sets of 10 sweeps each
should provide a representative sample.

B  T   

  
 ©



3




Estimate percentage of terminals injured by alfalfa weevil and check for live larvae. Sweep
net sample for pea aphid; if abundant, stem sample. Observe if unusual numbers of spittlebug
nymphs, plant bugs, grasshoppers, cutworms or other occasional pests are present.

3  





Check stubble to see if alfalfa weevil larvae are feeding on and retarding growth. Sweep net
sample for potato leafhopper. Stem sample for pea aphid 2 weeks prior to harvest if large
numbers are detected in sweep net samples. Observe if unusual numbers of cutworms, plant
bugs, grasshoppers or other occasional pests are present.





 

Sweep net sample for potato leafhopper. Stem sample for pea aphid if large numbers are
detected in sweep net samples and alfalfa is drought stressed. Observe if alfalfa weevil adults
or larvae are present, or unusual numbers of cutworms, plant bugs, grasshoppers, or other
pests.
[3  

Intensify all surveys since seedling stands are more susceptible to injury than established
stands. Recent research in Minnesota indicates that in some years, up to two insecticide
treatments may be needed to prevent yield and quality losses to PLH on spring-seeded alfalfa
during the establishment year. Good PLH management during the first year may also be
important for long-term health and productivity of the stand.

B  T   

 
Because it is very difficult to predict each year what insect pests will be most important,
several Minnesota Extension specialists contribute timely agronomic and pest (insects,
diseases and weeds) related articles to the MN C N 
published weekly during the
growing season. Articles in the newsletter will alert you to specific times and locations within
the state where specific pest problems are developing. The annual fee will quickly pay for
itself. To order, send a $25.00 check made payable to the University of Minnesota to:




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Last Updated: March 17, 2010

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Geoff Zehnder, Clemson University


 
Insect sampling is also sometimes referred to as scouting or monitoring. Why is sampling for
pest and beneficial insects so important? Because it is of utmost importance for farmers and
pest managers to understand insect activity in their crops and fields before they can make
cost-effective and environmentally sound pest management decisions. Remember the
underlying concept of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is that no action is taken against a
pest unless the pest is present and poses a threat to the crop. Thus, the main objectives of
insect sampling (pest and beneficial) are to:

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There are many different insect sampling techniques and sampling equipment that can be
used to detect insects in the air, on plants, and even on and beneath soil. Check the Appendix
at the end of this article for references that provide a thorough overview of the various insect
sampling techniques.

Row crop growers often use sweep nets to sample insects on plants like soybeans and cotton,
because sweep sampling (i.e. a given number of sweeps per sampling location) is quicker and
more cost effective for larger fields than inspection of individual plants. Small-scale
vegetable growers more commonly sample a given number of individual plants per sampling
location in the field. In this module we¶ll focus on sampling methods that will provide a
³relative´ estimate of insect population density based on the sampling unit (i.e. numbers per
leaf, per plant, etc).

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Optimal timing of sampling depends upon the life history and behavior patterns of the pest or
beneficial insect and also on the crop and environmental conditions. Both insects and plants
develop quickly under warm conditions and more slowly when it is cool. But in general it is a
good idea to begin sampling as soon as the crop is transplanted into the ground or when
plants emerge from the soil if direct seeded.

Sampling should be done at least once per week and preferably at least twice during warm
growing conditions. More frequent sampling is usually needed if insect pest numbers are in
the low-to-moderate range and on the increase. It is truly amazing how quickly insect pest
populations can develop, and once-a-week sampling may not detect a surge in insect numbers
until it is too late.


 
There are different sampling procedures that can be used depending on the crop, size of field,
etc. Ôarmers usually develop their own customized sampling plans once they have experience
with a particular crop. Here are some guidelines for getting started.

Upon entering the field make a quick visual examination of the field. Look for any atypical
areas that might affect your sampling pattern; i.e. areas with poor stands, obvious
topographical variation in the field, varietal growth differences, etc. Sampling can be done in
these areas but any unusual conditions that could affect insect numbers should be noted on
the sampling sheet.

Once you have an idea of the field conditions and layout, think about an efficient sampling
pattern for the field. Ôor example, "W" or "U" shaped sampling patterns are more commonly
used in a square-shaped field. In a long narrow field, a "zig-zag" or ³Z´ sampling pattern is
usually more efficient.

In the Ôig. 2 diagrams below a single sample or subset of samples would be taken at each
marked location. A single sample could be a visual count of all insects on one plant. A subset
of samples could be a visual count of all insects on each of 5 adjacent plants at each location.
Subset samples can provide a better population estimate for insects that are not randomly
distributed in the field but have an aggregated or clumped distribution.
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Ôor most pests it is important to walk a few rows into the field before sampling the first plant
to avoid edge effects. However, edge sampling is commonly done for pests like spider mites
that commonly invade into the field from the field borders. ou may wish to keep a separate
data sheet for sampled plants on the field edges.

The more plants in the field that are sampled, the more reliable the sampling data. Obviously
there is a trade-off between the number of plants that can be practically inspected and the
level of confidence in the data that one will accept. An internet search will yield insect
sampling plans for various crops, including a recommended number of plants to sample per
acre.

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Develop a field data sheet template that you can use to record insect counts. It will probably
require a few sampling periods to refine the data sheet for a particular crop, pest and
beneficial insect system.

Data sheets are most commonly organized in a matrix format with sample number along one
axis and labels for key pests and beneficials (by life stage) along the other axis. Thus at each
sample location the actual numbers of each specific insect and stage can be entered. It is
helpful to include a ³total´ column for each insect and stage to facilitate calculation of
averages. Averages can be used as a relative measurement to determine population trends
over time.

The data sheet should also include the sample date, time of day, field number or field location
if sampling from separate locations, plant growth stage, and space to record other pertinent
information such as atypical environmental conditions.
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Entering sampling data into a computer spread sheet program has many advantages. In
addition to simplifying data analysis, storage and retrieval, converting your data into
electronic form facilitates information sharing across farms and regions. A hand held
computer can also be used to record data directly from the field.

©¦ ¦ 

Back in 1959 Dr. Vern Stern, an entomologist at UC Riverside and one of the early pioneers
of the integrated pest management (IPM) concept, proposed the term ³Economic Injury
Level´ (EIL) and defined it as ³the pest population at which pest control measures must be
taken to prevent the pest population from rising to the economic injury level." IPM programs
use the concept of an economic threshold level (ETL or ET), also known as an action
threshold, which are related to the EIL.

To simplify these terms we¶re talking about using sampling data to determine whether insect
pest numbers have reached a pre-determined level above which economic loss will occur, and
thus an insecticide application or other action is needed to prevent loss (Ôig. 4).
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Threshold levels have been painstakingly developed for a number of pest/crop systems and
when available are commonly provided by state IPM Programs in their pest management
guidelines for specific crops. However, not many insect pest thresholds have been developed
for organic systems. One reason for this is because the focus of pest management in organic
systems is on proactive and long-term preventative pest management strategies (see the
Cultural Practices for Managing Insect Pests article). Thus in organic farming approved
insecticides are only considered and used as a last resort.

Ôurthermore, organic systems are more complex than conventional farming systems. In
addition to determining relationships between pest and crop life stage, damage and economic
loss, development of treatment thresholds for organic systems would have to take into
account additional factors that are difficult to quantify, including:

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To comply with [ational Organic Program rules, organic farmers must have a long-term pest
management plan in place that includes a number of preventative pest management tactics,
including cultural practices to reduce pests and attract beneficials, use of resistant varieties,
crop rotations, etc. Although approved insecticides are only to be used as a last resort,
treatment is sometimes necessary to protect an organic crop from serious insect pest damage
that may reduce yields and have a negative economic impact.

So how do organic farmers collect information to determine when treatment is needed? Ôirst
they check with insect and crop specialists and other organic farmers to find out if treatment
thresholds adaptable for organic systems in their region are available. Ôor example, organic
broccoli producers in the mountains of [orth Carolina use treatment thresholds for caterpillar
pests developed back in the 1980s by entomologists at the University of Missouri. Dr.
Richard McDonald of Symbiont Biological Pest Management has adapted and validated the
thresholds for application of x

 hn n  insecticides against caterpillar pests of
broccoli in the [C mountain region. The thresholds are based on plant growth stage,
caterpillar size, number and location on the plant.

In many cases organic farmers must develop and validate their own treatment thresholds
based on available information and experience. Ôor example, at the Clemson University
Student Organic Ôarm, we use a treatment threshold for Colorado potato beetle on potatoes
that is based on several factors including the potato beetle growth stage and the level of
defoliation at various stages of potato plant growth. Ôield research has shown that potato
plants can tolerate from 20% to 60% beetle defoliation, depending on growth stage, without
any loss in yield (Table 1).

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The potatoes are rotated and intercropped with non-potato beetle host plants, and straw
mulch is also used. These cultural practices normally keep potato beetle numbers low such
that defoliation thresholds are rarely exceeded. But on rare occasions when defoliation
reaches threshold, approved insecticides like neem, spinosad, pyrethrin or x


hn n  variety  n n products may be used. Sprays are targeted against the small,
1st and 2nd instar larvae because small larvae are more susceptible to insecticides than larger
larvae and adults.



 ou most likely learned about the Linnean system of classifying organisms back in grade
school. To review, insects are in the animal Kingdom and belong to the arthropod Phylum.
Arthropods have external skeletons, jointed bodies and limbs and, in addition to insects,
include crabs, lobsters, spiders, mites, centipedes and millipedes.

Insect arthropods are in a separate Class called Insecta distinguished from other arthropod
classes by having three distinct sections: the head, thorax, and abdomen (Ôig. 5). Insects can
also be distinguished as having three pairs of legs attached to the thorax, and a pair of
antennae on the head with some rare exceptions. Most insects have wings in the adult stage
but again there are some exceptions.

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At a minimum insect pests must be identified to Order to select an appropiate, approved
insecticide if needed. This is because approved biological insecticides like x


hn n  have specific activity against certain insect orders, like Lepidoptera, Coleoptera
and Diptera. But identification to species is required for other biological insecticides like the
insect granulosis and nuclear polyhedrosis virus products that are species specific.

But, whenever possible, key insect pests and beneficials should be identified down to the
species level. Why? Because it is often the case that species within the same family and even
genera will exhibit greatly different behaviors and may even have different host plants and
natural enemy complexes. An identification to species will enable the gathering of all
pertinent information about the species that can be used to formulate an effective
management strategy.


 *
Many different insect characteristics are used by taxonomists to identify and classify insects
including wing number, wing shape and venation, structure of antennae, legs or tarsi,
mouthparts, and internal structures like genitalia. ou are in luck that a course on insect
taxonomy is well beyond the scope of this article. However, with some practice and
knowledge of available resources you will soon become an ³expert´ at identifying insects in
your field.

     

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Build a reference library of insect field manuals with color pictures - for example, the
Peterson Ôield Guide to Insects or the Simon & Schuster Guide to Insects. See also the list of
reference materials and resources in the Appendix. Contact your Land Grant University
extension service and/or IPM program to get their publications and fact sheets on insect pest
management for the particular crops you are growing. These often contain guidelines on
insect scouting and identification. Some IPM programs offer pocket guides with pictures and
tips on identification and management that you can carry into the field. ou can also build
your own picture library with digital images you take yourself.




Don¶t panic if you are not able to confirm identification of an insect on your own; help is
available. If you are an agriculture professional you probably have experience submitting
insect specimens to an extension land grant university specialist for identification. In most
states these services are available to the public through local extension offices, sometimes on
a nominal fee basis.

Specialists are usually able to make an identification from a good digital image, but they may
require an actual specimen for confirmation. If available it is best to submit an adult specimen
because the adult life stage is easier to identify to species. Insect ID specialists are usually
able to identify larvae to species for the more common pest and beneficial insects, but this is
not always possible without an adult specimen. Always be sure to include the name of the
host plant (or host insect if available for beneficials) with the specimen.

,

Start a file of labelled digital images of sampled insects by year, season and crop as a
reference tool to help with future identification. ou can also refer to your insect scouting
records from previous years to predict when key pest and beneficial insects will be present.
As you learned in the ³Cultural Practices for Managing Insect Pests´ module, knowledge of
key pests and beneficials and when they occur is key in development of preventative pest
management strategies.

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Land Grant University IPM Programs provide online and print resources on insect sampling
in varous crops. An internet search by crop name and ³insect pest management´ is a good
way to find recommendations for insect sampling in a particular crop. Here are some other
useful resources:

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Land Grant University Entomology and IPM programs provide a wealth of information on
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and/or through the statewide extension service. The following are also excellent sources of
information on insect ID.

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