INTRODUCTION:

GENERAL:

Water treatment is a process that makes water more acceptable for a specific end-
use. The end use may be drinking, domestic use, industrial water supply, irrigation, water
recreation or many other uses including being safely returned to the environment. Water
treatment removes contaminants or reduces their concentration so that the water becomes
fit for its desired end-use. Treatment for drinking water production involves the removal of
contaminants from raw water to produce water that is pure enough for human consumption
without any short term or long term risk of any adverse health effect. Substances that are
removed during the process of drinking water treatment include suspended
solids, bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi, and minerals such as iron and manganese.

OBJECTIVES OF WATER TREATMENT:

Water treatment is done due to various reasons that are described below


Learn where our drinking water comes from and how it gets to our household
tap.
 What makes water unclean and what harmful contaminants it can contain?
 To remove those contaminants that is harmful to health.
 To remove those contaminants that makes the water look, teste and smells
bad.
 To eliminate the tuberculating and corrosive properties of water which affects
the conduits and pipes.
 To remove the dissolved gases and kill all pathogenic germs.
 To make the water fit for domestic as well as industrial use.
TREATMENT PROCESSES:

The treatment processes directly depends on the impurities present in water. The
character and degree of treatment will directly depend upon the nature of water or indirectly on
the source. The water of surface sources generally contains large amount of impurities, therefore,
they will require all the treatments stated below. For removing various types of impurities the
following treatment processes are used.

s. no. Impurity Process used for treatment

1 Floating matters as leaves, dead animals etc. Screening
2 Suspended impurities as silt, clay, sand etc. Plain sedimentation
3 Fine suspended matters Sedimentation with
coagulation
4 Micro-organisms and colloidal matters Filtration
5 Dissolved gases, tastes and odours Aeration and chemical
treatment
6 Hardness Water softening
7 Pathogenic bacteria Disinfection

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CLASSES OF TREATMENT:

Treatment of water is classified into four classes. Which are given below in the table.

CLASSES DESCRIPTION SOURCE

A No treatment Some borehole water
B Disinfection only Occasional upland water, some borehole
water
C Standard water treatment Lowland rivers and reservoirs
(municipal water treatment)
D Advanced water treatment Some rural supplies(Fe and Mn) colour
removal, industrial water
treatment(pharmaceutical and food
&beverage industries)

PROCESS OF WATER TREATMENT:

The water treatment is done in following sequence.i.e.

 First of all water is collected from any surface or sub surface sources by pumping. And is
stored in a reservoir for continuous water supply to the plant.
 The pumping work is called as water intake.
 After intake the screening process is done to remove large floating particles like dead
animals, leaves, plastic, trees etc.
 Than storage, equalization, neutralization is done for a continuous and uniform flow of
water.
 Then aeration is done to dissolve extra oxygen to water.
 This screening, storage, equalization, neutralization and aeration all are pretreatment
process.
 After pretreatment primary treatment is done. This includes plane sedimentation and
sedimentation with coagulation and flocculation.
 Then secondary treatment is done.in this treatment filtration is done to the water.
 After that disinfection is done to the water to kill the harmful pathogenic organisms.
 Then finally treatment like water softening and fluoridation is done.
 After the treatment is completed the treated water is stored in an underground clear water
reservoir.
 At last the treated water is directly pumped to our house through the distribution channel
and pipelines.

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 FLOW DIGRAM OF STANDARD WATER TREATMENT:

INTAKE FROM WATER SOURCES

SCREENING

STORAGE

EQUALIZATION
PRE-TREATMENT
NEUTRALIZATION

AERATION

CHEMICAL PRE TREATMENT

COAGULATION AND MIXING

PRIMARY
FLOCULATION
TREATMENT
SEDIMENTATION

FILTRATION

DISINFECTION

WATER SOFTENING

FLUORIDATION

DISTRIBUTION NETWORK

SCREENING:

Raw water contains floating and suspended matters in it. The suspended matters are of large size
such as tree leaves, timber, dead animals, plastic etc. As well as small size matters like gravel, sand,
silt, clay etc. The large size floating matters can be removed by passing it through different screens.
This process of removing large suspended and floating matters from water is called as screening.

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TYPES OF SCREENS

A screen is a device with openings of different size for removing of bigger suspended and floating
particles from water. According to the opening size the screens are of three types,

i. Coarse screens >50mm

ii. Medium screens 15mm – 50mm
iii. Fine screens 3mm – 15mm

COARSE SCREENS:

Coarse screens are normally used only in large volume water drainage schemes and
upstream of large pumping stations where the pumps need to be protected from large objects such
as concrete blocks, logs of timber and other solid objects which could damage the mechanical
equipment. Pumps on such duties would normally be unaffected by medium sized objects. They are
generally aligned at an angle to the flow to minimize the risk of blinding during flood conditions.
These screens are having openings greater than 50mm. Some common types of coarse screens
used in water treatment are trash racks or bar screens, rotating bar interceptor etc.

MEDIUM SCREENS:
Medium screens are of opening size ranges from 15mm to 50mm.these screens are
generally used for removing coarse gravels, plastics, small tree branches etc. these types of screens
are generally used in small water treatment plants for uniform shallow flow of water. These are
generally mechanically cleaned but manual cleaning screens is also used. Some generally used
screens are manually raked bar, curved bar type, inclined bar type screens etc.

FINE SCREENS:
Fine screens are generally used for removing fine gravels, and small floating matters like
tree leaves and papers etc. These screens are generally come with a opening of 3mm to 15mm.it
also increases the efficiency of chlorination. These are generally mane up of metal plates having
slotted perforations. Some generally used fine screens are disc type screens, cup screens, bag
screens etc.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF SCREENS:

Trash rack /bar screens:

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This is one type of coarse screen used at inlet to storm water or combined flow pumping stations or
before fine screens on a large wastewater treatment plant. These may be manually or mechanically
raked.
Rotating bar interceptor:
This is also a type of coarse screen similar to trash rack screen, but do not need to be cleaned
except to take out large objects by hand. Useful for interception of boulders, large timber segments
etc.
Manually racked bar:
it is a medium screen used at inlet of small water treatment plants .
it is also used as by pass to mechanical screens.

Curved bar and inclined bar:

These are medium screens. These screens are used in small as well as medium water treatment
plants.it is used for shallow flow channels and can be used up to any depth.

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Disc type screens:
It is a type of fine screen which is cleaned by brush. These screens are less common now a days,
because their efficiency is low, have high maintenance cost and difficulty in disposal of screening
materials. These screens are used as fine screens.

Tiger cat
Cup/drum type screens:
Cup and drum type screens are the type of fine screens .these type of screens are the most efficient
screens used in domestic water treatment .The central inlet flow system and rotatable drum
screens out the fine particles from the water effectively.it can be used in large flow of water.

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AERATION:
Aeration brings water and air in close contact in order to remove dissolved gases (such as carbon
dioxide) and oxidizes dissolved metals such as iron, hydrogen sulfide, and volatile organic chemicals
(VOCs). Aeration is often the first major process at the treatment plant. During aeration,
constituents are removed or modified before they can interfere with the treatment processes.

Aeration brings water and air in close contact by exposing drops or thin sheets of water to the air
or by introducing small bubbles of air (the smaller the bubble, the better) and letting them rise
through the water. Aeration also helps remove dissolved metals through oxidation, the chemical
combination of oxygen from the air with certain undesirable metals in the water. Once oxidized,
these chemicals fall out of solution and become particles in the water and can be removed by
filtration.

The efficiency of aeration depends on the amount of surface contact between air and water, which
is controlled primarily by the size of the water drop or air bubble. Water that contains excessive
amounts of oxygen can become very corrosive. Excessive oxygen can also cause problems in the
treatment plant i.e. air binding of filters.

TYPES OF AERATORS:
Aerators fall into two categories. They either introduce air to water, or water to air. The water-in-
air method is designed to produce small drops of water that fall through the air. The air-in-water
method creates small bubbles of air that are injected into the water stream. All aerators are
designed to create a greater amount of contact between air and water to enhance the transfer of
gases and increase oxidation.
Water-Into-Air Aerators:

Cascade Aerators:
A cascade aerator (one of the oldest and most common aerators) consists of a series of steps that
the water flows over (similar to a flowing stream). In all cascade aerators, aeration is accomplished
in the splash zones. Splash zones are created by placing blocks across
the incline. (They are the oldest and most common type of aerators.) Cascade aerators can be used
to oxidize iron and to partially reduce dissolved gases.

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Slat and Coke Aerators :
Slat and coke trays are similar to the cascade and cone aerators. They usually consist of three-to-
five stacked trays, which have spaced wooden slats in them. The trays are then filled with fist-sized
pieces of coke, rock, ceramic balls, limestone, or other materials. The primary purpose of the
materials is providing additional surface contact area between the air and water. The water is
allowed to trickle from the top to bottom under gravitational force causing the aeration of raw
water. The size of coke tray ranges from50 to 75cm.this method is more efficient than cascade
method.

Spray Aerators:
Spray aerators have one or more spray nozzles connected to a pipe manifold. Water moves through
the pipe under pressure, and leaves each nozzle in a fine spray and falls through the surrounding
air, creating a fountain affect. The water is thrown to a height of 2 to 2.5m under a water pressure
of 0.7 to 1.15kg/m2. Spray aeration is successful in oxidizing iron and manganese and increases the
dissolved oxygen in the water.

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Air-Into-Water Aerators:

Air diffusion Aerators:

In this method perforated pipes are fixed in the bottom of the tanks. The compressed air is blown
throw the pipes which comes out in the form of bubbles and stir the whole water at a greater
speed. During the upward moment of air through water oxygen is thoroughly mixed with water.
The aeration tanks are usually 2.5 to 3.0m deep and works at the principle of continuous flow,
having minimum detention period of 15minutes. The higher the pressure, the more readily the
transfer of the oxygen to the water. The more oxygen that is available, the more readily the
oxidation of the iron or manganese.

Centrifugal Aerators:
Centrifugal aerators create enhanced conditions for dissolving gas into liquid phase, including
bubble size, and bubble size distribution and duration of interaction with liquid. Centrifugal
aerators combine several elements:
1. High turbulence swirling flow of liquid
2. Orthogonal flow of liquid and gas
3. Constant pressure inside the vessel
4. Optimum flow velocity generating centrifugal forces thereby extending diffusion rate within the
vessel
5. Very small pores, through which gas permeates into the liquid and is sheared off into liquid
phase, thereby forming small bubbles.

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PLAIN SEDIMENTATION

In this process treatment of water is done by retaining the water in a basin , so that the
suspended particles may settle down due to force of gravity only After the settlement the water
is taken out from the basin without disturbing the suspended impurities . It is suitable for relatively
pure water which contains undesirable amount of suspended matter . At last all the suspended
impurities settle in the bottom are drawn out trough sludge outlet pipe .

Principle of sedimentation

Any particle which does not alter its size , shape and weight while rising or settling in any fluid
is called discrete particle. All the particles having more specific gravity than the liquid , will move
vertically downward due to gravitational force . The particles will settle at an uniform velocity , this
velocity is called “settling velocity”.

The general settling velocity formula is given by ,

𝟏 𝐠
Vs = 𝟏𝟖 𝛍 ( ρs – ρ) d2

For laminar flow, terminal settling velocity equation becomes:

Vs = ( ρ p – ρ)gd2
18μ
which is known as the stokes equation .

Types of sedimentation

There are 4 types of sedimentation or settling ,

Type I : Discrete particle settling -

Particles settle individually without interaction with neighboring particles .

Type II : Flocculent particles -

Flocculation causes the particles to increase in mass and settle at a faster rate .

Type III : Hindered or Zone settling -

The mass of particles tends to settle as a unit with individual particles remaining in fixed
positions with respect to each other .

Type IV : Compression -

The concentration of particles is so high that sedimentation can only be occur through
compaction of the structure .

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SEDIMENTATION TANK

Sedimentation tank is also called settling tank or clarifier . A sedimentation tank allows
suspended particles to settle out of water as it flows slowly through the tank, thereby providing a
degree of purification . A layer of accumulated solids , called sludge forms at the bottom of the tank
and is removed periodically .

TYPES OF SEDIMENTATION TANK

There are two types of sedimentation tanks,

1- Rectangular sedimentation tank

2- Circular sedimentation tank

RECTANGULAR SEDIMENTATION TANK

Rectangular basins are hydraulically more stable, and flow control for large volumes is easier
with this configuration.

A typical long rectangular tank has length ranging from 2 to 4 times their width. The bottom is
slightly sloped to facilitate sludge scraping. A slow moving mechanical sludge scraper continuously
pulls the settled material into a sludge hopper from where it is pumped out periodically.

Purpose of using a rectangular sedimentation tank:

 Easy to operate and low maintenance cost.

 Easy adaptation to high rate settlers.

 Suited to large capacity plants.

CIRCULAR SEDIMENTATION TANK

Circular sedimentation basins have the same functional zones as the long rectangular basin,
but the flow regime is different. When the flow enters at the center and is baffled to flow radially
towards the perimeter, the horizontal velocity of the water is continuously decreasing as the
distance from the center increases. Thus, the particle path in a circular basin is a parabola as
opposed to the straight line path in the long rectangular tank.

Purpose of using a circular sedimentation tank:

 Easy sludge removal.

 High clarification efficiency.

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  Used for small to medium sized applications.

 Best suited for plants with constant flow rates and quality .

DESIGN CRITERIA FOR SEDIMENTATION TANKS

1. Detention period - for plain sedimentation: 3 to 4 h , and for coagulated sedimentation : 2 to

2.5 h.

2. Velocity of flow - Not greater than 30 cm/min (horizontal flow).

3. Tank dimensions - L: B = 3 to 5:1. Generally L= 30 m (common) maximum 100 m. Breadth= 6

m to 10 m. Circular: Diameter not greater than 60 m. generally 20 to 40 m.

4. Depth should be between 2.5 to 5.0 m.

5. Surface Overflow Rate - For plain sedimentation 12000 to 18000 L/d/m2 tank area; for
thoroughly flocculated water 24000 to 30000 L/d/m2 tank area.

6. Slopes - Rectangular 1% towards inlet and circular 8%.

COAGULATION:

Very fine suspended clay particles are not removed by plain sedimentation. Silt particles of size 0.06
mm requires 10 hours to settle in 3m deep plain sedimentation tank and 0.02 mm particles will
require about 4 days for settling . This settling time is impracticable, because water cannot be
detained for such long time. In plain sedimentation tanks detention time of about 2 hours for
mechanically cleaned basins and about 6 hours for ordinary tanks, can be allowed.

In addition to fine suspended matter, water also contains electrically charged colloidal
matters which are continuously in motion and never settle down due to gravitational force.

When water contains such fine clay particles and colloidal impurities, it becomes necessary to
apply such process which can easily remove them from water. After long experiment it has been
found that such impurities can be removed by coagulation.

Process of coagulation:

It has been found that when certain chemicals are added to water an insoluble , gelatinous ,
flocculent precipitation is formed . This gelatinous precipitate during its formation and descent
through the water absorb and entangle very fine suspended matter and colloidal impurities . The
gelatinous precipitate therefore has the property of removing fine and colloidal particles quickly
and completely then by plain sedimentation. These coagulants further have the advantages of
removing colour, odours and taste from the water. These coagulants if properly applied are
harmless to the public. First the coagulants are mixed in water to produce the required precipitate ,
then the water is sent in sedimentation basins where sedimentation of fine and colloidal particles
takes place through the precipitate .

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 In this process Coagulants with charges opposite those of the suspended solids are added to
the water to neutralize the negative charges on dispersed non-settable solids such as clay and
color-producing organic substances.

Once the charge is neutralized, the small suspended particles are capable of sticking together.
The slightly larger particles formed through this process and called micro flocs, are not visible to the
naked eye. The water surrounding the newly formed micro flocs should be clear. If it is not, all the
particles’ charges have not been neutralized, and coagulation has not been carried to completion.
More coagulant may need to be added.

A high-energy, rapid-mix to properly disperse the coagulant and promote particle collisions is
needed to achieve good coagulation. Over-mixing does not affect coagulation, but insufficient
mixing will leave this step incomplete. Coagulants should be added where sufficient mixing will
occur. Proper contact time in the rapid-mix chamber is typically 1 to 3 minutes.

Coagulants:

These are two opposing forces that impact the removal of colloidal material:

 Stability factors - Stability factors are those factors.

 Instability factors – Instability factors are those factors that contribute to the natural
removal of colloids.

Some most commonly used chemical coagulants are,

 Aluminium sulphate(𝐴𝑙𝑢𝑚29 ) – 𝐴𝑙2 (𝑆𝑂4 )3 . 18H2O

 Sodium Aluminate – (NaAlO2)

 Ferric Sulphate – 𝐹𝑒2 (𝑆𝑂4 )3 . 9𝐻2 𝑂

 Ferric Chloride – 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙3

 Poly Aluminium Chloride ( PAC )

Aluminium Sulphate (Alum):-

It is also simply called as alum. Alum which is available in market is dirty grey solid in the form
of lumps containing 17% of aluminium sulphate. Usually the dose of alum varies from 5 mg/litre for
relatively clear water to about 25 mg/liter for very turbid water. This is the chemical coagulant
which is widely used in water treatment plants.

Sodium Aluminate:-

This is an alkaline compound. This can be used for treatment very easily in the water having no
alkalinity.

It has further advantage of removing corrosive qualities of water.

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Ferric Sulphate:-

Ferric sulphate is usually dosed in the form of a solution, of about 135 g/l Fe concentration,
and then forms, under appropriate conditions, a brown floc.

Ferric Chloride:-

Ferric chloride is usually dosed in the form of a solution, and then forms, under appropriate
conditions, a yellow brown floc . Ferric chloride is very corrosive , dissolving stainless steel in a
matter of hours, but can be handled by the use of plastic materials .

Poly Aluminium Chloride (PAC):-

This chemical is partly neutralized aluminium chloride. It may also be mixed with poly-
electrolytes. It is a nearly neutral solution and when added to water, it produces white or brownish
flocs.

DOSAGE OF COAGULANTS:

The dosage of coagulants which should be added in the water, depends upon the following
factors:

i. Kind of coagulant

ii. Turbidity of water

iii. Colour of water

iv. pH – value of water

v. Temperature of water

vi. Mixing and flocculation time

In case of more turbid water at lower temperature more quality of coagulants are required. The pH
– value of water should be properly controlled for better floc formation. Similarly if pH value is
more, aluminium hydroxide ionizes into aluminate, which is also soluble in water.

Determination of optimum coagulant dose

The optimum dose coagulants is determined by jar – test Apparatus. It essentially consists of
four or more large size beakers of 1-2 liters capacity, stirring paddles of non-corrosive metal are
placed in each jar , which can be rotated at any desired speed by gear and spindle system .

14
 ( Picture of a Jar test apparatus )

Procedure for Jar Tests

 Measure out 500 ml portions of the water to be tested in a measuring cylinder and pour
into each beaker.

 Then coagulant is added in jar in varying amounts . The quantity of coagulants added in
each jar is noted.

 Then with the help of electric motor all the paddles are rotated at a speed of 30-40
R.P.M. for about 10 minutes .

 The rotation of paddles is stopped and the floc formed in each jar is noted and is
allowed to settle for 30 minutes .

 The dose of coagulant which gives the best floc is the optimum dose of coagulants.
Feeding device

Coagulants can be fed in dry or liquid form . Dry feed devices are desirable because they are
simple , require small space for installation , keep neatness , are free from corrosion and are
economical . But all the coagulants cannot be fed by dry feed devices , because some coagulants
have characteristics of clogging , caking and deliquescence . The coagulants which have uniformity
in grain size , constancy in composition , free from being efflorescent and remain dry under various
condition of temperature and pressure are suitable for feeding in dry form.

The choice of feeding device depends on the type of coagulants and the economy in total
cost of plant .

15
There are two types of feeding devices used

a) Dry feed devices ( for dry feeding )

b) Solution feed devices ( for wet feeding )

DRY FEED DEVICES

These devices are designed on volumetric or gravimetric displacement of dry-chemicals . The

chemicals are kept in the hoppers .

The above picture shows two types of dry feeding devices .

Required amount of coagulant is fed by revolving the helical screw or the toothed wheel fixed
at the bottom of the conical hopper . Only required amount of coagulant is drawn off continuously .
The speed of rotation of helical screw or toothed wheel is controlled by means of venture device
installed in the raw water channel or pipes through which raw water flows to treatment plant .
When the quantity of raw water increases automatically the speed of rotation is increased and
required amount of coagulant is fed in water at every time .

SOLUTION FEED DEVICES

The chemicals whose solution can be easily prepared are suitable to be fed by this method .
First of all solution is prepared by placing coagulants in a metal basket , perforated concrete or
wooden box and then spraying warm water over it . Sometimes solution pot is used for this
purpose which is most satisfactory method .In the pot the coagulants are kept through which the
water flows .The rate of flow in the solution pot is directly proportional to the flow in the main
channel . Sufficient coagulants are kept in the pot to maintain a saturated solution in the effluent
pipe .

The above figure shows a solution feed device for adding coagulant solution in the raw
water channel. The solution is kept in a constant solution level tank , having a tapered hole in the
bottom , which is controlled by a conical plug operated by a rod connected to a pulley . A small float
chamber is constructed and connected to the raw water channel by means of a pipe . A float is kept
in float chamber and it operates the pulley by means of a rack and pinion . When the quantity if raw
water increases , the water level in the float chamber also increases and lifts and float . The lifting
of float operates the pulley and the conical plug is also lifted thus increases and lifts the float . The
lifting of float operates the pulley and the conical plug is also lifted thus increasing the opening of
tapered hole causing more solution to reach the raw water . The float and conical plug are so inter
connected by means of pulley , shaft , rack and pinion arrangement that only required amount of
solution reaches the raw water channel in every case. Thus this device is an automatic device for
feeding solution of coagulants .

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 MIXING DEVICES

After adding coagulants in water , the next operation is to mix them thoroughly in water . So
that they fully disperse in whole water . This mixing is done by mixing devices . In this devices first
the coagulants are vigorously and rapidly mixed for about one minute . Then this mixture is gently
mixed for about half an hour . The velocity of flow of water in mixing basin is kept between 15 - 30
cm/sec . The velocity in no case should be less than 10 cm/sec and more than 75 cm/sec , because
in first case the floc will settle down and in second case disintegrate .

Mixing can be done by the following devices ;

I. Baffle type basins :–

In these basins water may flow round about the end baffles or up and down past under and
over baffles walls are placed 60-100 cm apart and velocity of water is kept between 15-30 cm/sec .
The detention period in these basins is kept 20-50 minutes . These are not used in plants because
these are costly in construction .

( Baffle type basin )

II. Flash mixer :–

In this device the solution of coagulants is mixed thoroughly in the water by means of a fan
operated by electric motor suitable drive . The water enters through the inlet , the deflecting wall
deflects the water towards fan blades where chemicals also reach through chemical pipe .

III. Deflector plate mixer :In this device the mixing is done by diffusing the water through
a deflector plate . Water enters from inlet pipe , then it comes out from the holes provided
below the deflector plate where it is agitated rapidly . Chemical pipe brings the coagulants
near deflector plate , where they are thoroughly mixed with water .

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 ( Flash mixer ) ( Deflector plate mixer )

FLOCCULATION

After thoroughly mixing of coagulants in water the next operation is flocculation . Flocculators
are slow stirring mechanism , which form flocs . Flocculator mostly consists paddles which are
revolving at very slow speed about 2–3 RPM. The paddles may revolve on a vertical or horizontal
shaft .

The flocculator provide number of gentle contacts between the flocculating particles which
are necessary for the successful formation of floc . These floes can be subsequently removed in
clarifier and the residues in filters. In one type there are number of compartments fitted with
rotating paddles. The water enters through inlet and leaves through outlet . The detention time for
best result should be between 30-60 minutes.

Macro flocs are the end product of a well-regulated coagulation and flocculation process by
converting and forming clusters of majority of the turbidity causing particles, clumps of bacteria
and particulate impurities. The floc will then settle out in the sedimentation basin, with remaining
floc will be removed in the filter. The best floc size for settling is 0.1 to 3 mm. Larger floc does not
settle as well and is more subject to breakup in the flocculation basin. Smaller floc also may not
settle.

The rate at which flocculation proceeds, depends on physical and chemical parameters such
as charges on particles, exchange capacity, particle size and concentration, pH, water temperature,
electrolyte concentration, time of flocculation, size of mixing basin and nature of mixing device.

Slow mixing is meant to bring the particles to collide and then agglomerate. The rate of
collision among the particles is dependent upon the number and size of particles in suspension and
the intensity of mixing in the mixing chamber.

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TYPES OF FLOCCULATOR

There are two types of flocculators in practice as follows :

1) Gravitational or Hydraulic type Flocculator

2) Mechanical Flocculator

GRAVITATIONAL OR HYDRAULIC TYPE FLOCCULATOR:-

There are two types of gravitational type Flocculator:

I. Horizontal flow baffled Flocculator

II. Vertical flow baffled Flocculator

Horizontal flow baffled Flocculator

The horizontal flow flocculator consists of several around the end baffles with in between
spacing of not less than 45 cm to permit cleaning. Clear distance between the end of each baffle
and the wall is about 1.5 times the distance between the baffles, but never less than 60 cm. Water
depth shall not be less than 1.0m and the water velocity is in the range of 10 to 30 cm/s. The
detention time is between 15 to 20 minutes. This type of Flocculator is well suited for very small
treatment plants. It is easier to drain and clean.

Vertical flow baffled Flocculator

This type of Flocculator is used for medium to large size treatment plants. In vertical flow
baffled Flocculator the distance between the baffles is not less than 45cm. Clear space between the
upper edge of the baffles and the water surface or lower edge of the baffles and the basin bottom
is almost 1.5 times the distance between the baffles. Water depth varies between 1.5 to 3 times
the distance between the baffles and the water velocity is in the range of 10 to 20 cm/ s. The
detention time is between 10 to 20 minutes.

MECHANICAL FLOCCULATOR:-

Mechanical paddle mixers in a flocculation basin with a detention time of 20 to 60 minutes

are widely used in practice. Mechanical flocculators, consist of revolving paddles connected to
horizontal or vertical shafts, driven by electric motor.

CLARIFIERS

In this operation the floc which has been formed in flocculation process is allowed to settle and
is precipitated from the water . This is done by keeping the water in sedimentation tanks which are
also known as coagulation basins . The design of clarifiers in similar to that of plain sedimentation
tanks . Some clarifiers are filled with moving arm known as raking arm . These devices are also
fitted with continuous sludge removing arrangements .

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 The clarifier works by permitting the heavier and larger particles to settle to the bottom of
the clarifier. The particles then form a bottom layer of sludge requiring regular removal and
disposal. Clarified water then proceeds through several more steps before being sent for storage
and use

Types of Clarifiers

The design of most of the clarifiers falls into three categories:

1. Horizontal flow

2. Solids contact

3. Inclined surface

Horizontal Flow Clarifier

The common types of horizontal flow clarifiers are rectangular and circular. The rectangular
clarifiers are of length 150-200 ft and width 10-50 ft . The width of rectangular clarifiers is 7-12 ft
.The circular clarifiers are of diameter 10-30 ft and of depth 8-13 ft .

( circular clarifier )

Solids Contact Clarifier

The solids contact clarifier employs a recycle solids contact principal for flocculation,
sedimentation, and clarification in a single basin . The system features a concentric drive unit and
mixer combination. The slow speed impeller recirculates fresh precipitate through the recirculation
drum. The formulation of settle able floc particles occurs in the mixing reaction cone. An automatic

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sludge discharge system maintains the solids volume along the clarifier bottom. It consumes less
chemical input . It requires less space than conventional flocculation and sedimentation tank .

Inclined Surface Clarifier

Inclined-surface basins, also known as a high-rate settler, use inclined trays to divide the depth
into shallower sections. Thus, the depth of all particles (and therefore the settling time) is
significantly reduced. Wastewater treatment plants frequently use this concept to upgrade the
existing overloaded primary and secondary clarifiers

FILTRATION

Filtration is a process of separating suspended solid matter from a liquid , by causing the water
to pass through the pores of some substance , called filter.

for removing the bacteria, colour, taste and odours from water and producing clean and
sparkling water , filters are used .

TYPES OF FILTERS

There are two types of filters in use ;

a) Gravity Filters :- Gravity filters are classified as ,

(i) Slow sand filters

(ii) Rapid sand filters

b) Pressure filters :- Pressure filters are classified as ,

(i) Horizontal pressure filters

(ii) Vertical pressure filters

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GRAVITY FILTER

Gravity filters are commonly used in application where liquid-solid separation is required .
Gravity filters can incorporate various types of media such as sand, anthracite, greensand and GAC .
It requires low maintains and easy to install .

SLOW SAND FILTER

Slow sand filter is a type of centralized or semi-centralized water purification system . A well
designed and properly maintained slow sand filter effectively removes turbidity and pathogenic
organisms .

Construction of slow sand filter

 These are watertight shallow tanks about 2.5 m to 4m deep and having surface area 1000
sq.m to 2000 sq.m

 It contains 60-90 cm thick bed of sand supported on 30-60 cm thick gravel bed .

 Generally 3 to 4 layers of gravel having thickness of 15-20 cm are used .

 The size of gravel is 40-60 cm in bottom layer , 20-40 mm in intermediate layer and 3-6 mm
in top most layer .

 The gravel is supported on a bed of concrete sloping towards a central longitudinal drain
connected to a system of underdrains .

Operation of slow sand filter

The water from sedimentation tank enters into the slow sand filter through a submersible inlet
. This water is uniformly distributed over the sand bed. The water passes through the filtering
media at an average rate of 100 to 200 liter/m2/hour . This rate of filtration continued up to the loss
of head reaches it permissible limit .

Efficiency of slow sand filter

 It removes about 98 to 99% of bacteria present in raw water .

 It is less effective in removal of raw water . It removes about 20 to 25% colour of raw water .
 The slow sand filter removes turbidity to an extent of 50 ppm .

Limitations of slow sand filter

 The rate of filtration is 100 to 200 liter/m2/hour.

 The efficiency is 98% to 99%
 the not suitable turbidity is not less than 50 ppm

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 RAPID SAND FILTER

Rapid sand filter or Rapid gravity filter provide rapid and efficient removal of relatively large
suspended particles present in raw water .

Construction of rapid sand filter

 It consists of an open watertight rectangular tank constructed with masonry or concrete .

 The underdrainage system consists of one central longitudinal conduit with lateral pipes
connecting from all sides is laid .

 The depth of the tank varies from 2.5 to 3.5 m .

 The surface of filter is kept between 10 m2 to 80 m2 .

 The filter media consist of coarse sand layers of effective size 0.35 to 0.55 mm .

 The base material consists of gravel in thickness of 60-90 cm . The size of coarse gravel is
about 40 mm and that of smallest is 3 mm .

Operation of rapid sand filter

The water from coagulation sedimentation tank enters the filter through inlet pipe and is
uniformly distributed on the whole sand bed . Water after passing through the sand bed is collected
through the under-drainage system in the filtered water well . The outlet chamber in this filter is
also equipped with filter rate control. In the beginning the loss of head is very small . But as the bed
gets clogged , the loss of head increases and the rate controller adjusts it to a limit .When the limit
is reached the rate of filtration becomes very low and the filter bed requires its washing .

Efficiency of rapid sand filter

 Removes turbidity to an extent of 0.1 to 1 NTU .

 Bacteria removal efficiency is less .
 Filtration rate is 4000-5000 liters m2/hour .

PRESSURE FILTER

These filters are used on small supplies where water is received under pressure , which can be
used to force the water through the filter . These are not economical for large scale .It is a rapid
sand filter within a closed , watertight steel cylinder . The cylindrical shell may be kept vertical or
horizontal .

HORIZONTAL PRESSURE FILTER

The horizontal pressure filter operate like other pressure filter although horizontal
configuration increases filtration area per footprint . Multiple cells can be installed in a single vessel
to allow operating flexibility and backwashing from in service cell . It is more economical than
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vertical pressure filter . The size of horizontal filter varies from 2 to 3 m in diameter and length up
to 9 m .

VERTICAL PRESSURE FILTER

The vertical pressure filters consist of pressure vessel with an over drain system for
distribution of influent water and collection of backwash waste . Vertical pressure filters provide
granular media treatment in an enclosed pressure vessel . The size of vertical filters varies from 0.3
m to 2.75 m in diameter and height may be 2 to 2.5 m .

Advantages of pressure filter

 It is ideal for small estates and small water works.

 These filters are very flexible , because the rate of filtration can be changed by change of
compressed air pressure over the water .

 These filters requires very small area for their installation .

 Small numbers of fittings are required .

 No sedimentation and coagulation tanks are required with these filters .

Disadvantages of pressure filters

 Overall capacity of filter is small .

 Due to heavy cost on water treatment , they cannot be used at water works .

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  Proper quality control and inspection is not possible.

 Due to circular shape , the design and fixing of water channel is difficult .

 The turbidity and bacteria removal efficiency is low .

DISINFECTION

The process of killing and removing bacteria from water and making it safe for user is known as
disinfection. The chemicals or substances used for killing the bacteria is known as disinfectant .

The presence of colour , minerals etc. are not too dangerous to the public as the presence of
disease causing bacteria may lead to various diseases to the public life.

Requirements of good disinfectants

The following are the requirement of good disinfectant

I. They should destroy all the harmful pathogenic microorganisms from the water .

II. They should not take more time in killing the bacteria .

III. It should be economical and easily available .

IV. They should not require high skill and costly requirements for their application .

V. After their treatment the water should not become toxic .

Method of disinfections

i. By boiling of water

ii. By ultra-violet rays

iii. By use of Iodine and bromine

iv. By use of ozone

v. By using excess lime

vi. By using potassium permanganate

vii. By treatment with silver in electro – katadyn process

viii. By chlorination

BY BOLING OF WATER

 It is the most common and one of the most effective methods for treating water .

 It is very easy and effective .

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  The water can be disinfected by boiling for 15 to 20 minute .

 By boiling of water all disease causing bacteria are killed and water becomes safe for use .

 This method can be easily applied during the emergency cases while natural hazards in town
or city .

Limitations

 This process only kills the existing germs but doesn`t provide any harmful effect for future
contamination.
 It is time consuming .
 Does not remove suspended or dissolved compounds

BY UV (ultra-violate) - RAYS

 Ultra-violet rays are invisible light rays having wavelength of 1000 to 4000 meter .

 In lab , they can be obtained by ultra-violet equipments which essentially consists of

mercury vapour enclosed in quartz bulb and passing current away .

 UV-rays are highly disinfectant and kill all the bacteria effectively .

 It also removes the colour and turbidity of water .

 It produces no toxic residuals .

 It requires short contact time .

Limitations

 Unsuitable for water with high levels of suspended solids, turbidity, colour or soluble
organic matter .
 No residual protection for drinking water .
 No taste and odour control .

BY IODINE AND BROMINE

 By addition of iodine and bromine in water , it kills all the bacteria .

 This disinfectant are available in form of pills and very handy .

 Being costly these are used in the disinfection of water in industry areas .

 The minimum contact period should be 5 minute .

 The quantity of iodine and bromine should not exceed 8 ppm .

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Limitations

 It gives a bad taste to drinking water .

BY USE OF OZONE

Ozone is an unstable allotropic form of oxygen with its every atom containing three oxygen
atom .It is produced by passing a high tension electric current through a stream of air in a closed
chamber . The reaction takes place is
High electric voltage
3O2 2O3

Ozone is highly unstable , It breaks in ordinary oxygen and liberate nascent oxygen . Which can
be shown by

O3 O2 + O ( Nascent oxygen )

The nascent oxygen is very powerful oxidizing agent and it kills all the bacteria as well as
oxidizes the organic matter present in water .

It is used in gaseous form , which is faintly blue in colour and have pungent . The water becomes
safe obtaining a residual of 0.1 ppm after a contact period of 30 minute . The dose of oxygen to be
added in water is about 2 to 3 ppm .

The benefits of using ozone as a disinfectant are ;

 Produces no chlorinated THMs , HAAs .

 Provides better taste and odour control than chlorination .

 Effective against cryptosporidium .

 A wider range of organisms is killed by ozonation than chlorination .

Limitations

 More complicated than chlorine or UV system .

 No residual protection for drinking water .

 Requires special handling .

 Operating cost is quite high .

BY USING EXCESS LIME

 Lime is usually used at water work for reducing hardness . But if excess lime is added to
water , in addition it can kill the bacteria also .

 Lime when added increases the pH value of water . When the pH is more than 9.5 , it will kill
all the bacteria .

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  It maintains an adequate water stability for corrosion protection .

 It is very cost effective .

Limitations

 After treatment the pH of water need to be reduced for making it fit for domestic use .
 This method needs the removal of excess lime before it can be supplied to the general
public .
 Treatment like re-carbonation should be used after disinfection .

BY USE OF POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE

 It is most commonly used disinfectant in the villages for dug well water , pond water ,
private water source that is ground water .

 It also reduces the organic matter by oxidizing them .

 Due to its good oxidizing quality , it is added in small dose of 0.05 to 0.10 mg/lit .

 It is easily available and cheap .

Limitations

 It cannot kill hundred percent disease bacteria .

 It is cannot be used in water treatment plants .

BY USE OF SILVER ION

 By using this process metallic silver ions are introduced in water passing it to solid silver
electrode .

 The introduction of silver ion in the water by electro – katadyn process is highly disinfectant
.

 It kills all the bacteria present in water .

 The dose of silver may contain 0.05 to 0.1 mg/lit .

 The contact period is 50 to 180 minutes .

Limitations

 This is very costly method of disinfection .

 It cannot be used in water treatment plant .
 The Contact period is more .

BY CHLORINATION

 Chlorine is the most widely used disinfectant for drinking water disinfection .

 It is very effective and economical .

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  It is safe to handle.

Limitations

 It is largely pH dependent.
 It produces a compound called THM (Tri halo methane) , which is carcinogenic .

Break point chlorination

When chlorine is added to water some amount of it is used for oxidation of organic and
inorganic substances present in water . Also some amount of chlorine is required for formation and
destruction of chloramines and other chloro-organic compounds .

The amount of chlorine required for the above purpose is called chlorine demand . The
point at which chlorine demand is satisfied is called break point chlorination .

The amount of chlorine available after break point is called residual chlorine and it is used for
disinfection purpose .

The above curve shows the chlorine added in mg/liter to the chlorine residuals produced at
each stage .

Chlorine demand

The chlorine demand is defined as the difference

between amount of chlorine added to the water and the amount of chlorine (free available and
combined available) remaining at the end of specific contact period .

The chlorine demand for a sample of water depends on the followings –

 Nature and concentration of chlorine consuming substance present in water

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  Time of contact

 pH value of water

 temperature of water

 Variable condition in the process of chlorination

Super chlorination

Super chlorination is defined as the dose of chlorine added is excess of the dose required for
adequate bacteria purification of water . Under certain circumstances , such as water borne
diseases , high dose of chlorine is given to the water that is 2-3 ppm beyond the breakpoint
chlorination for the safety of public .This is known as super chlorination .

This process gives a strong odour and taste of chlorine in the treated water , which can be
removed by de-chlorination .

De-chlorination

It is defined as the partial or complete reduction of chlorine in water by chemical or physical

treatment . In this method some chemicals are added for the purpose of reducing the chlorine to a
derived value .

Post-chlorination

When the chlorine is added in the water after all treatment , it is known as post-chlorination .
Generally it is done after filtration .

The chlorine is added in the water so that it is more suitable for drinking . The minimum
contact period should be 30 minute before use of water .

Pre-chlorination

When chlorine is added to water before any treatment is known as pre-chlorination . It

becomes necessary to adopt pre-chlorination and post- chlorination of water which contains large
amount of bacteria and chlorine is added , so that water becomes safe for domestic use .

Double chlorination

When chlorine is added to the water at one point of pre-chlorination and post-chlorination .
It is known as double chlorination . It is done when turbidity of water is more .

WATER SOFTENING

The removal of hardness in water is called softening process . Hardness of water is of two
types ;

A. Temporary hardness

B. Permanent hardness

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Temporary hardness

The temporary hardness of water is removed by ;

a) Boiling

b) Addition of lime

BOILING

This process is used to remove temporary hardness of water only .

When water is boiled having temporary hardness the following chemical reaction takes place
Hardness
MgCH(O3)2 MgCO3 ↓ + CO2 ↑ + H2O
Boiling
CaCH(O3)2 CaCO3 ↓ + CO2 ↑ + H2O

ADDITION OF LIME

If the water having lime containing temporary hardness following reaction takes place

MgCH(O3)2 + Ca(OH)2 CaCH(O3) ↓ + Mg(OH)2

CaCH(O3) + Ca(OH)2 2 CaCO3 ↓ + 2 H2O

Permanent hardness

Permanent hardness of water is removed by ;

a) Lime soda process

b) Base exchange process

c) De-mineralization process

LIME-SODA PROCESS

 Lime-soda process is an application for removing the permanent hardness of water .

 Permanent hardness contains sulphates of calcium and magnesium .
 It is also called as non-carbonate hardness .
 When the lime-soda is added into water permanent hardness of water is removed .

BASE EXCHANGE PROCESS

 This process is also known as zeolite process or cation exchange process .

 This process depends on ability of certain insoluble substances (silicate) to exchange the
cation with water dissolved in the water .
 The hard water is pass through a bed of zeo .

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DEMINERALIZATION PROCESS

 This process is similar to method of base exchange process .

 Instead of sodium , hydrogen is used as base exchange for the base metallic ion .

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