What is International Relations?

Our richly connected, complex world demands professionals skilled in international relations, an
exciting field of study that presents a globally oriented perspective on issues that transcend
national boundaries.
The study and practice of international relations is interdisciplinary in nature, blending the fields
of economics, history, and political science to examine topics such as human rights, global
poverty, the environment, economics, globalization, security, global ethics, and the political
environment.
SPONSORED
Featured Program
* The online master's programs from American University's School of International
Service allow professionals to build international and business expertise in 12–24 months.
GRE/GMAT scores not required.

* Fletcher's online Master of Global Business Administration from Tufts University prepares
students to apply advanced business strategy in a global context. Complete in as few as 16
months. No GRE/GMAT required.

* Designed by both Kogod and the top-ranked School of International Service, the MS in
International Relations and Business at American University will help you develop a global
business mindset in as few as 18 months.No GRE/GMAT required.

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in International Relations Program - Online

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in Diplomacy - Online

Exceptional economic integration, unprecedented threats to peace and security, and an
international focus on human rights and environmental protection all speak to the complexity of
international relations in the twenty-first century. This means the study of international relations
must focus on interdisciplinary research that addresses, anticipates, and ultimately solves public
policy problems.
International relations (often referred to international affairs) has a broad purpose in
contemporary society, as it seeks to understand:

• The origins of war and the maintenance of peace

• The nature and exercise of power within the global system
• The changing character of state and non-state actors who participate in international
decision-making

For example, some institutions may study the psychological and social-psychological reasoning
behind the actions of foreign policymakers, while others may focus their international studies on
the institutional processes that contribute to the goals and behaviors of states. Ultimately, the
area of international relations studied depends on the goals or objectives of the organization.
The Value of International Relations in a
Globalized Society
Although international relations has taken on a new significance because of our increasingly
interconnected world, it is certainly not a new concept. Historically, the establishment of treaties
between nations served as the earliest form of international relations.
The study and practice of international relations in today’s world is valuable for many reasons:

• International relations promotes successful trade policies between nations.

• International relations encourages travel related to business, tourism, and immigration,
providing people with opportunities to enhance their lives.
• International relations allows nations to cooperate with one another, pool resources, and
share information as a way to face global issues that go beyond any particular country or
region. Contemporary global issues include pandemics, terrorism, and the environment.
• International relations advances human culture through cultural exchanges, diplomacy
and policy development.

The practice of international relations is valuable in a wide array of settings. Some examples
inlcude:

• Humanitarian organizations
o Action Against Hunger
o Oxfam International
o World Food Programme
• Government agencies
o Department of State
o Department of Homeland Security
o Department of Commerce
• International corporations
o General Electric
o BP
o Exxon Mobile
o Toyota
o Nestle
o Siemens
• Media outlets
o BBC
o Washington Post
o The Guardian
o Der Spiegal
o New York Times
o Forbes
o Wall Street Journal
• Intergovernmental organizations
o World Trade Organization
 o United Nations
o NATO
• International communications
o Amnesty International
o Freedom House
o Human Rights Watch
o Reporters Without Borders
• Research centers/Think tanks
o Brookings Institution
o Center for International Policy
o Council on Foreign Relations
o Global Public Policy Institute

The Theories and Principles of International

Relations
International relations may be an offshoot of political science, but this field of study is
exceptionally in-depth in its own right. As our global society evolves and expands, international
relations will evolve and expand along with it as we continue to explore new and exciting way to
link our complex world.
For example, traditional dimensions of international relations related to international peace and
prosperity include topics such as international diplomacy, arms control, and alliance politics.
Contemporary studies in international relations, on other hand, include topics such as
international political economics, environmental politics, refugee and migration issues, and
human rights.
Examining the Levels of State Behavior
Professionals studying international relations often determine the level at which they will analyze
a state’s behavior:

• System Level Analysis: System level analysis looks at the international system; more
specifically, how the international system affects the behavior of nation states, with the
key variable being that the international system includes the power of each state rather
than being independent of them.
• State Level Analysis: State level analysis examines how a state’s characteristics
determine its foreign policy behavior. This type of analysis often views states as having
cultural characteristics based on their religious or social traditions, and their historical
legacy, and includes an analysis of economic and geographic factors.
• Organizational Level Analysis: Organizational level analysis examines how
organizations within a state influence the state’s foreign policy behavior. In other words,
organizational level analysis views that organizations—not states—make the decisions
that create a state’s foreign policy.
• Individual Level Analysis: Individual level analysis views the leaders of states as being
the largest influencers of foreign policy.
Examining the Theories of International Relations
The study of international relations involves theoretical approaches based on solid evidence.
Theories of international relations are essentially a set of ideas aimed at explaining how the
international system works.
The two, major theories of international relations are realism and liberalism:
Realism
Realism focuses on the notion that states work to increase their own power relative to other
states. The theory of realism states that the only certainty in the world is power; therefore, a
powerful state—via military power (the most important and reliable form of power)—will
always be able to outlast its weaker competitors. Self-preservation is a major theme in realism, as
states must always seek power to protect themselves.
In realism, the international system drives states to use military force. Although leaders may be
moral, they must not let morality guide their foreign policy. Furthermore, realism recognizes that
international organizations and law have no power and force, and that their existence relies
solely on being recognized and accepted by select states.
Liberalism (Idealism)
Liberalism recognizes that states share broad ties, thus making it difficult to define singular
independent national interests. The theory of liberalism in international relations therefore
involves the decreased use of military power. The theory of realism began to take shape in the
1970s as increasing globalization, communications technology, and international trade made
some scholars argue that realism was outdated.
Liberal approaches to the study of international relations, also referred to as theories of complex
interdependence, claim that the consequences of military power outweigh the benefits and that
international cooperation is in the interest of every state. It also claims that exercising economic
power over military power has proven more effective.
Although the liberal theory of international relations was dominant following World War I while
President Woodrow Wilson promoted the League of Nations and many treaties abolishing war,
realism came back into prominence in the Second World War and continued throughout the Cold
War.

What is IR?
International Relations is concerned with relations across boundaries of nation-states. It
addresses international political economy, global governance, intercultural relations,
national and ethnic identities, foreign policy analysis, development studies, environment,
international security, diplomacy, terrorism, media, social movements and more. It is a
multidisciplinary field that does not restrict students to one approach and employs a variety
of methods including discourse analysis, statistics and comparative and historical analysis.
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IS AN INCREASINGLY RELEVANT FIELD OF
STUDY
International Relations is becoming increasingly relevant as the world grows more and more
interconnected through trade and commerce, migration, the internet and through social
media, and concerns about pressing global environmental problems.

A globalized world calls for academics and professionals trained to comprehend these
complex interactions - promoting understanding and crafting policy and business solutions
to meet the challenges of today and the future. International Relations offers a
comprehensive and adaptable toolkit particularly well suited to employment in a rapidly
changing world.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AT SF STATE

The Department of International Relations in the College of Liberal & Creative Arts explores
the interrelations of the world’s primary political institutions, nation-states. As the world is
changing, so is the field of International Relations. Increasingly, International Relations at
SF State also focuses on multinational corporations, international governmental and non-
governmental organizations and social movements. Our curriculum is under constant review
to reflect these global and regional trends.

Our students study specific countries and geographic regions and their interconnections
through political treaties, trade, migration, cultural and ethnic affinities, shared social,
economic, and ideological goals, hierarchies of power and wealth and other factors. We
train students in different theoretical approaches and empower them to make their own
methodological choices.

Studying IR at SF State is a step out into the world

Whether you are looking to start or develop your professional career, enter academia, or
simply gain understanding of a globalized world – International Relations at San Francisco
State will provide you with a solid platform of critical knowledge and skills. We offer a wide
selection of courses, taught by a diverse faculty with expertise in the most pressing issues
and dynamic world regions today.

Our alumni can be found across the world in non-profit, private and government positions.
These include the U.S. Department of State and other countries’ foreign ministries, the City
of San Francisco and other local governments, U.S. intelligence agencies, non-profit
organizations in the areas of international development, human rights, international labor,
environment, and international migration as well in business. A significant number of our
graduate students also pursue further professional or doctoral studies at high-ranking
academic institutions around the world.

nternational Law and Justice

UN Photo/Rick Bajornas
Lady Justice, Hamburg City Hall, Germany

Among the greatest achievements of the United Nations is the development of a body of
international law—conventions, treaties and standards—central to promoting economic and
social development, as well as to advancing international peace and security. Many of the treaties
brought about by the United Nations form the basis of the law that governs relations among
nations. While the work of the UN in this area does not always receive attention, it has a daily
impact on the lives of people everywhere.

The Charter of the United Nations specifically calls on the Organization to help in the settlement
of international disputes by peaceful means, including arbitration and judicial settlement (Article
33), and to encourage the progressive development of international law and its codification
(Article 13).

Over the years, more than 500 multilateral treaties have been deposited with the Secretary-
General of the United Nations. Many other treaties are deposited with governments or other
entities. The treaties cover a broad range of subject matters such as human rights, disarmament
and protection of the environment.

General Assembly as a forum for adopting multilateral treaties

The General Assembly is composed of representatives from each Member State of the United
Nations and is the main deliberative body on matters relating to international law. Many
multilateral treaties are in fact adopted by the General Assembly and subsequently opened for
signature and ratification. The Legal (Sixth) Committee assists the work of the General
 Assembly by providing advice on substantive legal matters. The Committee is also made up of
representatives from all Member States of the United Nations.

The General Assembly has adopted a number of multilateral treaties throughout its history,
including:

• Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948)

• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965)
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966)
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979)
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (1996)
• International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999)
• International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (2005)
• Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006)
• United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or
Partly by Sea (2008)
• Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(2008)

In many areas, the legal work of the United Nations has been pioneering, addressing problems as
they take on an international dimension. The UN has been at the forefront of efforts to provide a
legal framework in such areas as protecting the environment, regulating migrant labour, curbing
drug trafficking and combating terrorism. This work continues today, as international law
assumes a more central role across a wider spectrum of issues, including human rights law and
international humanitarian law.
Read also about Law of the Sea.

Development and codification of international law

International Law Commission
The International Law Commission was established by the General Assembly in 1947 to
promote the progressive development of international law and its codification. The Commission
is composed of 34 members who collectively represent the worlds principal legal systems, and
serve as experts in their individual capacity, not as representatives of their governments. They
address a wide range of issues relevant to the regulation of relations among states, and frequently
consult with the International Committee of the Red Cross, the International Court of Justice and
UN specialized agencies, depending on the subject being examined. Most of the Commission’s
work involves the preparation of drafts on aspects of international law.
 Some topics are chosen by the Commission, others are referred to it by the General Assembly.
When the Commission completes work on a topic, the General Assembly sometimes convenes
an international conference of plenipotentiaries to incorporate the draft into a convention. The
convention is then opened to states to become parties—meaning that such countries formally
agree to be bound by its provisions. Some of these conventions form the very foundation of the
law governing relations among states. Examples include:

• the Convention on the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses, adopted by the

General Assembly in 1997, which regulates the equitable and reasonable utilization of
watercourses shared by two or more countries;
• the Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or
between International Organizations, adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1986;
• the Convention on the Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts,
adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1983;
• the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected
Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, adopted by the General Assembly in 1973;

International humanitarian law

International humanitarian law encompasses the principles and rules that regulate the means and
methods of warfare, as well as the humanitarian protection of civilian populations, sick and
wounded combatants, and prisoners of war. Major instruments include the 1949 Geneva
Conventions for the Protection of War Victims and two additional protocols concluded in 1977
under the auspices of the International Committee of the Red Cross.

The United Nations has taken a leading role in efforts to advance international humanitarian law.
The Security Council has become increasingly involved in protecting civilians in armed conflict,
promoting human rights and protecting children in wars.

Judicial settlement of disputes

International Court of Justice
The primary United Nations organ for the settlement of disputes is the International Court of
Justice. Also known as the World Court, it was founded in 1946. Since its founding, the Court
has considered over 170 cases, issued numerous judgments on disputes brought to it by states
and issued advisory opinions in response to requests by UN organizations. Most cases have been
dealt with by the full Court, but since 1981 six cases have been referred to special chambers at
the request of the parties.

In its judgments, the Court has addressed international disputes involving economic rights, rights
of passage, the non-use of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of states, diplomatic
relations, hostage-taking, the right of asylum and nationality. States bring such disputes before
the Court in search of an impartial solution to their differences on the basis of law. By achieving
peaceful settlement on such questions as land frontiers, maritime boundaries and territorial
sovereignty, the Court has often helped to prevent the escalation of disputes.

International Criminal Justice

The international community has had long aspired to create a permanent international court to try
the most serious international crimes, and, in the 20th century, it reached consensus on
definitions of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.

Tribunals
After the Second World War the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials addressed war crimes, crimes
against peace, and crimes against humanity committed during the Second World War.

The ad hoc tribunals and United Nations-assisted tribunals have continued to contribute to
combating impunity and promoting accountability for the most serious crimes. In the 1990s,
after the end of the Cold War, the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia
(ICTY) and for Rwanda (ICTR) were established to try crimes committed within a specific time-
frame and during a specific conflict. This applies, as well, to three courts established by the
states concerned, but with substantial UN support: the Special Court for Sierra Leone (2002),
the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2006) and the Special Tribunal for
Lebanon (2007). Sometimes referred to as ‘hybrid’ courts, they are non-permanent institutions
which will cease to exist once all their cases have been heard.

The International Criminal Court

The idea of a permanent international court to prosecute crimes against humanity was first
considered at the United Nations in the context of the adoption of the Genocide Convention of
1948. For many years, differences of opinions forestalled further developments. In 1992, the
General Assembly directed the International Law Commission to prepare a draft statute for such
a court. The massacres in Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda made the need for it
even more urgent.

The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction to prosecute individuals who commit
genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. It will also have jurisdiction over the crime
of aggression when agreement is reached on the definition of such a crime. The ICC is legally
and functionally independent from the United Nations, and is not a part of the UN system.

The cooperation between the UN and the ICC is governed by a Negotiated Relationship
Agreement. The Security Council can initiate proceedings before the ICC, and can refer to the
ICC situations that would not otherwise fall under the Court’s jurisdiction. The Court has 18
judges, elected by the states parties for a term limited to nine years, except that a judge shall
remain in office to complete any trial or appeal which has already begun. No two judges can be

from the same country. What is International Relations?

Our richly connected, complex world demands professionals skilled in international relations, an
exciting field of study that presents a globally oriented perspective on issues that transcend
national boundaries.
The study and practice of international relations is interdisciplinary in nature, blending the fields
of economics, history, and political science to examine topics such as human rights, global
poverty, the environment, economics, globalization, security, global ethics, and the political
environment.
SPONSORED
Featured Program
* The online master's programs from American University's School of International
Service allow professionals to build international and business expertise in 12–24 months.
GRE/GMAT scores not required.

* Fletcher's online Master of Global Business Administration from Tufts University prepares
students to apply advanced business strategy in a global context. Complete in as few as 16
months. No GRE/GMAT required.

* Designed by both Kogod and the top-ranked School of International Service, the MS in
International Relations and Business at American University will help you develop a global
business mindset in as few as 18 months.No GRE/GMAT required.

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in International Relations Program - Online

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in Diplomacy - Online

Exceptional economic integration, unprecedented threats to peace and security, and an
international focus on human rights and environmental protection all speak to the complexity of
international relations in the twenty-first century. This means the study of international relations
must focus on interdisciplinary research that addresses, anticipates, and ultimately solves public
policy problems.
International relations (often referred to international affairs) has a broad purpose in
contemporary society, as it seeks to understand:

• The origins of war and the maintenance of peace

• The nature and exercise of power within the global system
• The changing character of state and non-state actors who participate in international
decision-making

For example, some institutions may study the psychological and social-psychological reasoning
behind the actions of foreign policymakers, while others may focus their international studies on
the institutional processes that contribute to the goals and behaviors of states. Ultimately, the
area of international relations studied depends on the goals or objectives of the organization.

The Value of International Relations in a

Globalized Society
Although international relations has taken on a new significance because of our increasingly
interconnected world, it is certainly not a new concept. Historically, the establishment of treaties
between nations served as the earliest form of international relations.
The study and practice of international relations in today’s world is valuable for many reasons:

• International relations promotes successful trade policies between nations.

• International relations encourages travel related to business, tourism, and immigration,
providing people with opportunities to enhance their lives.
• International relations allows nations to cooperate with one another, pool resources, and
share information as a way to face global issues that go beyond any particular country or
region. Contemporary global issues include pandemics, terrorism, and the environment.
• International relations advances human culture through cultural exchanges, diplomacy
and policy development.

The practice of international relations is valuable in a wide array of settings. Some examples
inlcude:

• Humanitarian organizations
o Action Against Hunger
o Oxfam International
o World Food Programme
• Government agencies
o Department of State
o Department of Homeland Security
o Department of Commerce
• International corporations
o General Electric
o BP
o Exxon Mobile
o Toyota
o Nestle
o Siemens
• Media outlets
o BBC
o Washington Post
o The Guardian
o Der Spiegal
o New York Times
 o Forbes
o Wall Street Journal
• Intergovernmental organizations
o World Trade Organization
o United Nations
o NATO
• International communications
o Amnesty International
o Freedom House
o Human Rights Watch
o Reporters Without Borders
• Research centers/Think tanks
o Brookings Institution
o Center for International Policy
o Council on Foreign Relations
o Global Public Policy Institute

The Theories and Principles of International

Relations
International relations may be an offshoot of political science, but this field of study is
exceptionally in-depth in its own right. As our global society evolves and expands, international
relations will evolve and expand along with it as we continue to explore new and exciting way to
link our complex world.
For example, traditional dimensions of international relations related to international peace and
prosperity include topics such as international diplomacy, arms control, and alliance politics.
Contemporary studies in international relations, on other hand, include topics such as
international political economics, environmental politics, refugee and migration issues, and
human rights.
Examining the Levels of State Behavior
Professionals studying international relations often determine the level at which they will analyze
a state’s behavior:

• System Level Analysis: System level analysis looks at the international system; more
specifically, how the international system affects the behavior of nation states, with the
key variable being that the international system includes the power of each state rather
than being independent of them.
• State Level Analysis: State level analysis examines how a state’s characteristics
determine its foreign policy behavior. This type of analysis often views states as having
cultural characteristics based on their religious or social traditions, and their historical
legacy, and includes an analysis of economic and geographic factors.
• Organizational Level Analysis: Organizational level analysis examines how
organizations within a state influence the state’s foreign policy behavior. In other words,
 organizational level analysis views that organizations—not states—make the decisions
that create a state’s foreign policy.
• Individual Level Analysis: Individual level analysis views the leaders of states as being
the largest influencers of foreign policy.

Examining the Theories of International Relations

The study of international relations involves theoretical approaches based on solid evidence.
Theories of international relations are essentially a set of ideas aimed at explaining how the
international system works.
The two, major theories of international relations are realism and liberalism:
Realism
Realism focuses on the notion that states work to increase their own power relative to other
states. The theory of realism states that the only certainty in the world is power; therefore, a
powerful state—via military power (the most important and reliable form of power)—will
always be able to outlast its weaker competitors. Self-preservation is a major theme in realism, as
states must always seek power to protect themselves.
In realism, the international system drives states to use military force. Although leaders may be
moral, they must not let morality guide their foreign policy. Furthermore, realism recognizes that
international organizations and law have no power and force, and that their existence relies
solely on being recognized and accepted by select states.
Liberalism (Idealism)
Liberalism recognizes that states share broad ties, thus making it difficult to define singular
independent national interests. The theory of liberalism in international relations therefore
involves the decreased use of military power. The theory of realism began to take shape in the
1970s as increasing globalization, communications technology, and international trade made
some scholars argue that realism was outdated.
Liberal approaches to the study of international relations, also referred to as theories of complex
interdependence, claim that the consequences of military power outweigh the benefits and that
international cooperation is in the interest of every state. It also claims that exercising economic
power over military power has proven more effective.
Although the liberal theory of international relations was dominant following World War I while
President Woodrow Wilson promoted the League of Nations and many treaties abolishing war,
realism came back into prominence in the Second World War and continued throughout the Cold
War.

What is IR?
International Relations is concerned with relations across boundaries of nation-states. It
addresses international political economy, global governance, intercultural relations,
national and ethnic identities, foreign policy analysis, development studies, environment,
international security, diplomacy, terrorism, media, social movements and more. It is a
multidisciplinary field that does not restrict students to one approach and employs a variety
of methods including discourse analysis, statistics and comparative and historical analysis.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IS AN INCREASINGLY RELEVANT FIELD OF

STUDY
International Relations is becoming increasingly relevant as the world grows more and more
interconnected through trade and commerce, migration, the internet and through social
media, and concerns about pressing global environmental problems.

A globalized world calls for academics and professionals trained to comprehend these
complex interactions - promoting understanding and crafting policy and business solutions
to meet the challenges of today and the future. International Relations offers a
comprehensive and adaptable toolkit particularly well suited to employment in a rapidly
changing world.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AT SF STATE

The Department of International Relations in the College of Liberal & Creative Arts explores
the interrelations of the world’s primary political institutions, nation-states. As the world is
changing, so is the field of International Relations. Increasingly, International Relations at
SF State also focuses on multinational corporations, international governmental and non-
governmental organizations and social movements. Our curriculum is under constant review
to reflect these global and regional trends.

Our students study specific countries and geographic regions and their interconnections
through political treaties, trade, migration, cultural and ethnic affinities, shared social,
economic, and ideological goals, hierarchies of power and wealth and other factors. We
train students in different theoretical approaches and empower them to make their own
methodological choices.

Studying IR at SF State is a step out into the world

Whether you are looking to start or develop your professional career, enter academia, or
simply gain understanding of a globalized world – International Relations at San Francisco
State will provide you with a solid platform of critical knowledge and skills. We offer a wide
selection of courses, taught by a diverse faculty with expertise in the most pressing issues
and dynamic world regions today.

Our alumni can be found across the world in non-profit, private and government positions.
These include the U.S. Department of State and other countries’ foreign ministries, the City
of San Francisco and other local governments, U.S. intelligence agencies, non-profit
organizations in the areas of international development, human rights, international labor,
environment, and international migration as well in business. A significant number of our
graduate students also pursue further professional or doctoral studies at high-ranking
academic institutions around the world.
nternational Law and Justice

UN Photo/Rick Bajornas
Lady Justice, Hamburg City Hall, Germany

Among the greatest achievements of the United Nations is the development of a body of
international law—conventions, treaties and standards—central to promoting economic and
social development, as well as to advancing international peace and security. Many of the treaties
brought about by the United Nations form the basis of the law that governs relations among
nations. While the work of the UN in this area does not always receive attention, it has a daily
impact on the lives of people everywhere.

The Charter of the United Nations specifically calls on the Organization to help in the settlement
of international disputes by peaceful means, including arbitration and judicial settlement (Article
33), and to encourage the progressive development of international law and its codification
(Article 13).

Over the years, more than 500 multilateral treaties have been deposited with the Secretary-
General of the United Nations. Many other treaties are deposited with governments or other
entities. The treaties cover a broad range of subject matters such as human rights, disarmament
and protection of the environment.

General Assembly as a forum for adopting multilateral treaties

The General Assembly is composed of representatives from each Member State of the United
Nations and is the main deliberative body on matters relating to international law. Many
 multilateral treaties are in fact adopted by the General Assembly and subsequently opened for
signature and ratification. The Legal (Sixth) Committee assists the work of the General
Assembly by providing advice on substantive legal matters. The Committee is also made up of
representatives from all Member States of the United Nations.

The General Assembly has adopted a number of multilateral treaties throughout its history,
including:

• Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948)

• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965)
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966)
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979)
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (1996)
• International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999)
• International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (2005)
• Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006)
• United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or
Partly by Sea (2008)
• Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(2008)

In many areas, the legal work of the United Nations has been pioneering, addressing problems as
they take on an international dimension. The UN has been at the forefront of efforts to provide a
legal framework in such areas as protecting the environment, regulating migrant labour, curbing
drug trafficking and combating terrorism. This work continues today, as international law
assumes a more central role across a wider spectrum of issues, including human rights law and
international humanitarian law.
Read also about Law of the Sea.

Development and codification of international law

International Law Commission
The International Law Commission was established by the General Assembly in 1947 to
promote the progressive development of international law and its codification. The Commission
is composed of 34 members who collectively represent the worlds principal legal systems, and
serve as experts in their individual capacity, not as representatives of their governments. They
address a wide range of issues relevant to the regulation of relations among states, and frequently
consult with the International Committee of the Red Cross, the International Court of Justice and
 UN specialized agencies, depending on the subject being examined. Most of the Commission’s
work involves the preparation of drafts on aspects of international law.

Some topics are chosen by the Commission, others are referred to it by the General Assembly.
When the Commission completes work on a topic, the General Assembly sometimes convenes
an international conference of plenipotentiaries to incorporate the draft into a convention. The
convention is then opened to states to become parties—meaning that such countries formally
agree to be bound by its provisions. Some of these conventions form the very foundation of the
law governing relations among states. Examples include:

• the Convention on the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses, adopted by the

General Assembly in 1997, which regulates the equitable and reasonable utilization of
watercourses shared by two or more countries;
• the Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or
between International Organizations, adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1986;
• the Convention on the Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts,
adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1983;
• the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected
Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, adopted by the General Assembly in 1973;

International humanitarian law

International humanitarian law encompasses the principles and rules that regulate the means and
methods of warfare, as well as the humanitarian protection of civilian populations, sick and
wounded combatants, and prisoners of war. Major instruments include the 1949 Geneva
Conventions for the Protection of War Victims and two additional protocols concluded in 1977
under the auspices of the International Committee of the Red Cross.

The United Nations has taken a leading role in efforts to advance international humanitarian law.
The Security Council has become increasingly involved in protecting civilians in armed conflict,
promoting human rights and protecting children in wars.

Judicial settlement of disputes

International Court of Justice
The primary United Nations organ for the settlement of disputes is the International Court of
Justice. Also known as the World Court, it was founded in 1946. Since its founding, the Court
has considered over 170 cases, issued numerous judgments on disputes brought to it by states
and issued advisory opinions in response to requests by UN organizations. Most cases have been
dealt with by the full Court, but since 1981 six cases have been referred to special chambers at
the request of the parties.
In its judgments, the Court has addressed international disputes involving economic rights, rights
of passage, the non-use of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of states, diplomatic
relations, hostage-taking, the right of asylum and nationality. States bring such disputes before
the Court in search of an impartial solution to their differences on the basis of law. By achieving
peaceful settlement on such questions as land frontiers, maritime boundaries and territorial
sovereignty, the Court has often helped to prevent the escalation of disputes.

International Criminal Justice

The international community has had long aspired to create a permanent international court to try
the most serious international crimes, and, in the 20th century, it reached consensus on
definitions of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.

Tribunals
After the Second World War the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials addressed war crimes, crimes
against peace, and crimes against humanity committed during the Second World War.

The ad hoc tribunals and United Nations-assisted tribunals have continued to contribute to
combating impunity and promoting accountability for the most serious crimes. In the 1990s,
after the end of the Cold War, the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia
(ICTY) and for Rwanda (ICTR) were established to try crimes committed within a specific time-
frame and during a specific conflict. This applies, as well, to three courts established by the
states concerned, but with substantial UN support: the Special Court for Sierra Leone (2002),
the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2006) and the Special Tribunal for
Lebanon (2007). Sometimes referred to as ‘hybrid’ courts, they are non-permanent institutions
which will cease to exist once all their cases have been heard.

The International Criminal Court

The idea of a permanent international court to prosecute crimes against humanity was first
considered at the United Nations in the context of the adoption of the Genocide Convention of
1948. For many years, differences of opinions forestalled further developments. In 1992, the
General Assembly directed the International Law Commission to prepare a draft statute for such
a court. The massacres in Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda made the need for it
even more urgent.

The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction to prosecute individuals who commit
genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. It will also have jurisdiction over the crime
of aggression when agreement is reached on the definition of such a crime. The ICC is legally
and functionally independent from the United Nations, and is not a part of the UN system.

The cooperation between the UN and the ICC is governed by a Negotiated Relationship
Agreement. The Security Council can initiate proceedings before the ICC, and can refer to the
ICC situations that would not otherwise fall under the Court’s jurisdiction. The Court has 18
judges, elected by the states parties for a term limited to nine years, except that a judge shall
remain in office to complete any trial or appeal which has already begun. No two judges can be
from the same country.

What is International Relations?

Our richly connected, complex world demands professionals skilled in international relations, an
exciting field of study that presents a globally oriented perspective on issues that transcend
national boundaries.
The study and practice of international relations is interdisciplinary in nature, blending the fields
of economics, history, and political science to examine topics such as human rights, global
poverty, the environment, economics, globalization, security, global ethics, and the political
environment.
SPONSORED
Featured Program
* The online master's programs from American University's School of International
Service allow professionals to build international and business expertise in 12–24 months.
GRE/GMAT scores not required.

* Fletcher's online Master of Global Business Administration from Tufts University prepares
students to apply advanced business strategy in a global context. Complete in as few as 16
months. No GRE/GMAT required.

* Designed by both Kogod and the top-ranked School of International Service, the MS in
International Relations and Business at American University will help you develop a global
business mindset in as few as 18 months.No GRE/GMAT required.

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in International Relations Program - Online

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in Diplomacy - Online

Exceptional economic integration, unprecedented threats to peace and security, and an
international focus on human rights and environmental protection all speak to the complexity of
international relations in the twenty-first century. This means the study of international relations
must focus on interdisciplinary research that addresses, anticipates, and ultimately solves public
policy problems.
International relations (often referred to international affairs) has a broad purpose in
contemporary society, as it seeks to understand:

• The origins of war and the maintenance of peace

• The nature and exercise of power within the global system
• The changing character of state and non-state actors who participate in international
decision-making
For example, some institutions may study the psychological and social-psychological reasoning
behind the actions of foreign policymakers, while others may focus their international studies on
the institutional processes that contribute to the goals and behaviors of states. Ultimately, the
area of international relations studied depends on the goals or objectives of the organization.

The Value of International Relations in a

Globalized Society
Although international relations has taken on a new significance because of our increasingly
interconnected world, it is certainly not a new concept. Historically, the establishment of treaties
between nations served as the earliest form of international relations.
The study and practice of international relations in today’s world is valuable for many reasons:

• International relations promotes successful trade policies between nations.

• International relations encourages travel related to business, tourism, and immigration,
providing people with opportunities to enhance their lives.
• International relations allows nations to cooperate with one another, pool resources, and
share information as a way to face global issues that go beyond any particular country or
region. Contemporary global issues include pandemics, terrorism, and the environment.
• International relations advances human culture through cultural exchanges, diplomacy
and policy development.

The practice of international relations is valuable in a wide array of settings. Some examples
inlcude:

• Humanitarian organizations
o Action Against Hunger
o Oxfam International
o World Food Programme
• Government agencies
o Department of State
o Department of Homeland Security
o Department of Commerce
• International corporations
o General Electric
o BP
o Exxon Mobile
o Toyota
o Nestle
o Siemens
• Media outlets
o BBC
o Washington Post
o The Guardian
 o Der Spiegal
o New York Times
o Forbes
o Wall Street Journal
• Intergovernmental organizations
o World Trade Organization
o United Nations
o NATO
• International communications
o Amnesty International
o Freedom House
o Human Rights Watch
o Reporters Without Borders
• Research centers/Think tanks
o Brookings Institution
o Center for International Policy
o Council on Foreign Relations
o Global Public Policy Institute

The Theories and Principles of International

Relations
International relations may be an offshoot of political science, but this field of study is
exceptionally in-depth in its own right. As our global society evolves and expands, international
relations will evolve and expand along with it as we continue to explore new and exciting way to
link our complex world.
For example, traditional dimensions of international relations related to international peace and
prosperity include topics such as international diplomacy, arms control, and alliance politics.
Contemporary studies in international relations, on other hand, include topics such as
international political economics, environmental politics, refugee and migration issues, and
human rights.
Examining the Levels of State Behavior
Professionals studying international relations often determine the level at which they will analyze
a state’s behavior:

• System Level Analysis: System level analysis looks at the international system; more
specifically, how the international system affects the behavior of nation states, with the
key variable being that the international system includes the power of each state rather
than being independent of them.
• State Level Analysis: State level analysis examines how a state’s characteristics
determine its foreign policy behavior. This type of analysis often views states as having
cultural characteristics based on their religious or social traditions, and their historical
legacy, and includes an analysis of economic and geographic factors.
 • Organizational Level Analysis: Organizational level analysis examines how
organizations within a state influence the state’s foreign policy behavior. In other words,
organizational level analysis views that organizations—not states—make the decisions
that create a state’s foreign policy.
• Individual Level Analysis: Individual level analysis views the leaders of states as being
the largest influencers of foreign policy.

Examining the Theories of International Relations

The study of international relations involves theoretical approaches based on solid evidence.
Theories of international relations are essentially a set of ideas aimed at explaining how the
international system works.
The two, major theories of international relations are realism and liberalism:
Realism
Realism focuses on the notion that states work to increase their own power relative to other
states. The theory of realism states that the only certainty in the world is power; therefore, a
powerful state—via military power (the most important and reliable form of power)—will
always be able to outlast its weaker competitors. Self-preservation is a major theme in realism, as
states must always seek power to protect themselves.
In realism, the international system drives states to use military force. Although leaders may be
moral, they must not let morality guide their foreign policy. Furthermore, realism recognizes that
international organizations and law have no power and force, and that their existence relies
solely on being recognized and accepted by select states.
Liberalism (Idealism)
Liberalism recognizes that states share broad ties, thus making it difficult to define singular
independent national interests. The theory of liberalism in international relations therefore
involves the decreased use of military power. The theory of realism began to take shape in the
1970s as increasing globalization, communications technology, and international trade made
some scholars argue that realism was outdated.
Liberal approaches to the study of international relations, also referred to as theories of complex
interdependence, claim that the consequences of military power outweigh the benefits and that
international cooperation is in the interest of every state. It also claims that exercising economic
power over military power has proven more effective.
Although the liberal theory of international relations was dominant following World War I while
President Woodrow Wilson promoted the League of Nations and many treaties abolishing war,
realism came back into prominence in the Second World War and continued throughout the Cold
War.

What is IR?
International Relations is concerned with relations across boundaries of nation-states. It
addresses international political economy, global governance, intercultural relations,
national and ethnic identities, foreign policy analysis, development studies, environment,
international security, diplomacy, terrorism, media, social movements and more. It is a
multidisciplinary field that does not restrict students to one approach and employs a variety
of methods including discourse analysis, statistics and comparative and historical analysis.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IS AN INCREASINGLY RELEVANT FIELD OF

STUDY
International Relations is becoming increasingly relevant as the world grows more and more
interconnected through trade and commerce, migration, the internet and through social
media, and concerns about pressing global environmental problems.

A globalized world calls for academics and professionals trained to comprehend these
complex interactions - promoting understanding and crafting policy and business solutions
to meet the challenges of today and the future. International Relations offers a
comprehensive and adaptable toolkit particularly well suited to employment in a rapidly
changing world.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AT SF STATE

The Department of International Relations in the College of Liberal & Creative Arts explores
the interrelations of the world’s primary political institutions, nation-states. As the world is
changing, so is the field of International Relations. Increasingly, International Relations at
SF State also focuses on multinational corporations, international governmental and non-
governmental organizations and social movements. Our curriculum is under constant review
to reflect these global and regional trends.

Our students study specific countries and geographic regions and their interconnections
through political treaties, trade, migration, cultural and ethnic affinities, shared social,
economic, and ideological goals, hierarchies of power and wealth and other factors. We
train students in different theoretical approaches and empower them to make their own
methodological choices.

Studying IR at SF State is a step out into the world

Whether you are looking to start or develop your professional career, enter academia, or
simply gain understanding of a globalized world – International Relations at San Francisco
State will provide you with a solid platform of critical knowledge and skills. We offer a wide
selection of courses, taught by a diverse faculty with expertise in the most pressing issues
and dynamic world regions today.

Our alumni can be found across the world in non-profit, private and government positions.
These include the U.S. Department of State and other countries’ foreign ministries, the City
of San Francisco and other local governments, U.S. intelligence agencies, non-profit
organizations in the areas of international development, human rights, international labor,
environment, and international migration as well in business. A significant number of our
graduate students also pursue further professional or doctoral studies at high-ranking
academic institutions around the world.

nternational Law and Justice

UN Photo/Rick Bajornas
Lady Justice, Hamburg City Hall, Germany

Among the greatest achievements of the United Nations is the development of a body of
international law—conventions, treaties and standards—central to promoting economic and
social development, as well as to advancing international peace and security. Many of the treaties
brought about by the United Nations form the basis of the law that governs relations among
nations. While the work of the UN in this area does not always receive attention, it has a daily
impact on the lives of people everywhere.

The Charter of the United Nations specifically calls on the Organization to help in the settlement
of international disputes by peaceful means, including arbitration and judicial settlement (Article
33), and to encourage the progressive development of international law and its codification
(Article 13).

Over the years, more than 500 multilateral treaties have been deposited with the Secretary-
General of the United Nations. Many other treaties are deposited with governments or other
entities. The treaties cover a broad range of subject matters such as human rights, disarmament
and protection of the environment.

General Assembly as a forum for adopting multilateral treaties

 The General Assembly is composed of representatives from each Member State of the United
Nations and is the main deliberative body on matters relating to international law. Many
multilateral treaties are in fact adopted by the General Assembly and subsequently opened for
signature and ratification. The Legal (Sixth) Committee assists the work of the General
Assembly by providing advice on substantive legal matters. The Committee is also made up of
representatives from all Member States of the United Nations.

The General Assembly has adopted a number of multilateral treaties throughout its history,
including:

• Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948)

• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965)
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966)
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979)
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (1996)
• International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999)
• International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (2005)
• Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006)
• United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or
Partly by Sea (2008)
• Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(2008)

In many areas, the legal work of the United Nations has been pioneering, addressing problems as
they take on an international dimension. The UN has been at the forefront of efforts to provide a
legal framework in such areas as protecting the environment, regulating migrant labour, curbing
drug trafficking and combating terrorism. This work continues today, as international law
assumes a more central role across a wider spectrum of issues, including human rights law and
international humanitarian law.
Read also about Law of the Sea.

Development and codification of international law

International Law Commission
The International Law Commission was established by the General Assembly in 1947 to
promote the progressive development of international law and its codification. The Commission
is composed of 34 members who collectively represent the worlds principal legal systems, and
serve as experts in their individual capacity, not as representatives of their governments. They
address a wide range of issues relevant to the regulation of relations among states, and frequently
 consult with the International Committee of the Red Cross, the International Court of Justice and
UN specialized agencies, depending on the subject being examined. Most of the Commission’s
work involves the preparation of drafts on aspects of international law.

Some topics are chosen by the Commission, others are referred to it by the General Assembly.
When the Commission completes work on a topic, the General Assembly sometimes convenes
an international conference of plenipotentiaries to incorporate the draft into a convention. The
convention is then opened to states to become parties—meaning that such countries formally
agree to be bound by its provisions. Some of these conventions form the very foundation of the
law governing relations among states. Examples include:

• the Convention on the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses, adopted by the

General Assembly in 1997, which regulates the equitable and reasonable utilization of
watercourses shared by two or more countries;
• the Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or
between International Organizations, adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1986;
• the Convention on the Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts,
adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1983;
• the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected
Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, adopted by the General Assembly in 1973;

International humanitarian law

International humanitarian law encompasses the principles and rules that regulate the means and
methods of warfare, as well as the humanitarian protection of civilian populations, sick and
wounded combatants, and prisoners of war. Major instruments include the 1949 Geneva
Conventions for the Protection of War Victims and two additional protocols concluded in 1977
under the auspices of the International Committee of the Red Cross.

The United Nations has taken a leading role in efforts to advance international humanitarian law.
The Security Council has become increasingly involved in protecting civilians in armed conflict,
promoting human rights and protecting children in wars.

Judicial settlement of disputes

International Court of Justice
The primary United Nations organ for the settlement of disputes is the International Court of
Justice. Also known as the World Court, it was founded in 1946. Since its founding, the Court
has considered over 170 cases, issued numerous judgments on disputes brought to it by states
and issued advisory opinions in response to requests by UN organizations. Most cases have been
dealt with by the full Court, but since 1981 six cases have been referred to special chambers at
the request of the parties.
In its judgments, the Court has addressed international disputes involving economic rights, rights
of passage, the non-use of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of states, diplomatic
relations, hostage-taking, the right of asylum and nationality. States bring such disputes before
the Court in search of an impartial solution to their differences on the basis of law. By achieving
peaceful settlement on such questions as land frontiers, maritime boundaries and territorial
sovereignty, the Court has often helped to prevent the escalation of disputes.

International Criminal Justice

The international community has had long aspired to create a permanent international court to try
the most serious international crimes, and, in the 20th century, it reached consensus on
definitions of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.

Tribunals
After the Second World War the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials addressed war crimes, crimes
against peace, and crimes against humanity committed during the Second World War.

The ad hoc tribunals and United Nations-assisted tribunals have continued to contribute to
combating impunity and promoting accountability for the most serious crimes. In the 1990s,
after the end of the Cold War, the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia
(ICTY) and for Rwanda (ICTR) were established to try crimes committed within a specific time-
frame and during a specific conflict. This applies, as well, to three courts established by the
states concerned, but with substantial UN support: the Special Court for Sierra Leone (2002),
the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2006) and the Special Tribunal for
Lebanon (2007). Sometimes referred to as ‘hybrid’ courts, they are non-permanent institutions
which will cease to exist once all their cases have been heard.

The International Criminal Court

The idea of a permanent international court to prosecute crimes against humanity was first
considered at the United Nations in the context of the adoption of the Genocide Convention of
1948. For many years, differences of opinions forestalled further developments. In 1992, the
General Assembly directed the International Law Commission to prepare a draft statute for such
a court. The massacres in Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda made the need for it
even more urgent.

The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction to prosecute individuals who commit
genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. It will also have jurisdiction over the crime
of aggression when agreement is reached on the definition of such a crime. The ICC is legally
and functionally independent from the United Nations, and is not a part of the UN system.

The cooperation between the UN and the ICC is governed by a Negotiated Relationship
Agreement. The Security Council can initiate proceedings before the ICC, and can refer to the
ICC situations that would not otherwise fall under the Court’s jurisdiction. The Court has 18
judges, elected by the states parties for a term limited to nine years, except that a judge shall
remain in office to complete any trial or appeal which has already begun. No two judges can be
from the same country.

What is International Relations?

Our richly connected, complex world demands professionals skilled in international relations, an
exciting field of study that presents a globally oriented perspective on issues that transcend
national boundaries.
The study and practice of international relations is interdisciplinary in nature, blending the fields
of economics, history, and political science to examine topics such as human rights, global
poverty, the environment, economics, globalization, security, global ethics, and the political
environment.
SPONSORED
Featured Program
* The online master's programs from American University's School of International
Service allow professionals to build international and business expertise in 12–24 months.
GRE/GMAT scores not required.

* Fletcher's online Master of Global Business Administration from Tufts University prepares
students to apply advanced business strategy in a global context. Complete in as few as 16
months. No GRE/GMAT required.

* Designed by both Kogod and the top-ranked School of International Service, the MS in
International Relations and Business at American University will help you develop a global
business mindset in as few as 18 months.No GRE/GMAT required.

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in International Relations Program - Online

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in Diplomacy - Online

Exceptional economic integration, unprecedented threats to peace and security, and an
international focus on human rights and environmental protection all speak to the complexity of
international relations in the twenty-first century. This means the study of international relations
must focus on interdisciplinary research that addresses, anticipates, and ultimately solves public
policy problems.
International relations (often referred to international affairs) has a broad purpose in
contemporary society, as it seeks to understand:

• The origins of war and the maintenance of peace

• The nature and exercise of power within the global system
• The changing character of state and non-state actors who participate in international
decision-making
For example, some institutions may study the psychological and social-psychological reasoning
behind the actions of foreign policymakers, while others may focus their international studies on
the institutional processes that contribute to the goals and behaviors of states. Ultimately, the
area of international relations studied depends on the goals or objectives of the organization.

The Value of International Relations in a

Globalized Society
Although international relations has taken on a new significance because of our increasingly
interconnected world, it is certainly not a new concept. Historically, the establishment of treaties
between nations served as the earliest form of international relations.
The study and practice of international relations in today’s world is valuable for many reasons:

• International relations promotes successful trade policies between nations.

• International relations encourages travel related to business, tourism, and immigration,
providing people with opportunities to enhance their lives.
• International relations allows nations to cooperate with one another, pool resources, and
share information as a way to face global issues that go beyond any particular country or
region. Contemporary global issues include pandemics, terrorism, and the environment.
• International relations advances human culture through cultural exchanges, diplomacy
and policy development.

The practice of international relations is valuable in a wide array of settings. Some examples
inlcude:

• Humanitarian organizations
o Action Against Hunger
o Oxfam International
o World Food Programme
• Government agencies
o Department of State
o Department of Homeland Security
o Department of Commerce
• International corporations
o General Electric
o BP
o Exxon Mobile
o Toyota
o Nestle
o Siemens
• Media outlets
o BBC
o Washington Post
o The Guardian
 o Der Spiegal
o New York Times
o Forbes
o Wall Street Journal
• Intergovernmental organizations
o World Trade Organization
o United Nations
o NATO
• International communications
o Amnesty International
o Freedom House
o Human Rights Watch
o Reporters Without Borders
• Research centers/Think tanks
o Brookings Institution
o Center for International Policy
o Council on Foreign Relations
o Global Public Policy Institute

The Theories and Principles of International

Relations
International relations may be an offshoot of political science, but this field of study is
exceptionally in-depth in its own right. As our global society evolves and expands, international
relations will evolve and expand along with it as we continue to explore new and exciting way to
link our complex world.
For example, traditional dimensions of international relations related to international peace and
prosperity include topics such as international diplomacy, arms control, and alliance politics.
Contemporary studies in international relations, on other hand, include topics such as
international political economics, environmental politics, refugee and migration issues, and
human rights.
Examining the Levels of State Behavior
Professionals studying international relations often determine the level at which they will analyze
a state’s behavior:

• System Level Analysis: System level analysis looks at the international system; more
specifically, how the international system affects the behavior of nation states, with the
key variable being that the international system includes the power of each state rather
than being independent of them.
• State Level Analysis: State level analysis examines how a state’s characteristics
determine its foreign policy behavior. This type of analysis often views states as having
cultural characteristics based on their religious or social traditions, and their historical
legacy, and includes an analysis of economic and geographic factors.
 • Organizational Level Analysis: Organizational level analysis examines how
organizations within a state influence the state’s foreign policy behavior. In other words,
organizational level analysis views that organizations—not states—make the decisions
that create a state’s foreign policy.
• Individual Level Analysis: Individual level analysis views the leaders of states as being
the largest influencers of foreign policy.

Examining the Theories of International Relations

The study of international relations involves theoretical approaches based on solid evidence.
Theories of international relations are essentially a set of ideas aimed at explaining how the
international system works.
The two, major theories of international relations are realism and liberalism:
Realism
Realism focuses on the notion that states work to increase their own power relative to other
states. The theory of realism states that the only certainty in the world is power; therefore, a
powerful state—via military power (the most important and reliable form of power)—will
always be able to outlast its weaker competitors. Self-preservation is a major theme in realism, as
states must always seek power to protect themselves.
In realism, the international system drives states to use military force. Although leaders may be
moral, they must not let morality guide their foreign policy. Furthermore, realism recognizes that
international organizations and law have no power and force, and that their existence relies
solely on being recognized and accepted by select states.
Liberalism (Idealism)
Liberalism recognizes that states share broad ties, thus making it difficult to define singular
independent national interests. The theory of liberalism in international relations therefore
involves the decreased use of military power. The theory of realism began to take shape in the
1970s as increasing globalization, communications technology, and international trade made
some scholars argue that realism was outdated.
Liberal approaches to the study of international relations, also referred to as theories of complex
interdependence, claim that the consequences of military power outweigh the benefits and that
international cooperation is in the interest of every state. It also claims that exercising economic
power over military power has proven more effective.
Although the liberal theory of international relations was dominant following World War I while
President Woodrow Wilson promoted the League of Nations and many treaties abolishing war,
realism came back into prominence in the Second World War and continued throughout the Cold
War.

What is IR?
International Relations is concerned with relations across boundaries of nation-states. It
addresses international political economy, global governance, intercultural relations,
national and ethnic identities, foreign policy analysis, development studies, environment,
international security, diplomacy, terrorism, media, social movements and more. It is a
multidisciplinary field that does not restrict students to one approach and employs a variety
of methods including discourse analysis, statistics and comparative and historical analysis.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IS AN INCREASINGLY RELEVANT FIELD OF

STUDY
International Relations is becoming increasingly relevant as the world grows more and more
interconnected through trade and commerce, migration, the internet and through social
media, and concerns about pressing global environmental problems.

A globalized world calls for academics and professionals trained to comprehend these
complex interactions - promoting understanding and crafting policy and business solutions
to meet the challenges of today and the future. International Relations offers a
comprehensive and adaptable toolkit particularly well suited to employment in a rapidly
changing world.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AT SF STATE

The Department of International Relations in the College of Liberal & Creative Arts explores
the interrelations of the world’s primary political institutions, nation-states. As the world is
changing, so is the field of International Relations. Increasingly, International Relations at
SF State also focuses on multinational corporations, international governmental and non-
governmental organizations and social movements. Our curriculum is under constant review
to reflect these global and regional trends.

Our students study specific countries and geographic regions and their interconnections
through political treaties, trade, migration, cultural and ethnic affinities, shared social,
economic, and ideological goals, hierarchies of power and wealth and other factors. We
train students in different theoretical approaches and empower them to make their own
methodological choices.

Studying IR at SF State is a step out into the world

Whether you are looking to start or develop your professional career, enter academia, or
simply gain understanding of a globalized world – International Relations at San Francisco
State will provide you with a solid platform of critical knowledge and skills. We offer a wide
selection of courses, taught by a diverse faculty with expertise in the most pressing issues
and dynamic world regions today.

Our alumni can be found across the world in non-profit, private and government positions.
These include the U.S. Department of State and other countries’ foreign ministries, the City
of San Francisco and other local governments, U.S. intelligence agencies, non-profit
organizations in the areas of international development, human rights, international labor,
environment, and international migration as well in business. A significant number of our
graduate students also pursue further professional or doctoral studies at high-ranking
academic institutions around the world.

nternational Law and Justice

UN Photo/Rick Bajornas
Lady Justice, Hamburg City Hall, Germany

Among the greatest achievements of the United Nations is the development of a body of
international law—conventions, treaties and standards—central to promoting economic and
social development, as well as to advancing international peace and security. Many of the treaties
brought about by the United Nations form the basis of the law that governs relations among
nations. While the work of the UN in this area does not always receive attention, it has a daily
impact on the lives of people everywhere.

The Charter of the United Nations specifically calls on the Organization to help in the settlement
of international disputes by peaceful means, including arbitration and judicial settlement (Article
33), and to encourage the progressive development of international law and its codification
(Article 13).

Over the years, more than 500 multilateral treaties have been deposited with the Secretary-
General of the United Nations. Many other treaties are deposited with governments or other
entities. The treaties cover a broad range of subject matters such as human rights, disarmament
and protection of the environment.

General Assembly as a forum for adopting multilateral treaties

 The General Assembly is composed of representatives from each Member State of the United
Nations and is the main deliberative body on matters relating to international law. Many
multilateral treaties are in fact adopted by the General Assembly and subsequently opened for
signature and ratification. The Legal (Sixth) Committee assists the work of the General
Assembly by providing advice on substantive legal matters. The Committee is also made up of
representatives from all Member States of the United Nations.

The General Assembly has adopted a number of multilateral treaties throughout its history,
including:

• Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948)

• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965)
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966)
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979)
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (1996)
• International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999)
• International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (2005)
• Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006)
• United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or
Partly by Sea (2008)
• Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(2008)

In many areas, the legal work of the United Nations has been pioneering, addressing problems as
they take on an international dimension. The UN has been at the forefront of efforts to provide a
legal framework in such areas as protecting the environment, regulating migrant labour, curbing
drug trafficking and combating terrorism. This work continues today, as international law
assumes a more central role across a wider spectrum of issues, including human rights law and
international humanitarian law.
Read also about Law of the Sea.

Development and codification of international law

International Law Commission
The International Law Commission was established by the General Assembly in 1947 to
promote the progressive development of international law and its codification. The Commission
is composed of 34 members who collectively represent the worlds principal legal systems, and
serve as experts in their individual capacity, not as representatives of their governments. They
address a wide range of issues relevant to the regulation of relations among states, and frequently
 consult with the International Committee of the Red Cross, the International Court of Justice and
UN specialized agencies, depending on the subject being examined. Most of the Commission’s
work involves the preparation of drafts on aspects of international law.

Some topics are chosen by the Commission, others are referred to it by the General Assembly.
When the Commission completes work on a topic, the General Assembly sometimes convenes
an international conference of plenipotentiaries to incorporate the draft into a convention. The
convention is then opened to states to become parties—meaning that such countries formally
agree to be bound by its provisions. Some of these conventions form the very foundation of the
law governing relations among states. Examples include:

• the Convention on the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses, adopted by the

General Assembly in 1997, which regulates the equitable and reasonable utilization of
watercourses shared by two or more countries;
• the Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or
between International Organizations, adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1986;
• the Convention on the Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts,
adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1983;
• the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected
Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, adopted by the General Assembly in 1973;

International humanitarian law

International humanitarian law encompasses the principles and rules that regulate the means and
methods of warfare, as well as the humanitarian protection of civilian populations, sick and
wounded combatants, and prisoners of war. Major instruments include the 1949 Geneva
Conventions for the Protection of War Victims and two additional protocols concluded in 1977
under the auspices of the International Committee of the Red Cross.

The United Nations has taken a leading role in efforts to advance international humanitarian law.
The Security Council has become increasingly involved in protecting civilians in armed conflict,
promoting human rights and protecting children in wars.

Judicial settlement of disputes

International Court of Justice
The primary United Nations organ for the settlement of disputes is the International Court of
Justice. Also known as the World Court, it was founded in 1946. Since its founding, the Court
has considered over 170 cases, issued numerous judgments on disputes brought to it by states
and issued advisory opinions in response to requests by UN organizations. Most cases have been
dealt with by the full Court, but since 1981 six cases have been referred to special chambers at
the request of the parties.
In its judgments, the Court has addressed international disputes involving economic rights, rights
of passage, the non-use of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of states, diplomatic
relations, hostage-taking, the right of asylum and nationality. States bring such disputes before
the Court in search of an impartial solution to their differences on the basis of law. By achieving
peaceful settlement on such questions as land frontiers, maritime boundaries and territorial
sovereignty, the Court has often helped to prevent the escalation of disputes.

International Criminal Justice

The international community has had long aspired to create a permanent international court to try
the most serious international crimes, and, in the 20th century, it reached consensus on
definitions of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.

Tribunals
After the Second World War the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials addressed war crimes, crimes
against peace, and crimes against humanity committed during the Second World War.

The ad hoc tribunals and United Nations-assisted tribunals have continued to contribute to
combating impunity and promoting accountability for the most serious crimes. In the 1990s,
after the end of the Cold War, the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia
(ICTY) and for Rwanda (ICTR) were established to try crimes committed within a specific time-
frame and during a specific conflict. This applies, as well, to three courts established by the
states concerned, but with substantial UN support: the Special Court for Sierra Leone (2002),
the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2006) and the Special Tribunal for
Lebanon (2007). Sometimes referred to as ‘hybrid’ courts, they are non-permanent institutions
which will cease to exist once all their cases have been heard.

The International Criminal Court

The idea of a permanent international court to prosecute crimes against humanity was first
considered at the United Nations in the context of the adoption of the Genocide Convention of
1948. For many years, differences of opinions forestalled further developments. In 1992, the
General Assembly directed the International Law Commission to prepare a draft statute for such
a court. The massacres in Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda made the need for it
even more urgent.

The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction to prosecute individuals who commit
genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. It will also have jurisdiction over the crime
of aggression when agreement is reached on the definition of such a crime. The ICC is legally
and functionally independent from the United Nations, and is not a part of the UN system.

The cooperation between the UN and the ICC is governed by a Negotiated Relationship
Agreement. The Security Council can initiate proceedings before the ICC, and can refer to the
ICC situations that would not otherwise fall under the Court’s jurisdiction. The Court has 18
judges, elected by the states parties for a term limited to nine years, except that a judge shall
remain in office to complete any trial or appeal which has already begun. No two judges can be
from the same country.

What is International Relations?

Our richly connected, complex world demands professionals skilled in international relations, an
exciting field of study that presents a globally oriented perspective on issues that transcend
national boundaries.
The study and practice of international relations is interdisciplinary in nature, blending the fields
of economics, history, and political science to examine topics such as human rights, global
poverty, the environment, economics, globalization, security, global ethics, and the political
environment.
SPONSORED
Featured Program
* The online master's programs from American University's School of International
Service allow professionals to build international and business expertise in 12–24 months.
GRE/GMAT scores not required.

* Fletcher's online Master of Global Business Administration from Tufts University prepares
students to apply advanced business strategy in a global context. Complete in as few as 16
months. No GRE/GMAT required.

* Designed by both Kogod and the top-ranked School of International Service, the MS in
International Relations and Business at American University will help you develop a global
business mindset in as few as 18 months.No GRE/GMAT required.

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in International Relations Program - Online

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in Diplomacy - Online

Exceptional economic integration, unprecedented threats to peace and security, and an
international focus on human rights and environmental protection all speak to the complexity of
international relations in the twenty-first century. This means the study of international relations
must focus on interdisciplinary research that addresses, anticipates, and ultimately solves public
policy problems.
International relations (often referred to international affairs) has a broad purpose in
contemporary society, as it seeks to understand:

• The origins of war and the maintenance of peace

• The nature and exercise of power within the global system
• The changing character of state and non-state actors who participate in international
decision-making
For example, some institutions may study the psychological and social-psychological reasoning
behind the actions of foreign policymakers, while others may focus their international studies on
the institutional processes that contribute to the goals and behaviors of states. Ultimately, the
area of international relations studied depends on the goals or objectives of the organization.

The Value of International Relations in a

Globalized Society
Although international relations has taken on a new significance because of our increasingly
interconnected world, it is certainly not a new concept. Historically, the establishment of treaties
between nations served as the earliest form of international relations.
The study and practice of international relations in today’s world is valuable for many reasons:

• International relations promotes successful trade policies between nations.

• International relations encourages travel related to business, tourism, and immigration,
providing people with opportunities to enhance their lives.
• International relations allows nations to cooperate with one another, pool resources, and
share information as a way to face global issues that go beyond any particular country or
region. Contemporary global issues include pandemics, terrorism, and the environment.
• International relations advances human culture through cultural exchanges, diplomacy
and policy development.

The practice of international relations is valuable in a wide array of settings. Some examples
inlcude:

• Humanitarian organizations
o Action Against Hunger
o Oxfam International
o World Food Programme
• Government agencies
o Department of State
o Department of Homeland Security
o Department of Commerce
• International corporations
o General Electric
o BP
o Exxon Mobile
o Toyota
o Nestle
o Siemens
• Media outlets
o BBC
o Washington Post
o The Guardian
 o Der Spiegal
o New York Times
o Forbes
o Wall Street Journal
• Intergovernmental organizations
o World Trade Organization
o United Nations
o NATO
• International communications
o Amnesty International
o Freedom House
o Human Rights Watch
o Reporters Without Borders
• Research centers/Think tanks
o Brookings Institution
o Center for International Policy
o Council on Foreign Relations
o Global Public Policy Institute

The Theories and Principles of International

Relations
International relations may be an offshoot of political science, but this field of study is
exceptionally in-depth in its own right. As our global society evolves and expands, international
relations will evolve and expand along with it as we continue to explore new and exciting way to
link our complex world.
For example, traditional dimensions of international relations related to international peace and
prosperity include topics such as international diplomacy, arms control, and alliance politics.
Contemporary studies in international relations, on other hand, include topics such as
international political economics, environmental politics, refugee and migration issues, and
human rights.
Examining the Levels of State Behavior
Professionals studying international relations often determine the level at which they will analyze
a state’s behavior:

• System Level Analysis: System level analysis looks at the international system; more
specifically, how the international system affects the behavior of nation states, with the
key variable being that the international system includes the power of each state rather
than being independent of them.
• State Level Analysis: State level analysis examines how a state’s characteristics
determine its foreign policy behavior. This type of analysis often views states as having
cultural characteristics based on their religious or social traditions, and their historical
legacy, and includes an analysis of economic and geographic factors.
 • Organizational Level Analysis: Organizational level analysis examines how
organizations within a state influence the state’s foreign policy behavior. In other words,
organizational level analysis views that organizations—not states—make the decisions
that create a state’s foreign policy.
• Individual Level Analysis: Individual level analysis views the leaders of states as being
the largest influencers of foreign policy.

Examining the Theories of International Relations

The study of international relations involves theoretical approaches based on solid evidence.
Theories of international relations are essentially a set of ideas aimed at explaining how the
international system works.
The two, major theories of international relations are realism and liberalism:
Realism
Realism focuses on the notion that states work to increase their own power relative to other
states. The theory of realism states that the only certainty in the world is power; therefore, a
powerful state—via military power (the most important and reliable form of power)—will
always be able to outlast its weaker competitors. Self-preservation is a major theme in realism, as
states must always seek power to protect themselves.
In realism, the international system drives states to use military force. Although leaders may be
moral, they must not let morality guide their foreign policy. Furthermore, realism recognizes that
international organizations and law have no power and force, and that their existence relies
solely on being recognized and accepted by select states.
Liberalism (Idealism)
Liberalism recognizes that states share broad ties, thus making it difficult to define singular
independent national interests. The theory of liberalism in international relations therefore
involves the decreased use of military power. The theory of realism began to take shape in the
1970s as increasing globalization, communications technology, and international trade made
some scholars argue that realism was outdated.
Liberal approaches to the study of international relations, also referred to as theories of complex
interdependence, claim that the consequences of military power outweigh the benefits and that
international cooperation is in the interest of every state. It also claims that exercising economic
power over military power has proven more effective.
Although the liberal theory of international relations was dominant following World War I while
President Woodrow Wilson promoted the League of Nations and many treaties abolishing war,
realism came back into prominence in the Second World War and continued throughout the Cold
War.

What is IR?
International Relations is concerned with relations across boundaries of nation-states. It
addresses international political economy, global governance, intercultural relations,
national and ethnic identities, foreign policy analysis, development studies, environment,
international security, diplomacy, terrorism, media, social movements and more. It is a
multidisciplinary field that does not restrict students to one approach and employs a variety
of methods including discourse analysis, statistics and comparative and historical analysis.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IS AN INCREASINGLY RELEVANT FIELD OF

STUDY
International Relations is becoming increasingly relevant as the world grows more and more
interconnected through trade and commerce, migration, the internet and through social
media, and concerns about pressing global environmental problems.

A globalized world calls for academics and professionals trained to comprehend these
complex interactions - promoting understanding and crafting policy and business solutions
to meet the challenges of today and the future. International Relations offers a
comprehensive and adaptable toolkit particularly well suited to employment in a rapidly
changing world.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AT SF STATE

The Department of International Relations in the College of Liberal & Creative Arts explores
the interrelations of the world’s primary political institutions, nation-states. As the world is
changing, so is the field of International Relations. Increasingly, International Relations at
SF State also focuses on multinational corporations, international governmental and non-
governmental organizations and social movements. Our curriculum is under constant review
to reflect these global and regional trends.

Our students study specific countries and geographic regions and their interconnections
through political treaties, trade, migration, cultural and ethnic affinities, shared social,
economic, and ideological goals, hierarchies of power and wealth and other factors. We
train students in different theoretical approaches and empower them to make their own
methodological choices.

Studying IR at SF State is a step out into the world

Whether you are looking to start or develop your professional career, enter academia, or
simply gain understanding of a globalized world – International Relations at San Francisco
State will provide you with a solid platform of critical knowledge and skills. We offer a wide
selection of courses, taught by a diverse faculty with expertise in the most pressing issues
and dynamic world regions today.

Our alumni can be found across the world in non-profit, private and government positions.
These include the U.S. Department of State and other countries’ foreign ministries, the City
of San Francisco and other local governments, U.S. intelligence agencies, non-profit
organizations in the areas of international development, human rights, international labor,
environment, and international migration as well in business. A significant number of our
graduate students also pursue further professional or doctoral studies at high-ranking
academic institutions around the world.

nternational Law and Justice

UN Photo/Rick Bajornas
Lady Justice, Hamburg City Hall, Germany

Among the greatest achievements of the United Nations is the development of a body of
international law—conventions, treaties and standards—central to promoting economic and
social development, as well as to advancing international peace and security. Many of the treaties
brought about by the United Nations form the basis of the law that governs relations among
nations. While the work of the UN in this area does not always receive attention, it has a daily
impact on the lives of people everywhere.

The Charter of the United Nations specifically calls on the Organization to help in the settlement
of international disputes by peaceful means, including arbitration and judicial settlement (Article
33), and to encourage the progressive development of international law and its codification
(Article 13).

Over the years, more than 500 multilateral treaties have been deposited with the Secretary-
General of the United Nations. Many other treaties are deposited with governments or other
entities. The treaties cover a broad range of subject matters such as human rights, disarmament
and protection of the environment.

General Assembly as a forum for adopting multilateral treaties

 The General Assembly is composed of representatives from each Member State of the United
Nations and is the main deliberative body on matters relating to international law. Many
multilateral treaties are in fact adopted by the General Assembly and subsequently opened for
signature and ratification. The Legal (Sixth) Committee assists the work of the General
Assembly by providing advice on substantive legal matters. The Committee is also made up of
representatives from all Member States of the United Nations.

The General Assembly has adopted a number of multilateral treaties throughout its history,
including:

• Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948)

• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965)
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966)
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979)
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (1996)
• International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999)
• International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (2005)
• Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006)
• United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or
Partly by Sea (2008)
• Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(2008)

In many areas, the legal work of the United Nations has been pioneering, addressing problems as
they take on an international dimension. The UN has been at the forefront of efforts to provide a
legal framework in such areas as protecting the environment, regulating migrant labour, curbing
drug trafficking and combating terrorism. This work continues today, as international law
assumes a more central role across a wider spectrum of issues, including human rights law and
international humanitarian law.
Read also about Law of the Sea.

Development and codification of international law

International Law Commission
The International Law Commission was established by the General Assembly in 1947 to
promote the progressive development of international law and its codification. The Commission
is composed of 34 members who collectively represent the worlds principal legal systems, and
serve as experts in their individual capacity, not as representatives of their governments. They
address a wide range of issues relevant to the regulation of relations among states, and frequently
 consult with the International Committee of the Red Cross, the International Court of Justice and
UN specialized agencies, depending on the subject being examined. Most of the Commission’s
work involves the preparation of drafts on aspects of international law.

Some topics are chosen by the Commission, others are referred to it by the General Assembly.
When the Commission completes work on a topic, the General Assembly sometimes convenes
an international conference of plenipotentiaries to incorporate the draft into a convention. The
convention is then opened to states to become parties—meaning that such countries formally
agree to be bound by its provisions. Some of these conventions form the very foundation of the
law governing relations among states. Examples include:

• the Convention on the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses, adopted by the

General Assembly in 1997, which regulates the equitable and reasonable utilization of
watercourses shared by two or more countries;
• the Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or
between International Organizations, adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1986;
• the Convention on the Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts,
adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1983;
• the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected
Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, adopted by the General Assembly in 1973;

International humanitarian law

International humanitarian law encompasses the principles and rules that regulate the means and
methods of warfare, as well as the humanitarian protection of civilian populations, sick and
wounded combatants, and prisoners of war. Major instruments include the 1949 Geneva
Conventions for the Protection of War Victims and two additional protocols concluded in 1977
under the auspices of the International Committee of the Red Cross.

The United Nations has taken a leading role in efforts to advance international humanitarian law.
The Security Council has become increasingly involved in protecting civilians in armed conflict,
promoting human rights and protecting children in wars.

Judicial settlement of disputes

International Court of Justice
The primary United Nations organ for the settlement of disputes is the International Court of
Justice. Also known as the World Court, it was founded in 1946. Since its founding, the Court
has considered over 170 cases, issued numerous judgments on disputes brought to it by states
and issued advisory opinions in response to requests by UN organizations. Most cases have been
dealt with by the full Court, but since 1981 six cases have been referred to special chambers at
the request of the parties.
In its judgments, the Court has addressed international disputes involving economic rights, rights
of passage, the non-use of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of states, diplomatic
relations, hostage-taking, the right of asylum and nationality. States bring such disputes before
the Court in search of an impartial solution to their differences on the basis of law. By achieving
peaceful settlement on such questions as land frontiers, maritime boundaries and territorial
sovereignty, the Court has often helped to prevent the escalation of disputes.

International Criminal Justice

The international community has had long aspired to create a permanent international court to try
the most serious international crimes, and, in the 20th century, it reached consensus on
definitions of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.

Tribunals
After the Second World War the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials addressed war crimes, crimes
against peace, and crimes against humanity committed during the Second World War.

The ad hoc tribunals and United Nations-assisted tribunals have continued to contribute to
combating impunity and promoting accountability for the most serious crimes. In the 1990s,
after the end of the Cold War, the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia
(ICTY) and for Rwanda (ICTR) were established to try crimes committed within a specific time-
frame and during a specific conflict. This applies, as well, to three courts established by the
states concerned, but with substantial UN support: the Special Court for Sierra Leone (2002),
the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2006) and the Special Tribunal for
Lebanon (2007). Sometimes referred to as ‘hybrid’ courts, they are non-permanent institutions
which will cease to exist once all their cases have been heard.

The International Criminal Court

The idea of a permanent international court to prosecute crimes against humanity was first
considered at the United Nations in the context of the adoption of the Genocide Convention of
1948. For many years, differences of opinions forestalled further developments. In 1992, the
General Assembly directed the International Law Commission to prepare a draft statute for such
a court. The massacres in Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda made the need for it
even more urgent.

The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction to prosecute individuals who commit
genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. It will also have jurisdiction over the crime
of aggression when agreement is reached on the definition of such a crime. The ICC is legally
and functionally independent from the United Nations, and is not a part of the UN system.

The cooperation between the UN and the ICC is governed by a Negotiated Relationship
Agreement. The Security Council can initiate proceedings before the ICC, and can refer to the
ICC situations that would not otherwise fall under the Court’s jurisdiction. The Court has 18
judges, elected by the states parties for a term limited to nine years, except that a judge shall
remain in office to complete any trial or appeal which has already begun. No two judges can be
from the same country.

What is International Relations?

Our richly connected, complex world demands professionals skilled in international relations, an
exciting field of study that presents a globally oriented perspective on issues that transcend
national boundaries.
The study and practice of international relations is interdisciplinary in nature, blending the fields
of economics, history, and political science to examine topics such as human rights, global
poverty, the environment, economics, globalization, security, global ethics, and the political
environment.
SPONSORED
Featured Program
* The online master's programs from American University's School of International
Service allow professionals to build international and business expertise in 12–24 months.
GRE/GMAT scores not required.

* Fletcher's online Master of Global Business Administration from Tufts University prepares
students to apply advanced business strategy in a global context. Complete in as few as 16
months. No GRE/GMAT required.

* Designed by both Kogod and the top-ranked School of International Service, the MS in
International Relations and Business at American University will help you develop a global
business mindset in as few as 18 months.No GRE/GMAT required.

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in International Relations Program - Online

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in Diplomacy - Online

Exceptional economic integration, unprecedented threats to peace and security, and an
international focus on human rights and environmental protection all speak to the complexity of
international relations in the twenty-first century. This means the study of international relations
must focus on interdisciplinary research that addresses, anticipates, and ultimately solves public
policy problems.
International relations (often referred to international affairs) has a broad purpose in
contemporary society, as it seeks to understand:

• The origins of war and the maintenance of peace

• The nature and exercise of power within the global system
• The changing character of state and non-state actors who participate in international
decision-making
For example, some institutions may study the psychological and social-psychological reasoning
behind the actions of foreign policymakers, while others may focus their international studies on
the institutional processes that contribute to the goals and behaviors of states. Ultimately, the
area of international relations studied depends on the goals or objectives of the organization.

The Value of International Relations in a

Globalized Society
Although international relations has taken on a new significance because of our increasingly
interconnected world, it is certainly not a new concept. Historically, the establishment of treaties
between nations served as the earliest form of international relations.
The study and practice of international relations in today’s world is valuable for many reasons:

• International relations promotes successful trade policies between nations.

• International relations encourages travel related to business, tourism, and immigration,
providing people with opportunities to enhance their lives.
• International relations allows nations to cooperate with one another, pool resources, and
share information as a way to face global issues that go beyond any particular country or
region. Contemporary global issues include pandemics, terrorism, and the environment.
• International relations advances human culture through cultural exchanges, diplomacy
and policy development.

The practice of international relations is valuable in a wide array of settings. Some examples
inlcude:

• Humanitarian organizations
o Action Against Hunger
o Oxfam International
o World Food Programme
• Government agencies
o Department of State
o Department of Homeland Security
o Department of Commerce
• International corporations
o General Electric
o BP
o Exxon Mobile
o Toyota
o Nestle
o Siemens
• Media outlets
o BBC
o Washington Post
o The Guardian
 o Der Spiegal
o New York Times
o Forbes
o Wall Street Journal
• Intergovernmental organizations
o World Trade Organization
o United Nations
o NATO
• International communications
o Amnesty International
o Freedom House
o Human Rights Watch
o Reporters Without Borders
• Research centers/Think tanks
o Brookings Institution
o Center for International Policy
o Council on Foreign Relations
o Global Public Policy Institute

The Theories and Principles of International

Relations
International relations may be an offshoot of political science, but this field of study is
exceptionally in-depth in its own right. As our global society evolves and expands, international
relations will evolve and expand along with it as we continue to explore new and exciting way to
link our complex world.
For example, traditional dimensions of international relations related to international peace and
prosperity include topics such as international diplomacy, arms control, and alliance politics.
Contemporary studies in international relations, on other hand, include topics such as
international political economics, environmental politics, refugee and migration issues, and
human rights.
Examining the Levels of State Behavior
Professionals studying international relations often determine the level at which they will analyze
a state’s behavior:

• System Level Analysis: System level analysis looks at the international system; more
specifically, how the international system affects the behavior of nation states, with the
key variable being that the international system includes the power of each state rather
than being independent of them.
• State Level Analysis: State level analysis examines how a state’s characteristics
determine its foreign policy behavior. This type of analysis often views states as having
cultural characteristics based on their religious or social traditions, and their historical
legacy, and includes an analysis of economic and geographic factors.
 • Organizational Level Analysis: Organizational level analysis examines how
organizations within a state influence the state’s foreign policy behavior. In other words,
organizational level analysis views that organizations—not states—make the decisions
that create a state’s foreign policy.
• Individual Level Analysis: Individual level analysis views the leaders of states as being
the largest influencers of foreign policy.

Examining the Theories of International Relations

The study of international relations involves theoretical approaches based on solid evidence.
Theories of international relations are essentially a set of ideas aimed at explaining how the
international system works.
The two, major theories of international relations are realism and liberalism:
Realism
Realism focuses on the notion that states work to increase their own power relative to other
states. The theory of realism states that the only certainty in the world is power; therefore, a
powerful state—via military power (the most important and reliable form of power)—will
always be able to outlast its weaker competitors. Self-preservation is a major theme in realism, as
states must always seek power to protect themselves.
In realism, the international system drives states to use military force. Although leaders may be
moral, they must not let morality guide their foreign policy. Furthermore, realism recognizes that
international organizations and law have no power and force, and that their existence relies
solely on being recognized and accepted by select states.
Liberalism (Idealism)
Liberalism recognizes that states share broad ties, thus making it difficult to define singular
independent national interests. The theory of liberalism in international relations therefore
involves the decreased use of military power. The theory of realism began to take shape in the
1970s as increasing globalization, communications technology, and international trade made
some scholars argue that realism was outdated.
Liberal approaches to the study of international relations, also referred to as theories of complex
interdependence, claim that the consequences of military power outweigh the benefits and that
international cooperation is in the interest of every state. It also claims that exercising economic
power over military power has proven more effective.
Although the liberal theory of international relations was dominant following World War I while
President Woodrow Wilson promoted the League of Nations and many treaties abolishing war,
realism came back into prominence in the Second World War and continued throughout the Cold
War.

What is IR?
International Relations is concerned with relations across boundaries of nation-states. It
addresses international political economy, global governance, intercultural relations,
national and ethnic identities, foreign policy analysis, development studies, environment,
international security, diplomacy, terrorism, media, social movements and more. It is a
multidisciplinary field that does not restrict students to one approach and employs a variety
of methods including discourse analysis, statistics and comparative and historical analysis.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IS AN INCREASINGLY RELEVANT FIELD OF

STUDY
International Relations is becoming increasingly relevant as the world grows more and more
interconnected through trade and commerce, migration, the internet and through social
media, and concerns about pressing global environmental problems.

A globalized world calls for academics and professionals trained to comprehend these
complex interactions - promoting understanding and crafting policy and business solutions
to meet the challenges of today and the future. International Relations offers a
comprehensive and adaptable toolkit particularly well suited to employment in a rapidly
changing world.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AT SF STATE

The Department of International Relations in the College of Liberal & Creative Arts explores
the interrelations of the world’s primary political institutions, nation-states. As the world is
changing, so is the field of International Relations. Increasingly, International Relations at
SF State also focuses on multinational corporations, international governmental and non-
governmental organizations and social movements. Our curriculum is under constant review
to reflect these global and regional trends.

Our students study specific countries and geographic regions and their interconnections
through political treaties, trade, migration, cultural and ethnic affinities, shared social,
economic, and ideological goals, hierarchies of power and wealth and other factors. We
train students in different theoretical approaches and empower them to make their own
methodological choices.

Studying IR at SF State is a step out into the world

Whether you are looking to start or develop your professional career, enter academia, or
simply gain understanding of a globalized world – International Relations at San Francisco
State will provide you with a solid platform of critical knowledge and skills. We offer a wide
selection of courses, taught by a diverse faculty with expertise in the most pressing issues
and dynamic world regions today.

Our alumni can be found across the world in non-profit, private and government positions.
These include the U.S. Department of State and other countries’ foreign ministries, the City
of San Francisco and other local governments, U.S. intelligence agencies, non-profit
organizations in the areas of international development, human rights, international labor,
environment, and international migration as well in business. A significant number of our
graduate students also pursue further professional or doctoral studies at high-ranking
academic institutions around the world.

nternational Law and Justice

UN Photo/Rick Bajornas
Lady Justice, Hamburg City Hall, Germany

Among the greatest achievements of the United Nations is the development of a body of
international law—conventions, treaties and standards—central to promoting economic and
social development, as well as to advancing international peace and security. Many of the treaties
brought about by the United Nations form the basis of the law that governs relations among
nations. While the work of the UN in this area does not always receive attention, it has a daily
impact on the lives of people everywhere.

The Charter of the United Nations specifically calls on the Organization to help in the settlement
of international disputes by peaceful means, including arbitration and judicial settlement (Article
33), and to encourage the progressive development of international law and its codification
(Article 13).

Over the years, more than 500 multilateral treaties have been deposited with the Secretary-
General of the United Nations. Many other treaties are deposited with governments or other
entities. The treaties cover a broad range of subject matters such as human rights, disarmament
and protection of the environment.

General Assembly as a forum for adopting multilateral treaties

 The General Assembly is composed of representatives from each Member State of the United
Nations and is the main deliberative body on matters relating to international law. Many
multilateral treaties are in fact adopted by the General Assembly and subsequently opened for
signature and ratification. The Legal (Sixth) Committee assists the work of the General
Assembly by providing advice on substantive legal matters. The Committee is also made up of
representatives from all Member States of the United Nations.

The General Assembly has adopted a number of multilateral treaties throughout its history,
including:

• Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948)

• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965)
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966)
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979)
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (1996)
• International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999)
• International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (2005)
• Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006)
• United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or
Partly by Sea (2008)
• Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(2008)

In many areas, the legal work of the United Nations has been pioneering, addressing problems as
they take on an international dimension. The UN has been at the forefront of efforts to provide a
legal framework in such areas as protecting the environment, regulating migrant labour, curbing
drug trafficking and combating terrorism. This work continues today, as international law
assumes a more central role across a wider spectrum of issues, including human rights law and
international humanitarian law.
Read also about Law of the Sea.

Development and codification of international law

International Law Commission
The International Law Commission was established by the General Assembly in 1947 to
promote the progressive development of international law and its codification. The Commission
is composed of 34 members who collectively represent the worlds principal legal systems, and
serve as experts in their individual capacity, not as representatives of their governments. They
address a wide range of issues relevant to the regulation of relations among states, and frequently
 consult with the International Committee of the Red Cross, the International Court of Justice and
UN specialized agencies, depending on the subject being examined. Most of the Commission’s
work involves the preparation of drafts on aspects of international law.

Some topics are chosen by the Commission, others are referred to it by the General Assembly.
When the Commission completes work on a topic, the General Assembly sometimes convenes
an international conference of plenipotentiaries to incorporate the draft into a convention. The
convention is then opened to states to become parties—meaning that such countries formally
agree to be bound by its provisions. Some of these conventions form the very foundation of the
law governing relations among states. Examples include:

• the Convention on the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses, adopted by the

General Assembly in 1997, which regulates the equitable and reasonable utilization of
watercourses shared by two or more countries;
• the Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or
between International Organizations, adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1986;
• the Convention on the Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts,
adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1983;
• the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected
Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, adopted by the General Assembly in 1973;

International humanitarian law

International humanitarian law encompasses the principles and rules that regulate the means and
methods of warfare, as well as the humanitarian protection of civilian populations, sick and
wounded combatants, and prisoners of war. Major instruments include the 1949 Geneva
Conventions for the Protection of War Victims and two additional protocols concluded in 1977
under the auspices of the International Committee of the Red Cross.

The United Nations has taken a leading role in efforts to advance international humanitarian law.
The Security Council has become increasingly involved in protecting civilians in armed conflict,
promoting human rights and protecting children in wars.

Judicial settlement of disputes

International Court of Justice
The primary United Nations organ for the settlement of disputes is the International Court of
Justice. Also known as the World Court, it was founded in 1946. Since its founding, the Court
has considered over 170 cases, issued numerous judgments on disputes brought to it by states
and issued advisory opinions in response to requests by UN organizations. Most cases have been
dealt with by the full Court, but since 1981 six cases have been referred to special chambers at
the request of the parties.
In its judgments, the Court has addressed international disputes involving economic rights, rights
of passage, the non-use of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of states, diplomatic
relations, hostage-taking, the right of asylum and nationality. States bring such disputes before
the Court in search of an impartial solution to their differences on the basis of law. By achieving
peaceful settlement on such questions as land frontiers, maritime boundaries and territorial
sovereignty, the Court has often helped to prevent the escalation of disputes.

International Criminal Justice

The international community has had long aspired to create a permanent international court to try
the most serious international crimes, and, in the 20th century, it reached consensus on
definitions of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.

Tribunals
After the Second World War the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials addressed war crimes, crimes
against peace, and crimes against humanity committed during the Second World War.

The ad hoc tribunals and United Nations-assisted tribunals have continued to contribute to
combating impunity and promoting accountability for the most serious crimes. In the 1990s,
after the end of the Cold War, the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia
(ICTY) and for Rwanda (ICTR) were established to try crimes committed within a specific time-
frame and during a specific conflict. This applies, as well, to three courts established by the
states concerned, but with substantial UN support: the Special Court for Sierra Leone (2002),
the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2006) and the Special Tribunal for
Lebanon (2007). Sometimes referred to as ‘hybrid’ courts, they are non-permanent institutions
which will cease to exist once all their cases have been heard.

The International Criminal Court

The idea of a permanent international court to prosecute crimes against humanity was first
considered at the United Nations in the context of the adoption of the Genocide Convention of
1948. For many years, differences of opinions forestalled further developments. In 1992, the
General Assembly directed the International Law Commission to prepare a draft statute for such
a court. The massacres in Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda made the need for it
even more urgent.

The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction to prosecute individuals who commit
genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. It will also have jurisdiction over the crime
of aggression when agreement is reached on the definition of such a crime. The ICC is legally
and functionally independent from the United Nations, and is not a part of the UN system.

The cooperation between the UN and the ICC is governed by a Negotiated Relationship
Agreement. The Security Council can initiate proceedings before the ICC, and can refer to the
ICC situations that would not otherwise fall under the Court’s jurisdiction. The Court has 18
judges, elected by the states parties for a term limited to nine years, except that a judge shall
remain in office to complete any trial or appeal which has already begun. No two judges can be
from the same country.

What is International Relations?

Our richly connected, complex world demands professionals skilled in international relations, an
exciting field of study that presents a globally oriented perspective on issues that transcend
national boundaries.
The study and practice of international relations is interdisciplinary in nature, blending the fields
of economics, history, and political science to examine topics such as human rights, global
poverty, the environment, economics, globalization, security, global ethics, and the political
environment.
SPONSORED
Featured Program
* The online master's programs from American University's School of International
Service allow professionals to build international and business expertise in 12–24 months.
GRE/GMAT scores not required.

* Fletcher's online Master of Global Business Administration from Tufts University prepares
students to apply advanced business strategy in a global context. Complete in as few as 16
months. No GRE/GMAT required.

* Designed by both Kogod and the top-ranked School of International Service, the MS in
International Relations and Business at American University will help you develop a global
business mindset in as few as 18 months.No GRE/GMAT required.

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in International Relations Program - Online

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in Diplomacy - Online

Exceptional economic integration, unprecedented threats to peace and security, and an
international focus on human rights and environmental protection all speak to the complexity of
international relations in the twenty-first century. This means the study of international relations
must focus on interdisciplinary research that addresses, anticipates, and ultimately solves public
policy problems.
International relations (often referred to international affairs) has a broad purpose in
contemporary society, as it seeks to understand:

• The origins of war and the maintenance of peace

• The nature and exercise of power within the global system
• The changing character of state and non-state actors who participate in international
decision-making
For example, some institutions may study the psychological and social-psychological reasoning
behind the actions of foreign policymakers, while others may focus their international studies on
the institutional processes that contribute to the goals and behaviors of states. Ultimately, the
area of international relations studied depends on the goals or objectives of the organization.

The Value of International Relations in a

Globalized Society
Although international relations has taken on a new significance because of our increasingly
interconnected world, it is certainly not a new concept. Historically, the establishment of treaties
between nations served as the earliest form of international relations.
The study and practice of international relations in today’s world is valuable for many reasons:

• International relations promotes successful trade policies between nations.

• International relations encourages travel related to business, tourism, and immigration,
providing people with opportunities to enhance their lives.
• International relations allows nations to cooperate with one another, pool resources, and
share information as a way to face global issues that go beyond any particular country or
region. Contemporary global issues include pandemics, terrorism, and the environment.
• International relations advances human culture through cultural exchanges, diplomacy
and policy development.

The practice of international relations is valuable in a wide array of settings. Some examples
inlcude:

• Humanitarian organizations
o Action Against Hunger
o Oxfam International
o World Food Programme
• Government agencies
o Department of State
o Department of Homeland Security
o Department of Commerce
• International corporations
o General Electric
o BP
o Exxon Mobile
o Toyota
o Nestle
o Siemens
• Media outlets
o BBC
o Washington Post
o The Guardian
 o Der Spiegal
o New York Times
o Forbes
o Wall Street Journal
• Intergovernmental organizations
o World Trade Organization
o United Nations
o NATO
• International communications
o Amnesty International
o Freedom House
o Human Rights Watch
o Reporters Without Borders
• Research centers/Think tanks
o Brookings Institution
o Center for International Policy
o Council on Foreign Relations
o Global Public Policy Institute

The Theories and Principles of International

Relations
International relations may be an offshoot of political science, but this field of study is
exceptionally in-depth in its own right. As our global society evolves and expands, international
relations will evolve and expand along with it as we continue to explore new and exciting way to
link our complex world.
For example, traditional dimensions of international relations related to international peace and
prosperity include topics such as international diplomacy, arms control, and alliance politics.
Contemporary studies in international relations, on other hand, include topics such as
international political economics, environmental politics, refugee and migration issues, and
human rights.
Examining the Levels of State Behavior
Professionals studying international relations often determine the level at which they will analyze
a state’s behavior:

• System Level Analysis: System level analysis looks at the international system; more
specifically, how the international system affects the behavior of nation states, with the
key variable being that the international system includes the power of each state rather
than being independent of them.
• State Level Analysis: State level analysis examines how a state’s characteristics
determine its foreign policy behavior. This type of analysis often views states as having
cultural characteristics based on their religious or social traditions, and their historical
legacy, and includes an analysis of economic and geographic factors.
 • Organizational Level Analysis: Organizational level analysis examines how
organizations within a state influence the state’s foreign policy behavior. In other words,
organizational level analysis views that organizations—not states—make the decisions
that create a state’s foreign policy.
• Individual Level Analysis: Individual level analysis views the leaders of states as being
the largest influencers of foreign policy.

Examining the Theories of International Relations

The study of international relations involves theoretical approaches based on solid evidence.
Theories of international relations are essentially a set of ideas aimed at explaining how the
international system works.
The two, major theories of international relations are realism and liberalism:
Realism
Realism focuses on the notion that states work to increase their own power relative to other
states. The theory of realism states that the only certainty in the world is power; therefore, a
powerful state—via military power (the most important and reliable form of power)—will
always be able to outlast its weaker competitors. Self-preservation is a major theme in realism, as
states must always seek power to protect themselves.
In realism, the international system drives states to use military force. Although leaders may be
moral, they must not let morality guide their foreign policy. Furthermore, realism recognizes that
international organizations and law have no power and force, and that their existence relies
solely on being recognized and accepted by select states.
Liberalism (Idealism)
Liberalism recognizes that states share broad ties, thus making it difficult to define singular
independent national interests. The theory of liberalism in international relations therefore
involves the decreased use of military power. The theory of realism began to take shape in the
1970s as increasing globalization, communications technology, and international trade made
some scholars argue that realism was outdated.
Liberal approaches to the study of international relations, also referred to as theories of complex
interdependence, claim that the consequences of military power outweigh the benefits and that
international cooperation is in the interest of every state. It also claims that exercising economic
power over military power has proven more effective.
Although the liberal theory of international relations was dominant following World War I while
President Woodrow Wilson promoted the League of Nations and many treaties abolishing war,
realism came back into prominence in the Second World War and continued throughout the Cold
War.

What is IR?
International Relations is concerned with relations across boundaries of nation-states. It
addresses international political economy, global governance, intercultural relations,
national and ethnic identities, foreign policy analysis, development studies, environment,
international security, diplomacy, terrorism, media, social movements and more. It is a
multidisciplinary field that does not restrict students to one approach and employs a variety
of methods including discourse analysis, statistics and comparative and historical analysis.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IS AN INCREASINGLY RELEVANT FIELD OF

STUDY
International Relations is becoming increasingly relevant as the world grows more and more
interconnected through trade and commerce, migration, the internet and through social
media, and concerns about pressing global environmental problems.

A globalized world calls for academics and professionals trained to comprehend these
complex interactions - promoting understanding and crafting policy and business solutions
to meet the challenges of today and the future. International Relations offers a
comprehensive and adaptable toolkit particularly well suited to employment in a rapidly
changing world.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AT SF STATE

The Department of International Relations in the College of Liberal & Creative Arts explores
the interrelations of the world’s primary political institutions, nation-states. As the world is
changing, so is the field of International Relations. Increasingly, International Relations at
SF State also focuses on multinational corporations, international governmental and non-
governmental organizations and social movements. Our curriculum is under constant review
to reflect these global and regional trends.

Our students study specific countries and geographic regions and their interconnections
through political treaties, trade, migration, cultural and ethnic affinities, shared social,
economic, and ideological goals, hierarchies of power and wealth and other factors. We
train students in different theoretical approaches and empower them to make their own
methodological choices.

Studying IR at SF State is a step out into the world

Whether you are looking to start or develop your professional career, enter academia, or
simply gain understanding of a globalized world – International Relations at San Francisco
State will provide you with a solid platform of critical knowledge and skills. We offer a wide
selection of courses, taught by a diverse faculty with expertise in the most pressing issues
and dynamic world regions today.

Our alumni can be found across the world in non-profit, private and government positions.
These include the U.S. Department of State and other countries’ foreign ministries, the City
of San Francisco and other local governments, U.S. intelligence agencies, non-profit
organizations in the areas of international development, human rights, international labor,
environment, and international migration as well in business. A significant number of our
graduate students also pursue further professional or doctoral studies at high-ranking
academic institutions around the world.

nternational Law and Justice

UN Photo/Rick Bajornas
Lady Justice, Hamburg City Hall, Germany

Among the greatest achievements of the United Nations is the development of a body of
international law—conventions, treaties and standards—central to promoting economic and
social development, as well as to advancing international peace and security. Many of the treaties
brought about by the United Nations form the basis of the law that governs relations among
nations. While the work of the UN in this area does not always receive attention, it has a daily
impact on the lives of people everywhere.

The Charter of the United Nations specifically calls on the Organization to help in the settlement
of international disputes by peaceful means, including arbitration and judicial settlement (Article
33), and to encourage the progressive development of international law and its codification
(Article 13).

Over the years, more than 500 multilateral treaties have been deposited with the Secretary-
General of the United Nations. Many other treaties are deposited with governments or other
entities. The treaties cover a broad range of subject matters such as human rights, disarmament
and protection of the environment.

General Assembly as a forum for adopting multilateral treaties

 The General Assembly is composed of representatives from each Member State of the United
Nations and is the main deliberative body on matters relating to international law. Many
multilateral treaties are in fact adopted by the General Assembly and subsequently opened for
signature and ratification. The Legal (Sixth) Committee assists the work of the General
Assembly by providing advice on substantive legal matters. The Committee is also made up of
representatives from all Member States of the United Nations.

The General Assembly has adopted a number of multilateral treaties throughout its history,
including:

• Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948)

• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965)
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966)
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979)
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (1996)
• International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999)
• International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (2005)
• Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006)
• United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or
Partly by Sea (2008)
• Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(2008)

In many areas, the legal work of the United Nations has been pioneering, addressing problems as
they take on an international dimension. The UN has been at the forefront of efforts to provide a
legal framework in such areas as protecting the environment, regulating migrant labour, curbing
drug trafficking and combating terrorism. This work continues today, as international law
assumes a more central role across a wider spectrum of issues, including human rights law and
international humanitarian law.
Read also about Law of the Sea.

Development and codification of international law

International Law Commission
The International Law Commission was established by the General Assembly in 1947 to
promote the progressive development of international law and its codification. The Commission
is composed of 34 members who collectively represent the worlds principal legal systems, and
serve as experts in their individual capacity, not as representatives of their governments. They
address a wide range of issues relevant to the regulation of relations among states, and frequently
 consult with the International Committee of the Red Cross, the International Court of Justice and
UN specialized agencies, depending on the subject being examined. Most of the Commission’s
work involves the preparation of drafts on aspects of international law.

Some topics are chosen by the Commission, others are referred to it by the General Assembly.
When the Commission completes work on a topic, the General Assembly sometimes convenes
an international conference of plenipotentiaries to incorporate the draft into a convention. The
convention is then opened to states to become parties—meaning that such countries formally
agree to be bound by its provisions. Some of these conventions form the very foundation of the
law governing relations among states. Examples include:

• the Convention on the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses, adopted by the

General Assembly in 1997, which regulates the equitable and reasonable utilization of
watercourses shared by two or more countries;
• the Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or
between International Organizations, adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1986;
• the Convention on the Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts,
adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1983;
• the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected
Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, adopted by the General Assembly in 1973;

International humanitarian law

International humanitarian law encompasses the principles and rules that regulate the means and
methods of warfare, as well as the humanitarian protection of civilian populations, sick and
wounded combatants, and prisoners of war. Major instruments include the 1949 Geneva
Conventions for the Protection of War Victims and two additional protocols concluded in 1977
under the auspices of the International Committee of the Red Cross.

The United Nations has taken a leading role in efforts to advance international humanitarian law.
The Security Council has become increasingly involved in protecting civilians in armed conflict,
promoting human rights and protecting children in wars.

Judicial settlement of disputes

International Court of Justice
The primary United Nations organ for the settlement of disputes is the International Court of
Justice. Also known as the World Court, it was founded in 1946. Since its founding, the Court
has considered over 170 cases, issued numerous judgments on disputes brought to it by states
and issued advisory opinions in response to requests by UN organizations. Most cases have been
dealt with by the full Court, but since 1981 six cases have been referred to special chambers at
the request of the parties.
In its judgments, the Court has addressed international disputes involving economic rights, rights
of passage, the non-use of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of states, diplomatic
relations, hostage-taking, the right of asylum and nationality. States bring such disputes before
the Court in search of an impartial solution to their differences on the basis of law. By achieving
peaceful settlement on such questions as land frontiers, maritime boundaries and territorial
sovereignty, the Court has often helped to prevent the escalation of disputes.

International Criminal Justice

The international community has had long aspired to create a permanent international court to try
the most serious international crimes, and, in the 20th century, it reached consensus on
definitions of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.

Tribunals
After the Second World War the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials addressed war crimes, crimes
against peace, and crimes against humanity committed during the Second World War.

The ad hoc tribunals and United Nations-assisted tribunals have continued to contribute to
combating impunity and promoting accountability for the most serious crimes. In the 1990s,
after the end of the Cold War, the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia
(ICTY) and for Rwanda (ICTR) were established to try crimes committed within a specific time-
frame and during a specific conflict. This applies, as well, to three courts established by the
states concerned, but with substantial UN support: the Special Court for Sierra Leone (2002),
the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2006) and the Special Tribunal for
Lebanon (2007). Sometimes referred to as ‘hybrid’ courts, they are non-permanent institutions
which will cease to exist once all their cases have been heard.

The International Criminal Court

The idea of a permanent international court to prosecute crimes against humanity was first
considered at the United Nations in the context of the adoption of the Genocide Convention of
1948. For many years, differences of opinions forestalled further developments. In 1992, the
General Assembly directed the International Law Commission to prepare a draft statute for such
a court. The massacres in Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda made the need for it
even more urgent.

The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction to prosecute individuals who commit
genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. It will also have jurisdiction over the crime
of aggression when agreement is reached on the definition of such a crime. The ICC is legally
and functionally independent from the United Nations, and is not a part of the UN system.

The cooperation between the UN and the ICC is governed by a Negotiated Relationship
Agreement. The Security Council can initiate proceedings before the ICC, and can refer to the
ICC situations that would not otherwise fall under the Court’s jurisdiction. The Court has 18
judges, elected by the states parties for a term limited to nine years, except that a judge shall
remain in office to complete any trial or appeal which has already begun. No two judges can be
from the same country.

What is International Relations?

Our richly connected, complex world demands professionals skilled in international relations, an
exciting field of study that presents a globally oriented perspective on issues that transcend
national boundaries.
The study and practice of international relations is interdisciplinary in nature, blending the fields
of economics, history, and political science to examine topics such as human rights, global
poverty, the environment, economics, globalization, security, global ethics, and the political
environment.
SPONSORED
Featured Program
* The online master's programs from American University's School of International
Service allow professionals to build international and business expertise in 12–24 months.
GRE/GMAT scores not required.

* Fletcher's online Master of Global Business Administration from Tufts University prepares
students to apply advanced business strategy in a global context. Complete in as few as 16
months. No GRE/GMAT required.

* Designed by both Kogod and the top-ranked School of International Service, the MS in
International Relations and Business at American University will help you develop a global
business mindset in as few as 18 months.No GRE/GMAT required.

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in International Relations Program - Online

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in Diplomacy - Online

Exceptional economic integration, unprecedented threats to peace and security, and an
international focus on human rights and environmental protection all speak to the complexity of
international relations in the twenty-first century. This means the study of international relations
must focus on interdisciplinary research that addresses, anticipates, and ultimately solves public
policy problems.
International relations (often referred to international affairs) has a broad purpose in
contemporary society, as it seeks to understand:

• The origins of war and the maintenance of peace

• The nature and exercise of power within the global system
• The changing character of state and non-state actors who participate in international
decision-making
For example, some institutions may study the psychological and social-psychological reasoning
behind the actions of foreign policymakers, while others may focus their international studies on
the institutional processes that contribute to the goals and behaviors of states. Ultimately, the
area of international relations studied depends on the goals or objectives of the organization.

The Value of International Relations in a

Globalized Society
Although international relations has taken on a new significance because of our increasingly
interconnected world, it is certainly not a new concept. Historically, the establishment of treaties
between nations served as the earliest form of international relations.
The study and practice of international relations in today’s world is valuable for many reasons:

• International relations promotes successful trade policies between nations.

• International relations encourages travel related to business, tourism, and immigration,
providing people with opportunities to enhance their lives.
• International relations allows nations to cooperate with one another, pool resources, and
share information as a way to face global issues that go beyond any particular country or
region. Contemporary global issues include pandemics, terrorism, and the environment.
• International relations advances human culture through cultural exchanges, diplomacy
and policy development.

The practice of international relations is valuable in a wide array of settings. Some examples
inlcude:

• Humanitarian organizations
o Action Against Hunger
o Oxfam International
o World Food Programme
• Government agencies
o Department of State
o Department of Homeland Security
o Department of Commerce
• International corporations
o General Electric
o BP
o Exxon Mobile
o Toyota
o Nestle
o Siemens
• Media outlets
o BBC
o Washington Post
o The Guardian
 o Der Spiegal
o New York Times
o Forbes
o Wall Street Journal
• Intergovernmental organizations
o World Trade Organization
o United Nations
o NATO
• International communications
o Amnesty International
o Freedom House
o Human Rights Watch
o Reporters Without Borders
• Research centers/Think tanks
o Brookings Institution
o Center for International Policy
o Council on Foreign Relations
o Global Public Policy Institute

The Theories and Principles of International

Relations
International relations may be an offshoot of political science, but this field of study is
exceptionally in-depth in its own right. As our global society evolves and expands, international
relations will evolve and expand along with it as we continue to explore new and exciting way to
link our complex world.
For example, traditional dimensions of international relations related to international peace and
prosperity include topics such as international diplomacy, arms control, and alliance politics.
Contemporary studies in international relations, on other hand, include topics such as
international political economics, environmental politics, refugee and migration issues, and
human rights.
Examining the Levels of State Behavior
Professionals studying international relations often determine the level at which they will analyze
a state’s behavior:

• System Level Analysis: System level analysis looks at the international system; more
specifically, how the international system affects the behavior of nation states, with the
key variable being that the international system includes the power of each state rather
than being independent of them.
• State Level Analysis: State level analysis examines how a state’s characteristics
determine its foreign policy behavior. This type of analysis often views states as having
cultural characteristics based on their religious or social traditions, and their historical
legacy, and includes an analysis of economic and geographic factors.
 • Organizational Level Analysis: Organizational level analysis examines how
organizations within a state influence the state’s foreign policy behavior. In other words,
organizational level analysis views that organizations—not states—make the decisions
that create a state’s foreign policy.
• Individual Level Analysis: Individual level analysis views the leaders of states as being
the largest influencers of foreign policy.

Examining the Theories of International Relations

The study of international relations involves theoretical approaches based on solid evidence.
Theories of international relations are essentially a set of ideas aimed at explaining how the
international system works.
The two, major theories of international relations are realism and liberalism:
Realism
Realism focuses on the notion that states work to increase their own power relative to other
states. The theory of realism states that the only certainty in the world is power; therefore, a
powerful state—via military power (the most important and reliable form of power)—will
always be able to outlast its weaker competitors. Self-preservation is a major theme in realism, as
states must always seek power to protect themselves.
In realism, the international system drives states to use military force. Although leaders may be
moral, they must not let morality guide their foreign policy. Furthermore, realism recognizes that
international organizations and law have no power and force, and that their existence relies
solely on being recognized and accepted by select states.
Liberalism (Idealism)
Liberalism recognizes that states share broad ties, thus making it difficult to define singular
independent national interests. The theory of liberalism in international relations therefore
involves the decreased use of military power. The theory of realism began to take shape in the
1970s as increasing globalization, communications technology, and international trade made
some scholars argue that realism was outdated.
Liberal approaches to the study of international relations, also referred to as theories of complex
interdependence, claim that the consequences of military power outweigh the benefits and that
international cooperation is in the interest of every state. It also claims that exercising economic
power over military power has proven more effective.
Although the liberal theory of international relations was dominant following World War I while
President Woodrow Wilson promoted the League of Nations and many treaties abolishing war,
realism came back into prominence in the Second World War and continued throughout the Cold
War.

What is IR?
International Relations is concerned with relations across boundaries of nation-states. It
addresses international political economy, global governance, intercultural relations,
national and ethnic identities, foreign policy analysis, development studies, environment,
international security, diplomacy, terrorism, media, social movements and more. It is a
multidisciplinary field that does not restrict students to one approach and employs a variety
of methods including discourse analysis, statistics and comparative and historical analysis.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IS AN INCREASINGLY RELEVANT FIELD OF

STUDY
International Relations is becoming increasingly relevant as the world grows more and more
interconnected through trade and commerce, migration, the internet and through social
media, and concerns about pressing global environmental problems.

A globalized world calls for academics and professionals trained to comprehend these
complex interactions - promoting understanding and crafting policy and business solutions
to meet the challenges of today and the future. International Relations offers a
comprehensive and adaptable toolkit particularly well suited to employment in a rapidly
changing world.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AT SF STATE

The Department of International Relations in the College of Liberal & Creative Arts explores
the interrelations of the world’s primary political institutions, nation-states. As the world is
changing, so is the field of International Relations. Increasingly, International Relations at
SF State also focuses on multinational corporations, international governmental and non-
governmental organizations and social movements. Our curriculum is under constant review
to reflect these global and regional trends.

Our students study specific countries and geographic regions and their interconnections
through political treaties, trade, migration, cultural and ethnic affinities, shared social,
economic, and ideological goals, hierarchies of power and wealth and other factors. We
train students in different theoretical approaches and empower them to make their own
methodological choices.

Studying IR at SF State is a step out into the world

Whether you are looking to start or develop your professional career, enter academia, or
simply gain understanding of a globalized world – International Relations at San Francisco
State will provide you with a solid platform of critical knowledge and skills. We offer a wide
selection of courses, taught by a diverse faculty with expertise in the most pressing issues
and dynamic world regions today.

Our alumni can be found across the world in non-profit, private and government positions.
These include the U.S. Department of State and other countries’ foreign ministries, the City
of San Francisco and other local governments, U.S. intelligence agencies, non-profit
organizations in the areas of international development, human rights, international labor,
environment, and international migration as well in business. A significant number of our
graduate students also pursue further professional or doctoral studies at high-ranking
academic institutions around the world.

nternational Law and Justice

UN Photo/Rick Bajornas
Lady Justice, Hamburg City Hall, Germany

Among the greatest achievements of the United Nations is the development of a body of
international law—conventions, treaties and standards—central to promoting economic and
social development, as well as to advancing international peace and security. Many of the treaties
brought about by the United Nations form the basis of the law that governs relations among
nations. While the work of the UN in this area does not always receive attention, it has a daily
impact on the lives of people everywhere.

The Charter of the United Nations specifically calls on the Organization to help in the settlement
of international disputes by peaceful means, including arbitration and judicial settlement (Article
33), and to encourage the progressive development of international law and its codification
(Article 13).

Over the years, more than 500 multilateral treaties have been deposited with the Secretary-
General of the United Nations. Many other treaties are deposited with governments or other
entities. The treaties cover a broad range of subject matters such as human rights, disarmament
and protection of the environment.

General Assembly as a forum for adopting multilateral treaties

 The General Assembly is composed of representatives from each Member State of the United
Nations and is the main deliberative body on matters relating to international law. Many
multilateral treaties are in fact adopted by the General Assembly and subsequently opened for
signature and ratification. The Legal (Sixth) Committee assists the work of the General
Assembly by providing advice on substantive legal matters. The Committee is also made up of
representatives from all Member States of the United Nations.

The General Assembly has adopted a number of multilateral treaties throughout its history,
including:

• Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948)

• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965)
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966)
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979)
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (1996)
• International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999)
• International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (2005)
• Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006)
• United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or
Partly by Sea (2008)
• Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(2008)

In many areas, the legal work of the United Nations has been pioneering, addressing problems as
they take on an international dimension. The UN has been at the forefront of efforts to provide a
legal framework in such areas as protecting the environment, regulating migrant labour, curbing
drug trafficking and combating terrorism. This work continues today, as international law
assumes a more central role across a wider spectrum of issues, including human rights law and
international humanitarian law.
Read also about Law of the Sea.

Development and codification of international law

International Law Commission
The International Law Commission was established by the General Assembly in 1947 to
promote the progressive development of international law and its codification. The Commission
is composed of 34 members who collectively represent the worlds principal legal systems, and
serve as experts in their individual capacity, not as representatives of their governments. They
address a wide range of issues relevant to the regulation of relations among states, and frequently
 consult with the International Committee of the Red Cross, the International Court of Justice and
UN specialized agencies, depending on the subject being examined. Most of the Commission’s
work involves the preparation of drafts on aspects of international law.

Some topics are chosen by the Commission, others are referred to it by the General Assembly.
When the Commission completes work on a topic, the General Assembly sometimes convenes
an international conference of plenipotentiaries to incorporate the draft into a convention. The
convention is then opened to states to become parties—meaning that such countries formally
agree to be bound by its provisions. Some of these conventions form the very foundation of the
law governing relations among states. Examples include:

• the Convention on the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses, adopted by the

General Assembly in 1997, which regulates the equitable and reasonable utilization of
watercourses shared by two or more countries;
• the Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or
between International Organizations, adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1986;
• the Convention on the Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts,
adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1983;
• the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected
Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, adopted by the General Assembly in 1973;

International humanitarian law

International humanitarian law encompasses the principles and rules that regulate the means and
methods of warfare, as well as the humanitarian protection of civilian populations, sick and
wounded combatants, and prisoners of war. Major instruments include the 1949 Geneva
Conventions for the Protection of War Victims and two additional protocols concluded in 1977
under the auspices of the International Committee of the Red Cross.

The United Nations has taken a leading role in efforts to advance international humanitarian law.
The Security Council has become increasingly involved in protecting civilians in armed conflict,
promoting human rights and protecting children in wars.

Judicial settlement of disputes

International Court of Justice
The primary United Nations organ for the settlement of disputes is the International Court of
Justice. Also known as the World Court, it was founded in 1946. Since its founding, the Court
has considered over 170 cases, issued numerous judgments on disputes brought to it by states
and issued advisory opinions in response to requests by UN organizations. Most cases have been
dealt with by the full Court, but since 1981 six cases have been referred to special chambers at
the request of the parties.
In its judgments, the Court has addressed international disputes involving economic rights, rights
of passage, the non-use of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of states, diplomatic
relations, hostage-taking, the right of asylum and nationality. States bring such disputes before
the Court in search of an impartial solution to their differences on the basis of law. By achieving
peaceful settlement on such questions as land frontiers, maritime boundaries and territorial
sovereignty, the Court has often helped to prevent the escalation of disputes.

International Criminal Justice

The international community has had long aspired to create a permanent international court to try
the most serious international crimes, and, in the 20th century, it reached consensus on
definitions of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.

Tribunals
After the Second World War the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials addressed war crimes, crimes
against peace, and crimes against humanity committed during the Second World War.

The ad hoc tribunals and United Nations-assisted tribunals have continued to contribute to
combating impunity and promoting accountability for the most serious crimes. In the 1990s,
after the end of the Cold War, the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia
(ICTY) and for Rwanda (ICTR) were established to try crimes committed within a specific time-
frame and during a specific conflict. This applies, as well, to three courts established by the
states concerned, but with substantial UN support: the Special Court for Sierra Leone (2002),
the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2006) and the Special Tribunal for
Lebanon (2007). Sometimes referred to as ‘hybrid’ courts, they are non-permanent institutions
which will cease to exist once all their cases have been heard.

The International Criminal Court

The idea of a permanent international court to prosecute crimes against humanity was first
considered at the United Nations in the context of the adoption of the Genocide Convention of
1948. For many years, differences of opinions forestalled further developments. In 1992, the
General Assembly directed the International Law Commission to prepare a draft statute for such
a court. The massacres in Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda made the need for it
even more urgent.

The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction to prosecute individuals who commit
genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. It will also have jurisdiction over the crime
of aggression when agreement is reached on the definition of such a crime. The ICC is legally
and functionally independent from the United Nations, and is not a part of the UN system.

The cooperation between the UN and the ICC is governed by a Negotiated Relationship
Agreement. The Security Council can initiate proceedings before the ICC, and can refer to the
ICC situations that would not otherwise fall under the Court’s jurisdiction. The Court has 18
judges, elected by the states parties for a term limited to nine years, except that a judge shall
remain in office to complete any trial or appeal which has already begun. No two judges can be
from the same country.

What is International Relations?

Our richly connected, complex world demands professionals skilled in international relations, an
exciting field of study that presents a globally oriented perspective on issues that transcend
national boundaries.
The study and practice of international relations is interdisciplinary in nature, blending the fields
of economics, history, and political science to examine topics such as human rights, global
poverty, the environment, economics, globalization, security, global ethics, and the political
environment.
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Exceptional economic integration, unprecedented threats to peace and security, and an
international focus on human rights and environmental protection all speak to the complexity of
international relations in the twenty-first century. This means the study of international relations
must focus on interdisciplinary research that addresses, anticipates, and ultimately solves public
policy problems.
International relations (often referred to international affairs) has a broad purpose in
contemporary society, as it seeks to understand:

• The origins of war and the maintenance of peace

• The nature and exercise of power within the global system
• The changing character of state and non-state actors who participate in international
decision-making
For example, some institutions may study the psychological and social-psychological reasoning
behind the actions of foreign policymakers, while others may focus their international studies on
the institutional processes that contribute to the goals and behaviors of states. Ultimately, the
area of international relations studied depends on the goals or objectives of the organization.

The Value of International Relations in a

Globalized Society
Although international relations has taken on a new significance because of our increasingly
interconnected world, it is certainly not a new concept. Historically, the establishment of treaties
between nations served as the earliest form of international relations.
The study and practice of international relations in today’s world is valuable for many reasons:

• International relations promotes successful trade policies between nations.

• International relations encourages travel related to business, tourism, and immigration,
providing people with opportunities to enhance their lives.
• International relations allows nations to cooperate with one another, pool resources, and
share information as a way to face global issues that go beyond any particular country or
region. Contemporary global issues include pandemics, terrorism, and the environment.
• International relations advances human culture through cultural exchanges, diplomacy
and policy development.

The practice of international relations is valuable in a wide array of settings. Some examples
inlcude:

• Humanitarian organizations
o Action Against Hunger
o Oxfam International
o World Food Programme
• Government agencies
o Department of State
o Department of Homeland Security
o Department of Commerce
• International corporations
o General Electric
o BP
o Exxon Mobile
o Toyota
o Nestle
o Siemens
• Media outlets
o BBC
o Washington Post
o The Guardian
 o Der Spiegal
o New York Times
o Forbes
o Wall Street Journal
• Intergovernmental organizations
o World Trade Organization
o United Nations
o NATO
• International communications
o Amnesty International
o Freedom House
o Human Rights Watch
o Reporters Without Borders
• Research centers/Think tanks
o Brookings Institution
o Center for International Policy
o Council on Foreign Relations
o Global Public Policy Institute

The Theories and Principles of International

Relations
International relations may be an offshoot of political science, but this field of study is
exceptionally in-depth in its own right. As our global society evolves and expands, international
relations will evolve and expand along with it as we continue to explore new and exciting way to
link our complex world.
For example, traditional dimensions of international relations related to international peace and
prosperity include topics such as international diplomacy, arms control, and alliance politics.
Contemporary studies in international relations, on other hand, include topics such as
international political economics, environmental politics, refugee and migration issues, and
human rights.
Examining the Levels of State Behavior
Professionals studying international relations often determine the level at which they will analyze
a state’s behavior:

• System Level Analysis: System level analysis looks at the international system; more
specifically, how the international system affects the behavior of nation states, with the
key variable being that the international system includes the power of each state rather
than being independent of them.
• State Level Analysis: State level analysis examines how a state’s characteristics
determine its foreign policy behavior. This type of analysis often views states as having
cultural characteristics based on their religious or social traditions, and their historical
legacy, and includes an analysis of economic and geographic factors.
 • Organizational Level Analysis: Organizational level analysis examines how
organizations within a state influence the state’s foreign policy behavior. In other words,
organizational level analysis views that organizations—not states—make the decisions
that create a state’s foreign policy.
• Individual Level Analysis: Individual level analysis views the leaders of states as being
the largest influencers of foreign policy.

Examining the Theories of International Relations

The study of international relations involves theoretical approaches based on solid evidence.
Theories of international relations are essentially a set of ideas aimed at explaining how the
international system works.
The two, major theories of international relations are realism and liberalism:
Realism
Realism focuses on the notion that states work to increase their own power relative to other
states. The theory of realism states that the only certainty in the world is power; therefore, a
powerful state—via military power (the most important and reliable form of power)—will
always be able to outlast its weaker competitors. Self-preservation is a major theme in realism, as
states must always seek power to protect themselves.
In realism, the international system drives states to use military force. Although leaders may be
moral, they must not let morality guide their foreign policy. Furthermore, realism recognizes that
international organizations and law have no power and force, and that their existence relies
solely on being recognized and accepted by select states.
Liberalism (Idealism)
Liberalism recognizes that states share broad ties, thus making it difficult to define singular
independent national interests. The theory of liberalism in international relations therefore
involves the decreased use of military power. The theory of realism began to take shape in the
1970s as increasing globalization, communications technology, and international trade made
some scholars argue that realism was outdated.
Liberal approaches to the study of international relations, also referred to as theories of complex
interdependence, claim that the consequences of military power outweigh the benefits and that
international cooperation is in the interest of every state. It also claims that exercising economic
power over military power has proven more effective.
Although the liberal theory of international relations was dominant following World War I while
President Woodrow Wilson promoted the League of Nations and many treaties abolishing war,
realism came back into prominence in the Second World War and continued throughout the Cold
War.

What is IR?
International Relations is concerned with relations across boundaries of nation-states. It
addresses international political economy, global governance, intercultural relations,
national and ethnic identities, foreign policy analysis, development studies, environment,
international security, diplomacy, terrorism, media, social movements and more. It is a
multidisciplinary field that does not restrict students to one approach and employs a variety
of methods including discourse analysis, statistics and comparative and historical analysis.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IS AN INCREASINGLY RELEVANT FIELD OF

STUDY
International Relations is becoming increasingly relevant as the world grows more and more
interconnected through trade and commerce, migration, the internet and through social
media, and concerns about pressing global environmental problems.

A globalized world calls for academics and professionals trained to comprehend these
complex interactions - promoting understanding and crafting policy and business solutions
to meet the challenges of today and the future. International Relations offers a
comprehensive and adaptable toolkit particularly well suited to employment in a rapidly
changing world.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AT SF STATE

The Department of International Relations in the College of Liberal & Creative Arts explores
the interrelations of the world’s primary political institutions, nation-states. As the world is
changing, so is the field of International Relations. Increasingly, International Relations at
SF State also focuses on multinational corporations, international governmental and non-
governmental organizations and social movements. Our curriculum is under constant review
to reflect these global and regional trends.

Our students study specific countries and geographic regions and their interconnections
through political treaties, trade, migration, cultural and ethnic affinities, shared social,
economic, and ideological goals, hierarchies of power and wealth and other factors. We
train students in different theoretical approaches and empower them to make their own
methodological choices.

Studying IR at SF State is a step out into the world

Whether you are looking to start or develop your professional career, enter academia, or
simply gain understanding of a globalized world – International Relations at San Francisco
State will provide you with a solid platform of critical knowledge and skills. We offer a wide
selection of courses, taught by a diverse faculty with expertise in the most pressing issues
and dynamic world regions today.

Our alumni can be found across the world in non-profit, private and government positions.
These include the U.S. Department of State and other countries’ foreign ministries, the City
of San Francisco and other local governments, U.S. intelligence agencies, non-profit
organizations in the areas of international development, human rights, international labor,
environment, and international migration as well in business. A significant number of our
graduate students also pursue further professional or doctoral studies at high-ranking
academic institutions around the world.

nternational Law and Justice

UN Photo/Rick Bajornas
Lady Justice, Hamburg City Hall, Germany

Among the greatest achievements of the United Nations is the development of a body of
international law—conventions, treaties and standards—central to promoting economic and
social development, as well as to advancing international peace and security. Many of the treaties
brought about by the United Nations form the basis of the law that governs relations among
nations. While the work of the UN in this area does not always receive attention, it has a daily
impact on the lives of people everywhere.

The Charter of the United Nations specifically calls on the Organization to help in the settlement
of international disputes by peaceful means, including arbitration and judicial settlement (Article
33), and to encourage the progressive development of international law and its codification
(Article 13).

Over the years, more than 500 multilateral treaties have been deposited with the Secretary-
General of the United Nations. Many other treaties are deposited with governments or other
entities. The treaties cover a broad range of subject matters such as human rights, disarmament
and protection of the environment.

General Assembly as a forum for adopting multilateral treaties

 The General Assembly is composed of representatives from each Member State of the United
Nations and is the main deliberative body on matters relating to international law. Many
multilateral treaties are in fact adopted by the General Assembly and subsequently opened for
signature and ratification. The Legal (Sixth) Committee assists the work of the General
Assembly by providing advice on substantive legal matters. The Committee is also made up of
representatives from all Member States of the United Nations.

The General Assembly has adopted a number of multilateral treaties throughout its history,
including:

• Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948)

• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965)
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966)
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979)
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (1996)
• International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999)
• International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (2005)
• Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006)
• United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or
Partly by Sea (2008)
• Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(2008)

In many areas, the legal work of the United Nations has been pioneering, addressing problems as
they take on an international dimension. The UN has been at the forefront of efforts to provide a
legal framework in such areas as protecting the environment, regulating migrant labour, curbing
drug trafficking and combating terrorism. This work continues today, as international law
assumes a more central role across a wider spectrum of issues, including human rights law and
international humanitarian law.
Read also about Law of the Sea.

Development and codification of international law

International Law Commission
The International Law Commission was established by the General Assembly in 1947 to
promote the progressive development of international law and its codification. The Commission
is composed of 34 members who collectively represent the worlds principal legal systems, and
serve as experts in their individual capacity, not as representatives of their governments. They
address a wide range of issues relevant to the regulation of relations among states, and frequently
 consult with the International Committee of the Red Cross, the International Court of Justice and
UN specialized agencies, depending on the subject being examined. Most of the Commission’s
work involves the preparation of drafts on aspects of international law.

Some topics are chosen by the Commission, others are referred to it by the General Assembly.
When the Commission completes work on a topic, the General Assembly sometimes convenes
an international conference of plenipotentiaries to incorporate the draft into a convention. The
convention is then opened to states to become parties—meaning that such countries formally
agree to be bound by its provisions. Some of these conventions form the very foundation of the
law governing relations among states. Examples include:

• the Convention on the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses, adopted by the

General Assembly in 1997, which regulates the equitable and reasonable utilization of
watercourses shared by two or more countries;
• the Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or
between International Organizations, adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1986;
• the Convention on the Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts,
adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1983;
• the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected
Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, adopted by the General Assembly in 1973;

International humanitarian law

International humanitarian law encompasses the principles and rules that regulate the means and
methods of warfare, as well as the humanitarian protection of civilian populations, sick and
wounded combatants, and prisoners of war. Major instruments include the 1949 Geneva
Conventions for the Protection of War Victims and two additional protocols concluded in 1977
under the auspices of the International Committee of the Red Cross.

The United Nations has taken a leading role in efforts to advance international humanitarian law.
The Security Council has become increasingly involved in protecting civilians in armed conflict,
promoting human rights and protecting children in wars.

Judicial settlement of disputes

International Court of Justice
The primary United Nations organ for the settlement of disputes is the International Court of
Justice. Also known as the World Court, it was founded in 1946. Since its founding, the Court
has considered over 170 cases, issued numerous judgments on disputes brought to it by states
and issued advisory opinions in response to requests by UN organizations. Most cases have been
dealt with by the full Court, but since 1981 six cases have been referred to special chambers at
the request of the parties.
In its judgments, the Court has addressed international disputes involving economic rights, rights
of passage, the non-use of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of states, diplomatic
relations, hostage-taking, the right of asylum and nationality. States bring such disputes before
the Court in search of an impartial solution to their differences on the basis of law. By achieving
peaceful settlement on such questions as land frontiers, maritime boundaries and territorial
sovereignty, the Court has often helped to prevent the escalation of disputes.

International Criminal Justice

The international community has had long aspired to create a permanent international court to try
the most serious international crimes, and, in the 20th century, it reached consensus on
definitions of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.

Tribunals
After the Second World War the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials addressed war crimes, crimes
against peace, and crimes against humanity committed during the Second World War.

The ad hoc tribunals and United Nations-assisted tribunals have continued to contribute to
combating impunity and promoting accountability for the most serious crimes. In the 1990s,
after the end of the Cold War, the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia
(ICTY) and for Rwanda (ICTR) were established to try crimes committed within a specific time-
frame and during a specific conflict. This applies, as well, to three courts established by the
states concerned, but with substantial UN support: the Special Court for Sierra Leone (2002),
the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2006) and the Special Tribunal for
Lebanon (2007). Sometimes referred to as ‘hybrid’ courts, they are non-permanent institutions
which will cease to exist once all their cases have been heard.

The International Criminal Court

The idea of a permanent international court to prosecute crimes against humanity was first
considered at the United Nations in the context of the adoption of the Genocide Convention of
1948. For many years, differences of opinions forestalled further developments. In 1992, the
General Assembly directed the International Law Commission to prepare a draft statute for such
a court. The massacres in Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda made the need for it
even more urgent.

The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction to prosecute individuals who commit
genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. It will also have jurisdiction over the crime
of aggression when agreement is reached on the definition of such a crime. The ICC is legally
and functionally independent from the United Nations, and is not a part of the UN system.

The cooperation between the UN and the ICC is governed by a Negotiated Relationship
Agreement. The Security Council can initiate proceedings before the ICC, and can refer to the
ICC situations that would not otherwise fall under the Court’s jurisdiction. The Court has 18
judges, elected by the states parties for a term limited to nine years, except that a judge shall
remain in office to complete any trial or appeal which has already begun. No two judges can be
from the same country.

What is International Relations?

Our richly connected, complex world demands professionals skilled in international relations, an
exciting field of study that presents a globally oriented perspective on issues that transcend
national boundaries.
The study and practice of international relations is interdisciplinary in nature, blending the fields
of economics, history, and political science to examine topics such as human rights, global
poverty, the environment, economics, globalization, security, global ethics, and the political
environment.
SPONSORED
Featured Program
* The online master's programs from American University's School of International
Service allow professionals to build international and business expertise in 12–24 months.
GRE/GMAT scores not required.

* Fletcher's online Master of Global Business Administration from Tufts University prepares
students to apply advanced business strategy in a global context. Complete in as few as 16
months. No GRE/GMAT required.

* Designed by both Kogod and the top-ranked School of International Service, the MS in
International Relations and Business at American University will help you develop a global
business mindset in as few as 18 months.No GRE/GMAT required.

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in International Relations Program - Online

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in Diplomacy - Online

Exceptional economic integration, unprecedented threats to peace and security, and an
international focus on human rights and environmental protection all speak to the complexity of
international relations in the twenty-first century. This means the study of international relations
must focus on interdisciplinary research that addresses, anticipates, and ultimately solves public
policy problems.
International relations (often referred to international affairs) has a broad purpose in
contemporary society, as it seeks to understand:

• The origins of war and the maintenance of peace

• The nature and exercise of power within the global system
• The changing character of state and non-state actors who participate in international
decision-making
For example, some institutions may study the psychological and social-psychological reasoning
behind the actions of foreign policymakers, while others may focus their international studies on
the institutional processes that contribute to the goals and behaviors of states. Ultimately, the
area of international relations studied depends on the goals or objectives of the organization.

The Value of International Relations in a

Globalized Society
Although international relations has taken on a new significance because of our increasingly
interconnected world, it is certainly not a new concept. Historically, the establishment of treaties
between nations served as the earliest form of international relations.
The study and practice of international relations in today’s world is valuable for many reasons:

• International relations promotes successful trade policies between nations.

• International relations encourages travel related to business, tourism, and immigration,
providing people with opportunities to enhance their lives.
• International relations allows nations to cooperate with one another, pool resources, and
share information as a way to face global issues that go beyond any particular country or
region. Contemporary global issues include pandemics, terrorism, and the environment.
• International relations advances human culture through cultural exchanges, diplomacy
and policy development.

The practice of international relations is valuable in a wide array of settings. Some examples
inlcude:

• Humanitarian organizations
o Action Against Hunger
o Oxfam International
o World Food Programme
• Government agencies
o Department of State
o Department of Homeland Security
o Department of Commerce
• International corporations
o General Electric
o BP
o Exxon Mobile
o Toyota
o Nestle
o Siemens
• Media outlets
o BBC
o Washington Post
o The Guardian
 o Der Spiegal
o New York Times
o Forbes
o Wall Street Journal
• Intergovernmental organizations
o World Trade Organization
o United Nations
o NATO
• International communications
o Amnesty International
o Freedom House
o Human Rights Watch
o Reporters Without Borders
• Research centers/Think tanks
o Brookings Institution
o Center for International Policy
o Council on Foreign Relations
o Global Public Policy Institute

The Theories and Principles of International

Relations
International relations may be an offshoot of political science, but this field of study is
exceptionally in-depth in its own right. As our global society evolves and expands, international
relations will evolve and expand along with it as we continue to explore new and exciting way to
link our complex world.
For example, traditional dimensions of international relations related to international peace and
prosperity include topics such as international diplomacy, arms control, and alliance politics.
Contemporary studies in international relations, on other hand, include topics such as
international political economics, environmental politics, refugee and migration issues, and
human rights.
Examining the Levels of State Behavior
Professionals studying international relations often determine the level at which they will analyze
a state’s behavior:

• System Level Analysis: System level analysis looks at the international system; more
specifically, how the international system affects the behavior of nation states, with the
key variable being that the international system includes the power of each state rather
than being independent of them.
• State Level Analysis: State level analysis examines how a state’s characteristics
determine its foreign policy behavior. This type of analysis often views states as having
cultural characteristics based on their religious or social traditions, and their historical
legacy, and includes an analysis of economic and geographic factors.
 • Organizational Level Analysis: Organizational level analysis examines how
organizations within a state influence the state’s foreign policy behavior. In other words,
organizational level analysis views that organizations—not states—make the decisions
that create a state’s foreign policy.
• Individual Level Analysis: Individual level analysis views the leaders of states as being
the largest influencers of foreign policy.

Examining the Theories of International Relations

The study of international relations involves theoretical approaches based on solid evidence.
Theories of international relations are essentially a set of ideas aimed at explaining how the
international system works.
The two, major theories of international relations are realism and liberalism:
Realism
Realism focuses on the notion that states work to increase their own power relative to other
states. The theory of realism states that the only certainty in the world is power; therefore, a
powerful state—via military power (the most important and reliable form of power)—will
always be able to outlast its weaker competitors. Self-preservation is a major theme in realism, as
states must always seek power to protect themselves.
In realism, the international system drives states to use military force. Although leaders may be
moral, they must not let morality guide their foreign policy. Furthermore, realism recognizes that
international organizations and law have no power and force, and that their existence relies
solely on being recognized and accepted by select states.
Liberalism (Idealism)
Liberalism recognizes that states share broad ties, thus making it difficult to define singular
independent national interests. The theory of liberalism in international relations therefore
involves the decreased use of military power. The theory of realism began to take shape in the
1970s as increasing globalization, communications technology, and international trade made
some scholars argue that realism was outdated.
Liberal approaches to the study of international relations, also referred to as theories of complex
interdependence, claim that the consequences of military power outweigh the benefits and that
international cooperation is in the interest of every state. It also claims that exercising economic
power over military power has proven more effective.
Although the liberal theory of international relations was dominant following World War I while
President Woodrow Wilson promoted the League of Nations and many treaties abolishing war,
realism came back into prominence in the Second World War and continued throughout the Cold
War.

What is IR?
International Relations is concerned with relations across boundaries of nation-states. It
addresses international political economy, global governance, intercultural relations,
national and ethnic identities, foreign policy analysis, development studies, environment,
international security, diplomacy, terrorism, media, social movements and more. It is a
multidisciplinary field that does not restrict students to one approach and employs a variety
of methods including discourse analysis, statistics and comparative and historical analysis.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IS AN INCREASINGLY RELEVANT FIELD OF

STUDY
International Relations is becoming increasingly relevant as the world grows more and more
interconnected through trade and commerce, migration, the internet and through social
media, and concerns about pressing global environmental problems.

A globalized world calls for academics and professionals trained to comprehend these
complex interactions - promoting understanding and crafting policy and business solutions
to meet the challenges of today and the future. International Relations offers a
comprehensive and adaptable toolkit particularly well suited to employment in a rapidly
changing world.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AT SF STATE

The Department of International Relations in the College of Liberal & Creative Arts explores
the interrelations of the world’s primary political institutions, nation-states. As the world is
changing, so is the field of International Relations. Increasingly, International Relations at
SF State also focuses on multinational corporations, international governmental and non-
governmental organizations and social movements. Our curriculum is under constant review
to reflect these global and regional trends.

Our students study specific countries and geographic regions and their interconnections
through political treaties, trade, migration, cultural and ethnic affinities, shared social,
economic, and ideological goals, hierarchies of power and wealth and other factors. We
train students in different theoretical approaches and empower them to make their own
methodological choices.

Studying IR at SF State is a step out into the world

Whether you are looking to start or develop your professional career, enter academia, or
simply gain understanding of a globalized world – International Relations at San Francisco
State will provide you with a solid platform of critical knowledge and skills. We offer a wide
selection of courses, taught by a diverse faculty with expertise in the most pressing issues
and dynamic world regions today.

Our alumni can be found across the world in non-profit, private and government positions.
These include the U.S. Department of State and other countries’ foreign ministries, the City
of San Francisco and other local governments, U.S. intelligence agencies, non-profit
organizations in the areas of international development, human rights, international labor,
environment, and international migration as well in business. A significant number of our
graduate students also pursue further professional or doctoral studies at high-ranking
academic institutions around the world.

nternational Law and Justice

UN Photo/Rick Bajornas
Lady Justice, Hamburg City Hall, Germany

Among the greatest achievements of the United Nations is the development of a body of
international law—conventions, treaties and standards—central to promoting economic and
social development, as well as to advancing international peace and security. Many of the treaties
brought about by the United Nations form the basis of the law that governs relations among
nations. While the work of the UN in this area does not always receive attention, it has a daily
impact on the lives of people everywhere.

The Charter of the United Nations specifically calls on the Organization to help in the settlement
of international disputes by peaceful means, including arbitration and judicial settlement (Article
33), and to encourage the progressive development of international law and its codification
(Article 13).

Over the years, more than 500 multilateral treaties have been deposited with the Secretary-
General of the United Nations. Many other treaties are deposited with governments or other
entities. The treaties cover a broad range of subject matters such as human rights, disarmament
and protection of the environment.

General Assembly as a forum for adopting multilateral treaties

 The General Assembly is composed of representatives from each Member State of the United
Nations and is the main deliberative body on matters relating to international law. Many
multilateral treaties are in fact adopted by the General Assembly and subsequently opened for
signature and ratification. The Legal (Sixth) Committee assists the work of the General
Assembly by providing advice on substantive legal matters. The Committee is also made up of
representatives from all Member States of the United Nations.

The General Assembly has adopted a number of multilateral treaties throughout its history,
including:

• Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948)

• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965)
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966)
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979)
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (1996)
• International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999)
• International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (2005)
• Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006)
• United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or
Partly by Sea (2008)
• Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(2008)

In many areas, the legal work of the United Nations has been pioneering, addressing problems as
they take on an international dimension. The UN has been at the forefront of efforts to provide a
legal framework in such areas as protecting the environment, regulating migrant labour, curbing
drug trafficking and combating terrorism. This work continues today, as international law
assumes a more central role across a wider spectrum of issues, including human rights law and
international humanitarian law.
Read also about Law of the Sea.

Development and codification of international law

International Law Commission
The International Law Commission was established by the General Assembly in 1947 to
promote the progressive development of international law and its codification. The Commission
is composed of 34 members who collectively represent the worlds principal legal systems, and
serve as experts in their individual capacity, not as representatives of their governments. They
address a wide range of issues relevant to the regulation of relations among states, and frequently
 consult with the International Committee of the Red Cross, the International Court of Justice and
UN specialized agencies, depending on the subject being examined. Most of the Commission’s
work involves the preparation of drafts on aspects of international law.

Some topics are chosen by the Commission, others are referred to it by the General Assembly.
When the Commission completes work on a topic, the General Assembly sometimes convenes
an international conference of plenipotentiaries to incorporate the draft into a convention. The
convention is then opened to states to become parties—meaning that such countries formally
agree to be bound by its provisions. Some of these conventions form the very foundation of the
law governing relations among states. Examples include:

• the Convention on the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses, adopted by the

General Assembly in 1997, which regulates the equitable and reasonable utilization of
watercourses shared by two or more countries;
• the Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or
between International Organizations, adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1986;
• the Convention on the Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts,
adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1983;
• the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected
Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, adopted by the General Assembly in 1973;

International humanitarian law

International humanitarian law encompasses the principles and rules that regulate the means and
methods of warfare, as well as the humanitarian protection of civilian populations, sick and
wounded combatants, and prisoners of war. Major instruments include the 1949 Geneva
Conventions for the Protection of War Victims and two additional protocols concluded in 1977
under the auspices of the International Committee of the Red Cross.

The United Nations has taken a leading role in efforts to advance international humanitarian law.
The Security Council has become increasingly involved in protecting civilians in armed conflict,
promoting human rights and protecting children in wars.

Judicial settlement of disputes

International Court of Justice
The primary United Nations organ for the settlement of disputes is the International Court of
Justice. Also known as the World Court, it was founded in 1946. Since its founding, the Court
has considered over 170 cases, issued numerous judgments on disputes brought to it by states
and issued advisory opinions in response to requests by UN organizations. Most cases have been
dealt with by the full Court, but since 1981 six cases have been referred to special chambers at
the request of the parties.
In its judgments, the Court has addressed international disputes involving economic rights, rights
of passage, the non-use of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of states, diplomatic
relations, hostage-taking, the right of asylum and nationality. States bring such disputes before
the Court in search of an impartial solution to their differences on the basis of law. By achieving
peaceful settlement on such questions as land frontiers, maritime boundaries and territorial
sovereignty, the Court has often helped to prevent the escalation of disputes.

International Criminal Justice

The international community has had long aspired to create a permanent international court to try
the most serious international crimes, and, in the 20th century, it reached consensus on
definitions of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.

Tribunals
After the Second World War the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials addressed war crimes, crimes
against peace, and crimes against humanity committed during the Second World War.

The ad hoc tribunals and United Nations-assisted tribunals have continued to contribute to
combating impunity and promoting accountability for the most serious crimes. In the 1990s,
after the end of the Cold War, the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia
(ICTY) and for Rwanda (ICTR) were established to try crimes committed within a specific time-
frame and during a specific conflict. This applies, as well, to three courts established by the
states concerned, but with substantial UN support: the Special Court for Sierra Leone (2002),
the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2006) and the Special Tribunal for
Lebanon (2007). Sometimes referred to as ‘hybrid’ courts, they are non-permanent institutions
which will cease to exist once all their cases have been heard.

The International Criminal Court

The idea of a permanent international court to prosecute crimes against humanity was first
considered at the United Nations in the context of the adoption of the Genocide Convention of
1948. For many years, differences of opinions forestalled further developments. In 1992, the
General Assembly directed the International Law Commission to prepare a draft statute for such
a court. The massacres in Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda made the need for it
even more urgent.

The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction to prosecute individuals who commit
genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. It will also have jurisdiction over the crime
of aggression when agreement is reached on the definition of such a crime. The ICC is legally
and functionally independent from the United Nations, and is not a part of the UN system.

The cooperation between the UN and the ICC is governed by a Negotiated Relationship
Agreement. The Security Council can initiate proceedings before the ICC, and can refer to the
ICC situations that would not otherwise fall under the Court’s jurisdiction. The Court has 18
judges, elected by the states parties for a term limited to nine years, except that a judge shall
remain in office to complete any trial or appeal which has already begun. No two judges can be
from the same country.

What is International Relations?

Our richly connected, complex world demands professionals skilled in international relations, an
exciting field of study that presents a globally oriented perspective on issues that transcend
national boundaries.
The study and practice of international relations is interdisciplinary in nature, blending the fields
of economics, history, and political science to examine topics such as human rights, global
poverty, the environment, economics, globalization, security, global ethics, and the political
environment.
SPONSORED
Featured Program
* The online master's programs from American University's School of International
Service allow professionals to build international and business expertise in 12–24 months.
GRE/GMAT scores not required.

* Fletcher's online Master of Global Business Administration from Tufts University prepares
students to apply advanced business strategy in a global context. Complete in as few as 16
months. No GRE/GMAT required.

* Designed by both Kogod and the top-ranked School of International Service, the MS in
International Relations and Business at American University will help you develop a global
business mindset in as few as 18 months.No GRE/GMAT required.

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in International Relations Program - Online

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in Diplomacy - Online

Exceptional economic integration, unprecedented threats to peace and security, and an
international focus on human rights and environmental protection all speak to the complexity of
international relations in the twenty-first century. This means the study of international relations
must focus on interdisciplinary research that addresses, anticipates, and ultimately solves public
policy problems.
International relations (often referred to international affairs) has a broad purpose in
contemporary society, as it seeks to understand:

• The origins of war and the maintenance of peace

• The nature and exercise of power within the global system
• The changing character of state and non-state actors who participate in international
decision-making
For example, some institutions may study the psychological and social-psychological reasoning
behind the actions of foreign policymakers, while others may focus their international studies on
the institutional processes that contribute to the goals and behaviors of states. Ultimately, the
area of international relations studied depends on the goals or objectives of the organization.

The Value of International Relations in a

Globalized Society
Although international relations has taken on a new significance because of our increasingly
interconnected world, it is certainly not a new concept. Historically, the establishment of treaties
between nations served as the earliest form of international relations.
The study and practice of international relations in today’s world is valuable for many reasons:

• International relations promotes successful trade policies between nations.

• International relations encourages travel related to business, tourism, and immigration,
providing people with opportunities to enhance their lives.
• International relations allows nations to cooperate with one another, pool resources, and
share information as a way to face global issues that go beyond any particular country or
region. Contemporary global issues include pandemics, terrorism, and the environment.
• International relations advances human culture through cultural exchanges, diplomacy
and policy development.

The practice of international relations is valuable in a wide array of settings. Some examples
inlcude:

• Humanitarian organizations
o Action Against Hunger
o Oxfam International
o World Food Programme
• Government agencies
o Department of State
o Department of Homeland Security
o Department of Commerce
• International corporations
o General Electric
o BP
o Exxon Mobile
o Toyota
o Nestle
o Siemens
• Media outlets
o BBC
o Washington Post
o The Guardian
 o Der Spiegal
o New York Times
o Forbes
o Wall Street Journal
• Intergovernmental organizations
o World Trade Organization
o United Nations
o NATO
• International communications
o Amnesty International
o Freedom House
o Human Rights Watch
o Reporters Without Borders
• Research centers/Think tanks
o Brookings Institution
o Center for International Policy
o Council on Foreign Relations
o Global Public Policy Institute

The Theories and Principles of International

Relations
International relations may be an offshoot of political science, but this field of study is
exceptionally in-depth in its own right. As our global society evolves and expands, international
relations will evolve and expand along with it as we continue to explore new and exciting way to
link our complex world.
For example, traditional dimensions of international relations related to international peace and
prosperity include topics such as international diplomacy, arms control, and alliance politics.
Contemporary studies in international relations, on other hand, include topics such as
international political economics, environmental politics, refugee and migration issues, and
human rights.
Examining the Levels of State Behavior
Professionals studying international relations often determine the level at which they will analyze
a state’s behavior:

• System Level Analysis: System level analysis looks at the international system; more
specifically, how the international system affects the behavior of nation states, with the
key variable being that the international system includes the power of each state rather
than being independent of them.
• State Level Analysis: State level analysis examines how a state’s characteristics
determine its foreign policy behavior. This type of analysis often views states as having
cultural characteristics based on their religious or social traditions, and their historical
legacy, and includes an analysis of economic and geographic factors.
 • Organizational Level Analysis: Organizational level analysis examines how
organizations within a state influence the state’s foreign policy behavior. In other words,
organizational level analysis views that organizations—not states—make the decisions
that create a state’s foreign policy.
• Individual Level Analysis: Individual level analysis views the leaders of states as being
the largest influencers of foreign policy.

Examining the Theories of International Relations

The study of international relations involves theoretical approaches based on solid evidence.
Theories of international relations are essentially a set of ideas aimed at explaining how the
international system works.
The two, major theories of international relations are realism and liberalism:
Realism
Realism focuses on the notion that states work to increase their own power relative to other
states. The theory of realism states that the only certainty in the world is power; therefore, a
powerful state—via military power (the most important and reliable form of power)—will
always be able to outlast its weaker competitors. Self-preservation is a major theme in realism, as
states must always seek power to protect themselves.
In realism, the international system drives states to use military force. Although leaders may be
moral, they must not let morality guide their foreign policy. Furthermore, realism recognizes that
international organizations and law have no power and force, and that their existence relies
solely on being recognized and accepted by select states.
Liberalism (Idealism)
Liberalism recognizes that states share broad ties, thus making it difficult to define singular
independent national interests. The theory of liberalism in international relations therefore
involves the decreased use of military power. The theory of realism began to take shape in the
1970s as increasing globalization, communications technology, and international trade made
some scholars argue that realism was outdated.
Liberal approaches to the study of international relations, also referred to as theories of complex
interdependence, claim that the consequences of military power outweigh the benefits and that
international cooperation is in the interest of every state. It also claims that exercising economic
power over military power has proven more effective.
Although the liberal theory of international relations was dominant following World War I while
President Woodrow Wilson promoted the League of Nations and many treaties abolishing war,
realism came back into prominence in the Second World War and continued throughout the Cold
War.

What is IR?
International Relations is concerned with relations across boundaries of nation-states. It
addresses international political economy, global governance, intercultural relations,
national and ethnic identities, foreign policy analysis, development studies, environment,
international security, diplomacy, terrorism, media, social movements and more. It is a
multidisciplinary field that does not restrict students to one approach and employs a variety
of methods including discourse analysis, statistics and comparative and historical analysis.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IS AN INCREASINGLY RELEVANT FIELD OF

STUDY
International Relations is becoming increasingly relevant as the world grows more and more
interconnected through trade and commerce, migration, the internet and through social
media, and concerns about pressing global environmental problems.

A globalized world calls for academics and professionals trained to comprehend these
complex interactions - promoting understanding and crafting policy and business solutions
to meet the challenges of today and the future. International Relations offers a
comprehensive and adaptable toolkit particularly well suited to employment in a rapidly
changing world.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AT SF STATE

The Department of International Relations in the College of Liberal & Creative Arts explores
the interrelations of the world’s primary political institutions, nation-states. As the world is
changing, so is the field of International Relations. Increasingly, International Relations at
SF State also focuses on multinational corporations, international governmental and non-
governmental organizations and social movements. Our curriculum is under constant review
to reflect these global and regional trends.

Our students study specific countries and geographic regions and their interconnections
through political treaties, trade, migration, cultural and ethnic affinities, shared social,
economic, and ideological goals, hierarchies of power and wealth and other factors. We
train students in different theoretical approaches and empower them to make their own
methodological choices.

Studying IR at SF State is a step out into the world

Whether you are looking to start or develop your professional career, enter academia, or
simply gain understanding of a globalized world – International Relations at San Francisco
State will provide you with a solid platform of critical knowledge and skills. We offer a wide
selection of courses, taught by a diverse faculty with expertise in the most pressing issues
and dynamic world regions today.

Our alumni can be found across the world in non-profit, private and government positions.
These include the U.S. Department of State and other countries’ foreign ministries, the City
of San Francisco and other local governments, U.S. intelligence agencies, non-profit
organizations in the areas of international development, human rights, international labor,
environment, and international migration as well in business. A significant number of our
graduate students also pursue further professional or doctoral studies at high-ranking
academic institutions around the world.

nternational Law and Justice

UN Photo/Rick Bajornas
Lady Justice, Hamburg City Hall, Germany

Among the greatest achievements of the United Nations is the development of a body of
international law—conventions, treaties and standards—central to promoting economic and
social development, as well as to advancing international peace and security. Many of the treaties
brought about by the United Nations form the basis of the law that governs relations among
nations. While the work of the UN in this area does not always receive attention, it has a daily
impact on the lives of people everywhere.

The Charter of the United Nations specifically calls on the Organization to help in the settlement
of international disputes by peaceful means, including arbitration and judicial settlement (Article
33), and to encourage the progressive development of international law and its codification
(Article 13).

Over the years, more than 500 multilateral treaties have been deposited with the Secretary-
General of the United Nations. Many other treaties are deposited with governments or other
entities. The treaties cover a broad range of subject matters such as human rights, disarmament
and protection of the environment.

General Assembly as a forum for adopting multilateral treaties

 The General Assembly is composed of representatives from each Member State of the United
Nations and is the main deliberative body on matters relating to international law. Many
multilateral treaties are in fact adopted by the General Assembly and subsequently opened for
signature and ratification. The Legal (Sixth) Committee assists the work of the General
Assembly by providing advice on substantive legal matters. The Committee is also made up of
representatives from all Member States of the United Nations.

The General Assembly has adopted a number of multilateral treaties throughout its history,
including:

• Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948)

• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965)
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966)
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979)
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (1996)
• International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999)
• International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (2005)
• Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006)
• United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or
Partly by Sea (2008)
• Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(2008)

In many areas, the legal work of the United Nations has been pioneering, addressing problems as
they take on an international dimension. The UN has been at the forefront of efforts to provide a
legal framework in such areas as protecting the environment, regulating migrant labour, curbing
drug trafficking and combating terrorism. This work continues today, as international law
assumes a more central role across a wider spectrum of issues, including human rights law and
international humanitarian law.
Read also about Law of the Sea.

Development and codification of international law

International Law Commission
The International Law Commission was established by the General Assembly in 1947 to
promote the progressive development of international law and its codification. The Commission
is composed of 34 members who collectively represent the worlds principal legal systems, and
serve as experts in their individual capacity, not as representatives of their governments. They
address a wide range of issues relevant to the regulation of relations among states, and frequently
 consult with the International Committee of the Red Cross, the International Court of Justice and
UN specialized agencies, depending on the subject being examined. Most of the Commission’s
work involves the preparation of drafts on aspects of international law.

Some topics are chosen by the Commission, others are referred to it by the General Assembly.
When the Commission completes work on a topic, the General Assembly sometimes convenes
an international conference of plenipotentiaries to incorporate the draft into a convention. The
convention is then opened to states to become parties—meaning that such countries formally
agree to be bound by its provisions. Some of these conventions form the very foundation of the
law governing relations among states. Examples include:

• the Convention on the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses, adopted by the

General Assembly in 1997, which regulates the equitable and reasonable utilization of
watercourses shared by two or more countries;
• the Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or
between International Organizations, adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1986;
• the Convention on the Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts,
adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1983;
• the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected
Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, adopted by the General Assembly in 1973;

International humanitarian law

International humanitarian law encompasses the principles and rules that regulate the means and
methods of warfare, as well as the humanitarian protection of civilian populations, sick and
wounded combatants, and prisoners of war. Major instruments include the 1949 Geneva
Conventions for the Protection of War Victims and two additional protocols concluded in 1977
under the auspices of the International Committee of the Red Cross.

The United Nations has taken a leading role in efforts to advance international humanitarian law.
The Security Council has become increasingly involved in protecting civilians in armed conflict,
promoting human rights and protecting children in wars.

Judicial settlement of disputes

International Court of Justice
The primary United Nations organ for the settlement of disputes is the International Court of
Justice. Also known as the World Court, it was founded in 1946. Since its founding, the Court
has considered over 170 cases, issued numerous judgments on disputes brought to it by states
and issued advisory opinions in response to requests by UN organizations. Most cases have been
dealt with by the full Court, but since 1981 six cases have been referred to special chambers at
the request of the parties.
In its judgments, the Court has addressed international disputes involving economic rights, rights
of passage, the non-use of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of states, diplomatic
relations, hostage-taking, the right of asylum and nationality. States bring such disputes before
the Court in search of an impartial solution to their differences on the basis of law. By achieving
peaceful settlement on such questions as land frontiers, maritime boundaries and territorial
sovereignty, the Court has often helped to prevent the escalation of disputes.

International Criminal Justice

The international community has had long aspired to create a permanent international court to try
the most serious international crimes, and, in the 20th century, it reached consensus on
definitions of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.

Tribunals
After the Second World War the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials addressed war crimes, crimes
against peace, and crimes against humanity committed during the Second World War.

The ad hoc tribunals and United Nations-assisted tribunals have continued to contribute to
combating impunity and promoting accountability for the most serious crimes. In the 1990s,
after the end of the Cold War, the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia
(ICTY) and for Rwanda (ICTR) were established to try crimes committed within a specific time-
frame and during a specific conflict. This applies, as well, to three courts established by the
states concerned, but with substantial UN support: the Special Court for Sierra Leone (2002),
the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2006) and the Special Tribunal for
Lebanon (2007). Sometimes referred to as ‘hybrid’ courts, they are non-permanent institutions
which will cease to exist once all their cases have been heard.

The International Criminal Court

The idea of a permanent international court to prosecute crimes against humanity was first
considered at the United Nations in the context of the adoption of the Genocide Convention of
1948. For many years, differences of opinions forestalled further developments. In 1992, the
General Assembly directed the International Law Commission to prepare a draft statute for such
a court. The massacres in Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda made the need for it
even more urgent.

The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction to prosecute individuals who commit
genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. It will also have jurisdiction over the crime
of aggression when agreement is reached on the definition of such a crime. The ICC is legally
and functionally independent from the United Nations, and is not a part of the UN system.

The cooperation between the UN and the ICC is governed by a Negotiated Relationship
Agreement. The Security Council can initiate proceedings before the ICC, and can refer to the
ICC situations that would not otherwise fall under the Court’s jurisdiction. The Court has 18
judges, elected by the states parties for a term limited to nine years, except that a judge shall
remain in office to complete any trial or appeal which has already begun. No two judges can be
from the same country.

What is International Relations?

Our richly connected, complex world demands professionals skilled in international relations, an
exciting field of study that presents a globally oriented perspective on issues that transcend
national boundaries.
The study and practice of international relations is interdisciplinary in nature, blending the fields
of economics, history, and political science to examine topics such as human rights, global
poverty, the environment, economics, globalization, security, global ethics, and the political
environment.
SPONSORED
Featured Program
* The online master's programs from American University's School of International
Service allow professionals to build international and business expertise in 12–24 months.
GRE/GMAT scores not required.

* Fletcher's online Master of Global Business Administration from Tufts University prepares
students to apply advanced business strategy in a global context. Complete in as few as 16
months. No GRE/GMAT required.

* Designed by both Kogod and the top-ranked School of International Service, the MS in
International Relations and Business at American University will help you develop a global
business mindset in as few as 18 months.No GRE/GMAT required.

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in International Relations Program - Online

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in Diplomacy - Online

Exceptional economic integration, unprecedented threats to peace and security, and an
international focus on human rights and environmental protection all speak to the complexity of
international relations in the twenty-first century. This means the study of international relations
must focus on interdisciplinary research that addresses, anticipates, and ultimately solves public
policy problems.
International relations (often referred to international affairs) has a broad purpose in
contemporary society, as it seeks to understand:

• The origins of war and the maintenance of peace

• The nature and exercise of power within the global system
• The changing character of state and non-state actors who participate in international
decision-making
For example, some institutions may study the psychological and social-psychological reasoning
behind the actions of foreign policymakers, while others may focus their international studies on
the institutional processes that contribute to the goals and behaviors of states. Ultimately, the
area of international relations studied depends on the goals or objectives of the organization.

The Value of International Relations in a

Globalized Society
Although international relations has taken on a new significance because of our increasingly
interconnected world, it is certainly not a new concept. Historically, the establishment of treaties
between nations served as the earliest form of international relations.
The study and practice of international relations in today’s world is valuable for many reasons:

• International relations promotes successful trade policies between nations.

• International relations encourages travel related to business, tourism, and immigration,
providing people with opportunities to enhance their lives.
• International relations allows nations to cooperate with one another, pool resources, and
share information as a way to face global issues that go beyond any particular country or
region. Contemporary global issues include pandemics, terrorism, and the environment.
• International relations advances human culture through cultural exchanges, diplomacy
and policy development.

The practice of international relations is valuable in a wide array of settings. Some examples
inlcude:

• Humanitarian organizations
o Action Against Hunger
o Oxfam International
o World Food Programme
• Government agencies
o Department of State
o Department of Homeland Security
o Department of Commerce
• International corporations
o General Electric
o BP
o Exxon Mobile
o Toyota
o Nestle
o Siemens
• Media outlets
o BBC
o Washington Post
o The Guardian
 o Der Spiegal
o New York Times
o Forbes
o Wall Street Journal
• Intergovernmental organizations
o World Trade Organization
o United Nations
o NATO
• International communications
o Amnesty International
o Freedom House
o Human Rights Watch
o Reporters Without Borders
• Research centers/Think tanks
o Brookings Institution
o Center for International Policy
o Council on Foreign Relations
o Global Public Policy Institute

The Theories and Principles of International

Relations
International relations may be an offshoot of political science, but this field of study is
exceptionally in-depth in its own right. As our global society evolves and expands, international
relations will evolve and expand along with it as we continue to explore new and exciting way to
link our complex world.
For example, traditional dimensions of international relations related to international peace and
prosperity include topics such as international diplomacy, arms control, and alliance politics.
Contemporary studies in international relations, on other hand, include topics such as
international political economics, environmental politics, refugee and migration issues, and
human rights.
Examining the Levels of State Behavior
Professionals studying international relations often determine the level at which they will analyze
a state’s behavior:

• System Level Analysis: System level analysis looks at the international system; more
specifically, how the international system affects the behavior of nation states, with the
key variable being that the international system includes the power of each state rather
than being independent of them.
• State Level Analysis: State level analysis examines how a state’s characteristics
determine its foreign policy behavior. This type of analysis often views states as having
cultural characteristics based on their religious or social traditions, and their historical
legacy, and includes an analysis of economic and geographic factors.
 • Organizational Level Analysis: Organizational level analysis examines how
organizations within a state influence the state’s foreign policy behavior. In other words,
organizational level analysis views that organizations—not states—make the decisions
that create a state’s foreign policy.
• Individual Level Analysis: Individual level analysis views the leaders of states as being
the largest influencers of foreign policy.

Examining the Theories of International Relations

The study of international relations involves theoretical approaches based on solid evidence.
Theories of international relations are essentially a set of ideas aimed at explaining how the
international system works.
The two, major theories of international relations are realism and liberalism:
Realism
Realism focuses on the notion that states work to increase their own power relative to other
states. The theory of realism states that the only certainty in the world is power; therefore, a
powerful state—via military power (the most important and reliable form of power)—will
always be able to outlast its weaker competitors. Self-preservation is a major theme in realism, as
states must always seek power to protect themselves.
In realism, the international system drives states to use military force. Although leaders may be
moral, they must not let morality guide their foreign policy. Furthermore, realism recognizes that
international organizations and law have no power and force, and that their existence relies
solely on being recognized and accepted by select states.
Liberalism (Idealism)
Liberalism recognizes that states share broad ties, thus making it difficult to define singular
independent national interests. The theory of liberalism in international relations therefore
involves the decreased use of military power. The theory of realism began to take shape in the
1970s as increasing globalization, communications technology, and international trade made
some scholars argue that realism was outdated.
Liberal approaches to the study of international relations, also referred to as theories of complex
interdependence, claim that the consequences of military power outweigh the benefits and that
international cooperation is in the interest of every state. It also claims that exercising economic
power over military power has proven more effective.
Although the liberal theory of international relations was dominant following World War I while
President Woodrow Wilson promoted the League of Nations and many treaties abolishing war,
realism came back into prominence in the Second World War and continued throughout the Cold
War.

What is IR?
International Relations is concerned with relations across boundaries of nation-states. It
addresses international political economy, global governance, intercultural relations,
national and ethnic identities, foreign policy analysis, development studies, environment,
international security, diplomacy, terrorism, media, social movements and more. It is a
multidisciplinary field that does not restrict students to one approach and employs a variety
of methods including discourse analysis, statistics and comparative and historical analysis.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IS AN INCREASINGLY RELEVANT FIELD OF

STUDY
International Relations is becoming increasingly relevant as the world grows more and more
interconnected through trade and commerce, migration, the internet and through social
media, and concerns about pressing global environmental problems.

A globalized world calls for academics and professionals trained to comprehend these
complex interactions - promoting understanding and crafting policy and business solutions
to meet the challenges of today and the future. International Relations offers a
comprehensive and adaptable toolkit particularly well suited to employment in a rapidly
changing world.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AT SF STATE

The Department of International Relations in the College of Liberal & Creative Arts explores
the interrelations of the world’s primary political institutions, nation-states. As the world is
changing, so is the field of International Relations. Increasingly, International Relations at
SF State also focuses on multinational corporations, international governmental and non-
governmental organizations and social movements. Our curriculum is under constant review
to reflect these global and regional trends.

Our students study specific countries and geographic regions and their interconnections
through political treaties, trade, migration, cultural and ethnic affinities, shared social,
economic, and ideological goals, hierarchies of power and wealth and other factors. We
train students in different theoretical approaches and empower them to make their own
methodological choices.

Studying IR at SF State is a step out into the world

Whether you are looking to start or develop your professional career, enter academia, or
simply gain understanding of a globalized world – International Relations at San Francisco
State will provide you with a solid platform of critical knowledge and skills. We offer a wide
selection of courses, taught by a diverse faculty with expertise in the most pressing issues
and dynamic world regions today.

Our alumni can be found across the world in non-profit, private and government positions.
These include the U.S. Department of State and other countries’ foreign ministries, the City
of San Francisco and other local governments, U.S. intelligence agencies, non-profit
organizations in the areas of international development, human rights, international labor,
environment, and international migration as well in business. A significant number of our
graduate students also pursue further professional or doctoral studies at high-ranking
academic institutions around the world.

nternational Law and Justice

UN Photo/Rick Bajornas
Lady Justice, Hamburg City Hall, Germany

Among the greatest achievements of the United Nations is the development of a body of
international law—conventions, treaties and standards—central to promoting economic and
social development, as well as to advancing international peace and security. Many of the treaties
brought about by the United Nations form the basis of the law that governs relations among
nations. While the work of the UN in this area does not always receive attention, it has a daily
impact on the lives of people everywhere.

The Charter of the United Nations specifically calls on the Organization to help in the settlement
of international disputes by peaceful means, including arbitration and judicial settlement (Article
33), and to encourage the progressive development of international law and its codification
(Article 13).

Over the years, more than 500 multilateral treaties have been deposited with the Secretary-
General of the United Nations. Many other treaties are deposited with governments or other
entities. The treaties cover a broad range of subject matters such as human rights, disarmament
and protection of the environment.

General Assembly as a forum for adopting multilateral treaties

 The General Assembly is composed of representatives from each Member State of the United
Nations and is the main deliberative body on matters relating to international law. Many
multilateral treaties are in fact adopted by the General Assembly and subsequently opened for
signature and ratification. The Legal (Sixth) Committee assists the work of the General
Assembly by providing advice on substantive legal matters. The Committee is also made up of
representatives from all Member States of the United Nations.

The General Assembly has adopted a number of multilateral treaties throughout its history,
including:

• Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948)

• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965)
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966)
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979)
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (1996)
• International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999)
• International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (2005)
• Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006)
• United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or
Partly by Sea (2008)
• Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(2008)

In many areas, the legal work of the United Nations has been pioneering, addressing problems as
they take on an international dimension. The UN has been at the forefront of efforts to provide a
legal framework in such areas as protecting the environment, regulating migrant labour, curbing
drug trafficking and combating terrorism. This work continues today, as international law
assumes a more central role across a wider spectrum of issues, including human rights law and
international humanitarian law.
Read also about Law of the Sea.

Development and codification of international law

International Law Commission
The International Law Commission was established by the General Assembly in 1947 to
promote the progressive development of international law and its codification. The Commission
is composed of 34 members who collectively represent the worlds principal legal systems, and
serve as experts in their individual capacity, not as representatives of their governments. They
address a wide range of issues relevant to the regulation of relations among states, and frequently
 consult with the International Committee of the Red Cross, the International Court of Justice and
UN specialized agencies, depending on the subject being examined. Most of the Commission’s
work involves the preparation of drafts on aspects of international law.

Some topics are chosen by the Commission, others are referred to it by the General Assembly.
When the Commission completes work on a topic, the General Assembly sometimes convenes
an international conference of plenipotentiaries to incorporate the draft into a convention. The
convention is then opened to states to become parties—meaning that such countries formally
agree to be bound by its provisions. Some of these conventions form the very foundation of the
law governing relations among states. Examples include:

• the Convention on the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses, adopted by the

General Assembly in 1997, which regulates the equitable and reasonable utilization of
watercourses shared by two or more countries;
• the Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or
between International Organizations, adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1986;
• the Convention on the Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts,
adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1983;
• the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected
Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, adopted by the General Assembly in 1973;

International humanitarian law

International humanitarian law encompasses the principles and rules that regulate the means and
methods of warfare, as well as the humanitarian protection of civilian populations, sick and
wounded combatants, and prisoners of war. Major instruments include the 1949 Geneva
Conventions for the Protection of War Victims and two additional protocols concluded in 1977
under the auspices of the International Committee of the Red Cross.

The United Nations has taken a leading role in efforts to advance international humanitarian law.
The Security Council has become increasingly involved in protecting civilians in armed conflict,
promoting human rights and protecting children in wars.

Judicial settlement of disputes

International Court of Justice
The primary United Nations organ for the settlement of disputes is the International Court of
Justice. Also known as the World Court, it was founded in 1946. Since its founding, the Court
has considered over 170 cases, issued numerous judgments on disputes brought to it by states
and issued advisory opinions in response to requests by UN organizations. Most cases have been
dealt with by the full Court, but since 1981 six cases have been referred to special chambers at
the request of the parties.
In its judgments, the Court has addressed international disputes involving economic rights, rights
of passage, the non-use of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of states, diplomatic
relations, hostage-taking, the right of asylum and nationality. States bring such disputes before
the Court in search of an impartial solution to their differences on the basis of law. By achieving
peaceful settlement on such questions as land frontiers, maritime boundaries and territorial
sovereignty, the Court has often helped to prevent the escalation of disputes.

International Criminal Justice

The international community has had long aspired to create a permanent international court to try
the most serious international crimes, and, in the 20th century, it reached consensus on
definitions of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.

Tribunals
After the Second World War the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials addressed war crimes, crimes
against peace, and crimes against humanity committed during the Second World War.

The ad hoc tribunals and United Nations-assisted tribunals have continued to contribute to
combating impunity and promoting accountability for the most serious crimes. In the 1990s,
after the end of the Cold War, the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia
(ICTY) and for Rwanda (ICTR) were established to try crimes committed within a specific time-
frame and during a specific conflict. This applies, as well, to three courts established by the
states concerned, but with substantial UN support: the Special Court for Sierra Leone (2002),
the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2006) and the Special Tribunal for
Lebanon (2007). Sometimes referred to as ‘hybrid’ courts, they are non-permanent institutions
which will cease to exist once all their cases have been heard.

The International Criminal Court

The idea of a permanent international court to prosecute crimes against humanity was first
considered at the United Nations in the context of the adoption of the Genocide Convention of
1948. For many years, differences of opinions forestalled further developments. In 1992, the
General Assembly directed the International Law Commission to prepare a draft statute for such
a court. The massacres in Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda made the need for it
even more urgent.

The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction to prosecute individuals who commit
genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. It will also have jurisdiction over the crime
of aggression when agreement is reached on the definition of such a crime. The ICC is legally
and functionally independent from the United Nations, and is not a part of the UN system.

The cooperation between the UN and the ICC is governed by a Negotiated Relationship
Agreement. The Security Council can initiate proceedings before the ICC, and can refer to the
ICC situations that would not otherwise fall under the Court’s jurisdiction. The Court has 18
judges, elected by the states parties for a term limited to nine years, except that a judge shall
remain in office to complete any trial or appeal which has already begun. No two judges can be
from the same country.

What is International Relations?

Our richly connected, complex world demands professionals skilled in international relations, an
exciting field of study that presents a globally oriented perspective on issues that transcend
national boundaries.
The study and practice of international relations is interdisciplinary in nature, blending the fields
of economics, history, and political science to examine topics such as human rights, global
poverty, the environment, economics, globalization, security, global ethics, and the political
environment.
SPONSORED
Featured Program
* The online master's programs from American University's School of International
Service allow professionals to build international and business expertise in 12–24 months.
GRE/GMAT scores not required.

* Fletcher's online Master of Global Business Administration from Tufts University prepares
students to apply advanced business strategy in a global context. Complete in as few as 16
months. No GRE/GMAT required.

* Designed by both Kogod and the top-ranked School of International Service, the MS in
International Relations and Business at American University will help you develop a global
business mindset in as few as 18 months.No GRE/GMAT required.

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in International Relations Program - Online

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in Diplomacy - Online

Exceptional economic integration, unprecedented threats to peace and security, and an
international focus on human rights and environmental protection all speak to the complexity of
international relations in the twenty-first century. This means the study of international relations
must focus on interdisciplinary research that addresses, anticipates, and ultimately solves public
policy problems.
International relations (often referred to international affairs) has a broad purpose in
contemporary society, as it seeks to understand:

• The origins of war and the maintenance of peace

• The nature and exercise of power within the global system
• The changing character of state and non-state actors who participate in international
decision-making
For example, some institutions may study the psychological and social-psychological reasoning
behind the actions of foreign policymakers, while others may focus their international studies on
the institutional processes that contribute to the goals and behaviors of states. Ultimately, the
area of international relations studied depends on the goals or objectives of the organization.

The Value of International Relations in a

Globalized Society
Although international relations has taken on a new significance because of our increasingly
interconnected world, it is certainly not a new concept. Historically, the establishment of treaties
between nations served as the earliest form of international relations.
The study and practice of international relations in today’s world is valuable for many reasons:

• International relations promotes successful trade policies between nations.

• International relations encourages travel related to business, tourism, and immigration,
providing people with opportunities to enhance their lives.
• International relations allows nations to cooperate with one another, pool resources, and
share information as a way to face global issues that go beyond any particular country or
region. Contemporary global issues include pandemics, terrorism, and the environment.
• International relations advances human culture through cultural exchanges, diplomacy
and policy development.

The practice of international relations is valuable in a wide array of settings. Some examples
inlcude:

• Humanitarian organizations
o Action Against Hunger
o Oxfam International
o World Food Programme
• Government agencies
o Department of State
o Department of Homeland Security
o Department of Commerce
• International corporations
o General Electric
o BP
o Exxon Mobile
o Toyota
o Nestle
o Siemens
• Media outlets
o BBC
o Washington Post
o The Guardian
 o Der Spiegal
o New York Times
o Forbes
o Wall Street Journal
• Intergovernmental organizations
o World Trade Organization
o United Nations
o NATO
• International communications
o Amnesty International
o Freedom House
o Human Rights Watch
o Reporters Without Borders
• Research centers/Think tanks
o Brookings Institution
o Center for International Policy
o Council on Foreign Relations
o Global Public Policy Institute

The Theories and Principles of International

Relations
International relations may be an offshoot of political science, but this field of study is
exceptionally in-depth in its own right. As our global society evolves and expands, international
relations will evolve and expand along with it as we continue to explore new and exciting way to
link our complex world.
For example, traditional dimensions of international relations related to international peace and
prosperity include topics such as international diplomacy, arms control, and alliance politics.
Contemporary studies in international relations, on other hand, include topics such as
international political economics, environmental politics, refugee and migration issues, and
human rights.
Examining the Levels of State Behavior
Professionals studying international relations often determine the level at which they will analyze
a state’s behavior:

• System Level Analysis: System level analysis looks at the international system; more
specifically, how the international system affects the behavior of nation states, with the
key variable being that the international system includes the power of each state rather
than being independent of them.
• State Level Analysis: State level analysis examines how a state’s characteristics
determine its foreign policy behavior. This type of analysis often views states as having
cultural characteristics based on their religious or social traditions, and their historical
legacy, and includes an analysis of economic and geographic factors.
 • Organizational Level Analysis: Organizational level analysis examines how
organizations within a state influence the state’s foreign policy behavior. In other words,
organizational level analysis views that organizations—not states—make the decisions
that create a state’s foreign policy.
• Individual Level Analysis: Individual level analysis views the leaders of states as being
the largest influencers of foreign policy.

Examining the Theories of International Relations

The study of international relations involves theoretical approaches based on solid evidence.
Theories of international relations are essentially a set of ideas aimed at explaining how the
international system works.
The two, major theories of international relations are realism and liberalism:
Realism
Realism focuses on the notion that states work to increase their own power relative to other
states. The theory of realism states that the only certainty in the world is power; therefore, a
powerful state—via military power (the most important and reliable form of power)—will
always be able to outlast its weaker competitors. Self-preservation is a major theme in realism, as
states must always seek power to protect themselves.
In realism, the international system drives states to use military force. Although leaders may be
moral, they must not let morality guide their foreign policy. Furthermore, realism recognizes that
international organizations and law have no power and force, and that their existence relies
solely on being recognized and accepted by select states.
Liberalism (Idealism)
Liberalism recognizes that states share broad ties, thus making it difficult to define singular
independent national interests. The theory of liberalism in international relations therefore
involves the decreased use of military power. The theory of realism began to take shape in the
1970s as increasing globalization, communications technology, and international trade made
some scholars argue that realism was outdated.
Liberal approaches to the study of international relations, also referred to as theories of complex
interdependence, claim that the consequences of military power outweigh the benefits and that
international cooperation is in the interest of every state. It also claims that exercising economic
power over military power has proven more effective.
Although the liberal theory of international relations was dominant following World War I while
President Woodrow Wilson promoted the League of Nations and many treaties abolishing war,
realism came back into prominence in the Second World War and continued throughout the Cold
War.

What is IR?
International Relations is concerned with relations across boundaries of nation-states. It
addresses international political economy, global governance, intercultural relations,
national and ethnic identities, foreign policy analysis, development studies, environment,
international security, diplomacy, terrorism, media, social movements and more. It is a
multidisciplinary field that does not restrict students to one approach and employs a variety
of methods including discourse analysis, statistics and comparative and historical analysis.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IS AN INCREASINGLY RELEVANT FIELD OF

STUDY
International Relations is becoming increasingly relevant as the world grows more and more
interconnected through trade and commerce, migration, the internet and through social
media, and concerns about pressing global environmental problems.

A globalized world calls for academics and professionals trained to comprehend these
complex interactions - promoting understanding and crafting policy and business solutions
to meet the challenges of today and the future. International Relations offers a
comprehensive and adaptable toolkit particularly well suited to employment in a rapidly
changing world.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AT SF STATE

The Department of International Relations in the College of Liberal & Creative Arts explores
the interrelations of the world’s primary political institutions, nation-states. As the world is
changing, so is the field of International Relations. Increasingly, International Relations at
SF State also focuses on multinational corporations, international governmental and non-
governmental organizations and social movements. Our curriculum is under constant review
to reflect these global and regional trends.

Our students study specific countries and geographic regions and their interconnections
through political treaties, trade, migration, cultural and ethnic affinities, shared social,
economic, and ideological goals, hierarchies of power and wealth and other factors. We
train students in different theoretical approaches and empower them to make their own
methodological choices.

Studying IR at SF State is a step out into the world

Whether you are looking to start or develop your professional career, enter academia, or
simply gain understanding of a globalized world – International Relations at San Francisco
State will provide you with a solid platform of critical knowledge and skills. We offer a wide
selection of courses, taught by a diverse faculty with expertise in the most pressing issues
and dynamic world regions today.

Our alumni can be found across the world in non-profit, private and government positions.
These include the U.S. Department of State and other countries’ foreign ministries, the City
of San Francisco and other local governments, U.S. intelligence agencies, non-profit
organizations in the areas of international development, human rights, international labor,
environment, and international migration as well in business. A significant number of our
graduate students also pursue further professional or doctoral studies at high-ranking
academic institutions around the world.

nternational Law and Justice

UN Photo/Rick Bajornas
Lady Justice, Hamburg City Hall, Germany

Among the greatest achievements of the United Nations is the development of a body of
international law—conventions, treaties and standards—central to promoting economic and
social development, as well as to advancing international peace and security. Many of the treaties
brought about by the United Nations form the basis of the law that governs relations among
nations. While the work of the UN in this area does not always receive attention, it has a daily
impact on the lives of people everywhere.

The Charter of the United Nations specifically calls on the Organization to help in the settlement
of international disputes by peaceful means, including arbitration and judicial settlement (Article
33), and to encourage the progressive development of international law and its codification
(Article 13).

Over the years, more than 500 multilateral treaties have been deposited with the Secretary-
General of the United Nations. Many other treaties are deposited with governments or other
entities. The treaties cover a broad range of subject matters such as human rights, disarmament
and protection of the environment.

General Assembly as a forum for adopting multilateral treaties

 The General Assembly is composed of representatives from each Member State of the United
Nations and is the main deliberative body on matters relating to international law. Many
multilateral treaties are in fact adopted by the General Assembly and subsequently opened for
signature and ratification. The Legal (Sixth) Committee assists the work of the General
Assembly by providing advice on substantive legal matters. The Committee is also made up of
representatives from all Member States of the United Nations.

The General Assembly has adopted a number of multilateral treaties throughout its history,
including:

• Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948)

• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965)
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966)
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979)
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (1996)
• International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999)
• International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (2005)
• Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006)
• United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or
Partly by Sea (2008)
• Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(2008)

In many areas, the legal work of the United Nations has been pioneering, addressing problems as
they take on an international dimension. The UN has been at the forefront of efforts to provide a
legal framework in such areas as protecting the environment, regulating migrant labour, curbing
drug trafficking and combating terrorism. This work continues today, as international law
assumes a more central role across a wider spectrum of issues, including human rights law and
international humanitarian law.
Read also about Law of the Sea.

Development and codification of international law

International Law Commission
The International Law Commission was established by the General Assembly in 1947 to
promote the progressive development of international law and its codification. The Commission
is composed of 34 members who collectively represent the worlds principal legal systems, and
serve as experts in their individual capacity, not as representatives of their governments. They
address a wide range of issues relevant to the regulation of relations among states, and frequently
 consult with the International Committee of the Red Cross, the International Court of Justice and
UN specialized agencies, depending on the subject being examined. Most of the Commission’s
work involves the preparation of drafts on aspects of international law.

Some topics are chosen by the Commission, others are referred to it by the General Assembly.
When the Commission completes work on a topic, the General Assembly sometimes convenes
an international conference of plenipotentiaries to incorporate the draft into a convention. The
convention is then opened to states to become parties—meaning that such countries formally
agree to be bound by its provisions. Some of these conventions form the very foundation of the
law governing relations among states. Examples include:

• the Convention on the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses, adopted by the

General Assembly in 1997, which regulates the equitable and reasonable utilization of
watercourses shared by two or more countries;
• the Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or
between International Organizations, adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1986;
• the Convention on the Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts,
adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1983;
• the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected
Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, adopted by the General Assembly in 1973;

International humanitarian law

International humanitarian law encompasses the principles and rules that regulate the means and
methods of warfare, as well as the humanitarian protection of civilian populations, sick and
wounded combatants, and prisoners of war. Major instruments include the 1949 Geneva
Conventions for the Protection of War Victims and two additional protocols concluded in 1977
under the auspices of the International Committee of the Red Cross.

The United Nations has taken a leading role in efforts to advance international humanitarian law.
The Security Council has become increasingly involved in protecting civilians in armed conflict,
promoting human rights and protecting children in wars.

Judicial settlement of disputes

International Court of Justice
The primary United Nations organ for the settlement of disputes is the International Court of
Justice. Also known as the World Court, it was founded in 1946. Since its founding, the Court
has considered over 170 cases, issued numerous judgments on disputes brought to it by states
and issued advisory opinions in response to requests by UN organizations. Most cases have been
dealt with by the full Court, but since 1981 six cases have been referred to special chambers at
the request of the parties.
In its judgments, the Court has addressed international disputes involving economic rights, rights
of passage, the non-use of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of states, diplomatic
relations, hostage-taking, the right of asylum and nationality. States bring such disputes before
the Court in search of an impartial solution to their differences on the basis of law. By achieving
peaceful settlement on such questions as land frontiers, maritime boundaries and territorial
sovereignty, the Court has often helped to prevent the escalation of disputes.

International Criminal Justice

The international community has had long aspired to create a permanent international court to try
the most serious international crimes, and, in the 20th century, it reached consensus on
definitions of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.

Tribunals
After the Second World War the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials addressed war crimes, crimes
against peace, and crimes against humanity committed during the Second World War.

The ad hoc tribunals and United Nations-assisted tribunals have continued to contribute to
combating impunity and promoting accountability for the most serious crimes. In the 1990s,
after the end of the Cold War, the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia
(ICTY) and for Rwanda (ICTR) were established to try crimes committed within a specific time-
frame and during a specific conflict. This applies, as well, to three courts established by the
states concerned, but with substantial UN support: the Special Court for Sierra Leone (2002),
the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2006) and the Special Tribunal for
Lebanon (2007). Sometimes referred to as ‘hybrid’ courts, they are non-permanent institutions
which will cease to exist once all their cases have been heard.

The International Criminal Court

The idea of a permanent international court to prosecute crimes against humanity was first
considered at the United Nations in the context of the adoption of the Genocide Convention of
1948. For many years, differences of opinions forestalled further developments. In 1992, the
General Assembly directed the International Law Commission to prepare a draft statute for such
a court. The massacres in Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda made the need for it
even more urgent.

The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction to prosecute individuals who commit
genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. It will also have jurisdiction over the crime
of aggression when agreement is reached on the definition of such a crime. The ICC is legally
and functionally independent from the United Nations, and is not a part of the UN system.

The cooperation between the UN and the ICC is governed by a Negotiated Relationship
Agreement. The Security Council can initiate proceedings before the ICC, and can refer to the
ICC situations that would not otherwise fall under the Court’s jurisdiction. The Court has 18
judges, elected by the states parties for a term limited to nine years, except that a judge shall
remain in office to complete any trial or appeal which has already begun. No two judges can be
from the same country.

What is International Relations?

Our richly connected, complex world demands professionals skilled in international relations, an
exciting field of study that presents a globally oriented perspective on issues that transcend
national boundaries.
The study and practice of international relations is interdisciplinary in nature, blending the fields
of economics, history, and political science to examine topics such as human rights, global
poverty, the environment, economics, globalization, security, global ethics, and the political
environment.
SPONSORED
Featured Program
* The online master's programs from American University's School of International
Service allow professionals to build international and business expertise in 12–24 months.
GRE/GMAT scores not required.

* Fletcher's online Master of Global Business Administration from Tufts University prepares
students to apply advanced business strategy in a global context. Complete in as few as 16
months. No GRE/GMAT required.

* Designed by both Kogod and the top-ranked School of International Service, the MS in
International Relations and Business at American University will help you develop a global
business mindset in as few as 18 months.No GRE/GMAT required.

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in International Relations Program - Online

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in Diplomacy - Online

Exceptional economic integration, unprecedented threats to peace and security, and an
international focus on human rights and environmental protection all speak to the complexity of
international relations in the twenty-first century. This means the study of international relations
must focus on interdisciplinary research that addresses, anticipates, and ultimately solves public
policy problems.
International relations (often referred to international affairs) has a broad purpose in
contemporary society, as it seeks to understand:

• The origins of war and the maintenance of peace

• The nature and exercise of power within the global system
• The changing character of state and non-state actors who participate in international
decision-making
For example, some institutions may study the psychological and social-psychological reasoning
behind the actions of foreign policymakers, while others may focus their international studies on
the institutional processes that contribute to the goals and behaviors of states. Ultimately, the
area of international relations studied depends on the goals or objectives of the organization.

The Value of International Relations in a

Globalized Society
Although international relations has taken on a new significance because of our increasingly
interconnected world, it is certainly not a new concept. Historically, the establishment of treaties
between nations served as the earliest form of international relations.
The study and practice of international relations in today’s world is valuable for many reasons:

• International relations promotes successful trade policies between nations.

• International relations encourages travel related to business, tourism, and immigration,
providing people with opportunities to enhance their lives.
• International relations allows nations to cooperate with one another, pool resources, and
share information as a way to face global issues that go beyond any particular country or
region. Contemporary global issues include pandemics, terrorism, and the environment.
• International relations advances human culture through cultural exchanges, diplomacy
and policy development.

The practice of international relations is valuable in a wide array of settings. Some examples
inlcude:

• Humanitarian organizations
o Action Against Hunger
o Oxfam International
o World Food Programme
• Government agencies
o Department of State
o Department of Homeland Security
o Department of Commerce
• International corporations
o General Electric
o BP
o Exxon Mobile
o Toyota
o Nestle
o Siemens
• Media outlets
o BBC
o Washington Post
o The Guardian
 o Der Spiegal
o New York Times
o Forbes
o Wall Street Journal
• Intergovernmental organizations
o World Trade Organization
o United Nations
o NATO
• International communications
o Amnesty International
o Freedom House
o Human Rights Watch
o Reporters Without Borders
• Research centers/Think tanks
o Brookings Institution
o Center for International Policy
o Council on Foreign Relations
o Global Public Policy Institute

The Theories and Principles of International

Relations
International relations may be an offshoot of political science, but this field of study is
exceptionally in-depth in its own right. As our global society evolves and expands, international
relations will evolve and expand along with it as we continue to explore new and exciting way to
link our complex world.
For example, traditional dimensions of international relations related to international peace and
prosperity include topics such as international diplomacy, arms control, and alliance politics.
Contemporary studies in international relations, on other hand, include topics such as
international political economics, environmental politics, refugee and migration issues, and
human rights.
Examining the Levels of State Behavior
Professionals studying international relations often determine the level at which they will analyze
a state’s behavior:

• System Level Analysis: System level analysis looks at the international system; more
specifically, how the international system affects the behavior of nation states, with the
key variable being that the international system includes the power of each state rather
than being independent of them.
• State Level Analysis: State level analysis examines how a state’s characteristics
determine its foreign policy behavior. This type of analysis often views states as having
cultural characteristics based on their religious or social traditions, and their historical
legacy, and includes an analysis of economic and geographic factors.
 • Organizational Level Analysis: Organizational level analysis examines how
organizations within a state influence the state’s foreign policy behavior. In other words,
organizational level analysis views that organizations—not states—make the decisions
that create a state’s foreign policy.
• Individual Level Analysis: Individual level analysis views the leaders of states as being
the largest influencers of foreign policy.

Examining the Theories of International Relations

The study of international relations involves theoretical approaches based on solid evidence.
Theories of international relations are essentially a set of ideas aimed at explaining how the
international system works.
The two, major theories of international relations are realism and liberalism:
Realism
Realism focuses on the notion that states work to increase their own power relative to other
states. The theory of realism states that the only certainty in the world is power; therefore, a
powerful state—via military power (the most important and reliable form of power)—will
always be able to outlast its weaker competitors. Self-preservation is a major theme in realism, as
states must always seek power to protect themselves.
In realism, the international system drives states to use military force. Although leaders may be
moral, they must not let morality guide their foreign policy. Furthermore, realism recognizes that
international organizations and law have no power and force, and that their existence relies
solely on being recognized and accepted by select states.
Liberalism (Idealism)
Liberalism recognizes that states share broad ties, thus making it difficult to define singular
independent national interests. The theory of liberalism in international relations therefore
involves the decreased use of military power. The theory of realism began to take shape in the
1970s as increasing globalization, communications technology, and international trade made
some scholars argue that realism was outdated.
Liberal approaches to the study of international relations, also referred to as theories of complex
interdependence, claim that the consequences of military power outweigh the benefits and that
international cooperation is in the interest of every state. It also claims that exercising economic
power over military power has proven more effective.
Although the liberal theory of international relations was dominant following World War I while
President Woodrow Wilson promoted the League of Nations and many treaties abolishing war,
realism came back into prominence in the Second World War and continued throughout the Cold
War.

What is IR?
International Relations is concerned with relations across boundaries of nation-states. It
addresses international political economy, global governance, intercultural relations,
national and ethnic identities, foreign policy analysis, development studies, environment,
international security, diplomacy, terrorism, media, social movements and more. It is a
multidisciplinary field that does not restrict students to one approach and employs a variety
of methods including discourse analysis, statistics and comparative and historical analysis.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IS AN INCREASINGLY RELEVANT FIELD OF

STUDY
International Relations is becoming increasingly relevant as the world grows more and more
interconnected through trade and commerce, migration, the internet and through social
media, and concerns about pressing global environmental problems.

A globalized world calls for academics and professionals trained to comprehend these
complex interactions - promoting understanding and crafting policy and business solutions
to meet the challenges of today and the future. International Relations offers a
comprehensive and adaptable toolkit particularly well suited to employment in a rapidly
changing world.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AT SF STATE

The Department of International Relations in the College of Liberal & Creative Arts explores
the interrelations of the world’s primary political institutions, nation-states. As the world is
changing, so is the field of International Relations. Increasingly, International Relations at
SF State also focuses on multinational corporations, international governmental and non-
governmental organizations and social movements. Our curriculum is under constant review
to reflect these global and regional trends.

Our students study specific countries and geographic regions and their interconnections
through political treaties, trade, migration, cultural and ethnic affinities, shared social,
economic, and ideological goals, hierarchies of power and wealth and other factors. We
train students in different theoretical approaches and empower them to make their own
methodological choices.

Studying IR at SF State is a step out into the world

Whether you are looking to start or develop your professional career, enter academia, or
simply gain understanding of a globalized world – International Relations at San Francisco
State will provide you with a solid platform of critical knowledge and skills. We offer a wide
selection of courses, taught by a diverse faculty with expertise in the most pressing issues
and dynamic world regions today.

Our alumni can be found across the world in non-profit, private and government positions.
These include the U.S. Department of State and other countries’ foreign ministries, the City
of San Francisco and other local governments, U.S. intelligence agencies, non-profit
organizations in the areas of international development, human rights, international labor,
environment, and international migration as well in business. A significant number of our
graduate students also pursue further professional or doctoral studies at high-ranking
academic institutions around the world.

nternational Law and Justice

UN Photo/Rick Bajornas
Lady Justice, Hamburg City Hall, Germany

Among the greatest achievements of the United Nations is the development of a body of
international law—conventions, treaties and standards—central to promoting economic and
social development, as well as to advancing international peace and security. Many of the treaties
brought about by the United Nations form the basis of the law that governs relations among
nations. While the work of the UN in this area does not always receive attention, it has a daily
impact on the lives of people everywhere.

The Charter of the United Nations specifically calls on the Organization to help in the settlement
of international disputes by peaceful means, including arbitration and judicial settlement (Article
33), and to encourage the progressive development of international law and its codification
(Article 13).

Over the years, more than 500 multilateral treaties have been deposited with the Secretary-
General of the United Nations. Many other treaties are deposited with governments or other
entities. The treaties cover a broad range of subject matters such as human rights, disarmament
and protection of the environment.

General Assembly as a forum for adopting multilateral treaties

 The General Assembly is composed of representatives from each Member State of the United
Nations and is the main deliberative body on matters relating to international law. Many
multilateral treaties are in fact adopted by the General Assembly and subsequently opened for
signature and ratification. The Legal (Sixth) Committee assists the work of the General
Assembly by providing advice on substantive legal matters. The Committee is also made up of
representatives from all Member States of the United Nations.

The General Assembly has adopted a number of multilateral treaties throughout its history,
including:

• Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948)

• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965)
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966)
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979)
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (1996)
• International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999)
• International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (2005)
• Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006)
• United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or
Partly by Sea (2008)
• Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(2008)

In many areas, the legal work of the United Nations has been pioneering, addressing problems as
they take on an international dimension. The UN has been at the forefront of efforts to provide a
legal framework in such areas as protecting the environment, regulating migrant labour, curbing
drug trafficking and combating terrorism. This work continues today, as international law
assumes a more central role across a wider spectrum of issues, including human rights law and
international humanitarian law.
Read also about Law of the Sea.

Development and codification of international law

International Law Commission
The International Law Commission was established by the General Assembly in 1947 to
promote the progressive development of international law and its codification. The Commission
is composed of 34 members who collectively represent the worlds principal legal systems, and
serve as experts in their individual capacity, not as representatives of their governments. They
address a wide range of issues relevant to the regulation of relations among states, and frequently
 consult with the International Committee of the Red Cross, the International Court of Justice and
UN specialized agencies, depending on the subject being examined. Most of the Commission’s
work involves the preparation of drafts on aspects of international law.

Some topics are chosen by the Commission, others are referred to it by the General Assembly.
When the Commission completes work on a topic, the General Assembly sometimes convenes
an international conference of plenipotentiaries to incorporate the draft into a convention. The
convention is then opened to states to become parties—meaning that such countries formally
agree to be bound by its provisions. Some of these conventions form the very foundation of the
law governing relations among states. Examples include:

• the Convention on the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses, adopted by the

General Assembly in 1997, which regulates the equitable and reasonable utilization of
watercourses shared by two or more countries;
• the Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or
between International Organizations, adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1986;
• the Convention on the Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts,
adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1983;
• the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected
Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, adopted by the General Assembly in 1973;

International humanitarian law

International humanitarian law encompasses the principles and rules that regulate the means and
methods of warfare, as well as the humanitarian protection of civilian populations, sick and
wounded combatants, and prisoners of war. Major instruments include the 1949 Geneva
Conventions for the Protection of War Victims and two additional protocols concluded in 1977
under the auspices of the International Committee of the Red Cross.

The United Nations has taken a leading role in efforts to advance international humanitarian law.
The Security Council has become increasingly involved in protecting civilians in armed conflict,
promoting human rights and protecting children in wars.

Judicial settlement of disputes

International Court of Justice
The primary United Nations organ for the settlement of disputes is the International Court of
Justice. Also known as the World Court, it was founded in 1946. Since its founding, the Court
has considered over 170 cases, issued numerous judgments on disputes brought to it by states
and issued advisory opinions in response to requests by UN organizations. Most cases have been
dealt with by the full Court, but since 1981 six cases have been referred to special chambers at
the request of the parties.
In its judgments, the Court has addressed international disputes involving economic rights, rights
of passage, the non-use of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of states, diplomatic
relations, hostage-taking, the right of asylum and nationality. States bring such disputes before
the Court in search of an impartial solution to their differences on the basis of law. By achieving
peaceful settlement on such questions as land frontiers, maritime boundaries and territorial
sovereignty, the Court has often helped to prevent the escalation of disputes.

International Criminal Justice

The international community has had long aspired to create a permanent international court to try
the most serious international crimes, and, in the 20th century, it reached consensus on
definitions of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.

Tribunals
After the Second World War the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials addressed war crimes, crimes
against peace, and crimes against humanity committed during the Second World War.

The ad hoc tribunals and United Nations-assisted tribunals have continued to contribute to
combating impunity and promoting accountability for the most serious crimes. In the 1990s,
after the end of the Cold War, the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia
(ICTY) and for Rwanda (ICTR) were established to try crimes committed within a specific time-
frame and during a specific conflict. This applies, as well, to three courts established by the
states concerned, but with substantial UN support: the Special Court for Sierra Leone (2002),
the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2006) and the Special Tribunal for
Lebanon (2007). Sometimes referred to as ‘hybrid’ courts, they are non-permanent institutions
which will cease to exist once all their cases have been heard.

The International Criminal Court

The idea of a permanent international court to prosecute crimes against humanity was first
considered at the United Nations in the context of the adoption of the Genocide Convention of
1948. For many years, differences of opinions forestalled further developments. In 1992, the
General Assembly directed the International Law Commission to prepare a draft statute for such
a court. The massacres in Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda made the need for it
even more urgent.

The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction to prosecute individuals who commit
genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. It will also have jurisdiction over the crime
of aggression when agreement is reached on the definition of such a crime. The ICC is legally
and functionally independent from the United Nations, and is not a part of the UN system.

The cooperation between the UN and the ICC is governed by a Negotiated Relationship
Agreement. The Security Council can initiate proceedings before the ICC, and can refer to the
ICC situations that would not otherwise fall under the Court’s jurisdiction. The Court has 18
judges, elected by the states parties for a term limited to nine years, except that a judge shall
remain in office to complete any trial or appeal which has already begun. No two judges can be
from the same country.

What is International Relations?

Our richly connected, complex world demands professionals skilled in international relations, an
exciting field of study that presents a globally oriented perspective on issues that transcend
national boundaries.
The study and practice of international relations is interdisciplinary in nature, blending the fields
of economics, history, and political science to examine topics such as human rights, global
poverty, the environment, economics, globalization, security, global ethics, and the political
environment.
SPONSORED
Featured Program
* The online master's programs from American University's School of International
Service allow professionals to build international and business expertise in 12–24 months.
GRE/GMAT scores not required.

* Fletcher's online Master of Global Business Administration from Tufts University prepares
students to apply advanced business strategy in a global context. Complete in as few as 16
months. No GRE/GMAT required.

* Designed by both Kogod and the top-ranked School of International Service, the MS in
International Relations and Business at American University will help you develop a global
business mindset in as few as 18 months.No GRE/GMAT required.

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in International Relations Program - Online

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in Diplomacy - Online

Exceptional economic integration, unprecedented threats to peace and security, and an
international focus on human rights and environmental protection all speak to the complexity of
international relations in the twenty-first century. This means the study of international relations
must focus on interdisciplinary research that addresses, anticipates, and ultimately solves public
policy problems.
International relations (often referred to international affairs) has a broad purpose in
contemporary society, as it seeks to understand:

• The origins of war and the maintenance of peace

• The nature and exercise of power within the global system
• The changing character of state and non-state actors who participate in international
decision-making
For example, some institutions may study the psychological and social-psychological reasoning
behind the actions of foreign policymakers, while others may focus their international studies on
the institutional processes that contribute to the goals and behaviors of states. Ultimately, the
area of international relations studied depends on the goals or objectives of the organization.

The Value of International Relations in a

Globalized Society
Although international relations has taken on a new significance because of our increasingly
interconnected world, it is certainly not a new concept. Historically, the establishment of treaties
between nations served as the earliest form of international relations.
The study and practice of international relations in today’s world is valuable for many reasons:

• International relations promotes successful trade policies between nations.

• International relations encourages travel related to business, tourism, and immigration,
providing people with opportunities to enhance their lives.
• International relations allows nations to cooperate with one another, pool resources, and
share information as a way to face global issues that go beyond any particular country or
region. Contemporary global issues include pandemics, terrorism, and the environment.
• International relations advances human culture through cultural exchanges, diplomacy
and policy development.

The practice of international relations is valuable in a wide array of settings. Some examples
inlcude:

• Humanitarian organizations
o Action Against Hunger
o Oxfam International
o World Food Programme
• Government agencies
o Department of State
o Department of Homeland Security
o Department of Commerce
• International corporations
o General Electric
o BP
o Exxon Mobile
o Toyota
o Nestle
o Siemens
• Media outlets
o BBC
o Washington Post
o The Guardian
 o Der Spiegal
o New York Times
o Forbes
o Wall Street Journal
• Intergovernmental organizations
o World Trade Organization
o United Nations
o NATO
• International communications
o Amnesty International
o Freedom House
o Human Rights Watch
o Reporters Without Borders
• Research centers/Think tanks
o Brookings Institution
o Center for International Policy
o Council on Foreign Relations
o Global Public Policy Institute

The Theories and Principles of International

Relations
International relations may be an offshoot of political science, but this field of study is
exceptionally in-depth in its own right. As our global society evolves and expands, international
relations will evolve and expand along with it as we continue to explore new and exciting way to
link our complex world.
For example, traditional dimensions of international relations related to international peace and
prosperity include topics such as international diplomacy, arms control, and alliance politics.
Contemporary studies in international relations, on other hand, include topics such as
international political economics, environmental politics, refugee and migration issues, and
human rights.
Examining the Levels of State Behavior
Professionals studying international relations often determine the level at which they will analyze
a state’s behavior:

• System Level Analysis: System level analysis looks at the international system; more
specifically, how the international system affects the behavior of nation states, with the
key variable being that the international system includes the power of each state rather
than being independent of them.
• State Level Analysis: State level analysis examines how a state’s characteristics
determine its foreign policy behavior. This type of analysis often views states as having
cultural characteristics based on their religious or social traditions, and their historical
legacy, and includes an analysis of economic and geographic factors.
 • Organizational Level Analysis: Organizational level analysis examines how
organizations within a state influence the state’s foreign policy behavior. In other words,
organizational level analysis views that organizations—not states—make the decisions
that create a state’s foreign policy.
• Individual Level Analysis: Individual level analysis views the leaders of states as being
the largest influencers of foreign policy.

Examining the Theories of International Relations

The study of international relations involves theoretical approaches based on solid evidence.
Theories of international relations are essentially a set of ideas aimed at explaining how the
international system works.
The two, major theories of international relations are realism and liberalism:
Realism
Realism focuses on the notion that states work to increase their own power relative to other
states. The theory of realism states that the only certainty in the world is power; therefore, a
powerful state—via military power (the most important and reliable form of power)—will
always be able to outlast its weaker competitors. Self-preservation is a major theme in realism, as
states must always seek power to protect themselves.
In realism, the international system drives states to use military force. Although leaders may be
moral, they must not let morality guide their foreign policy. Furthermore, realism recognizes that
international organizations and law have no power and force, and that their existence relies
solely on being recognized and accepted by select states.
Liberalism (Idealism)
Liberalism recognizes that states share broad ties, thus making it difficult to define singular
independent national interests. The theory of liberalism in international relations therefore
involves the decreased use of military power. The theory of realism began to take shape in the
1970s as increasing globalization, communications technology, and international trade made
some scholars argue that realism was outdated.
Liberal approaches to the study of international relations, also referred to as theories of complex
interdependence, claim that the consequences of military power outweigh the benefits and that
international cooperation is in the interest of every state. It also claims that exercising economic
power over military power has proven more effective.
Although the liberal theory of international relations was dominant following World War I while
President Woodrow Wilson promoted the League of Nations and many treaties abolishing war,
realism came back into prominence in the Second World War and continued throughout the Cold
War.

What is IR?
International Relations is concerned with relations across boundaries of nation-states. It
addresses international political economy, global governance, intercultural relations,
national and ethnic identities, foreign policy analysis, development studies, environment,
international security, diplomacy, terrorism, media, social movements and more. It is a
multidisciplinary field that does not restrict students to one approach and employs a variety
of methods including discourse analysis, statistics and comparative and historical analysis.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IS AN INCREASINGLY RELEVANT FIELD OF

STUDY
International Relations is becoming increasingly relevant as the world grows more and more
interconnected through trade and commerce, migration, the internet and through social
media, and concerns about pressing global environmental problems.

A globalized world calls for academics and professionals trained to comprehend these
complex interactions - promoting understanding and crafting policy and business solutions
to meet the challenges of today and the future. International Relations offers a
comprehensive and adaptable toolkit particularly well suited to employment in a rapidly
changing world.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AT SF STATE

The Department of International Relations in the College of Liberal & Creative Arts explores
the interrelations of the world’s primary political institutions, nation-states. As the world is
changing, so is the field of International Relations. Increasingly, International Relations at
SF State also focuses on multinational corporations, international governmental and non-
governmental organizations and social movements. Our curriculum is under constant review
to reflect these global and regional trends.

Our students study specific countries and geographic regions and their interconnections
through political treaties, trade, migration, cultural and ethnic affinities, shared social,
economic, and ideological goals, hierarchies of power and wealth and other factors. We
train students in different theoretical approaches and empower them to make their own
methodological choices.

Studying IR at SF State is a step out into the world

Whether you are looking to start or develop your professional career, enter academia, or
simply gain understanding of a globalized world – International Relations at San Francisco
State will provide you with a solid platform of critical knowledge and skills. We offer a wide
selection of courses, taught by a diverse faculty with expertise in the most pressing issues
and dynamic world regions today.

Our alumni can be found across the world in non-profit, private and government positions.
These include the U.S. Department of State and other countries’ foreign ministries, the City
of San Francisco and other local governments, U.S. intelligence agencies, non-profit
organizations in the areas of international development, human rights, international labor,
environment, and international migration as well in business. A significant number of our
graduate students also pursue further professional or doctoral studies at high-ranking
academic institutions around the world.

nternational Law and Justice

UN Photo/Rick Bajornas
Lady Justice, Hamburg City Hall, Germany

Among the greatest achievements of the United Nations is the development of a body of
international law—conventions, treaties and standards—central to promoting economic and
social development, as well as to advancing international peace and security. Many of the treaties
brought about by the United Nations form the basis of the law that governs relations among
nations. While the work of the UN in this area does not always receive attention, it has a daily
impact on the lives of people everywhere.

The Charter of the United Nations specifically calls on the Organization to help in the settlement
of international disputes by peaceful means, including arbitration and judicial settlement (Article
33), and to encourage the progressive development of international law and its codification
(Article 13).

Over the years, more than 500 multilateral treaties have been deposited with the Secretary-
General of the United Nations. Many other treaties are deposited with governments or other
entities. The treaties cover a broad range of subject matters such as human rights, disarmament
and protection of the environment.

General Assembly as a forum for adopting multilateral treaties

 The General Assembly is composed of representatives from each Member State of the United
Nations and is the main deliberative body on matters relating to international law. Many
multilateral treaties are in fact adopted by the General Assembly and subsequently opened for
signature and ratification. The Legal (Sixth) Committee assists the work of the General
Assembly by providing advice on substantive legal matters. The Committee is also made up of
representatives from all Member States of the United Nations.

The General Assembly has adopted a number of multilateral treaties throughout its history,
including:

• Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948)

• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965)
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966)
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979)
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (1996)
• International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999)
• International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (2005)
• Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006)
• United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or
Partly by Sea (2008)
• Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(2008)

In many areas, the legal work of the United Nations has been pioneering, addressing problems as
they take on an international dimension. The UN has been at the forefront of efforts to provide a
legal framework in such areas as protecting the environment, regulating migrant labour, curbing
drug trafficking and combating terrorism. This work continues today, as international law
assumes a more central role across a wider spectrum of issues, including human rights law and
international humanitarian law.
Read also about Law of the Sea.

Development and codification of international law

International Law Commission
The International Law Commission was established by the General Assembly in 1947 to
promote the progressive development of international law and its codification. The Commission
is composed of 34 members who collectively represent the worlds principal legal systems, and
serve as experts in their individual capacity, not as representatives of their governments. They
address a wide range of issues relevant to the regulation of relations among states, and frequently
 consult with the International Committee of the Red Cross, the International Court of Justice and
UN specialized agencies, depending on the subject being examined. Most of the Commission’s
work involves the preparation of drafts on aspects of international law.

Some topics are chosen by the Commission, others are referred to it by the General Assembly.
When the Commission completes work on a topic, the General Assembly sometimes convenes
an international conference of plenipotentiaries to incorporate the draft into a convention. The
convention is then opened to states to become parties—meaning that such countries formally
agree to be bound by its provisions. Some of these conventions form the very foundation of the
law governing relations among states. Examples include:

• the Convention on the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses, adopted by the

General Assembly in 1997, which regulates the equitable and reasonable utilization of
watercourses shared by two or more countries;
• the Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or
between International Organizations, adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1986;
• the Convention on the Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts,
adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1983;
• the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected
Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, adopted by the General Assembly in 1973;

International humanitarian law

International humanitarian law encompasses the principles and rules that regulate the means and
methods of warfare, as well as the humanitarian protection of civilian populations, sick and
wounded combatants, and prisoners of war. Major instruments include the 1949 Geneva
Conventions for the Protection of War Victims and two additional protocols concluded in 1977
under the auspices of the International Committee of the Red Cross.

The United Nations has taken a leading role in efforts to advance international humanitarian law.
The Security Council has become increasingly involved in protecting civilians in armed conflict,
promoting human rights and protecting children in wars.

Judicial settlement of disputes

International Court of Justice
The primary United Nations organ for the settlement of disputes is the International Court of
Justice. Also known as the World Court, it was founded in 1946. Since its founding, the Court
has considered over 170 cases, issued numerous judgments on disputes brought to it by states
and issued advisory opinions in response to requests by UN organizations. Most cases have been
dealt with by the full Court, but since 1981 six cases have been referred to special chambers at
the request of the parties.
In its judgments, the Court has addressed international disputes involving economic rights, rights
of passage, the non-use of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of states, diplomatic
relations, hostage-taking, the right of asylum and nationality. States bring such disputes before
the Court in search of an impartial solution to their differences on the basis of law. By achieving
peaceful settlement on such questions as land frontiers, maritime boundaries and territorial
sovereignty, the Court has often helped to prevent the escalation of disputes.

International Criminal Justice

The international community has had long aspired to create a permanent international court to try
the most serious international crimes, and, in the 20th century, it reached consensus on
definitions of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.

Tribunals
After the Second World War the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials addressed war crimes, crimes
against peace, and crimes against humanity committed during the Second World War.

The ad hoc tribunals and United Nations-assisted tribunals have continued to contribute to
combating impunity and promoting accountability for the most serious crimes. In the 1990s,
after the end of the Cold War, the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia
(ICTY) and for Rwanda (ICTR) were established to try crimes committed within a specific time-
frame and during a specific conflict. This applies, as well, to three courts established by the
states concerned, but with substantial UN support: the Special Court for Sierra Leone (2002),
the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2006) and the Special Tribunal for
Lebanon (2007). Sometimes referred to as ‘hybrid’ courts, they are non-permanent institutions
which will cease to exist once all their cases have been heard.

The International Criminal Court

The idea of a permanent international court to prosecute crimes against humanity was first
considered at the United Nations in the context of the adoption of the Genocide Convention of
1948. For many years, differences of opinions forestalled further developments. In 1992, the
General Assembly directed the International Law Commission to prepare a draft statute for such
a court. The massacres in Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda made the need for it
even more urgent.

The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction to prosecute individuals who commit
genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. It will also have jurisdiction over the crime
of aggression when agreement is reached on the definition of such a crime. The ICC is legally
and functionally independent from the United Nations, and is not a part of the UN system.

The cooperation between the UN and the ICC is governed by a Negotiated Relationship
Agreement. The Security Council can initiate proceedings before the ICC, and can refer to the
ICC situations that would not otherwise fall under the Court’s jurisdiction. The Court has 18
judges, elected by the states parties for a term limited to nine years, except that a judge shall
remain in office to complete any trial or appeal which has already begun. No two judges can be
from the same country.

What is International Relations?

Our richly connected, complex world demands professionals skilled in international relations, an
exciting field of study that presents a globally oriented perspective on issues that transcend
national boundaries.
The study and practice of international relations is interdisciplinary in nature, blending the fields
of economics, history, and political science to examine topics such as human rights, global
poverty, the environment, economics, globalization, security, global ethics, and the political
environment.
SPONSORED
Featured Program
* The online master's programs from American University's School of International
Service allow professionals to build international and business expertise in 12–24 months.
GRE/GMAT scores not required.

* Fletcher's online Master of Global Business Administration from Tufts University prepares
students to apply advanced business strategy in a global context. Complete in as few as 16
months. No GRE/GMAT required.

* Designed by both Kogod and the top-ranked School of International Service, the MS in
International Relations and Business at American University will help you develop a global
business mindset in as few as 18 months.No GRE/GMAT required.

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in International Relations Program - Online

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in Diplomacy - Online

Exceptional economic integration, unprecedented threats to peace and security, and an
international focus on human rights and environmental protection all speak to the complexity of
international relations in the twenty-first century. This means the study of international relations
must focus on interdisciplinary research that addresses, anticipates, and ultimately solves public
policy problems.
International relations (often referred to international affairs) has a broad purpose in
contemporary society, as it seeks to understand:

• The origins of war and the maintenance of peace

• The nature and exercise of power within the global system
• The changing character of state and non-state actors who participate in international
decision-making
For example, some institutions may study the psychological and social-psychological reasoning
behind the actions of foreign policymakers, while others may focus their international studies on
the institutional processes that contribute to the goals and behaviors of states. Ultimately, the
area of international relations studied depends on the goals or objectives of the organization.

The Value of International Relations in a

Globalized Society
Although international relations has taken on a new significance because of our increasingly
interconnected world, it is certainly not a new concept. Historically, the establishment of treaties
between nations served as the earliest form of international relations.
The study and practice of international relations in today’s world is valuable for many reasons:

• International relations promotes successful trade policies between nations.

• International relations encourages travel related to business, tourism, and immigration,
providing people with opportunities to enhance their lives.
• International relations allows nations to cooperate with one another, pool resources, and
share information as a way to face global issues that go beyond any particular country or
region. Contemporary global issues include pandemics, terrorism, and the environment.
• International relations advances human culture through cultural exchanges, diplomacy
and policy development.

The practice of international relations is valuable in a wide array of settings. Some examples
inlcude:

• Humanitarian organizations
o Action Against Hunger
o Oxfam International
o World Food Programme
• Government agencies
o Department of State
o Department of Homeland Security
o Department of Commerce
• International corporations
o General Electric
o BP
o Exxon Mobile
o Toyota
o Nestle
o Siemens
• Media outlets
o BBC
o Washington Post
o The Guardian
 o Der Spiegal
o New York Times
o Forbes
o Wall Street Journal
• Intergovernmental organizations
o World Trade Organization
o United Nations
o NATO
• International communications
o Amnesty International
o Freedom House
o Human Rights Watch
o Reporters Without Borders
• Research centers/Think tanks
o Brookings Institution
o Center for International Policy
o Council on Foreign Relations
o Global Public Policy Institute

The Theories and Principles of International

Relations
International relations may be an offshoot of political science, but this field of study is
exceptionally in-depth in its own right. As our global society evolves and expands, international
relations will evolve and expand along with it as we continue to explore new and exciting way to
link our complex world.
For example, traditional dimensions of international relations related to international peace and
prosperity include topics such as international diplomacy, arms control, and alliance politics.
Contemporary studies in international relations, on other hand, include topics such as
international political economics, environmental politics, refugee and migration issues, and
human rights.
Examining the Levels of State Behavior
Professionals studying international relations often determine the level at which they will analyze
a state’s behavior:

• System Level Analysis: System level analysis looks at the international system; more
specifically, how the international system affects the behavior of nation states, with the
key variable being that the international system includes the power of each state rather
than being independent of them.
• State Level Analysis: State level analysis examines how a state’s characteristics
determine its foreign policy behavior. This type of analysis often views states as having
cultural characteristics based on their religious or social traditions, and their historical
legacy, and includes an analysis of economic and geographic factors.
 • Organizational Level Analysis: Organizational level analysis examines how
organizations within a state influence the state’s foreign policy behavior. In other words,
organizational level analysis views that organizations—not states—make the decisions
that create a state’s foreign policy.
• Individual Level Analysis: Individual level analysis views the leaders of states as being
the largest influencers of foreign policy.

Examining the Theories of International Relations

The study of international relations involves theoretical approaches based on solid evidence.
Theories of international relations are essentially a set of ideas aimed at explaining how the
international system works.
The two, major theories of international relations are realism and liberalism:
Realism
Realism focuses on the notion that states work to increase their own power relative to other
states. The theory of realism states that the only certainty in the world is power; therefore, a
powerful state—via military power (the most important and reliable form of power)—will
always be able to outlast its weaker competitors. Self-preservation is a major theme in realism, as
states must always seek power to protect themselves.
In realism, the international system drives states to use military force. Although leaders may be
moral, they must not let morality guide their foreign policy. Furthermore, realism recognizes that
international organizations and law have no power and force, and that their existence relies
solely on being recognized and accepted by select states.
Liberalism (Idealism)
Liberalism recognizes that states share broad ties, thus making it difficult to define singular
independent national interests. The theory of liberalism in international relations therefore
involves the decreased use of military power. The theory of realism began to take shape in the
1970s as increasing globalization, communications technology, and international trade made
some scholars argue that realism was outdated.
Liberal approaches to the study of international relations, also referred to as theories of complex
interdependence, claim that the consequences of military power outweigh the benefits and that
international cooperation is in the interest of every state. It also claims that exercising economic
power over military power has proven more effective.
Although the liberal theory of international relations was dominant following World War I while
President Woodrow Wilson promoted the League of Nations and many treaties abolishing war,
realism came back into prominence in the Second World War and continued throughout the Cold
War.

What is IR?
International Relations is concerned with relations across boundaries of nation-states. It
addresses international political economy, global governance, intercultural relations,
national and ethnic identities, foreign policy analysis, development studies, environment,
international security, diplomacy, terrorism, media, social movements and more. It is a
multidisciplinary field that does not restrict students to one approach and employs a variety
of methods including discourse analysis, statistics and comparative and historical analysis.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IS AN INCREASINGLY RELEVANT FIELD OF

STUDY
International Relations is becoming increasingly relevant as the world grows more and more
interconnected through trade and commerce, migration, the internet and through social
media, and concerns about pressing global environmental problems.

A globalized world calls for academics and professionals trained to comprehend these
complex interactions - promoting understanding and crafting policy and business solutions
to meet the challenges of today and the future. International Relations offers a
comprehensive and adaptable toolkit particularly well suited to employment in a rapidly
changing world.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AT SF STATE

The Department of International Relations in the College of Liberal & Creative Arts explores
the interrelations of the world’s primary political institutions, nation-states. As the world is
changing, so is the field of International Relations. Increasingly, International Relations at
SF State also focuses on multinational corporations, international governmental and non-
governmental organizations and social movements. Our curriculum is under constant review
to reflect these global and regional trends.

Our students study specific countries and geographic regions and their interconnections
through political treaties, trade, migration, cultural and ethnic affinities, shared social,
economic, and ideological goals, hierarchies of power and wealth and other factors. We
train students in different theoretical approaches and empower them to make their own
methodological choices.

Studying IR at SF State is a step out into the world

Whether you are looking to start or develop your professional career, enter academia, or
simply gain understanding of a globalized world – International Relations at San Francisco
State will provide you with a solid platform of critical knowledge and skills. We offer a wide
selection of courses, taught by a diverse faculty with expertise in the most pressing issues
and dynamic world regions today.

Our alumni can be found across the world in non-profit, private and government positions.
These include the U.S. Department of State and other countries’ foreign ministries, the City
of San Francisco and other local governments, U.S. intelligence agencies, non-profit
organizations in the areas of international development, human rights, international labor,
environment, and international migration as well in business. A significant number of our
graduate students also pursue further professional or doctoral studies at high-ranking
academic institutions around the world.

nternational Law and Justice

UN Photo/Rick Bajornas
Lady Justice, Hamburg City Hall, Germany

Among the greatest achievements of the United Nations is the development of a body of
international law—conventions, treaties and standards—central to promoting economic and
social development, as well as to advancing international peace and security. Many of the treaties
brought about by the United Nations form the basis of the law that governs relations among
nations. While the work of the UN in this area does not always receive attention, it has a daily
impact on the lives of people everywhere.

The Charter of the United Nations specifically calls on the Organization to help in the settlement
of international disputes by peaceful means, including arbitration and judicial settlement (Article
33), and to encourage the progressive development of international law and its codification
(Article 13).

Over the years, more than 500 multilateral treaties have been deposited with the Secretary-
General of the United Nations. Many other treaties are deposited with governments or other
entities. The treaties cover a broad range of subject matters such as human rights, disarmament
and protection of the environment.

General Assembly as a forum for adopting multilateral treaties

 The General Assembly is composed of representatives from each Member State of the United
Nations and is the main deliberative body on matters relating to international law. Many
multilateral treaties are in fact adopted by the General Assembly and subsequently opened for
signature and ratification. The Legal (Sixth) Committee assists the work of the General
Assembly by providing advice on substantive legal matters. The Committee is also made up of
representatives from all Member States of the United Nations.

The General Assembly has adopted a number of multilateral treaties throughout its history,
including:

• Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948)

• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965)
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966)
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979)
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (1996)
• International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999)
• International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (2005)
• Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006)
• United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or
Partly by Sea (2008)
• Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(2008)

In many areas, the legal work of the United Nations has been pioneering, addressing problems as
they take on an international dimension. The UN has been at the forefront of efforts to provide a
legal framework in such areas as protecting the environment, regulating migrant labour, curbing
drug trafficking and combating terrorism. This work continues today, as international law
assumes a more central role across a wider spectrum of issues, including human rights law and
international humanitarian law.
Read also about Law of the Sea.

Development and codification of international law

International Law Commission
The International Law Commission was established by the General Assembly in 1947 to
promote the progressive development of international law and its codification. The Commission
is composed of 34 members who collectively represent the worlds principal legal systems, and
serve as experts in their individual capacity, not as representatives of their governments. They
address a wide range of issues relevant to the regulation of relations among states, and frequently
 consult with the International Committee of the Red Cross, the International Court of Justice and
UN specialized agencies, depending on the subject being examined. Most of the Commission’s
work involves the preparation of drafts on aspects of international law.

Some topics are chosen by the Commission, others are referred to it by the General Assembly.
When the Commission completes work on a topic, the General Assembly sometimes convenes
an international conference of plenipotentiaries to incorporate the draft into a convention. The
convention is then opened to states to become parties—meaning that such countries formally
agree to be bound by its provisions. Some of these conventions form the very foundation of the
law governing relations among states. Examples include:

• the Convention on the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses, adopted by the

General Assembly in 1997, which regulates the equitable and reasonable utilization of
watercourses shared by two or more countries;
• the Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or
between International Organizations, adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1986;
• the Convention on the Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts,
adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1983;
• the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected
Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, adopted by the General Assembly in 1973;

International humanitarian law

International humanitarian law encompasses the principles and rules that regulate the means and
methods of warfare, as well as the humanitarian protection of civilian populations, sick and
wounded combatants, and prisoners of war. Major instruments include the 1949 Geneva
Conventions for the Protection of War Victims and two additional protocols concluded in 1977
under the auspices of the International Committee of the Red Cross.

The United Nations has taken a leading role in efforts to advance international humanitarian law.
The Security Council has become increasingly involved in protecting civilians in armed conflict,
promoting human rights and protecting children in wars.

Judicial settlement of disputes

International Court of Justice
The primary United Nations organ for the settlement of disputes is the International Court of
Justice. Also known as the World Court, it was founded in 1946. Since its founding, the Court
has considered over 170 cases, issued numerous judgments on disputes brought to it by states
and issued advisory opinions in response to requests by UN organizations. Most cases have been
dealt with by the full Court, but since 1981 six cases have been referred to special chambers at
the request of the parties.
In its judgments, the Court has addressed international disputes involving economic rights, rights
of passage, the non-use of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of states, diplomatic
relations, hostage-taking, the right of asylum and nationality. States bring such disputes before
the Court in search of an impartial solution to their differences on the basis of law. By achieving
peaceful settlement on such questions as land frontiers, maritime boundaries and territorial
sovereignty, the Court has often helped to prevent the escalation of disputes.

International Criminal Justice

The international community has had long aspired to create a permanent international court to try
the most serious international crimes, and, in the 20th century, it reached consensus on
definitions of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.

Tribunals
After the Second World War the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials addressed war crimes, crimes
against peace, and crimes against humanity committed during the Second World War.

The ad hoc tribunals and United Nations-assisted tribunals have continued to contribute to
combating impunity and promoting accountability for the most serious crimes. In the 1990s,
after the end of the Cold War, the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia
(ICTY) and for Rwanda (ICTR) were established to try crimes committed within a specific time-
frame and during a specific conflict. This applies, as well, to three courts established by the
states concerned, but with substantial UN support: the Special Court for Sierra Leone (2002),
the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2006) and the Special Tribunal for
Lebanon (2007). Sometimes referred to as ‘hybrid’ courts, they are non-permanent institutions
which will cease to exist once all their cases have been heard.

The International Criminal Court

The idea of a permanent international court to prosecute crimes against humanity was first
considered at the United Nations in the context of the adoption of the Genocide Convention of
1948. For many years, differences of opinions forestalled further developments. In 1992, the
General Assembly directed the International Law Commission to prepare a draft statute for such
a court. The massacres in Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda made the need for it
even more urgent.

The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction to prosecute individuals who commit
genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. It will also have jurisdiction over the crime
of aggression when agreement is reached on the definition of such a crime. The ICC is legally
and functionally independent from the United Nations, and is not a part of the UN system.

The cooperation between the UN and the ICC is governed by a Negotiated Relationship
Agreement. The Security Council can initiate proceedings before the ICC, and can refer to the
ICC situations that would not otherwise fall under the Court’s jurisdiction. The Court has 18
judges, elected by the states parties for a term limited to nine years, except that a judge shall
remain in office to complete any trial or appeal which has already begun. No two judges can be
from the same country.

What is International Relations?

Our richly connected, complex world demands professionals skilled in international relations, an
exciting field of study that presents a globally oriented perspective on issues that transcend
national boundaries.
The study and practice of international relations is interdisciplinary in nature, blending the fields
of economics, history, and political science to examine topics such as human rights, global
poverty, the environment, economics, globalization, security, global ethics, and the political
environment.
SPONSORED
Featured Program
* The online master's programs from American University's School of International
Service allow professionals to build international and business expertise in 12–24 months.
GRE/GMAT scores not required.

* Fletcher's online Master of Global Business Administration from Tufts University prepares
students to apply advanced business strategy in a global context. Complete in as few as 16
months. No GRE/GMAT required.

* Designed by both Kogod and the top-ranked School of International Service, the MS in
International Relations and Business at American University will help you develop a global
business mindset in as few as 18 months.No GRE/GMAT required.

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in International Relations Program - Online

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in Diplomacy - Online

Exceptional economic integration, unprecedented threats to peace and security, and an
international focus on human rights and environmental protection all speak to the complexity of
international relations in the twenty-first century. This means the study of international relations
must focus on interdisciplinary research that addresses, anticipates, and ultimately solves public
policy problems.
International relations (often referred to international affairs) has a broad purpose in
contemporary society, as it seeks to understand:

• The origins of war and the maintenance of peace

• The nature and exercise of power within the global system
• The changing character of state and non-state actors who participate in international
decision-making
For example, some institutions may study the psychological and social-psychological reasoning
behind the actions of foreign policymakers, while others may focus their international studies on
the institutional processes that contribute to the goals and behaviors of states. Ultimately, the
area of international relations studied depends on the goals or objectives of the organization.

The Value of International Relations in a

Globalized Society
Although international relations has taken on a new significance because of our increasingly
interconnected world, it is certainly not a new concept. Historically, the establishment of treaties
between nations served as the earliest form of international relations.
The study and practice of international relations in today’s world is valuable for many reasons:

• International relations promotes successful trade policies between nations.

• International relations encourages travel related to business, tourism, and immigration,
providing people with opportunities to enhance their lives.
• International relations allows nations to cooperate with one another, pool resources, and
share information as a way to face global issues that go beyond any particular country or
region. Contemporary global issues include pandemics, terrorism, and the environment.
• International relations advances human culture through cultural exchanges, diplomacy
and policy development.

The practice of international relations is valuable in a wide array of settings. Some examples
inlcude:

• Humanitarian organizations
o Action Against Hunger
o Oxfam International
o World Food Programme
• Government agencies
o Department of State
o Department of Homeland Security
o Department of Commerce
• International corporations
o General Electric
o BP
o Exxon Mobile
o Toyota
o Nestle
o Siemens
• Media outlets
o BBC
o Washington Post
o The Guardian
 o Der Spiegal
o New York Times
o Forbes
o Wall Street Journal
• Intergovernmental organizations
o World Trade Organization
o United Nations
o NATO
• International communications
o Amnesty International
o Freedom House
o Human Rights Watch
o Reporters Without Borders
• Research centers/Think tanks
o Brookings Institution
o Center for International Policy
o Council on Foreign Relations
o Global Public Policy Institute

The Theories and Principles of International

Relations
International relations may be an offshoot of political science, but this field of study is
exceptionally in-depth in its own right. As our global society evolves and expands, international
relations will evolve and expand along with it as we continue to explore new and exciting way to
link our complex world.
For example, traditional dimensions of international relations related to international peace and
prosperity include topics such as international diplomacy, arms control, and alliance politics.
Contemporary studies in international relations, on other hand, include topics such as
international political economics, environmental politics, refugee and migration issues, and
human rights.
Examining the Levels of State Behavior
Professionals studying international relations often determine the level at which they will analyze
a state’s behavior:

• System Level Analysis: System level analysis looks at the international system; more
specifically, how the international system affects the behavior of nation states, with the
key variable being that the international system includes the power of each state rather
than being independent of them.
• State Level Analysis: State level analysis examines how a state’s characteristics
determine its foreign policy behavior. This type of analysis often views states as having
cultural characteristics based on their religious or social traditions, and their historical
legacy, and includes an analysis of economic and geographic factors.
 • Organizational Level Analysis: Organizational level analysis examines how
organizations within a state influence the state’s foreign policy behavior. In other words,
organizational level analysis views that organizations—not states—make the decisions
that create a state’s foreign policy.
• Individual Level Analysis: Individual level analysis views the leaders of states as being
the largest influencers of foreign policy.

Examining the Theories of International Relations

The study of international relations involves theoretical approaches based on solid evidence.
Theories of international relations are essentially a set of ideas aimed at explaining how the
international system works.
The two, major theories of international relations are realism and liberalism:
Realism
Realism focuses on the notion that states work to increase their own power relative to other
states. The theory of realism states that the only certainty in the world is power; therefore, a
powerful state—via military power (the most important and reliable form of power)—will
always be able to outlast its weaker competitors. Self-preservation is a major theme in realism, as
states must always seek power to protect themselves.
In realism, the international system drives states to use military force. Although leaders may be
moral, they must not let morality guide their foreign policy. Furthermore, realism recognizes that
international organizations and law have no power and force, and that their existence relies
solely on being recognized and accepted by select states.
Liberalism (Idealism)
Liberalism recognizes that states share broad ties, thus making it difficult to define singular
independent national interests. The theory of liberalism in international relations therefore
involves the decreased use of military power. The theory of realism began to take shape in the
1970s as increasing globalization, communications technology, and international trade made
some scholars argue that realism was outdated.
Liberal approaches to the study of international relations, also referred to as theories of complex
interdependence, claim that the consequences of military power outweigh the benefits and that
international cooperation is in the interest of every state. It also claims that exercising economic
power over military power has proven more effective.
Although the liberal theory of international relations was dominant following World War I while
President Woodrow Wilson promoted the League of Nations and many treaties abolishing war,
realism came back into prominence in the Second World War and continued throughout the Cold
War.

What is IR?
International Relations is concerned with relations across boundaries of nation-states. It
addresses international political economy, global governance, intercultural relations,
national and ethnic identities, foreign policy analysis, development studies, environment,
international security, diplomacy, terrorism, media, social movements and more. It is a
multidisciplinary field that does not restrict students to one approach and employs a variety
of methods including discourse analysis, statistics and comparative and historical analysis.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IS AN INCREASINGLY RELEVANT FIELD OF

STUDY
International Relations is becoming increasingly relevant as the world grows more and more
interconnected through trade and commerce, migration, the internet and through social
media, and concerns about pressing global environmental problems.

A globalized world calls for academics and professionals trained to comprehend these
complex interactions - promoting understanding and crafting policy and business solutions
to meet the challenges of today and the future. International Relations offers a
comprehensive and adaptable toolkit particularly well suited to employment in a rapidly
changing world.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AT SF STATE

The Department of International Relations in the College of Liberal & Creative Arts explores
the interrelations of the world’s primary political institutions, nation-states. As the world is
changing, so is the field of International Relations. Increasingly, International Relations at
SF State also focuses on multinational corporations, international governmental and non-
governmental organizations and social movements. Our curriculum is under constant review
to reflect these global and regional trends.

Our students study specific countries and geographic regions and their interconnections
through political treaties, trade, migration, cultural and ethnic affinities, shared social,
economic, and ideological goals, hierarchies of power and wealth and other factors. We
train students in different theoretical approaches and empower them to make their own
methodological choices.

Studying IR at SF State is a step out into the world

Whether you are looking to start or develop your professional career, enter academia, or
simply gain understanding of a globalized world – International Relations at San Francisco
State will provide you with a solid platform of critical knowledge and skills. We offer a wide
selection of courses, taught by a diverse faculty with expertise in the most pressing issues
and dynamic world regions today.

Our alumni can be found across the world in non-profit, private and government positions.
These include the U.S. Department of State and other countries’ foreign ministries, the City
of San Francisco and other local governments, U.S. intelligence agencies, non-profit
organizations in the areas of international development, human rights, international labor,
environment, and international migration as well in business. A significant number of our
graduate students also pursue further professional or doctoral studies at high-ranking
academic institutions around the world.

nternational Law and Justice

UN Photo/Rick Bajornas
Lady Justice, Hamburg City Hall, Germany

Among the greatest achievements of the United Nations is the development of a body of
international law—conventions, treaties and standards—central to promoting economic and
social development, as well as to advancing international peace and security. Many of the treaties
brought about by the United Nations form the basis of the law that governs relations among
nations. While the work of the UN in this area does not always receive attention, it has a daily
impact on the lives of people everywhere.

The Charter of the United Nations specifically calls on the Organization to help in the settlement
of international disputes by peaceful means, including arbitration and judicial settlement (Article
33), and to encourage the progressive development of international law and its codification
(Article 13).

Over the years, more than 500 multilateral treaties have been deposited with the Secretary-
General of the United Nations. Many other treaties are deposited with governments or other
entities. The treaties cover a broad range of subject matters such as human rights, disarmament
and protection of the environment.

General Assembly as a forum for adopting multilateral treaties

 The General Assembly is composed of representatives from each Member State of the United
Nations and is the main deliberative body on matters relating to international law. Many
multilateral treaties are in fact adopted by the General Assembly and subsequently opened for
signature and ratification. The Legal (Sixth) Committee assists the work of the General
Assembly by providing advice on substantive legal matters. The Committee is also made up of
representatives from all Member States of the United Nations.

The General Assembly has adopted a number of multilateral treaties throughout its history,
including:

• Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948)

• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965)
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966)
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979)
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (1996)
• International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999)
• International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (2005)
• Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006)
• United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or
Partly by Sea (2008)
• Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(2008)

In many areas, the legal work of the United Nations has been pioneering, addressing problems as
they take on an international dimension. The UN has been at the forefront of efforts to provide a
legal framework in such areas as protecting the environment, regulating migrant labour, curbing
drug trafficking and combating terrorism. This work continues today, as international law
assumes a more central role across a wider spectrum of issues, including human rights law and
international humanitarian law.
Read also about Law of the Sea.

Development and codification of international law

International Law Commission
The International Law Commission was established by the General Assembly in 1947 to
promote the progressive development of international law and its codification. The Commission
is composed of 34 members who collectively represent the worlds principal legal systems, and
serve as experts in their individual capacity, not as representatives of their governments. They
address a wide range of issues relevant to the regulation of relations among states, and frequently
 consult with the International Committee of the Red Cross, the International Court of Justice and
UN specialized agencies, depending on the subject being examined. Most of the Commission’s
work involves the preparation of drafts on aspects of international law.

Some topics are chosen by the Commission, others are referred to it by the General Assembly.
When the Commission completes work on a topic, the General Assembly sometimes convenes
an international conference of plenipotentiaries to incorporate the draft into a convention. The
convention is then opened to states to become parties—meaning that such countries formally
agree to be bound by its provisions. Some of these conventions form the very foundation of the
law governing relations among states. Examples include:

• the Convention on the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses, adopted by the

General Assembly in 1997, which regulates the equitable and reasonable utilization of
watercourses shared by two or more countries;
• the Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or
between International Organizations, adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1986;
• the Convention on the Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts,
adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1983;
• the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected
Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, adopted by the General Assembly in 1973;

International humanitarian law

International humanitarian law encompasses the principles and rules that regulate the means and
methods of warfare, as well as the humanitarian protection of civilian populations, sick and
wounded combatants, and prisoners of war. Major instruments include the 1949 Geneva
Conventions for the Protection of War Victims and two additional protocols concluded in 1977
under the auspices of the International Committee of the Red Cross.

The United Nations has taken a leading role in efforts to advance international humanitarian law.
The Security Council has become increasingly involved in protecting civilians in armed conflict,
promoting human rights and protecting children in wars.

Judicial settlement of disputes

International Court of Justice
The primary United Nations organ for the settlement of disputes is the International Court of
Justice. Also known as the World Court, it was founded in 1946. Since its founding, the Court
has considered over 170 cases, issued numerous judgments on disputes brought to it by states
and issued advisory opinions in response to requests by UN organizations. Most cases have been
dealt with by the full Court, but since 1981 six cases have been referred to special chambers at
the request of the parties.
In its judgments, the Court has addressed international disputes involving economic rights, rights
of passage, the non-use of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of states, diplomatic
relations, hostage-taking, the right of asylum and nationality. States bring such disputes before
the Court in search of an impartial solution to their differences on the basis of law. By achieving
peaceful settlement on such questions as land frontiers, maritime boundaries and territorial
sovereignty, the Court has often helped to prevent the escalation of disputes.

International Criminal Justice

The international community has had long aspired to create a permanent international court to try
the most serious international crimes, and, in the 20th century, it reached consensus on
definitions of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.

Tribunals
After the Second World War the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials addressed war crimes, crimes
against peace, and crimes against humanity committed during the Second World War.

The ad hoc tribunals and United Nations-assisted tribunals have continued to contribute to
combating impunity and promoting accountability for the most serious crimes. In the 1990s,
after the end of the Cold War, the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia
(ICTY) and for Rwanda (ICTR) were established to try crimes committed within a specific time-
frame and during a specific conflict. This applies, as well, to three courts established by the
states concerned, but with substantial UN support: the Special Court for Sierra Leone (2002),
the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2006) and the Special Tribunal for
Lebanon (2007). Sometimes referred to as ‘hybrid’ courts, they are non-permanent institutions
which will cease to exist once all their cases have been heard.

The International Criminal Court

The idea of a permanent international court to prosecute crimes against humanity was first
considered at the United Nations in the context of the adoption of the Genocide Convention of
1948. For many years, differences of opinions forestalled further developments. In 1992, the
General Assembly directed the International Law Commission to prepare a draft statute for such
a court. The massacres in Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda made the need for it
even more urgent.

The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction to prosecute individuals who commit
genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. It will also have jurisdiction over the crime
of aggression when agreement is reached on the definition of such a crime. The ICC is legally
and functionally independent from the United Nations, and is not a part of the UN system.

The cooperation between the UN and the ICC is governed by a Negotiated Relationship
Agreement. The Security Council can initiate proceedings before the ICC, and can refer to the
ICC situations that would not otherwise fall under the Court’s jurisdiction. The Court has 18
judges, elected by the states parties for a term limited to nine years, except that a judge shall
remain in office to complete any trial or appeal which has already begun. No two judges can be
from the same country.

What is International Relations?

Our richly connected, complex world demands professionals skilled in international relations, an
exciting field of study that presents a globally oriented perspective on issues that transcend
national boundaries.
The study and practice of international relations is interdisciplinary in nature, blending the fields
of economics, history, and political science to examine topics such as human rights, global
poverty, the environment, economics, globalization, security, global ethics, and the political
environment.
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Exceptional economic integration, unprecedented threats to peace and security, and an
international focus on human rights and environmental protection all speak to the complexity of
international relations in the twenty-first century. This means the study of international relations
must focus on interdisciplinary research that addresses, anticipates, and ultimately solves public
policy problems.
International relations (often referred to international affairs) has a broad purpose in
contemporary society, as it seeks to understand:

• The origins of war and the maintenance of peace

• The nature and exercise of power within the global system
• The changing character of state and non-state actors who participate in international
decision-making
For example, some institutions may study the psychological and social-psychological reasoning
behind the actions of foreign policymakers, while others may focus their international studies on
the institutional processes that contribute to the goals and behaviors of states. Ultimately, the
area of international relations studied depends on the goals or objectives of the organization.

The Value of International Relations in a

Globalized Society
Although international relations has taken on a new significance because of our increasingly
interconnected world, it is certainly not a new concept. Historically, the establishment of treaties
between nations served as the earliest form of international relations.
The study and practice of international relations in today’s world is valuable for many reasons:

• International relations promotes successful trade policies between nations.

• International relations encourages travel related to business, tourism, and immigration,
providing people with opportunities to enhance their lives.
• International relations allows nations to cooperate with one another, pool resources, and
share information as a way to face global issues that go beyond any particular country or
region. Contemporary global issues include pandemics, terrorism, and the environment.
• International relations advances human culture through cultural exchanges, diplomacy
and policy development.

The practice of international relations is valuable in a wide array of settings. Some examples
inlcude:

• Humanitarian organizations
o Action Against Hunger
o Oxfam International
o World Food Programme
• Government agencies
o Department of State
o Department of Homeland Security
o Department of Commerce
• International corporations
o General Electric
o BP
o Exxon Mobile
o Toyota
o Nestle
o Siemens
• Media outlets
o BBC
o Washington Post
o The Guardian
 o Der Spiegal
o New York Times
o Forbes
o Wall Street Journal
• Intergovernmental organizations
o World Trade Organization
o United Nations
o NATO
• International communications
o Amnesty International
o Freedom House
o Human Rights Watch
o Reporters Without Borders
• Research centers/Think tanks
o Brookings Institution
o Center for International Policy
o Council on Foreign Relations
o Global Public Policy Institute

The Theories and Principles of International

Relations
International relations may be an offshoot of political science, but this field of study is
exceptionally in-depth in its own right. As our global society evolves and expands, international
relations will evolve and expand along with it as we continue to explore new and exciting way to
link our complex world.
For example, traditional dimensions of international relations related to international peace and
prosperity include topics such as international diplomacy, arms control, and alliance politics.
Contemporary studies in international relations, on other hand, include topics such as
international political economics, environmental politics, refugee and migration issues, and
human rights.
Examining the Levels of State Behavior
Professionals studying international relations often determine the level at which they will analyze
a state’s behavior:

• System Level Analysis: System level analysis looks at the international system; more
specifically, how the international system affects the behavior of nation states, with the
key variable being that the international system includes the power of each state rather
than being independent of them.
• State Level Analysis: State level analysis examines how a state’s characteristics
determine its foreign policy behavior. This type of analysis often views states as having
cultural characteristics based on their religious or social traditions, and their historical
legacy, and includes an analysis of economic and geographic factors.
 • Organizational Level Analysis: Organizational level analysis examines how
organizations within a state influence the state’s foreign policy behavior. In other words,
organizational level analysis views that organizations—not states—make the decisions
that create a state’s foreign policy.
• Individual Level Analysis: Individual level analysis views the leaders of states as being
the largest influencers of foreign policy.

Examining the Theories of International Relations

The study of international relations involves theoretical approaches based on solid evidence.
Theories of international relations are essentially a set of ideas aimed at explaining how the
international system works.
The two, major theories of international relations are realism and liberalism:
Realism
Realism focuses on the notion that states work to increase their own power relative to other
states. The theory of realism states that the only certainty in the world is power; therefore, a
powerful state—via military power (the most important and reliable form of power)—will
always be able to outlast its weaker competitors. Self-preservation is a major theme in realism, as
states must always seek power to protect themselves.
In realism, the international system drives states to use military force. Although leaders may be
moral, they must not let morality guide their foreign policy. Furthermore, realism recognizes that
international organizations and law have no power and force, and that their existence relies
solely on being recognized and accepted by select states.
Liberalism (Idealism)
Liberalism recognizes that states share broad ties, thus making it difficult to define singular
independent national interests. The theory of liberalism in international relations therefore
involves the decreased use of military power. The theory of realism began to take shape in the
1970s as increasing globalization, communications technology, and international trade made
some scholars argue that realism was outdated.
Liberal approaches to the study of international relations, also referred to as theories of complex
interdependence, claim that the consequences of military power outweigh the benefits and that
international cooperation is in the interest of every state. It also claims that exercising economic
power over military power has proven more effective.
Although the liberal theory of international relations was dominant following World War I while
President Woodrow Wilson promoted the League of Nations and many treaties abolishing war,
realism came back into prominence in the Second World War and continued throughout the Cold
War.

What is IR?
International Relations is concerned with relations across boundaries of nation-states. It
addresses international political economy, global governance, intercultural relations,
national and ethnic identities, foreign policy analysis, development studies, environment,
international security, diplomacy, terrorism, media, social movements and more. It is a
multidisciplinary field that does not restrict students to one approach and employs a variety
of methods including discourse analysis, statistics and comparative and historical analysis.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IS AN INCREASINGLY RELEVANT FIELD OF

STUDY
International Relations is becoming increasingly relevant as the world grows more and more
interconnected through trade and commerce, migration, the internet and through social
media, and concerns about pressing global environmental problems.

A globalized world calls for academics and professionals trained to comprehend these
complex interactions - promoting understanding and crafting policy and business solutions
to meet the challenges of today and the future. International Relations offers a
comprehensive and adaptable toolkit particularly well suited to employment in a rapidly
changing world.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AT SF STATE

The Department of International Relations in the College of Liberal & Creative Arts explores
the interrelations of the world’s primary political institutions, nation-states. As the world is
changing, so is the field of International Relations. Increasingly, International Relations at
SF State also focuses on multinational corporations, international governmental and non-
governmental organizations and social movements. Our curriculum is under constant review
to reflect these global and regional trends.

Our students study specific countries and geographic regions and their interconnections
through political treaties, trade, migration, cultural and ethnic affinities, shared social,
economic, and ideological goals, hierarchies of power and wealth and other factors. We
train students in different theoretical approaches and empower them to make their own
methodological choices.

Studying IR at SF State is a step out into the world

Whether you are looking to start or develop your professional career, enter academia, or
simply gain understanding of a globalized world – International Relations at San Francisco
State will provide you with a solid platform of critical knowledge and skills. We offer a wide
selection of courses, taught by a diverse faculty with expertise in the most pressing issues
and dynamic world regions today.

Our alumni can be found across the world in non-profit, private and government positions.
These include the U.S. Department of State and other countries’ foreign ministries, the City
of San Francisco and other local governments, U.S. intelligence agencies, non-profit
organizations in the areas of international development, human rights, international labor,
environment, and international migration as well in business. A significant number of our
graduate students also pursue further professional or doctoral studies at high-ranking
academic institutions around the world.

nternational Law and Justice

UN Photo/Rick Bajornas
Lady Justice, Hamburg City Hall, Germany

Among the greatest achievements of the United Nations is the development of a body of
international law—conventions, treaties and standards—central to promoting economic and
social development, as well as to advancing international peace and security. Many of the treaties
brought about by the United Nations form the basis of the law that governs relations among
nations. While the work of the UN in this area does not always receive attention, it has a daily
impact on the lives of people everywhere.

The Charter of the United Nations specifically calls on the Organization to help in the settlement
of international disputes by peaceful means, including arbitration and judicial settlement (Article
33), and to encourage the progressive development of international law and its codification
(Article 13).

Over the years, more than 500 multilateral treaties have been deposited with the Secretary-
General of the United Nations. Many other treaties are deposited with governments or other
entities. The treaties cover a broad range of subject matters such as human rights, disarmament
and protection of the environment.

General Assembly as a forum for adopting multilateral treaties

 The General Assembly is composed of representatives from each Member State of the United
Nations and is the main deliberative body on matters relating to international law. Many
multilateral treaties are in fact adopted by the General Assembly and subsequently opened for
signature and ratification. The Legal (Sixth) Committee assists the work of the General
Assembly by providing advice on substantive legal matters. The Committee is also made up of
representatives from all Member States of the United Nations.

The General Assembly has adopted a number of multilateral treaties throughout its history,
including:

• Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948)

• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965)
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966)
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979)
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (1996)
• International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999)
• International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (2005)
• Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006)
• United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or
Partly by Sea (2008)
• Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(2008)

In many areas, the legal work of the United Nations has been pioneering, addressing problems as
they take on an international dimension. The UN has been at the forefront of efforts to provide a
legal framework in such areas as protecting the environment, regulating migrant labour, curbing
drug trafficking and combating terrorism. This work continues today, as international law
assumes a more central role across a wider spectrum of issues, including human rights law and
international humanitarian law.
Read also about Law of the Sea.

Development and codification of international law

International Law Commission
The International Law Commission was established by the General Assembly in 1947 to
promote the progressive development of international law and its codification. The Commission
is composed of 34 members who collectively represent the worlds principal legal systems, and
serve as experts in their individual capacity, not as representatives of their governments. They
address a wide range of issues relevant to the regulation of relations among states, and frequently
 consult with the International Committee of the Red Cross, the International Court of Justice and
UN specialized agencies, depending on the subject being examined. Most of the Commission’s
work involves the preparation of drafts on aspects of international law.

Some topics are chosen by the Commission, others are referred to it by the General Assembly.
When the Commission completes work on a topic, the General Assembly sometimes convenes
an international conference of plenipotentiaries to incorporate the draft into a convention. The
convention is then opened to states to become parties—meaning that such countries formally
agree to be bound by its provisions. Some of these conventions form the very foundation of the
law governing relations among states. Examples include:

• the Convention on the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses, adopted by the

General Assembly in 1997, which regulates the equitable and reasonable utilization of
watercourses shared by two or more countries;
• the Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or
between International Organizations, adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1986;
• the Convention on the Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts,
adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1983;
• the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected
Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, adopted by the General Assembly in 1973;

International humanitarian law

International humanitarian law encompasses the principles and rules that regulate the means and
methods of warfare, as well as the humanitarian protection of civilian populations, sick and
wounded combatants, and prisoners of war. Major instruments include the 1949 Geneva
Conventions for the Protection of War Victims and two additional protocols concluded in 1977
under the auspices of the International Committee of the Red Cross.

The United Nations has taken a leading role in efforts to advance international humanitarian law.
The Security Council has become increasingly involved in protecting civilians in armed conflict,
promoting human rights and protecting children in wars.

Judicial settlement of disputes

International Court of Justice
The primary United Nations organ for the settlement of disputes is the International Court of
Justice. Also known as the World Court, it was founded in 1946. Since its founding, the Court
has considered over 170 cases, issued numerous judgments on disputes brought to it by states
and issued advisory opinions in response to requests by UN organizations. Most cases have been
dealt with by the full Court, but since 1981 six cases have been referred to special chambers at
the request of the parties.
In its judgments, the Court has addressed international disputes involving economic rights, rights
of passage, the non-use of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of states, diplomatic
relations, hostage-taking, the right of asylum and nationality. States bring such disputes before
the Court in search of an impartial solution to their differences on the basis of law. By achieving
peaceful settlement on such questions as land frontiers, maritime boundaries and territorial
sovereignty, the Court has often helped to prevent the escalation of disputes.

International Criminal Justice

The international community has had long aspired to create a permanent international court to try
the most serious international crimes, and, in the 20th century, it reached consensus on
definitions of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.

Tribunals
After the Second World War the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials addressed war crimes, crimes
against peace, and crimes against humanity committed during the Second World War.

The ad hoc tribunals and United Nations-assisted tribunals have continued to contribute to
combating impunity and promoting accountability for the most serious crimes. In the 1990s,
after the end of the Cold War, the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia
(ICTY) and for Rwanda (ICTR) were established to try crimes committed within a specific time-
frame and during a specific conflict. This applies, as well, to three courts established by the
states concerned, but with substantial UN support: the Special Court for Sierra Leone (2002),
the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2006) and the Special Tribunal for
Lebanon (2007). Sometimes referred to as ‘hybrid’ courts, they are non-permanent institutions
which will cease to exist once all their cases have been heard.

The International Criminal Court

The idea of a permanent international court to prosecute crimes against humanity was first
considered at the United Nations in the context of the adoption of the Genocide Convention of
1948. For many years, differences of opinions forestalled further developments. In 1992, the
General Assembly directed the International Law Commission to prepare a draft statute for such
a court. The massacres in Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda made the need for it
even more urgent.

The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction to prosecute individuals who commit
genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. It will also have jurisdiction over the crime
of aggression when agreement is reached on the definition of such a crime. The ICC is legally
and functionally independent from the United Nations, and is not a part of the UN system.

The cooperation between the UN and the ICC is governed by a Negotiated Relationship
Agreement. The Security Council can initiate proceedings before the ICC, and can refer to the
ICC situations that would not otherwise fall under the Court’s jurisdiction. The Court has 18
judges, elected by the states parties for a term limited to nine years, except that a judge shall
remain in office to complete any trial or appeal which has already begun. No two judges can be
from the same country.

What is International Relations?

Our richly connected, complex world demands professionals skilled in international relations, an
exciting field of study that presents a globally oriented perspective on issues that transcend
national boundaries.
The study and practice of international relations is interdisciplinary in nature, blending the fields
of economics, history, and political science to examine topics such as human rights, global
poverty, the environment, economics, globalization, security, global ethics, and the political
environment.
SPONSORED
Featured Program
* The online master's programs from American University's School of International
Service allow professionals to build international and business expertise in 12–24 months.
GRE/GMAT scores not required.

* Fletcher's online Master of Global Business Administration from Tufts University prepares
students to apply advanced business strategy in a global context. Complete in as few as 16
months. No GRE/GMAT required.

* Designed by both Kogod and the top-ranked School of International Service, the MS in
International Relations and Business at American University will help you develop a global
business mindset in as few as 18 months.No GRE/GMAT required.

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in International Relations Program - Online

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in Diplomacy - Online

Exceptional economic integration, unprecedented threats to peace and security, and an
international focus on human rights and environmental protection all speak to the complexity of
international relations in the twenty-first century. This means the study of international relations
must focus on interdisciplinary research that addresses, anticipates, and ultimately solves public
policy problems.
International relations (often referred to international affairs) has a broad purpose in
contemporary society, as it seeks to understand:

• The origins of war and the maintenance of peace

• The nature and exercise of power within the global system
• The changing character of state and non-state actors who participate in international
decision-making
For example, some institutions may study the psychological and social-psychological reasoning
behind the actions of foreign policymakers, while others may focus their international studies on
the institutional processes that contribute to the goals and behaviors of states. Ultimately, the
area of international relations studied depends on the goals or objectives of the organization.

The Value of International Relations in a

Globalized Society
Although international relations has taken on a new significance because of our increasingly
interconnected world, it is certainly not a new concept. Historically, the establishment of treaties
between nations served as the earliest form of international relations.
The study and practice of international relations in today’s world is valuable for many reasons:

• International relations promotes successful trade policies between nations.

• International relations encourages travel related to business, tourism, and immigration,
providing people with opportunities to enhance their lives.
• International relations allows nations to cooperate with one another, pool resources, and
share information as a way to face global issues that go beyond any particular country or
region. Contemporary global issues include pandemics, terrorism, and the environment.
• International relations advances human culture through cultural exchanges, diplomacy
and policy development.

The practice of international relations is valuable in a wide array of settings. Some examples
inlcude:

• Humanitarian organizations
o Action Against Hunger
o Oxfam International
o World Food Programme
• Government agencies
o Department of State
o Department of Homeland Security
o Department of Commerce
• International corporations
o General Electric
o BP
o Exxon Mobile
o Toyota
o Nestle
o Siemens
• Media outlets
o BBC
o Washington Post
o The Guardian
 o Der Spiegal
o New York Times
o Forbes
o Wall Street Journal
• Intergovernmental organizations
o World Trade Organization
o United Nations
o NATO
• International communications
o Amnesty International
o Freedom House
o Human Rights Watch
o Reporters Without Borders
• Research centers/Think tanks
o Brookings Institution
o Center for International Policy
o Council on Foreign Relations
o Global Public Policy Institute

The Theories and Principles of International

Relations
International relations may be an offshoot of political science, but this field of study is
exceptionally in-depth in its own right. As our global society evolves and expands, international
relations will evolve and expand along with it as we continue to explore new and exciting way to
link our complex world.
For example, traditional dimensions of international relations related to international peace and
prosperity include topics such as international diplomacy, arms control, and alliance politics.
Contemporary studies in international relations, on other hand, include topics such as
international political economics, environmental politics, refugee and migration issues, and
human rights.
Examining the Levels of State Behavior
Professionals studying international relations often determine the level at which they will analyze
a state’s behavior:

• System Level Analysis: System level analysis looks at the international system; more
specifically, how the international system affects the behavior of nation states, with the
key variable being that the international system includes the power of each state rather
than being independent of them.
• State Level Analysis: State level analysis examines how a state’s characteristics
determine its foreign policy behavior. This type of analysis often views states as having
cultural characteristics based on their religious or social traditions, and their historical
legacy, and includes an analysis of economic and geographic factors.
 • Organizational Level Analysis: Organizational level analysis examines how
organizations within a state influence the state’s foreign policy behavior. In other words,
organizational level analysis views that organizations—not states—make the decisions
that create a state’s foreign policy.
• Individual Level Analysis: Individual level analysis views the leaders of states as being
the largest influencers of foreign policy.

Examining the Theories of International Relations

The study of international relations involves theoretical approaches based on solid evidence.
Theories of international relations are essentially a set of ideas aimed at explaining how the
international system works.
The two, major theories of international relations are realism and liberalism:
Realism
Realism focuses on the notion that states work to increase their own power relative to other
states. The theory of realism states that the only certainty in the world is power; therefore, a
powerful state—via military power (the most important and reliable form of power)—will
always be able to outlast its weaker competitors. Self-preservation is a major theme in realism, as
states must always seek power to protect themselves.
In realism, the international system drives states to use military force. Although leaders may be
moral, they must not let morality guide their foreign policy. Furthermore, realism recognizes that
international organizations and law have no power and force, and that their existence relies
solely on being recognized and accepted by select states.
Liberalism (Idealism)
Liberalism recognizes that states share broad ties, thus making it difficult to define singular
independent national interests. The theory of liberalism in international relations therefore
involves the decreased use of military power. The theory of realism began to take shape in the
1970s as increasing globalization, communications technology, and international trade made
some scholars argue that realism was outdated.
Liberal approaches to the study of international relations, also referred to as theories of complex
interdependence, claim that the consequences of military power outweigh the benefits and that
international cooperation is in the interest of every state. It also claims that exercising economic
power over military power has proven more effective.
Although the liberal theory of international relations was dominant following World War I while
President Woodrow Wilson promoted the League of Nations and many treaties abolishing war,
realism came back into prominence in the Second World War and continued throughout the Cold
War.

What is IR?
International Relations is concerned with relations across boundaries of nation-states. It
addresses international political economy, global governance, intercultural relations,
national and ethnic identities, foreign policy analysis, development studies, environment,
international security, diplomacy, terrorism, media, social movements and more. It is a
multidisciplinary field that does not restrict students to one approach and employs a variety
of methods including discourse analysis, statistics and comparative and historical analysis.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IS AN INCREASINGLY RELEVANT FIELD OF

STUDY
International Relations is becoming increasingly relevant as the world grows more and more
interconnected through trade and commerce, migration, the internet and through social
media, and concerns about pressing global environmental problems.

A globalized world calls for academics and professionals trained to comprehend these
complex interactions - promoting understanding and crafting policy and business solutions
to meet the challenges of today and the future. International Relations offers a
comprehensive and adaptable toolkit particularly well suited to employment in a rapidly
changing world.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AT SF STATE

The Department of International Relations in the College of Liberal & Creative Arts explores
the interrelations of the world’s primary political institutions, nation-states. As the world is
changing, so is the field of International Relations. Increasingly, International Relations at
SF State also focuses on multinational corporations, international governmental and non-
governmental organizations and social movements. Our curriculum is under constant review
to reflect these global and regional trends.

Our students study specific countries and geographic regions and their interconnections
through political treaties, trade, migration, cultural and ethnic affinities, shared social,
economic, and ideological goals, hierarchies of power and wealth and other factors. We
train students in different theoretical approaches and empower them to make their own
methodological choices.

Studying IR at SF State is a step out into the world

Whether you are looking to start or develop your professional career, enter academia, or
simply gain understanding of a globalized world – International Relations at San Francisco
State will provide you with a solid platform of critical knowledge and skills. We offer a wide
selection of courses, taught by a diverse faculty with expertise in the most pressing issues
and dynamic world regions today.

Our alumni can be found across the world in non-profit, private and government positions.
These include the U.S. Department of State and other countries’ foreign ministries, the City
of San Francisco and other local governments, U.S. intelligence agencies, non-profit
organizations in the areas of international development, human rights, international labor,
environment, and international migration as well in business. A significant number of our
graduate students also pursue further professional or doctoral studies at high-ranking
academic institutions around the world.

nternational Law and Justice

UN Photo/Rick Bajornas
Lady Justice, Hamburg City Hall, Germany

Among the greatest achievements of the United Nations is the development of a body of
international law—conventions, treaties and standards—central to promoting economic and
social development, as well as to advancing international peace and security. Many of the treaties
brought about by the United Nations form the basis of the law that governs relations among
nations. While the work of the UN in this area does not always receive attention, it has a daily
impact on the lives of people everywhere.

The Charter of the United Nations specifically calls on the Organization to help in the settlement
of international disputes by peaceful means, including arbitration and judicial settlement (Article
33), and to encourage the progressive development of international law and its codification
(Article 13).

Over the years, more than 500 multilateral treaties have been deposited with the Secretary-
General of the United Nations. Many other treaties are deposited with governments or other
entities. The treaties cover a broad range of subject matters such as human rights, disarmament
and protection of the environment.

General Assembly as a forum for adopting multilateral treaties

 The General Assembly is composed of representatives from each Member State of the United
Nations and is the main deliberative body on matters relating to international law. Many
multilateral treaties are in fact adopted by the General Assembly and subsequently opened for
signature and ratification. The Legal (Sixth) Committee assists the work of the General
Assembly by providing advice on substantive legal matters. The Committee is also made up of
representatives from all Member States of the United Nations.

The General Assembly has adopted a number of multilateral treaties throughout its history,
including:

• Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948)

• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965)
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966)
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979)
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (1996)
• International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999)
• International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (2005)
• Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006)
• United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or
Partly by Sea (2008)
• Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(2008)

In many areas, the legal work of the United Nations has been pioneering, addressing problems as
they take on an international dimension. The UN has been at the forefront of efforts to provide a
legal framework in such areas as protecting the environment, regulating migrant labour, curbing
drug trafficking and combating terrorism. This work continues today, as international law
assumes a more central role across a wider spectrum of issues, including human rights law and
international humanitarian law.
Read also about Law of the Sea.

Development and codification of international law

International Law Commission
The International Law Commission was established by the General Assembly in 1947 to
promote the progressive development of international law and its codification. The Commission
is composed of 34 members who collectively represent the worlds principal legal systems, and
serve as experts in their individual capacity, not as representatives of their governments. They
address a wide range of issues relevant to the regulation of relations among states, and frequently
 consult with the International Committee of the Red Cross, the International Court of Justice and
UN specialized agencies, depending on the subject being examined. Most of the Commission’s
work involves the preparation of drafts on aspects of international law.

Some topics are chosen by the Commission, others are referred to it by the General Assembly.
When the Commission completes work on a topic, the General Assembly sometimes convenes
an international conference of plenipotentiaries to incorporate the draft into a convention. The
convention is then opened to states to become parties—meaning that such countries formally
agree to be bound by its provisions. Some of these conventions form the very foundation of the
law governing relations among states. Examples include:

• the Convention on the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses, adopted by the

General Assembly in 1997, which regulates the equitable and reasonable utilization of
watercourses shared by two or more countries;
• the Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or
between International Organizations, adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1986;
• the Convention on the Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts,
adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1983;
• the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected
Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, adopted by the General Assembly in 1973;

International humanitarian law

International humanitarian law encompasses the principles and rules that regulate the means and
methods of warfare, as well as the humanitarian protection of civilian populations, sick and
wounded combatants, and prisoners of war. Major instruments include the 1949 Geneva
Conventions for the Protection of War Victims and two additional protocols concluded in 1977
under the auspices of the International Committee of the Red Cross.

The United Nations has taken a leading role in efforts to advance international humanitarian law.
The Security Council has become increasingly involved in protecting civilians in armed conflict,
promoting human rights and protecting children in wars.

Judicial settlement of disputes

International Court of Justice
The primary United Nations organ for the settlement of disputes is the International Court of
Justice. Also known as the World Court, it was founded in 1946. Since its founding, the Court
has considered over 170 cases, issued numerous judgments on disputes brought to it by states
and issued advisory opinions in response to requests by UN organizations. Most cases have been
dealt with by the full Court, but since 1981 six cases have been referred to special chambers at
the request of the parties.
In its judgments, the Court has addressed international disputes involving economic rights, rights
of passage, the non-use of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of states, diplomatic
relations, hostage-taking, the right of asylum and nationality. States bring such disputes before
the Court in search of an impartial solution to their differences on the basis of law. By achieving
peaceful settlement on such questions as land frontiers, maritime boundaries and territorial
sovereignty, the Court has often helped to prevent the escalation of disputes.

International Criminal Justice

The international community has had long aspired to create a permanent international court to try
the most serious international crimes, and, in the 20th century, it reached consensus on
definitions of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.

Tribunals
After the Second World War the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials addressed war crimes, crimes
against peace, and crimes against humanity committed during the Second World War.

The ad hoc tribunals and United Nations-assisted tribunals have continued to contribute to
combating impunity and promoting accountability for the most serious crimes. In the 1990s,
after the end of the Cold War, the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia
(ICTY) and for Rwanda (ICTR) were established to try crimes committed within a specific time-
frame and during a specific conflict. This applies, as well, to three courts established by the
states concerned, but with substantial UN support: the Special Court for Sierra Leone (2002),
the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2006) and the Special Tribunal for
Lebanon (2007). Sometimes referred to as ‘hybrid’ courts, they are non-permanent institutions
which will cease to exist once all their cases have been heard.

The International Criminal Court

The idea of a permanent international court to prosecute crimes against humanity was first
considered at the United Nations in the context of the adoption of the Genocide Convention of
1948. For many years, differences of opinions forestalled further developments. In 1992, the
General Assembly directed the International Law Commission to prepare a draft statute for such
a court. The massacres in Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda made the need for it
even more urgent.

The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction to prosecute individuals who commit
genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. It will also have jurisdiction over the crime
of aggression when agreement is reached on the definition of such a crime. The ICC is legally
and functionally independent from the United Nations, and is not a part of the UN system.

The cooperation between the UN and the ICC is governed by a Negotiated Relationship
Agreement. The Security Council can initiate proceedings before the ICC, and can refer to the
ICC situations that would not otherwise fall under the Court’s jurisdiction. The Court has 18
judges, elected by the states parties for a term limited to nine years, except that a judge shall
remain in office to complete any trial or appeal which has already begun. No two judges can be
from the same country.

What is International Relations?

Our richly connected, complex world demands professionals skilled in international relations, an
exciting field of study that presents a globally oriented perspective on issues that transcend
national boundaries.
The study and practice of international relations is interdisciplinary in nature, blending the fields
of economics, history, and political science to examine topics such as human rights, global
poverty, the environment, economics, globalization, security, global ethics, and the political
environment.
SPONSORED
Featured Program
* The online master's programs from American University's School of International
Service allow professionals to build international and business expertise in 12–24 months.
GRE/GMAT scores not required.

* Fletcher's online Master of Global Business Administration from Tufts University prepares
students to apply advanced business strategy in a global context. Complete in as few as 16
months. No GRE/GMAT required.

* Designed by both Kogod and the top-ranked School of International Service, the MS in
International Relations and Business at American University will help you develop a global
business mindset in as few as 18 months.No GRE/GMAT required.

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in International Relations Program - Online

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in Diplomacy - Online

Exceptional economic integration, unprecedented threats to peace and security, and an
international focus on human rights and environmental protection all speak to the complexity of
international relations in the twenty-first century. This means the study of international relations
must focus on interdisciplinary research that addresses, anticipates, and ultimately solves public
policy problems.
International relations (often referred to international affairs) has a broad purpose in
contemporary society, as it seeks to understand:

• The origins of war and the maintenance of peace

• The nature and exercise of power within the global system
• The changing character of state and non-state actors who participate in international
decision-making
For example, some institutions may study the psychological and social-psychological reasoning
behind the actions of foreign policymakers, while others may focus their international studies on
the institutional processes that contribute to the goals and behaviors of states. Ultimately, the
area of international relations studied depends on the goals or objectives of the organization.

The Value of International Relations in a

Globalized Society
Although international relations has taken on a new significance because of our increasingly
interconnected world, it is certainly not a new concept. Historically, the establishment of treaties
between nations served as the earliest form of international relations.
The study and practice of international relations in today’s world is valuable for many reasons:

• International relations promotes successful trade policies between nations.

• International relations encourages travel related to business, tourism, and immigration,
providing people with opportunities to enhance their lives.
• International relations allows nations to cooperate with one another, pool resources, and
share information as a way to face global issues that go beyond any particular country or
region. Contemporary global issues include pandemics, terrorism, and the environment.
• International relations advances human culture through cultural exchanges, diplomacy
and policy development.

The practice of international relations is valuable in a wide array of settings. Some examples
inlcude:

• Humanitarian organizations
o Action Against Hunger
o Oxfam International
o World Food Programme
• Government agencies
o Department of State
o Department of Homeland Security
o Department of Commerce
• International corporations
o General Electric
o BP
o Exxon Mobile
o Toyota
o Nestle
o Siemens
• Media outlets
o BBC
o Washington Post
o The Guardian
 o Der Spiegal
o New York Times
o Forbes
o Wall Street Journal
• Intergovernmental organizations
o World Trade Organization
o United Nations
o NATO
• International communications
o Amnesty International
o Freedom House
o Human Rights Watch
o Reporters Without Borders
• Research centers/Think tanks
o Brookings Institution
o Center for International Policy
o Council on Foreign Relations
o Global Public Policy Institute

The Theories and Principles of International

Relations
International relations may be an offshoot of political science, but this field of study is
exceptionally in-depth in its own right. As our global society evolves and expands, international
relations will evolve and expand along with it as we continue to explore new and exciting way to
link our complex world.
For example, traditional dimensions of international relations related to international peace and
prosperity include topics such as international diplomacy, arms control, and alliance politics.
Contemporary studies in international relations, on other hand, include topics such as
international political economics, environmental politics, refugee and migration issues, and
human rights.
Examining the Levels of State Behavior
Professionals studying international relations often determine the level at which they will analyze
a state’s behavior:

• System Level Analysis: System level analysis looks at the international system; more
specifically, how the international system affects the behavior of nation states, with the
key variable being that the international system includes the power of each state rather
than being independent of them.
• State Level Analysis: State level analysis examines how a state’s characteristics
determine its foreign policy behavior. This type of analysis often views states as having
cultural characteristics based on their religious or social traditions, and their historical
legacy, and includes an analysis of economic and geographic factors.
 • Organizational Level Analysis: Organizational level analysis examines how
organizations within a state influence the state’s foreign policy behavior. In other words,
organizational level analysis views that organizations—not states—make the decisions
that create a state’s foreign policy.
• Individual Level Analysis: Individual level analysis views the leaders of states as being
the largest influencers of foreign policy.

Examining the Theories of International Relations

The study of international relations involves theoretical approaches based on solid evidence.
Theories of international relations are essentially a set of ideas aimed at explaining how the
international system works.
The two, major theories of international relations are realism and liberalism:
Realism
Realism focuses on the notion that states work to increase their own power relative to other
states. The theory of realism states that the only certainty in the world is power; therefore, a
powerful state—via military power (the most important and reliable form of power)—will
always be able to outlast its weaker competitors. Self-preservation is a major theme in realism, as
states must always seek power to protect themselves.
In realism, the international system drives states to use military force. Although leaders may be
moral, they must not let morality guide their foreign policy. Furthermore, realism recognizes that
international organizations and law have no power and force, and that their existence relies
solely on being recognized and accepted by select states.
Liberalism (Idealism)
Liberalism recognizes that states share broad ties, thus making it difficult to define singular
independent national interests. The theory of liberalism in international relations therefore
involves the decreased use of military power. The theory of realism began to take shape in the
1970s as increasing globalization, communications technology, and international trade made
some scholars argue that realism was outdated.
Liberal approaches to the study of international relations, also referred to as theories of complex
interdependence, claim that the consequences of military power outweigh the benefits and that
international cooperation is in the interest of every state. It also claims that exercising economic
power over military power has proven more effective.
Although the liberal theory of international relations was dominant following World War I while
President Woodrow Wilson promoted the League of Nations and many treaties abolishing war,
realism came back into prominence in the Second World War and continued throughout the Cold
War.

What is IR?
International Relations is concerned with relations across boundaries of nation-states. It
addresses international political economy, global governance, intercultural relations,
national and ethnic identities, foreign policy analysis, development studies, environment,
international security, diplomacy, terrorism, media, social movements and more. It is a
multidisciplinary field that does not restrict students to one approach and employs a variety
of methods including discourse analysis, statistics and comparative and historical analysis.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IS AN INCREASINGLY RELEVANT FIELD OF

STUDY
International Relations is becoming increasingly relevant as the world grows more and more
interconnected through trade and commerce, migration, the internet and through social
media, and concerns about pressing global environmental problems.

A globalized world calls for academics and professionals trained to comprehend these
complex interactions - promoting understanding and crafting policy and business solutions
to meet the challenges of today and the future. International Relations offers a
comprehensive and adaptable toolkit particularly well suited to employment in a rapidly
changing world.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AT SF STATE

The Department of International Relations in the College of Liberal & Creative Arts explores
the interrelations of the world’s primary political institutions, nation-states. As the world is
changing, so is the field of International Relations. Increasingly, International Relations at
SF State also focuses on multinational corporations, international governmental and non-
governmental organizations and social movements. Our curriculum is under constant review
to reflect these global and regional trends.

Our students study specific countries and geographic regions and their interconnections
through political treaties, trade, migration, cultural and ethnic affinities, shared social,
economic, and ideological goals, hierarchies of power and wealth and other factors. We
train students in different theoretical approaches and empower them to make their own
methodological choices.

Studying IR at SF State is a step out into the world

Whether you are looking to start or develop your professional career, enter academia, or
simply gain understanding of a globalized world – International Relations at San Francisco
State will provide you with a solid platform of critical knowledge and skills. We offer a wide
selection of courses, taught by a diverse faculty with expertise in the most pressing issues
and dynamic world regions today.

Our alumni can be found across the world in non-profit, private and government positions.
These include the U.S. Department of State and other countries’ foreign ministries, the City
of San Francisco and other local governments, U.S. intelligence agencies, non-profit
organizations in the areas of international development, human rights, international labor,
environment, and international migration as well in business. A significant number of our
graduate students also pursue further professional or doctoral studies at high-ranking
academic institutions around the world.

nternational Law and Justice

UN Photo/Rick Bajornas
Lady Justice, Hamburg City Hall, Germany

Among the greatest achievements of the United Nations is the development of a body of
international law—conventions, treaties and standards—central to promoting economic and
social development, as well as to advancing international peace and security. Many of the treaties
brought about by the United Nations form the basis of the law that governs relations among
nations. While the work of the UN in this area does not always receive attention, it has a daily
impact on the lives of people everywhere.

The Charter of the United Nations specifically calls on the Organization to help in the settlement
of international disputes by peaceful means, including arbitration and judicial settlement (Article
33), and to encourage the progressive development of international law and its codification
(Article 13).

Over the years, more than 500 multilateral treaties have been deposited with the Secretary-
General of the United Nations. Many other treaties are deposited with governments or other
entities. The treaties cover a broad range of subject matters such as human rights, disarmament
and protection of the environment.

General Assembly as a forum for adopting multilateral treaties

 The General Assembly is composed of representatives from each Member State of the United
Nations and is the main deliberative body on matters relating to international law. Many
multilateral treaties are in fact adopted by the General Assembly and subsequently opened for
signature and ratification. The Legal (Sixth) Committee assists the work of the General
Assembly by providing advice on substantive legal matters. The Committee is also made up of
representatives from all Member States of the United Nations.

The General Assembly has adopted a number of multilateral treaties throughout its history,
including:

• Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948)

• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965)
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966)
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979)
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (1996)
• International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999)
• International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (2005)
• Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006)
• United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or
Partly by Sea (2008)
• Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(2008)

In many areas, the legal work of the United Nations has been pioneering, addressing problems as
they take on an international dimension. The UN has been at the forefront of efforts to provide a
legal framework in such areas as protecting the environment, regulating migrant labour, curbing
drug trafficking and combating terrorism. This work continues today, as international law
assumes a more central role across a wider spectrum of issues, including human rights law and
international humanitarian law.
Read also about Law of the Sea.

Development and codification of international law

International Law Commission
The International Law Commission was established by the General Assembly in 1947 to
promote the progressive development of international law and its codification. The Commission
is composed of 34 members who collectively represent the worlds principal legal systems, and
serve as experts in their individual capacity, not as representatives of their governments. They
address a wide range of issues relevant to the regulation of relations among states, and frequently
 consult with the International Committee of the Red Cross, the International Court of Justice and
UN specialized agencies, depending on the subject being examined. Most of the Commission’s
work involves the preparation of drafts on aspects of international law.

Some topics are chosen by the Commission, others are referred to it by the General Assembly.
When the Commission completes work on a topic, the General Assembly sometimes convenes
an international conference of plenipotentiaries to incorporate the draft into a convention. The
convention is then opened to states to become parties—meaning that such countries formally
agree to be bound by its provisions. Some of these conventions form the very foundation of the
law governing relations among states. Examples include:

• the Convention on the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses, adopted by the

General Assembly in 1997, which regulates the equitable and reasonable utilization of
watercourses shared by two or more countries;
• the Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or
between International Organizations, adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1986;
• the Convention on the Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts,
adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1983;
• the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected
Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, adopted by the General Assembly in 1973;

International humanitarian law

International humanitarian law encompasses the principles and rules that regulate the means and
methods of warfare, as well as the humanitarian protection of civilian populations, sick and
wounded combatants, and prisoners of war. Major instruments include the 1949 Geneva
Conventions for the Protection of War Victims and two additional protocols concluded in 1977
under the auspices of the International Committee of the Red Cross.

The United Nations has taken a leading role in efforts to advance international humanitarian law.
The Security Council has become increasingly involved in protecting civilians in armed conflict,
promoting human rights and protecting children in wars.

Judicial settlement of disputes

International Court of Justice
The primary United Nations organ for the settlement of disputes is the International Court of
Justice. Also known as the World Court, it was founded in 1946. Since its founding, the Court
has considered over 170 cases, issued numerous judgments on disputes brought to it by states
and issued advisory opinions in response to requests by UN organizations. Most cases have been
dealt with by the full Court, but since 1981 six cases have been referred to special chambers at
the request of the parties.
In its judgments, the Court has addressed international disputes involving economic rights, rights
of passage, the non-use of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of states, diplomatic
relations, hostage-taking, the right of asylum and nationality. States bring such disputes before
the Court in search of an impartial solution to their differences on the basis of law. By achieving
peaceful settlement on such questions as land frontiers, maritime boundaries and territorial
sovereignty, the Court has often helped to prevent the escalation of disputes.

International Criminal Justice

The international community has had long aspired to create a permanent international court to try
the most serious international crimes, and, in the 20th century, it reached consensus on
definitions of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.

Tribunals
After the Second World War the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials addressed war crimes, crimes
against peace, and crimes against humanity committed during the Second World War.

The ad hoc tribunals and United Nations-assisted tribunals have continued to contribute to
combating impunity and promoting accountability for the most serious crimes. In the 1990s,
after the end of the Cold War, the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia
(ICTY) and for Rwanda (ICTR) were established to try crimes committed within a specific time-
frame and during a specific conflict. This applies, as well, to three courts established by the
states concerned, but with substantial UN support: the Special Court for Sierra Leone (2002),
the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2006) and the Special Tribunal for
Lebanon (2007). Sometimes referred to as ‘hybrid’ courts, they are non-permanent institutions
which will cease to exist once all their cases have been heard.

The International Criminal Court

The idea of a permanent international court to prosecute crimes against humanity was first
considered at the United Nations in the context of the adoption of the Genocide Convention of
1948. For many years, differences of opinions forestalled further developments. In 1992, the
General Assembly directed the International Law Commission to prepare a draft statute for such
a court. The massacres in Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda made the need for it
even more urgent.

The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction to prosecute individuals who commit
genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. It will also have jurisdiction over the crime
of aggression when agreement is reached on the definition of such a crime. The ICC is legally
and functionally independent from the United Nations, and is not a part of the UN system.

The cooperation between the UN and the ICC is governed by a Negotiated Relationship
Agreement. The Security Council can initiate proceedings before the ICC, and can refer to the
ICC situations that would not otherwise fall under the Court’s jurisdiction. The Court has 18
judges, elected by the states parties for a term limited to nine years, except that a judge shall
remain in office to complete any trial or appeal which has already begun. No two judges can be
from the same country.

What is International Relations?

Our richly connected, complex world demands professionals skilled in international relations, an
exciting field of study that presents a globally oriented perspective on issues that transcend
national boundaries.
The study and practice of international relations is interdisciplinary in nature, blending the fields
of economics, history, and political science to examine topics such as human rights, global
poverty, the environment, economics, globalization, security, global ethics, and the political
environment.
SPONSORED
Featured Program
* The online master's programs from American University's School of International
Service allow professionals to build international and business expertise in 12–24 months.
GRE/GMAT scores not required.

* Fletcher's online Master of Global Business Administration from Tufts University prepares
students to apply advanced business strategy in a global context. Complete in as few as 16
months. No GRE/GMAT required.

* Designed by both Kogod and the top-ranked School of International Service, the MS in
International Relations and Business at American University will help you develop a global
business mindset in as few as 18 months.No GRE/GMAT required.

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in International Relations Program - Online

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in Diplomacy - Online

Exceptional economic integration, unprecedented threats to peace and security, and an
international focus on human rights and environmental protection all speak to the complexity of
international relations in the twenty-first century. This means the study of international relations
must focus on interdisciplinary research that addresses, anticipates, and ultimately solves public
policy problems.
International relations (often referred to international affairs) has a broad purpose in
contemporary society, as it seeks to understand:

• The origins of war and the maintenance of peace

• The nature and exercise of power within the global system
• The changing character of state and non-state actors who participate in international
decision-making
For example, some institutions may study the psychological and social-psychological reasoning
behind the actions of foreign policymakers, while others may focus their international studies on
the institutional processes that contribute to the goals and behaviors of states. Ultimately, the
area of international relations studied depends on the goals or objectives of the organization.

The Value of International Relations in a

Globalized Society
Although international relations has taken on a new significance because of our increasingly
interconnected world, it is certainly not a new concept. Historically, the establishment of treaties
between nations served as the earliest form of international relations.
The study and practice of international relations in today’s world is valuable for many reasons:

• International relations promotes successful trade policies between nations.

• International relations encourages travel related to business, tourism, and immigration,
providing people with opportunities to enhance their lives.
• International relations allows nations to cooperate with one another, pool resources, and
share information as a way to face global issues that go beyond any particular country or
region. Contemporary global issues include pandemics, terrorism, and the environment.
• International relations advances human culture through cultural exchanges, diplomacy
and policy development.

The practice of international relations is valuable in a wide array of settings. Some examples
inlcude:

• Humanitarian organizations
o Action Against Hunger
o Oxfam International
o World Food Programme
• Government agencies
o Department of State
o Department of Homeland Security
o Department of Commerce
• International corporations
o General Electric
o BP
o Exxon Mobile
o Toyota
o Nestle
o Siemens
• Media outlets
o BBC
o Washington Post
o The Guardian
 o Der Spiegal
o New York Times
o Forbes
o Wall Street Journal
• Intergovernmental organizations
o World Trade Organization
o United Nations
o NATO
• International communications
o Amnesty International
o Freedom House
o Human Rights Watch
o Reporters Without Borders
• Research centers/Think tanks
o Brookings Institution
o Center for International Policy
o Council on Foreign Relations
o Global Public Policy Institute

The Theories and Principles of International

Relations
International relations may be an offshoot of political science, but this field of study is
exceptionally in-depth in its own right. As our global society evolves and expands, international
relations will evolve and expand along with it as we continue to explore new and exciting way to
link our complex world.
For example, traditional dimensions of international relations related to international peace and
prosperity include topics such as international diplomacy, arms control, and alliance politics.
Contemporary studies in international relations, on other hand, include topics such as
international political economics, environmental politics, refugee and migration issues, and
human rights.
Examining the Levels of State Behavior
Professionals studying international relations often determine the level at which they will analyze
a state’s behavior:

• System Level Analysis: System level analysis looks at the international system; more
specifically, how the international system affects the behavior of nation states, with the
key variable being that the international system includes the power of each state rather
than being independent of them.
• State Level Analysis: State level analysis examines how a state’s characteristics
determine its foreign policy behavior. This type of analysis often views states as having
cultural characteristics based on their religious or social traditions, and their historical
legacy, and includes an analysis of economic and geographic factors.
 • Organizational Level Analysis: Organizational level analysis examines how
organizations within a state influence the state’s foreign policy behavior. In other words,
organizational level analysis views that organizations—not states—make the decisions
that create a state’s foreign policy.
• Individual Level Analysis: Individual level analysis views the leaders of states as being
the largest influencers of foreign policy.

Examining the Theories of International Relations

The study of international relations involves theoretical approaches based on solid evidence.
Theories of international relations are essentially a set of ideas aimed at explaining how the
international system works.
The two, major theories of international relations are realism and liberalism:
Realism
Realism focuses on the notion that states work to increase their own power relative to other
states. The theory of realism states that the only certainty in the world is power; therefore, a
powerful state—via military power (the most important and reliable form of power)—will
always be able to outlast its weaker competitors. Self-preservation is a major theme in realism, as
states must always seek power to protect themselves.
In realism, the international system drives states to use military force. Although leaders may be
moral, they must not let morality guide their foreign policy. Furthermore, realism recognizes that
international organizations and law have no power and force, and that their existence relies
solely on being recognized and accepted by select states.
Liberalism (Idealism)
Liberalism recognizes that states share broad ties, thus making it difficult to define singular
independent national interests. The theory of liberalism in international relations therefore
involves the decreased use of military power. The theory of realism began to take shape in the
1970s as increasing globalization, communications technology, and international trade made
some scholars argue that realism was outdated.
Liberal approaches to the study of international relations, also referred to as theories of complex
interdependence, claim that the consequences of military power outweigh the benefits and that
international cooperation is in the interest of every state. It also claims that exercising economic
power over military power has proven more effective.
Although the liberal theory of international relations was dominant following World War I while
President Woodrow Wilson promoted the League of Nations and many treaties abolishing war,
realism came back into prominence in the Second World War and continued throughout the Cold
War.

What is IR?
International Relations is concerned with relations across boundaries of nation-states. It
addresses international political economy, global governance, intercultural relations,
national and ethnic identities, foreign policy analysis, development studies, environment,
international security, diplomacy, terrorism, media, social movements and more. It is a
multidisciplinary field that does not restrict students to one approach and employs a variety
of methods including discourse analysis, statistics and comparative and historical analysis.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IS AN INCREASINGLY RELEVANT FIELD OF

STUDY
International Relations is becoming increasingly relevant as the world grows more and more
interconnected through trade and commerce, migration, the internet and through social
media, and concerns about pressing global environmental problems.

A globalized world calls for academics and professionals trained to comprehend these
complex interactions - promoting understanding and crafting policy and business solutions
to meet the challenges of today and the future. International Relations offers a
comprehensive and adaptable toolkit particularly well suited to employment in a rapidly
changing world.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AT SF STATE

The Department of International Relations in the College of Liberal & Creative Arts explores
the interrelations of the world’s primary political institutions, nation-states. As the world is
changing, so is the field of International Relations. Increasingly, International Relations at
SF State also focuses on multinational corporations, international governmental and non-
governmental organizations and social movements. Our curriculum is under constant review
to reflect these global and regional trends.

Our students study specific countries and geographic regions and their interconnections
through political treaties, trade, migration, cultural and ethnic affinities, shared social,
economic, and ideological goals, hierarchies of power and wealth and other factors. We
train students in different theoretical approaches and empower them to make their own
methodological choices.

Studying IR at SF State is a step out into the world

Whether you are looking to start or develop your professional career, enter academia, or
simply gain understanding of a globalized world – International Relations at San Francisco
State will provide you with a solid platform of critical knowledge and skills. We offer a wide
selection of courses, taught by a diverse faculty with expertise in the most pressing issues
and dynamic world regions today.

Our alumni can be found across the world in non-profit, private and government positions.
These include the U.S. Department of State and other countries’ foreign ministries, the City
of San Francisco and other local governments, U.S. intelligence agencies, non-profit
organizations in the areas of international development, human rights, international labor,
environment, and international migration as well in business. A significant number of our
graduate students also pursue further professional or doctoral studies at high-ranking
academic institutions around the world.

nternational Law and Justice

UN Photo/Rick Bajornas
Lady Justice, Hamburg City Hall, Germany

Among the greatest achievements of the United Nations is the development of a body of
international law—conventions, treaties and standards—central to promoting economic and
social development, as well as to advancing international peace and security. Many of the treaties
brought about by the United Nations form the basis of the law that governs relations among
nations. While the work of the UN in this area does not always receive attention, it has a daily
impact on the lives of people everywhere.

The Charter of the United Nations specifically calls on the Organization to help in the settlement
of international disputes by peaceful means, including arbitration and judicial settlement (Article
33), and to encourage the progressive development of international law and its codification
(Article 13).

Over the years, more than 500 multilateral treaties have been deposited with the Secretary-
General of the United Nations. Many other treaties are deposited with governments or other
entities. The treaties cover a broad range of subject matters such as human rights, disarmament
and protection of the environment.

General Assembly as a forum for adopting multilateral treaties

 The General Assembly is composed of representatives from each Member State of the United
Nations and is the main deliberative body on matters relating to international law. Many
multilateral treaties are in fact adopted by the General Assembly and subsequently opened for
signature and ratification. The Legal (Sixth) Committee assists the work of the General
Assembly by providing advice on substantive legal matters. The Committee is also made up of
representatives from all Member States of the United Nations.

The General Assembly has adopted a number of multilateral treaties throughout its history,
including:

• Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948)

• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965)
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966)
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979)
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (1996)
• International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999)
• International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (2005)
• Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006)
• United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or
Partly by Sea (2008)
• Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(2008)

In many areas, the legal work of the United Nations has been pioneering, addressing problems as
they take on an international dimension. The UN has been at the forefront of efforts to provide a
legal framework in such areas as protecting the environment, regulating migrant labour, curbing
drug trafficking and combating terrorism. This work continues today, as international law
assumes a more central role across a wider spectrum of issues, including human rights law and
international humanitarian law.
Read also about Law of the Sea.

Development and codification of international law

International Law Commission
The International Law Commission was established by the General Assembly in 1947 to
promote the progressive development of international law and its codification. The Commission
is composed of 34 members who collectively represent the worlds principal legal systems, and
serve as experts in their individual capacity, not as representatives of their governments. They
address a wide range of issues relevant to the regulation of relations among states, and frequently
 consult with the International Committee of the Red Cross, the International Court of Justice and
UN specialized agencies, depending on the subject being examined. Most of the Commission’s
work involves the preparation of drafts on aspects of international law.

Some topics are chosen by the Commission, others are referred to it by the General Assembly.
When the Commission completes work on a topic, the General Assembly sometimes convenes
an international conference of plenipotentiaries to incorporate the draft into a convention. The
convention is then opened to states to become parties—meaning that such countries formally
agree to be bound by its provisions. Some of these conventions form the very foundation of the
law governing relations among states. Examples include:

• the Convention on the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses, adopted by the

General Assembly in 1997, which regulates the equitable and reasonable utilization of
watercourses shared by two or more countries;
• the Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or
between International Organizations, adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1986;
• the Convention on the Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts,
adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1983;
• the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected
Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, adopted by the General Assembly in 1973;

International humanitarian law

International humanitarian law encompasses the principles and rules that regulate the means and
methods of warfare, as well as the humanitarian protection of civilian populations, sick and
wounded combatants, and prisoners of war. Major instruments include the 1949 Geneva
Conventions for the Protection of War Victims and two additional protocols concluded in 1977
under the auspices of the International Committee of the Red Cross.

The United Nations has taken a leading role in efforts to advance international humanitarian law.
The Security Council has become increasingly involved in protecting civilians in armed conflict,
promoting human rights and protecting children in wars.

Judicial settlement of disputes

International Court of Justice
The primary United Nations organ for the settlement of disputes is the International Court of
Justice. Also known as the World Court, it was founded in 1946. Since its founding, the Court
has considered over 170 cases, issued numerous judgments on disputes brought to it by states
and issued advisory opinions in response to requests by UN organizations. Most cases have been
dealt with by the full Court, but since 1981 six cases have been referred to special chambers at
the request of the parties.
In its judgments, the Court has addressed international disputes involving economic rights, rights
of passage, the non-use of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of states, diplomatic
relations, hostage-taking, the right of asylum and nationality. States bring such disputes before
the Court in search of an impartial solution to their differences on the basis of law. By achieving
peaceful settlement on such questions as land frontiers, maritime boundaries and territorial
sovereignty, the Court has often helped to prevent the escalation of disputes.

International Criminal Justice

The international community has had long aspired to create a permanent international court to try
the most serious international crimes, and, in the 20th century, it reached consensus on
definitions of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.

Tribunals
After the Second World War the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials addressed war crimes, crimes
against peace, and crimes against humanity committed during the Second World War.

The ad hoc tribunals and United Nations-assisted tribunals have continued to contribute to
combating impunity and promoting accountability for the most serious crimes. In the 1990s,
after the end of the Cold War, the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia
(ICTY) and for Rwanda (ICTR) were established to try crimes committed within a specific time-
frame and during a specific conflict. This applies, as well, to three courts established by the
states concerned, but with substantial UN support: the Special Court for Sierra Leone (2002),
the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2006) and the Special Tribunal for
Lebanon (2007). Sometimes referred to as ‘hybrid’ courts, they are non-permanent institutions
which will cease to exist once all their cases have been heard.

The International Criminal Court

The idea of a permanent international court to prosecute crimes against humanity was first
considered at the United Nations in the context of the adoption of the Genocide Convention of
1948. For many years, differences of opinions forestalled further developments. In 1992, the
General Assembly directed the International Law Commission to prepare a draft statute for such
a court. The massacres in Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda made the need for it
even more urgent.

The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction to prosecute individuals who commit
genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. It will also have jurisdiction over the crime
of aggression when agreement is reached on the definition of such a crime. The ICC is legally
and functionally independent from the United Nations, and is not a part of the UN system.

The cooperation between the UN and the ICC is governed by a Negotiated Relationship
Agreement. The Security Council can initiate proceedings before the ICC, and can refer to the
ICC situations that would not otherwise fall under the Court’s jurisdiction. The Court has 18
judges, elected by the states parties for a term limited to nine years, except that a judge shall
remain in office to complete any trial or appeal which has already begun. No two judges can be
from the same country.

What is International Relations?

Our richly connected, complex world demands professionals skilled in international relations, an
exciting field of study that presents a globally oriented perspective on issues that transcend
national boundaries.
The study and practice of international relations is interdisciplinary in nature, blending the fields
of economics, history, and political science to examine topics such as human rights, global
poverty, the environment, economics, globalization, security, global ethics, and the political
environment.
SPONSORED
Featured Program
* The online master's programs from American University's School of International
Service allow professionals to build international and business expertise in 12–24 months.
GRE/GMAT scores not required.

* Fletcher's online Master of Global Business Administration from Tufts University prepares
students to apply advanced business strategy in a global context. Complete in as few as 16
months. No GRE/GMAT required.

* Designed by both Kogod and the top-ranked School of International Service, the MS in
International Relations and Business at American University will help you develop a global
business mindset in as few as 18 months.No GRE/GMAT required.

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in International Relations Program - Online

* Norwich University Online - Master of Arts in Diplomacy - Online

Exceptional economic integration, unprecedented threats to peace and security, and an
international focus on human rights and environmental protection all speak to the complexity of
international relations in the twenty-first century. This means the study of international relations
must focus on interdisciplinary research that addresses, anticipates, and ultimately solves public
policy problems.
International relations (often referred to international affairs) has a broad purpose in
contemporary society, as it seeks to understand:

• The origins of war and the maintenance of peace

• The nature and exercise of power within the global system
• The changing character of state and non-state actors who participate in international
decision-making
For example, some institutions may study the psychological and social-psychological reasoning
behind the actions of foreign policymakers, while others may focus their international studies on
the institutional processes that contribute to the goals and behaviors of states. Ultimately, the
area of international relations studied depends on the goals or objectives of the organization.

The Value of International Relations in a

Globalized Society
Although international relations has taken on a new significance because of our increasingly
interconnected world, it is certainly not a new concept. Historically, the establishment of treaties
between nations served as the earliest form of international relations.
The study and practice of international relations in today’s world is valuable for many reasons:

• International relations promotes successful trade policies between nations.

• International relations encourages travel related to business, tourism, and immigration,
providing people with opportunities to enhance their lives.
• International relations allows nations to cooperate with one another, pool resources, and
share information as a way to face global issues that go beyond any particular country or
region. Contemporary global issues include pandemics, terrorism, and the environment.
• International relations advances human culture through cultural exchanges, diplomacy
and policy development.

The practice of international relations is valuable in a wide array of settings. Some examples
inlcude:

• Humanitarian organizations
o Action Against Hunger
o Oxfam International
o World Food Programme
• Government agencies
o Department of State
o Department of Homeland Security
o Department of Commerce
• International corporations
o General Electric
o BP
o Exxon Mobile
o Toyota
o Nestle
o Siemens
• Media outlets
o BBC
o Washington Post
o The Guardian
 o Der Spiegal
o New York Times
o Forbes
o Wall Street Journal
• Intergovernmental organizations
o World Trade Organization
o United Nations
o NATO
• International communications
o Amnesty International
o Freedom House
o Human Rights Watch
o Reporters Without Borders
• Research centers/Think tanks
o Brookings Institution
o Center for International Policy
o Council on Foreign Relations
o Global Public Policy Institute

The Theories and Principles of International

Relations
International relations may be an offshoot of political science, but this field of study is
exceptionally in-depth in its own right. As our global society evolves and expands, international
relations will evolve and expand along with it as we continue to explore new and exciting way to
link our complex world.
For example, traditional dimensions of international relations related to international peace and
prosperity include topics such as international diplomacy, arms control, and alliance politics.
Contemporary studies in international relations, on other hand, include topics such as
international political economics, environmental politics, refugee and migration issues, and
human rights.
Examining the Levels of State Behavior
Professionals studying international relations often determine the level at which they will analyze
a state’s behavior:

• System Level Analysis: System level analysis looks at the international system; more
specifically, how the international system affects the behavior of nation states, with the
key variable being that the international system includes the power of each state rather
than being independent of them.
• State Level Analysis: State level analysis examines how a state’s characteristics
determine its foreign policy behavior. This type of analysis often views states as having
cultural characteristics based on their religious or social traditions, and their historical
legacy, and includes an analysis of economic and geographic factors.
 • Organizational Level Analysis: Organizational level analysis examines how
organizations within a state influence the state’s foreign policy behavior. In other words,
organizational level analysis views that organizations—not states—make the decisions
that create a state’s foreign policy.
• Individual Level Analysis: Individual level analysis views the leaders of states as being
the largest influencers of foreign policy.

Examining the Theories of International Relations

The study of international relations involves theoretical approaches based on solid evidence.
Theories of international relations are essentially a set of ideas aimed at explaining how the
international system works.
The two, major theories of international relations are realism and liberalism:
Realism
Realism focuses on the notion that states work to increase their own power relative to other
states. The theory of realism states that the only certainty in the world is power; therefore, a
powerful state—via military power (the most important and reliable form of power)—will
always be able to outlast its weaker competitors. Self-preservation is a major theme in realism, as
states must always seek power to protect themselves.
In realism, the international system drives states to use military force. Although leaders may be
moral, they must not let morality guide their foreign policy. Furthermore, realism recognizes that
international organizations and law have no power and force, and that their existence relies
solely on being recognized and accepted by select states.
Liberalism (Idealism)
Liberalism recognizes that states share broad ties, thus making it difficult to define singular
independent national interests. The theory of liberalism in international relations therefore
involves the decreased use of military power. The theory of realism began to take shape in the
1970s as increasing globalization, communications technology, and international trade made
some scholars argue that realism was outdated.
Liberal approaches to the study of international relations, also referred to as theories of complex
interdependence, claim that the consequences of military power outweigh the benefits and that
international cooperation is in the interest of every state. It also claims that exercising economic
power over military power has proven more effective.
Although the liberal theory of international relations was dominant following World War I while
President Woodrow Wilson promoted the League of Nations and many treaties abolishing war,
realism came back into prominence in the Second World War and continued throughout the Cold
War.

What is IR?
International Relations is concerned with relations across boundaries of nation-states. It
addresses international political economy, global governance, intercultural relations,
national and ethnic identities, foreign policy analysis, development studies, environment,
international security, diplomacy, terrorism, media, social movements and more. It is a
multidisciplinary field that does not restrict students to one approach and employs a variety
of methods including discourse analysis, statistics and comparative and historical analysis.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IS AN INCREASINGLY RELEVANT FIELD OF

STUDY
International Relations is becoming increasingly relevant as the world grows more and more
interconnected through trade and commerce, migration, the internet and through social
media, and concerns about pressing global environmental problems.

A globalized world calls for academics and professionals trained to comprehend these
complex interactions - promoting understanding and crafting policy and business solutions
to meet the challenges of today and the future. International Relations offers a
comprehensive and adaptable toolkit particularly well suited to employment in a rapidly
changing world.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AT SF STATE

The Department of International Relations in the College of Liberal & Creative Arts explores
the interrelations of the world’s primary political institutions, nation-states. As the world is
changing, so is the field of International Relations. Increasingly, International Relations at
SF State also focuses on multinational corporations, international governmental and non-
governmental organizations and social movements. Our curriculum is under constant review
to reflect these global and regional trends.

Our students study specific countries and geographic regions and their interconnections
through political treaties, trade, migration, cultural and ethnic affinities, shared social,
economic, and ideological goals, hierarchies of power and wealth and other factors. We
train students in different theoretical approaches and empower them to make their own
methodological choices.

Studying IR at SF State is a step out into the world

Whether you are looking to start or develop your professional career, enter academia, or
simply gain understanding of a globalized world – International Relations at San Francisco
State will provide you with a solid platform of critical knowledge and skills. We offer a wide
selection of courses, taught by a diverse faculty with expertise in the most pressing issues
and dynamic world regions today.

Our alumni can be found across the world in non-profit, private and government positions.
These include the U.S. Department of State and other countries’ foreign ministries, the City
of San Francisco and other local governments, U.S. intelligence agencies, non-profit
organizations in the areas of international development, human rights, international labor,
environment, and international migration as well in business. A significant number of our
graduate students also pursue further professional or doctoral studies at high-ranking
academic institutions around the world.

nternational Law and Justice

UN Photo/Rick Bajornas
Lady Justice, Hamburg City Hall, Germany

Among the greatest achievements of the United Nations is the development of a body of
international law—conventions, treaties and standards—central to promoting economic and
social development, as well as to advancing international peace and security. Many of the treaties
brought about by the United Nations form the basis of the law that governs relations among
nations. While the work of the UN in this area does not always receive attention, it has a daily
impact on the lives of people everywhere.

The Charter of the United Nations specifically calls on the Organization to help in the settlement
of international disputes by peaceful means, including arbitration and judicial settlement (Article
33), and to encourage the progressive development of international law and its codification
(Article 13).

Over the years, more than 500 multilateral treaties have been deposited with the Secretary-
General of the United Nations. Many other treaties are deposited with governments or other
entities. The treaties cover a broad range of subject matters such as human rights, disarmament
and protection of the environment.

General Assembly as a forum for adopting multilateral treaties

 The General Assembly is composed of representatives from each Member State of the United
Nations and is the main deliberative body on matters relating to international law. Many
multilateral treaties are in fact adopted by the General Assembly and subsequently opened for
signature and ratification. The Legal (Sixth) Committee assists the work of the General
Assembly by providing advice on substantive legal matters. The Committee is also made up of
representatives from all Member States of the United Nations.

The General Assembly has adopted a number of multilateral treaties throughout its history,
including:

• Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948)

• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965)
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966)
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979)
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (1996)
• International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999)
• International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (2005)
• Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006)
• United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or
Partly by Sea (2008)
• Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(2008)

In many areas, the legal work of the United Nations has been pioneering, addressing problems as
they take on an international dimension. The UN has been at the forefront of efforts to provide a
legal framework in such areas as protecting the environment, regulating migrant labour, curbing
drug trafficking and combating terrorism. This work continues today, as international law
assumes a more central role across a wider spectrum of issues, including human rights law and
international humanitarian law.
Read also about Law of the Sea.

Development and codification of international law

International Law Commission
The International Law Commission was established by the General Assembly in 1947 to
promote the progressive development of international law and its codification. The Commission
is composed of 34 members who collectively represent the worlds principal legal systems, and
serve as experts in their individual capacity, not as representatives of their governments. They
address a wide range of issues relevant to the regulation of relations among states, and frequently
 consult with the International Committee of the Red Cross, the International Court of Justice and
UN specialized agencies, depending on the subject being examined. Most of the Commission’s
work involves the preparation of drafts on aspects of international law.

Some topics are chosen by the Commission, others are referred to it by the General Assembly.
When the Commission completes work on a topic, the General Assembly sometimes convenes
an international conference of plenipotentiaries to incorporate the draft into a convention. The
convention is then opened to states to become parties—meaning that such countries formally
agree to be bound by its provisions. Some of these conventions form the very foundation of the
law governing relations among states. Examples include:

• the Convention on the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses, adopted by the

General Assembly in 1997, which regulates the equitable and reasonable utilization of
watercourses shared by two or more countries;
• the Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or
between International Organizations, adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1986;
• the Convention on the Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts,
adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1983;
• the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected
Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, adopted by the General Assembly in 1973;

International humanitarian law

International humanitarian law encompasses the principles and rules that regulate the means and
methods of warfare, as well as the humanitarian protection of civilian populations, sick and
wounded combatants, and prisoners of war. Major instruments include the 1949 Geneva
Conventions for the Protection of War Victims and two additional protocols concluded in 1977
under the auspices of the International Committee of the Red Cross.

The United Nations has taken a leading role in efforts to advance international humanitarian law.
The Security Council has become increasingly involved in protecting civilians in armed conflict,
promoting human rights and protecting children in wars.

Judicial settlement of disputes

International Court of Justice
The primary United Nations organ for the settlement of disputes is the International Court of
Justice. Also known as the World Court, it was founded in 1946. Since its founding, the Court
has considered over 170 cases, issued numerous judgments on disputes brought to it by states
and issued advisory opinions in response to requests by UN organizations. Most cases have been
dealt with by the full Court, but since 1981 six cases have been referred to special chambers at
the request of the parties.
In its judgments, the Court has addressed international disputes involving economic rights, rights
of passage, the non-use of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of states, diplomatic
relations, hostage-taking, the right of asylum and nationality. States bring such disputes before
the Court in search of an impartial solution to their differences on the basis of law. By achieving
peaceful settlement on such questions as land frontiers, maritime boundaries and territorial
sovereignty, the Court has often helped to prevent the escalation of disputes.

International Criminal Justice

The international community has had long aspired to create a permanent international court to try
the most serious international crimes, and, in the 20th century, it reached consensus on
definitions of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.

Tribunals
After the Second World War the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials addressed war crimes, crimes
against peace, and crimes against humanity committed during the Second World War.

The ad hoc tribunals and United Nations-assisted tribunals have continued to contribute to
combating impunity and promoting accountability for the most serious crimes. In the 1990s,
after the end of the Cold War, the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia
(ICTY) and for Rwanda (ICTR) were established to try crimes committed within a specific time-
frame and during a specific conflict. This applies, as well, to three courts established by the
states concerned, but with substantial UN support: the Special Court for Sierra Leone (2002),
the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2006) and the Special Tribunal for
Lebanon (2007). Sometimes referred to as ‘hybrid’ courts, they are non-permanent institutions
which will cease to exist once all their cases have been heard.

The International Criminal Court

The idea of a permanent international court to prosecute crimes against humanity was first
considered at the United Nations in the context of the adoption of the Genocide Convention of
1948. For many years, differences of opinions forestalled further developments. In 1992, the
General Assembly directed the International Law Commission to prepare a draft statute for such
a court. The massacres in Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda made the need for it
even more urgent.

The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction to prosecute individuals who commit
genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. It will also have jurisdiction over the crime
of aggression when agreement is reached on the definition of such a crime. The ICC is legally
and functionally independent from the United Nations, and is not a part of the UN system.

The cooperation between the UN and the ICC is governed by a Negotiated Relationship
Agreement. The Security Council can initiate proceedings before the ICC, and can refer to the
ICC situations that would not otherwise fall under the Court’s jurisdiction. The Court has 18
judges, elected by the states parties for a term limited to nine years, except that a judge shall
remain in office to complete any trial or appeal which has already begun. No two judges can be
from the same country.

What is International Relations?

Our richly connected, complex world demands professionals skilled in international relations, an
exciting field of study that presents a globally oriented perspective on issues that transcend
national boundaries.
The study and practice of international relations is interdisciplinary in nature, blending the fields
of economics, history, and political science to examine topics such as human rights, global
poverty, the environment, economics, globalization, security, global ethics, and the political
environment.
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Exceptional economic integration, unprecedented threats to peace and security, and an
international focus on human rights and environmental protection all speak to the complexity of
international relations in the twenty-first century. This means the study of international relations
must focus on interdisciplinary research that addresses, anticipates, and ultimately solves public
policy problems.
International relations (often referred to international affairs) has a broad purpose in
contemporary society, as it seeks to understand:

• The origins of war and the maintenance of peace

• The nature and exercise of power within the global system
• The changing character of state and non-state actors who participate in international
decision-making
For example, some institutions may study the psychological and social-psychological reasoning
behind the actions of foreign policymakers, while others may focus their international studies on
the institutional processes that contribute to the goals and behaviors of states. Ultimately, the
area of international relations studied depends on the goals or objectives of the organization.

The Value of International Relations in a

Globalized Society
Although international relations has taken on a new significance because of our increasingly
interconnected world, it is certainly not a new concept. Historically, the establishment of treaties
between nations served as the earliest form of international relations.
The study and practice of international relations in today’s world is valuable for many reasons:

• International relations promotes successful trade policies between nations.

• International relations encourages travel related to business, tourism, and immigration,
providing people with opportunities to enhance their lives.
• International relations allows nations to cooperate with one another, pool resources, and
share information as a way to face global issues that go beyond any particular country or
region. Contemporary global issues include pandemics, terrorism, and the environment.
• International relations advances human culture through cultural exchanges, diplomacy
and policy development.

The practice of international relations is valuable in a wide array of settings. Some examples
inlcude:

• Humanitarian organizations
o Action Against Hunger
o Oxfam International
o World Food Programme
• Government agencies
o Department of State
o Department of Homeland Security
o Department of Commerce
• International corporations
o General Electric
o BP
o Exxon Mobile
o Toyota
o Nestle
o Siemens
• Media outlets
o BBC
o Washington Post
o The Guardian
 o Der Spiegal
o New York Times
o Forbes
o Wall Street Journal
• Intergovernmental organizations
o World Trade Organization
o United Nations
o NATO
• International communications
o Amnesty International
o Freedom House
o Human Rights Watch
o Reporters Without Borders
• Research centers/Think tanks
o Brookings Institution
o Center for International Policy
o Council on Foreign Relations
o Global Public Policy Institute

The Theories and Principles of International

Relations
International relations may be an offshoot of political science, but this field of study is
exceptionally in-depth in its own right. As our global society evolves and expands, international
relations will evolve and expand along with it as we continue to explore new and exciting way to
link our complex world.
For example, traditional dimensions of international relations related to international peace and
prosperity include topics such as international diplomacy, arms control, and alliance politics.
Contemporary studies in international relations, on other hand, include topics such as
international political economics, environmental politics, refugee and migration issues, and
human rights.
Examining the Levels of State Behavior
Professionals studying international relations often determine the level at which they will analyze
a state’s behavior:

• System Level Analysis: System level analysis looks at the international system; more
specifically, how the international system affects the behavior of nation states, with the
key variable being that the international system includes the power of each state rather
than being independent of them.
• State Level Analysis: State level analysis examines how a state’s characteristics
determine its foreign policy behavior. This type of analysis often views states as having
cultural characteristics based on their religious or social traditions, and their historical
legacy, and includes an analysis of economic and geographic factors.
 • Organizational Level Analysis: Organizational level analysis examines how
organizations within a state influence the state’s foreign policy behavior. In other words,
organizational level analysis views that organizations—not states—make the decisions
that create a state’s foreign policy.
• Individual Level Analysis: Individual level analysis views the leaders of states as being
the largest influencers of foreign policy.

Examining the Theories of International Relations

The study of international relations involves theoretical approaches based on solid evidence.
Theories of international relations are essentially a set of ideas aimed at explaining how the
international system works.
The two, major theories of international relations are realism and liberalism:
Realism
Realism focuses on the notion that states work to increase their own power relative to other
states. The theory of realism states that the only certainty in the world is power; therefore, a
powerful state—via military power (the most important and reliable form of power)—will
always be able to outlast its weaker competitors. Self-preservation is a major theme in realism, as
states must always seek power to protect themselves.
In realism, the international system drives states to use military force. Although leaders may be
moral, they must not let morality guide their foreign policy. Furthermore, realism recognizes that
international organizations and law have no power and force, and that their existence relies
solely on being recognized and accepted by select states.
Liberalism (Idealism)
Liberalism recognizes that states share broad ties, thus making it difficult to define singular
independent national interests. The theory of liberalism in international relations therefore
involves the decreased use of military power. The theory of realism began to take shape in the
1970s as increasing globalization, communications technology, and international trade made
some scholars argue that realism was outdated.
Liberal approaches to the study of international relations, also referred to as theories of complex
interdependence, claim that the consequences of military power outweigh the benefits and that
international cooperation is in the interest of every state. It also claims that exercising economic
power over military power has proven more effective.
Although the liberal theory of international relations was dominant following World War I while
President Woodrow Wilson promoted the League of Nations and many treaties abolishing war,
realism came back into prominence in the Second World War and continued throughout the Cold
War.

What is IR?
International Relations is concerned with relations across boundaries of nation-states. It
addresses international political economy, global governance, intercultural relations,
national and ethnic identities, foreign policy analysis, development studies, environment,
international security, diplomacy, terrorism, media, social movements and more. It is a
multidisciplinary field that does not restrict students to one approach and employs a variety
of methods including discourse analysis, statistics and comparative and historical analysis.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IS AN INCREASINGLY RELEVANT FIELD OF

STUDY
International Relations is becoming increasingly relevant as the world grows more and more
interconnected through trade and commerce, migration, the internet and through social
media, and concerns about pressing global environmental problems.

A globalized world calls for academics and professionals trained to comprehend these
complex interactions - promoting understanding and crafting policy and business solutions
to meet the challenges of today and the future. International Relations offers a
comprehensive and adaptable toolkit particularly well suited to employment in a rapidly
changing world.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AT SF STATE

The Department of International Relations in the College of Liberal & Creative Arts explores
the interrelations of the world’s primary political institutions, nation-states. As the world is
changing, so is the field of International Relations. Increasingly, International Relations at
SF State also focuses on multinational corporations, international governmental and non-
governmental organizations and social movements. Our curriculum is under constant review
to reflect these global and regional trends.

Our students study specific countries and geographic regions and their interconnections
through political treaties, trade, migration, cultural and ethnic affinities, shared social,
economic, and ideological goals, hierarchies of power and wealth and other factors. We
train students in different theoretical approaches and empower them to make their own
methodological choices.

Studying IR at SF State is a step out into the world

Whether you are looking to start or develop your professional career, enter academia, or
simply gain understanding of a globalized world – International Relations at San Francisco
State will provide you with a solid platform of critical knowledge and skills. We offer a wide
selection of courses, taught by a diverse faculty with expertise in the most pressing issues
and dynamic world regions today.

Our alumni can be found across the world in non-profit, private and government positions.
These include the U.S. Department of State and other countries’ foreign ministries, the City
of San Francisco and other local governments, U.S. intelligence agencies, non-profit
organizations in the areas of international development, human rights, international labor,
environment, and international migration as well in business. A significant number of our
graduate students also pursue further professional or doctoral studies at high-ranking
academic institutions around the world.

nternational Law and Justice

UN Photo/Rick Bajornas
Lady Justice, Hamburg City Hall, Germany

Among the greatest achievements of the United Nations is the development of a body of
international law—conventions, treaties and standards—central to promoting economic and
social development, as well as to advancing international peace and security. Many of the treaties
brought about by the United Nations form the basis of the law that governs relations among
nations. While the work of the UN in this area does not always receive attention, it has a daily
impact on the lives of people everywhere.

The Charter of the United Nations specifically calls on the Organization to help in the settlement
of international disputes by peaceful means, including arbitration and judicial settlement (Article
33), and to encourage the progressive development of international law and its codification
(Article 13).

Over the years, more than 500 multilateral treaties have been deposited with the Secretary-
General of the United Nations. Many other treaties are deposited with governments or other
entities. The treaties cover a broad range of subject matters such as human rights, disarmament
and protection of the environment.

General Assembly as a forum for adopting multilateral treaties

 The General Assembly is composed of representatives from each Member State of the United
Nations and is the main deliberative body on matters relating to international law. Many
multilateral treaties are in fact adopted by the General Assembly and subsequently opened for
signature and ratification. The Legal (Sixth) Committee assists the work of the General
Assembly by providing advice on substantive legal matters. The Committee is also made up of
representatives from all Member States of the United Nations.

The General Assembly has adopted a number of multilateral treaties throughout its history,
including:

• Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948)

• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965)
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966)
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979)
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989)
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (1996)
• International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (1999)
• International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (2005)
• Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006)
• United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or
Partly by Sea (2008)
• Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(2008)

In many areas, the legal work of the United Nations has been pioneering, addressing problems as
they take on an international dimension. The UN has been at the forefront of efforts to provide a
legal framework in such areas as protecting the environment, regulating migrant labour, curbing
drug trafficking and combating terrorism. This work continues today, as international law
assumes a more central role across a wider spectrum of issues, including human rights law and
international humanitarian law.
Read also about Law of the Sea.

Development and codification of international law

International Law Commission
The International Law Commission was established by the General Assembly in 1947 to
promote the progressive development of international law and its codification. The Commission
is composed of 34 members who collectively represent the worlds principal legal systems, and
serve as experts in their individual capacity, not as representatives of their governments. They
address a wide range of issues relevant to the regulation of relations among states, and frequently
 consult with the International Committee of the Red Cross, the International Court of Justice and
UN specialized agencies, depending on the subject being examined. Most of the Commission’s
work involves the preparation of drafts on aspects of international law.

Some topics are chosen by the Commission, others are referred to it by the General Assembly.
When the Commission completes work on a topic, the General Assembly sometimes convenes
an international conference of plenipotentiaries to incorporate the draft into a convention. The
convention is then opened to states to become parties—meaning that such countries formally
agree to be bound by its provisions. Some of these conventions form the very foundation of the
law governing relations among states. Examples include:

• the Convention on the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses, adopted by the

General Assembly in 1997, which regulates the equitable and reasonable utilization of
watercourses shared by two or more countries;
• the Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or
between International Organizations, adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1986;
• the Convention on the Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts,
adopted at a conference in Vienna in 1983;
• the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected
Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, adopted by the General Assembly in 1973;

International humanitarian law

International humanitarian law encompasses the principles and rules that regulate the means and
methods of warfare, as well as the humanitarian protection of civilian populations, sick and
wounded combatants, and prisoners of war. Major instruments include the 1949 Geneva
Conventions for the Protection of War Victims and two additional protocols concluded in 1977
under the auspices of the International Committee of the Red Cross.

The United Nations has taken a leading role in efforts to advance international humanitarian law.
The Security Council has become increasingly involved in protecting civilians in armed conflict,
promoting human rights and protecting children in wars.

Judicial settlement of disputes

International Court of Justice
The primary United Nations organ for the settlement of disputes is the International Court of
Justice. Also known as the World Court, it was founded in 1946. Since its founding, the Court
has considered over 170 cases, issued numerous judgments on disputes brought to it by states
and issued advisory opinions in response to requests by UN organizations. Most cases have been
dealt with by the full Court, but since 1981 six cases have been referred to special chambers at
the request of the parties.
In its judgments, the Court has addressed international disputes involving economic rights, rights
of passage, the non-use of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of states, diplomatic
relations, hostage-taking, the right of asylum and nationality. States bring such disputes before
the Court in search of an impartial solution to their differences on the basis of law. By achieving
peaceful settlement on such questions as land frontiers, maritime boundaries and territorial
sovereignty, the Court has often helped to prevent the escalation of disputes.

International Criminal Justice

The international community has had long aspired to create a permanent international court to try
the most serious international crimes, and, in the 20th century, it reached consensus on
definitions of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.

Tribunals
After the Second World War the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials addressed war crimes, crimes
against peace, and crimes against humanity committed during the Second World War.

The ad hoc tribunals and United Nations-assisted tribunals have continued to contribute to
combating impunity and promoting accountability for the most serious crimes. In the 1990s,
after the end of the Cold War, the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia
(ICTY) and for Rwanda (ICTR) were established to try crimes committed within a specific time-
frame and during a specific conflict. This applies, as well, to three courts established by the
states concerned, but with substantial UN support: the Special Court for Sierra Leone (2002),
the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2006) and the Special Tribunal for
Lebanon (2007). Sometimes referred to as ‘hybrid’ courts, they are non-permanent institutions
which will cease to exist once all their cases have been heard.

The International Criminal Court

The idea of a permanent international court to prosecute crimes against humanity was first
considered at the United Nations in the context of the adoption of the Genocide Convention of
1948. For many years, differences of opinions forestalled further developments. In 1992, the
General Assembly directed the International Law Commission to prepare a draft statute for such
a court. The massacres in Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda made the need for it
even more urgent.

The International Criminal Court (ICC) has jurisdiction to prosecute individuals who commit
genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. It will also have jurisdiction over the crime
of aggression when agreement is reached on the definition of such a crime. The ICC is legally
and functionally independent from the United Nations, and is not a part of the UN system.

The cooperation between the UN and the ICC is governed by a Negotiated Relationship
Agreement. The Security Council can initiate proceedings before the ICC, and can refer to the
ICC situations that would not otherwise fall under the Court’s jurisdiction. The Court has 18
judges, elected by the states parties for a term limited to nine years, except that a judge shall
remain in office to complete any trial or appeal which has already begun. No two judges can be
from the same country.