Taha Firdous Shah

BA PROGRAMME

II YEAR

Sufism

“The term Sufi, Wali-Allah (protégé of God), dervish and faqir is an apprehension of an
ultimate non-sensuous unity in all things, a oneness or a one to which neither the sense
nor the sense can penetrate. The one who transcends our sensory and intellectual
consciousness.” – S.A.A Rizvi

Similar to the Bhakti cult that was an alternative understanding of God and devotion within
the Hindu religion, Sufism was also a similar movement within the Islamic fold. However, it
is important for us to note that such a simplistic understand of Sufism is not adequate. In
order to gain a wholesome perspective on Sufism and specially its growth and history in
India, we all will first delve into the details of how Sufism evolved in Islam.

Usually defined as Islamic mysticism (tassawuf) the word Sufism has had various
interpretations. One interpretation says that the word is derived from ‘safa’ meaning pure.
Other interpretations also include ‘sufta’ meaning raised platform and ‘suf’ meaning wool.
This is plausibly a reference to the woollen garment of early Islamic ascetics. The Sufis were
also generally know as ‘the poor’ fuqaras, plural of the Arabic term ‘faqir’, and hence the
English word ‘fakir’. All these interpretations indicate one of the other quality of sufism and
they represent that the tendency of Islam which aims at the direct communion with the
reality. Though, initially, questions were raised as to whether the Sufis were authentically
Islamic or not, they are now largely established as movement that grew out of early Islam
ascetism that developed as a counterweight to the increasing worldliness of expanding
Muslim community.

Sufism is not a rigid system. According to one outstanding Sufi, the path by which its
followers seek God – are in number the souls of men. Ascetism, purification love and gnosis
assist sufism in finding the universal self. There are merely the means to an end and not to an
end itself. – S.A.A.Rizvi

Sufis have played a significant role in the formation of Muslim society and before delving
into the role in India, we must see how it evolved in Islam. There were largely three stages of
development.

1. Period of Quietest (Early Asceticism)

2. Period of Mystic philosophers
3. Rise and proliferation of fraternal orders of Mysticism.
Period of Quietest: Sufism appeared in pious circles, as a reaction against worldliness during
the Ummayad period (666-749). Individual ascetics came up and these early Sufis renounced
the world, rejecting material life and leading secluded lives. These Sufis reacted against the
codification of Islam and decide to experience reality on their own. These saints did no
initiate any mass contact and hence did not have many followers. Their mysticism was
largely personal and dominated by the fear of God and the day of judgement.

Period of Mystic philosophers: In the earlier times, Sufis thought was transmitted in small
circles and leaders of these circles were called Shayks. A number of Shayks in the early
generations had concentrate on tawakkul or absolute trust and devotion to God. This, thus
became a central feature of Sufism and by the late 8th century, the introduction of the element
of love changed ascetism into mysticism. This is generally attributed to the Rabi ah Al
Adawayah, a woman from the Basra who first formulated the Sufi ideal of the love for Allah
(God) that was without hope for paradise and without fear of hell.

In the decades after Rabi, exchange of ideas, cultures and philosophies would result in the
spreading of mystical trends in the Islamic world. With the coming up of more Shayks and
other mystics, Sufi though began to be presented in collective groups and thus we see the
beginning of the element of teaching.

Rise of fraternal orders: By the 13th century, mystical orders – fraternal groups centering
around the teachings of a leader began to crystallise. Thus emerged the silsilas, a geneology
(chain) of Sufi saints, each following a slightly different method (tariqa) of instruction and
practice. Among the great Sufis of central Asia were Ghazzali, Rumi and Saadi. They
developed elaborate methods of training using zikr (repeating God’s name or remembering
him, contemplation, sama (singing), poetry, discussion of parables, etc.

The Sufism held their assemblies in their khanqah or hospices. Devoties of all descriptions
flocked to these khanqahs and these hospices became very important centres. Each Silsila
was headed by a pir referred to as the ‘Sultan ul Mashaikh’. Hence, we see the evolution of
Sufism from an individual practice to an organised sect.

As Sufism emerged, its teaching changed from fear of reality to the love for reality. This love
was seen as divine love and mystics often used analogies that are equated to the love between
two lovers. Therefore, we also take note of the rise of Sufi literature.

Sufi literature consisted of malfuzat (records of conversations between Sufi and the disciple),
sira/tazkira (biographical literature of the Sufi saints) and Karamat (literature on the
supernatural powers of the Sufi saints). The whole body of Karamat literature would evolve
over a period of time and the saints ability to perform miracles would eventually extend even
to the performances of miracles after death. This would lead to the establishment of the
dargahs. Thus, the tomb or dargah of a Sufi saint became a place of pilgrimage to which
thousands of people thronged.

Sufism in the South Asian Region:

The Arab sea traders operating between the Malabar coast and Ceylon first introduced Islam
to the region of the subcontinent. The great spread of Sufism in Transoxiana and Khurasan
has been dealt with previously, however, no such development in Sindh are recorded.

By the 11th century, Sufis from Central Asia had begun to settle in India. Their presence was
eventually cemented with the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate. Some silsilas gained
immense popularity and importance. Sufism in India is generally attributed to have reached it
peak between the 13th and 15th centuries. Of the silsilas that grew in India, the two most
important were that of the Chistis and the Suhrawardis.

Chistis:

 Began in Chist Afghanistan – 930 CE

 One of the first four main orders – Chisti, Qadriyya, Suhrawardi and Naqshbandi
 Became very important – particularly in the India subcontinent.
 8th in the succession – Moinuddin Chisti introduced the order to Lahore and then later
to Ajmer.
 Later, the two Chisti order in India split into two branches under the following
successors:
a) Nizamuddin Awliya (Chisti Nizami Branch)
b) Allaudin Sabir Kaliyari (Chisti Sabri branch)
 It was under Nizamuddin Auliya that Chisti sufism spread throughout India.
 Other important saints – Khwaja Nasiruddin Chiragh Dehlvi, Akhi Siraj Aaine Hind.

 Chistis were known for being welcoming to seekers from other religions.
 Stressed on keeping distance from worldly power and riches.
 Importance was given to sama which helped in evoking the divine presence
through music.
 Qawwali, the sufi devotional music was important to the Chistis.
 Insistence on full range of Muslim Obligations

Suhrawardis:

 Important Silsila of Multan and Sindh regions.

 Strictly Sunni order – originated in Kurdistan.
 Brought to Multan by Baha-ud-din-zakariya
 Other important Shayks – Shahabuddin Suhrawardi, Bahaudin Zakariya, Ruknuddin
Suhrawardy.
 Renowned reclusiveness and austerity in favour of acute life in society.
 Maintaining of close contact with civil authorities.
 Understanding diplomatic mission – political settlement of conflicts.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN THE TWO ORDERS:

There was a lot of understanding between both of the silsilas and thereby also shared many
common aspects. Both silsilas believed in mystic philosophies, concepts and union with the
reality. They were also both rooted in the Islamic tradition. The Sufi saints of both orders
practiced muttadi, that part of devotion that was for the benefit of others. This resulted in acts
of service for humanity – monetary/material help or spiritual/emotional support. Another
common element of the two orders was futuh (unasked for charity)

DIFFERENCES:

While highlighting the commonalities between the two orders is important, it is also
important to note the difference. K.A.Nizami is one of the writers to have pointed out a sharp
difference between the Chistis and the Suhrawardis.

On the attitude towards wealth, he argued that both the silsilas received a lot of money in
charity, but the difference was in their attitude towards it. The Chistis believed that whatever
money they received should be spend by the end of the day and that nothing should remain
with them in the khanqah. Thus, the Chisti saints were seen to have lived in poverty. On the
other hand, the Suhrawardis did not see wealth as evil. Rather they saw it as the cure in hand
as for any kind of charitable or good work, money is needed. They believed in the judicious
use of wealth and according to Nizami, the Silsila was quite rich.

Secondly, Nizami argued that the Chistis kept their distance from the state while the
Suhrawardis did not. The third difference that he argued was that the Suhrawardis were more
conservative and rooted in the Sunni Islam, as compared to the Chistis. The notion of nafs-i-
qira (capture of pulse) meaning to adapt to particular situations by understanding, was also
another point of difference. The Chistis seemed to have embraced it more because of the need
to adapt. The Suhrawardis, meanwhile were settled in the area that were predominantly
Islamic and did not need to adapt as much.

In this discussion, it is important for us to take note that the difference may not have been
very rigid. Recent writings show that there were subtle links between the Chisti saints and the
state authority. Moreover, there were instances of the Chistis engaging in trade. Amir
Khusrao, the disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya was also a member of the court in his time.
Thus, the drawing of the sharp differences by K.A.Nizami has been critiqued by many
historians, among which Bruce Lawrence has rigidly critiqued him for his assumptions.

SUFIS AND THE AUTHORITY:

It is also important to mention that the Sufis also asserted a lot of authority, almost like a
parallel kind of authority/organisation. They did not like to be told what to do and this was
sometimes cause for the conflict with the state.

Also, significant to note is the notion of baraqat or the bestowing of spiritual blessings.
Hence, even Barani gives credit to Nizamuddin Auliya for successful protection from the
Mongol invasions. On the issue of territory, Simon Digby pointed out strong notions of
spiritual domain – wilaya. Hence, there were often rivalries between different silsilas (This
was not the case for the Chistis and Suhrawardis because of the geographical distance
separating them). A rivalry that is noted was one between the Chisti Silsila and the Firdausi
Silsila, a silsila established by Najmuddin Kubra.

SUFISM IN THE REGION:

 Bengal – In Bengal, the Sufis were very popular. They played a crucial role in
reclaiming land for Islam where there were already strong local cults. What was
noticed there was that, as the Sufis rose in popularity, their tradition began to be
intermixed with those of the local people. Through this, we see the evolution of the
pir cults.

The pir cult that was developed in Bengal was different from the original form of Sugism and
more favourable to the indigenous consciousness of religion. Sufism in Bengal was
essentially popularised by the saints from the Chisti fold. The most prominent Chisti to have
settled in Bengal were Shaikh Ala al-Haq ( d. 1398) and Shaikh Nur Qutb-i-Alam (d. 1459).
These Sufis presented a very humane picture of Islam that the ordinary people could connect
to.

 Kashmir – The Silsila that became very prominent in Kashmir was the Rishi Silsila.
The name itself highlighted how much importance was given to the concept of nafs-i-
gira. Thus, the Silsila was heavily influence and rooted in the local traditions of the
region.

It is interesting to note that much of their popularity can also be attributed to the fact they
spoke the language of ordinary people. An example of the practice or belief that these Sufis
borrowed from the local traditions was the importance they gave to the sun and the fact they
remained vegetarians. Because of example such as these, the local population in the region
(that was largely non-Muslim) was able to relate to them. The Sufis also spoke and wrote at
the length of the dignity of labour and exploitation of the peasantry. This helped the ordinary
peasants to rebate to them and thus this added to their popularity.

 Deccan – Richard M. Eaton, an eminent historian studies the “Sufis of Bijapur” in the
Deccan context. These Sufis also spoke in the language and idiom which was
understood by the common people, particularly the women. The larger theme of love
was an important aspect in their teachings, literature and songs.

Like the Sufis in other regions, they presented a humane face of Islam while allowing local
traditions to also be incorporated in their teaching and practice. Their khanqah were open to
all Sufism became very important during the time.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:

S.A.A. Rizvi – The History of Sufism in India

Simon Digby – Sufi Shaikh and the Sultan

M. Habib – Chisti Mystic records

Richard M. Eaton – The Sufis of Bijapur

Bruce B Lawrence – The earliest Chistiya and Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya

Richard M. Eaton – Sufi Folk Literature

Tassaduq Hussain – Sufism and its path: The reflections of Shaikh Nizamuddin of Delhi