EE203 Semiconductor Devices

L17: Quasi-Fermi Levels and Steady State

Arun Tej M.
Quasi-Fermi Levels

At any temperature 𝑇, 𝑔 𝑇 = 𝑟(𝑇), such that there is no net carrier build-up or decay w.r.t. time.
At equilibrium: 𝑔 𝑇 = 𝛼𝑟 𝑛0 𝑝0 = 𝛼𝑟 𝑛𝑖2
Steady light on the sample ⇒ Additional optical generation rate, 𝑔𝑜𝑝
Carrier concentrations will increase to their new steady-state values: 𝑛0 + ∆𝑛 , (𝑝0 + ∆𝑝)
𝑔 𝑇 + 𝑔𝑜𝑝 = 𝛼𝑟 𝑛0 + ∆𝑛 (𝑝0 + ∆𝑝)
If there are no specific electron traps or hole traps, ∆𝑛 = ∆𝑝 will be maintained
𝑔 𝑇 + 𝑔𝑜𝑝 = 𝛼𝑟 𝑛0 𝑝0 + 𝛼𝑟 𝑛0 + 𝑝0 ∆𝑛 + ∆𝑛2
∆𝑛 Low-level excitation
𝑔𝑜𝑝 = 𝛼𝑟 𝑛0 + 𝑝0 ∆𝑛 =
𝜏𝑛
Excess carrier concentrations: ∆𝑛 = ∆𝑝 = 𝜏𝑔𝑜𝑝
If there are specific traps for 𝑒 − s and ℎ+ s, ∆𝑛 = 𝜏𝑛 𝑔𝑜𝑝 , ∆𝑝 = 𝜏𝑝 𝑔𝑜𝑝
When excess carriers are present, the semiconductor is no longer in equilibrium
⇒ Equilibrium Fermi level 𝐸𝐹 , will not be meaningful in this condition
Simultaneously, more 𝑒 − s and ℎ+ s are present – not from thermal source (water pumping analogy).
Steady state concentrations can still be written in the same form as that of equilibrium concentrations
by defining separate Fermi levels for 𝑒 − s and ℎ+ s
These are called quasi-Fermi levels or IMREFs 𝐸𝐶
𝐸𝐹𝑛
𝑛 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒 𝐸𝐹𝑛 −𝐸𝑖 Τ𝑘𝑇 𝐸𝐹
𝐸𝐹𝑝
𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖2 𝑒 𝐸𝐹𝑛 −𝐸𝐹𝑝 Τ𝑘𝑇
𝐸𝑖 −𝐸𝐹𝑝 Τ𝑘𝑇 𝐸𝑉
𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒

(𝐸𝐹𝑛 – 𝐸𝐹 ) and (𝐸𝐹𝑝 – 𝐸𝐹 ) indicate how different are 𝑛 and 𝑝 from 𝑛0 and 𝑝0
At equilibrium, 𝐸𝐹𝑛= 𝐸𝐹𝑝 = 𝐸𝐹
Separation (𝐸𝐹𝑛 − 𝐸𝐹𝑝) is a direct measure of deviation from equilibrium
𝑛𝑜 = 𝑁𝐶 𝑒 − 𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝐹 Τ𝑘𝑇 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒 − 𝐸𝑖 −𝐸𝐹 Τ𝑘𝑇
Equilibrium
𝑝𝑜 = 𝑁𝑉 𝑒 − 𝐸𝐹−𝐸𝑉 /𝑘𝑇 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒 − 𝐸𝐹−𝐸𝑖 /𝑘𝑇

𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝐹𝑛 Τ𝑘𝑇 𝐸𝑖 −𝐸𝐹𝑛 Τ𝑘𝑇

𝑛 = 𝑁𝐶 𝑒 − = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒 −
Non-equilibrium
𝑝 = 𝑁𝑉 𝑒 − 𝐸𝐹𝑝−𝐸𝑉 /𝑘𝑇 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒 − 𝐸𝐹𝑝−𝐸𝑖 /𝑘𝑇

𝑁𝐶 𝑛
𝐸𝐹𝑛 = 𝐸𝐶 − 𝑘𝑇𝑙𝑛 = 𝐸𝑖 + 𝑘𝑇𝑙𝑛
𝑛 𝑛𝑖

𝑁𝑉 𝑝
𝐸𝐹𝑝 = 𝐸𝑉 + 𝑘𝑇𝑙𝑛 = 𝐸𝑖 − 𝑘𝑇𝑙𝑛
𝑝 𝑛𝑖
Class Exercise

A p-type Si sample with doping concentration of 1015 cm-3 is illuminated by a steady light. This
light creates 1012 EHPs every microsecond. Assume an intrinsic concentration of 1.5x1010 cm-3,
100% ionization, no trapping, and an equal carrier lifetime of 5 μs for both type of carriers.
a) Determine the carrier concentrations and percentage change from their equilibrium values
b) Determine the locations of IMREFs for both type of carriers

𝑛𝑖2
𝑝0 = 1015 𝑐𝑚−3 𝑛0 = = 2.25 × 105 𝑐𝑚−3 𝑛0 𝑝0 = 𝑛𝑖2 = 2.25 × 1020 𝑐𝑚−3
𝑝0
∆𝑛 = ∆𝑝 = 𝜏𝑔𝑜𝑝 = 5 × 10 12
𝑐𝑚 −3 𝑛𝑝 = 5 × 1027 𝑐𝑚−3 ≠ 𝑛𝑖2

𝑝 = 𝑝0 + ∆𝑝 ≈ 1015 𝑐𝑚−3 ≈ 0% Change for majority carriers

𝑛 = 𝑛0 + ∆𝑛 ≈ 5 × 1012 𝑐𝑚−3

5 × 1012 − 2.25 × 105 9%

5
× 100 = 2.22 × 10 Change for minority carriers
2.25 × 10
 A p-type Si sample with doping concentration of 1015 cm-3 is illuminated by a steady light. This
light creates 1012 EHPs every microsecond. Assume an intrinsic concentration of 1.5x1010 cm-3,
100% ionization, no trapping, and an equal carrier lifetime of 5 μs for both type of carriers.
(a) Determine the carrier concentrations and percentage change from their equilibrium values
(b) Determine the locations of IMREFs for both type of carriers.

𝐸𝐶
𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝐹 = 𝑘𝑇 𝑙𝑛 𝑝0 Τ𝑛𝑖 = 0.026 𝑙𝑛 1015 /(1.5 × 1010 ) = 0.289 𝑒𝑉

𝐸𝐹𝑛
𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝐹𝑝 = 𝑘𝑇 𝑙𝑛 𝑝Τ𝑛𝑖 ≈ 0.026 𝑙𝑛 1015 /(1.5 × 1010 ) = 0.289 𝑒𝑉 0.151 𝑒𝑉
𝐸𝑖
𝐸𝐹𝑛 − 𝐸𝑖 = 𝑘𝑇 𝑙𝑛 𝑛Τ𝑛𝑖 = 0.026 𝑙𝑛 5 × 1012 /(1.5 × 1010 ) = 0.151 𝑒𝑉 0.289 𝑒𝑉
𝐸𝐹 𝐸𝐹𝑝
𝐸𝑉
𝑛(𝑥) = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒 𝐸𝐹𝑛 −𝐸𝑖 Τ𝑘𝑇

𝑑𝑛 𝑥
𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑞𝜇𝑛 𝑛 𝑥 ℰ 𝑥 + 𝑞𝐷𝑛
𝑑𝑥

Τ𝑘𝑇 𝐸𝐹𝑛 −𝐸𝑖 Τ𝑘𝑇 𝑛(𝑥) 𝑑𝐸𝐹𝑛 𝑑𝐸𝑖

𝑑𝑛 𝑥 𝑑 𝑛𝑖 𝑒 𝐸𝐹𝑛−𝐸𝑖 𝑛𝑖 𝑒 𝑑𝐸𝐹𝑛 𝑑𝐸𝑖
= = − = −
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑛(𝑥) 𝑑𝐸𝐹𝑛 𝑑𝐸𝑖 𝐷 𝑘𝑇

𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑞𝜇𝑛 𝑛 𝑥 ℰ 𝑥 + 𝑞𝐷𝑛 − =
𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝜇 𝑞

𝑑𝐸𝐹𝑛 𝑑𝐸𝑖 𝑑𝐸𝐹𝑛 𝑑𝐸𝐹𝑝

𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑞𝜇𝑛 𝑛 𝑥 ℰ 𝑥 + 𝜇𝑛 𝑛(𝑥) − 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 𝜇𝑛 𝑛(𝑥) 𝐽𝑝 𝑥 = 𝜇𝑝 𝑝(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 In the form of a modified Ohm’s law
𝑑𝐸𝐹𝑛 𝑑𝐸𝐹𝑛 /𝑞 𝑑𝐸𝐹𝑛 /𝑞
𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 𝜇𝑛 𝑛(𝑥) 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑞𝜇𝑛 𝑛(𝑥) 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 𝜎𝑛 (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝐸𝐹𝑝 𝑑𝐸𝐹𝑝 /𝑞
𝐽𝑝 𝑥 = 𝜇𝑝 𝑝(𝑥) 𝐽𝑝 𝑥 = 𝜎𝑝 (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

 Drift and Diffusion processes are summed up by the gradient of IMREFs

 Current is proportional to the gradient of IMREF
 Zero current in the device if gradients of IMREFs are zero
𝐸𝐶
𝑛 = 𝑁𝐶 𝑒 − 𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝐹𝑛 Τ𝑘𝑇 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒 − 𝐸𝑖 −𝐸𝐹𝑛 Τ𝑘𝑇 𝐸𝐹𝑛
𝐸𝐹
− 𝐸𝐹𝑝 −𝐸𝑉 /𝑘𝑇 − 𝐸𝐹𝑝 −𝐸𝑖 /𝑘𝑇 𝐸𝐹𝑝
𝑝 = 𝑁𝑉 𝑒 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒
𝐸𝑉
𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖2 𝑒 𝐸𝐹𝑛 −𝐸𝐹𝑝 Τ𝑘𝑇
Divergence of a vector: Scalar product with del operator

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑉1 𝜕𝑉2 𝜕𝑉3

𝑽 = 𝑖𝑉1 + 𝑗𝑉2 + 𝑘𝑉3 𝐷𝑖𝑣 𝑽 = 𝛻. 𝑽 = 𝑖 +𝑗 +𝑘 . 𝑖𝑉1 + 𝑗𝑉2 + 𝑘𝑉3 = +𝑗 +𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Divergence of the electric flux density D in a material is equal to the total charge density 𝜌
contained in the material
𝜌
𝑫 = 𝜖𝓔 𝛻. 𝑫 = 𝜌 (Point form of Gauss’ Law) ⇒ 𝛻. (𝜖𝓔) = 𝜌 𝛻. 𝓔 =
𝜖

(For a homostructure i.e., for same material throughout the device, 𝜖 will be constant)
𝑑ℰ𝑥 𝜌
For 1D case, =
𝑑𝑥 𝜖 𝑑 2 𝑉𝑥 𝜌
⇒ =− (Poisson’s Equation)
𝑑𝑉𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 𝜖
ℰ𝑥 = −
𝑑𝑥
Charge density in a semiconductor: 𝜌 = 𝑞(𝑝 − 𝑛 + 𝑁𝐷+ − 𝑁𝐴− )

𝑑ℰ𝑥 𝜌 𝑑 2 𝑉𝑥 𝜌
= =−
𝑑𝑥 𝜖 𝑑𝑥 2 𝜖

 Once the charge density is known, potential and electric field variations can be easily calculated

𝐽𝑛 (𝑥) 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥 + ∆𝑥)

Within a volume element, the rate of carrier build-up is equal to

“ increase of carrier concentration per unit time plus
Continuity Equation
rate of charge generation per unit time minus
decrease of carrier concentration per unit time due to recombination”
 𝑅𝑛
𝐺𝑛

𝐽𝑛 (𝑥) 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥 + ∆𝑥) 𝐴

Carriers entering the element per unit volume Carriers leaving the element per unit volume
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝐼𝑛 /(−𝑞) 1 𝐽𝑛 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 1 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥 + ∆𝑥)
= = = = =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐴. ∆𝑥 (−𝑞) ∆𝑥 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (−𝑞) ∆𝑥

1 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥 + ∆𝑥)
Increase in carrier concentration per unit time (i.e., rate of increase) =
(−𝑞) ∆𝑥
𝜕𝑛(𝑥, 𝑡) 1 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥 + ∆𝑥)
ቤ = + 𝐺𝑛 − 𝑅𝑛 Total e- concentration = 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑜 + 𝛿𝑛
𝜕𝑡 𝐵𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 (−𝑞) ∆𝑥
𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥+∆𝑥
𝜕𝑛 𝜕(𝑛𝑜 + 𝛿𝑛) 𝜕𝛿𝑛
= =
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝐽𝑛 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥 + ∆𝑥) 𝜕𝐽𝑛
As ∆𝑥 → 0, →− 𝛿𝑛
∆𝑥 𝜕𝑥 Recombination rate =
𝜏𝑛
Continuity Equations

𝜕𝑛(𝑥, 𝑡) 1 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥 + ∆𝑥) If there is no drift component of current

ቤ = + 𝐺𝑛 − 𝑅𝑛
𝜕𝑡 𝐵𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 (−𝑞) ∆𝑥 and also there is no generation happening
𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥+∆𝑥

𝜕𝛿𝑛
𝜕𝛿𝑛 𝜕𝐽𝑛 𝛿𝑛 𝐽𝑛 = 𝐽𝑛,𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 = 𝑞𝐷𝑛
− 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑛

𝜕𝛿𝑛 1 𝜕𝐽𝑛 𝛿𝑛 𝜕𝛿𝑛 𝜕 2 𝛿𝑛 𝛿𝑛

= + 𝐺𝑛 − = 𝐷𝑛 −
𝜕𝑡 𝑞 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑛 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜏𝑛

𝜕𝛿𝑝 1 𝜕𝐽𝑝 𝛿𝑝 𝜕𝛿𝑝 𝜕 2 𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑝

=− + 𝐺𝑝 − = 𝐷𝑝 2
−
𝜕𝑡 𝑞 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑛 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑛

Diffusion Equations
Steady State

Consider a semiconductor in steady state, with no drift component.

Assume that a particular distribution of excess carriers is somehow maintained i.e., the time
derivative of excess carrier concentration is zero

𝜕𝛿𝑛 𝜕 2 𝛿𝑛 𝛿𝑛 𝜕 2 𝛿𝑛 𝛿𝑛 𝑑 2 𝛿𝑛 𝛿𝑛 𝛿𝑛
= 0 = 𝐷𝑛 − ⇒ 𝐷𝑛 = ⇒ = = 2 𝐿𝑛 ≡ 𝐷𝑛 𝜏𝑛
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜏𝑛 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜏𝑛 𝑑𝑥 2 𝐷𝑛 𝜏𝑛 𝐿𝑛 e- and h+
diffusion
𝜕𝛿𝑝 𝜕 2 𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑝 𝜕 2 𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑝 𝑑 2 𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑝 lengths
= 0 = 𝐷𝑝 − ⇒ 𝐷𝑝 = ⇒ = = 2 𝐿𝑝 ≡ 𝐷𝑝 𝜏𝑝
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜏𝑝 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜏𝑝 𝑑𝑥 2 𝐷𝑝 𝜏𝑝 𝐿𝑝

‘Average distance through which a carrier diffuses before eventually recombining’ with the
opposite type of carrier
Case Study
𝑝(𝑥)

Semi-infinite length

𝐼𝑜 n-type 𝛿𝑝 𝑥 = 0 = ∆𝑝

0 𝑥 𝐿
𝑝𝑜
𝑑 2 𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑝 𝑥
= 2 𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑝𝑜 + 𝛿𝑝 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐿𝑝

Injected excess ℎ+ s diffuse, recombine, and eventually decay to zero for long lengths
Solution form: 𝛿𝑝 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑥/𝐿𝑝 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑥/𝐿𝑝 Boundary conditions give: 𝐴 = 0 𝐵 = ∆𝑝

Solution: 𝛿𝑝 𝑥 = ∆𝑝 𝑒 −𝑥/𝐿𝑝 ⇒ 𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑝𝑜 + ∆𝑝 𝑒 −𝑥/𝐿𝑝 𝐿 ≫ 𝐿𝑝 ⇒ 𝑝 ~ 𝑝𝑜

At 𝑥 = 𝐿𝑝 , 𝛿𝑝 = ∆𝑝/𝑒
⇒ 𝐿𝑝 is the distance at which excess distribution becomes 1/e of its value at the point of injection
Case Study
𝑝(𝑥)

Semi-infinite length

𝐼𝑜 n-type 𝛿𝑝 𝑥 = 0 = ∆𝑝

0 𝑥 𝐿
𝑝𝑜
𝑑 2 𝛿𝑝 𝛿𝑝 𝑥
= 2 𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑝𝑜 + 𝛿𝑝 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐿𝑝
𝛿𝑝 𝑥 = ∆𝑝 𝑒 −𝑥/𝐿𝑝 𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑝𝑜 + ∆𝑝 𝑒 −𝑥/𝐿𝑝

𝑥
−𝐿 𝑥
𝑑𝑝 𝑑 𝑝𝑜 + ∆𝑝 𝑒 𝑃 𝐷𝑝 −𝐿 𝐷𝑝
𝐽𝑝,𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 (𝑥) = −𝑞𝐷𝑝 = −𝑞𝐷𝑝 =𝑞 ∆𝑝 𝑒 𝑃 ⇒ 𝐽𝑝,𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑞 𝛿𝑝
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐿𝑝 𝐿𝑝

Diffusion current at any position is proportional to the excess carrier concentration at that position
 + 𝛿𝑝(𝑥)
Probability that an excess ℎ survives a distance x without recombining = = 𝑒 −𝑥/𝐿𝑃
∆𝑝

∆𝑝 − 𝛿𝑝(𝑥)
Probability that an excess ℎ+ will recombine within x distance =
∆𝑝

𝛿𝑝(𝑥) − 𝛿𝑝(𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥)

Probability that an excess ℎ+ will recombine within next dx distance =
𝛿𝑝(𝑥)

∵ 𝛿𝑝 𝑥 = ∆𝑝 𝑒 −𝑥/𝐿𝑝
𝑑𝛿𝑝(𝑥)
𝛿𝑝(𝑥) − 𝛿𝑝(𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 − × 𝑑𝑥 1
= 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 −1
× 𝑑𝛿𝑝(𝑥) − ∆𝑝 𝑒 −𝑥/𝐿𝑝
𝛿𝑝(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑝(𝑥) 𝐿𝑃 − 𝐿𝑃 1
𝑑𝑥 = =
𝛿𝑝(𝑥) ∆𝑝 𝑒 −𝑥/𝐿𝑝 𝐿𝑝

Probability that an excess ℎ+ survives a distance x without recombining, and then recombines
in the next dx
−𝑥/𝐿𝑝 1
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑒 × 𝑑𝑥
𝐿𝑝
 ∞
Average value of a function is 𝑓(𝑥) = න 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑃 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
−∞

−𝑥/𝐿𝑝 1
Here, 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑑𝑥
𝐿𝑝
∞
1
Average distance a hole travels before it recombines 𝑥 = න−∞ 𝑥 . 𝑒 −𝑥/𝐿𝑝 𝑑𝑥
𝐿𝑝
/0

⇒ 𝑥 = 𝐿𝑝
Class Exercise (ex. 4.5, book by Streetman & Banerjee)

A very long 𝑝-type Si bar, with cross-sectional area of 0.5 cm2 , is doped with a concentration 𝑁𝐴 =
1017 cm−3 . Excess ℎ+ s are injected in steady state at a concentration of 5 × 1016 cm−3 at one of
its sides.
(a) Calculate steady state separation between ℎ+ IMREF and CB edge at a distance of
100 𝑛𝑚 from the above said side.
(b) Calculate the hole current density at that distance.
(c) How much is the excess stored hole charge?
Given: ℎ+ mobility = 500 cm2 V −2 s −1 , ℎ+ life time = 100 𝑝𝑠, Intrinsic conc. = 1.5 × 1010 cm−3
𝑝(𝑥)

𝐼𝑜 p-type
∆𝑝
0 𝑥 𝐿
5 × 1016 𝑐𝑚−3 𝑝𝑜
𝑥
0 100nm
Class Exercise (ex. 4.5, book by Streetman & Banerjee)

𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑝0 + ∆𝑝 𝑒 −𝑥/𝐿𝑃
𝐼𝑜 p-type
−5 Τ(3.6×10−5 )
= 1017 +(5 × 1016 )𝑒 10 = 1.379 × 1017 𝑐𝑚−3
0 𝑥 𝐿
𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝐹𝑝 = 𝑘𝑇 𝑙𝑛 𝑝(𝑥)Τ𝑛𝑖 = 0.415 𝑒𝑉
5 × 1016 𝑐𝑚−3
𝑘𝑇
𝐿𝑝 ≡ 𝐷𝑝 𝜏𝑝 = 3.6 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 𝐷𝑝 = 𝜇 = 12.95 𝑐𝑚/𝑠
𝑞 𝑝 𝑝(𝑥)
𝐸𝐺
𝐸𝐶 − 𝐸𝐹𝑝 = + 0.415 = 0.965 𝑒𝑉
2
𝐷𝑝 𝑥 ∆𝑝
−𝐿
𝐽𝑝,𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑞 ∆𝑝 𝑒 𝑃 = 2.18 × 103 𝐴/𝑐𝑚2
𝐿𝑝
𝑝𝑜
𝑄Δ𝑝 = 𝑞Δ𝑝 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑝𝑦 𝑥
0 100nm
𝑄Δ𝑝 = 𝑞Δ𝑝𝐴𝐿𝑝 = 1.44 × 10−7 𝐶