SUBSURFACE

CONTAMINATION

Bernardino, Camille Z.
Cuison, Francis F.
Espiritu, Charlene M.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

SUBSURFACE CONTAMINATION

SUBSURFACES
CONTAMINATION VS. POLLUTION
SUBSURFACE CONTAMINATION

PART I. GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION

IA. HOW DOES GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION OCCUR?

IB. POTENTIAL SOURCES OF GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION

IC. CONTAMINANTS FOUND IN GROUNDWATER

ID. EFFECTS OF GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION

IE. PREVENTION AND MANAGEMENT

PART II. SOIL CONTAMINATION

IIA. HOW DOES SOIL CONTAMINATION OCCUR?

IIB. POTENTIAL SOURCES OF SOIL CONTAMINATION

IIC. CONTAMINANTS FOUND IN SOIL

IID. EFFECTS OF SOIL CONTAMINATION

IIE. PREVENTION

DEFINITION OF TERMS
 SUBSURFACE CONTAMINATION
SUBSURFACES
Subsurface is defined by Merriam-Webster Dictionary as earth material (as rock) near
but not exposed at the surface of the ground. Subsurface flow, in hydrology, is the flow
of water beneath earth's surface as part of the water cycle.

CONTAMINATION VS. POLLUTION

Pollution is the introduction through direct or indirect human intervention, of substances
into the environment that causes harm to living organisms, and hazards to human
health. On the other hand, contamination is the presence in high levels of extraneous
(especially infectious), harmful substances in the environment above their natural levels
of concentration.
Another way of looking at the difference is this: Contamination takes place when an
element or substance is present in higher-than-normal levels of concentration. When
such concentration leads to severe harmful effects to living organisms, it is called
pollution.
Example: Air in a room can be contaminated by cigarette smoke. Air in a city is polluted
by emissions.

SUBSURFACE CONTAMINATION
The movement of contaminants through the subsurface is complex and is difficult to
predict. Different types of contaminants react differently with soils, sediments, and other
geologic materials and commonly travel along different flow paths and at different
velocities. One of the challenges for hydro geologists is to obtain meaningful chemical
data from water samples collected from observation wells and monitoring wells to use to
map the distribution of specific contaminants and to use as targets for any models that
may be constructed to predict forward or backward in time.
One important tool in addition to detecting and monitoring subsurface contamination, is
mathematical simulation and prediction. There are many models that are used for
simulating flow and contaminant transport in unsaturated and saturated zones.
Modeling studies allow a better understanding of processes affecting contaminant
transport, and provide necessary understanding and information for regulatory,
management, and remediation purposes.Soil and groundwater then can be sampled as
monitoring becomes more invasive. In this phase, monitoring wells may be drilled and
soil cores retrieved.

 Groundwater Contamination
 Soil Contamination
PART I. GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION
Groundwater contamination occurs when pollutants are released to the ground and
make their way down into groundwater. It can also occur naturally due to the presence
of a minor and unwanted constituent, contaminant or impurity in the groundwater, in
which case it is more likely referred to as contamination rather than pollution. Even
though groundwater may be plentiful in a particular area, if the quality of the
groundwater has been degraded by the entry of contaminants,the aquifer may not be
usable as a water supply.

IA. HOW DOES GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION OCCUR?

Any addition of undesirable substances to groundwater caused by human activities is
considered to be contamination. It has often been assumed that contaminants left on or
under the ground will stay there. This has been shown to be wishful thinking.
Groundwater often spreads the effects of dumps and spills far beyond the site of the
original contamination.
Groundwater contamination occurs when:
 Man-made products such as gasoline, oil, road salts and chemicals get into the
groundwater and cause it to become unsafe and unfit for human use.
 Materials from the land's surface can move through the soil and end up in the
groundwater. For example, pesticides and fertilizers can find their way into
groundwater supplies over time.
 Road salt, toxic substances from mining sites, and used motor oil also may seep
into groundwater. In addition, it is possible for untreated waste from septic tanks
and toxic chemicals from underground storage tanks and leaky landfills to
contaminate groundwater.
 Contaminants can also move into the ground water system through macro
pores—root systems, animal burrows, abandoned wells, and other systems of
holes and cracks that supply pathways for contaminants
Depending on its physical, chemical, and biological properties, a contaminant that has
been released into the environment may move within an aquifer in the same manner
that ground water moves. It is possible to predict, to some degree, the transport within
an aquifer of those substances that move along with ground water flow. For example,
both water and certain contaminants flow in the direction of the topography from
recharge areas to discharge areas. Soils that are porous and permeable tend to
transmit water and certain types of contaminants with relative ease to an aquifer below.
Just as ground water generally moves slowly, so do contaminants in ground water.
Because of this slow movement, contaminants tend to remain concentrated in the form
of a plume that flows along the same path as the ground water. The size and speed of
the plume depend on the amount and type of contaminant, its solubility and density, and
the velocity of the surrounding ground water.
IB. POTENTIAL SOURCES OF GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION

1. Storage Tanks
Storage tanks may contain gasoline, oil,
chemicals, or other types of liquids and they can
either be above or below ground. If the
contaminants leak out and get into the
groundwater, serious contamination can occur.

2.Septic System
Septic systems are designed to slowly drain away
human waste underground at a slow, harmless
rate. An improperly designed, located,
constructed, or maintained septic system can leak
bacteria, viruses, household chemicals, and other
contaminants into the groundwater causing
serious problems.

3.UncontrolledHazardous Waste
Hazardous waste sites can lead to groundwater
contamination if there are barrels or other
containers laying around that are full of hazardous
materials. If there is a leak, these contaminants
can eventually make their way down through the
soil and into the groundwater.
 4.Landfills
Landfills are the places that our garbage is taken
to be buried. Landfills are supposed to have a
protective bottom layer to prevent contaminants
from getting into the water. However, if there is no
layer or it is cracked, contaminants from the
landfill (car battery acid, paint, household
cleaners, etc.) can make their way down into the
groundwater.

5.Chemicals and Road Salts

The widespread use of chemicals and road salts is
another source of potential groundwater
contamination. Chemicals include products used
on lawns and farm fields to kill weeds and insects
and to fertilize plants, and other products used in
homes and businesses. When it rains, these
chemicals can seep into the ground and
eventually into the water. Road salts are used in
the wintertime to put melt ice on roads to keep
cars from sliding around. When the ice melts, the
salt gets washed off the roads and eventually
ends up in the water.

6.AtmosphericContaminants
Since groundwater is part of the hydrologic cycle,
contaminants in other parts of the cycle, such as
the atmosphere or bodies of surface water, can
eventually be transferred into our groundwater
supplies.

Ground water can become contaminated from natural sources or numerous

types of human activities. Residential, municipal, commercial, industrial, and agricultural
activities can all affect ground water quality. Contaminants may reach ground water
from activities on the land surface, such as releases or spills from stored industrial
wastes; from sources below the land surface but above the water table, such as septic
systems or leaking underground petroleum storage systems; from structures beneath
the water table, such as wells; or from contaminated recharge water. Natural Sources
Some substances found naturally in rocks or soils, such as iron, manganese, arsenic,
chlorides, fluorides, sulfates, or radionuclides, can become dissolved in ground water.
Other naturally occurring substances, such as decaying organic matter, can move in
ground water as particles. Whether any of these substances appears in ground water
depends on local conditions.

IC. CONTAMINANTS FOUND IN GROUNDWATER

1. Pathogens
Contained in feces can lead to groundwater pollution when they are given the
opportunity to reach the groundwater, making it unsafe for drinking. Of the four
pathogen types that are present in feces (bacteria, viruses, protozoa and
helminthes), the first three can be commonly found in polluted groundwater,
whereas the relatively large helminthes eggs are usually filtered out by the soil
matrix. Groundwater that is contaminated with pathogens can lead to fatal fecal-
oral transmission of diseases.
2. Nitrate
In addition to the issue of pathogens, there is also the issue of nitrate pollution in
groundwater from pit latrines, which has led to numerous cases of "blue baby
syndrome" in children, notably in rural countries such as Romania and Bulgaria.
Nitrate levels above 10 mg/L (10 ppm) in groundwater can cause "blue baby
syndrome" Nitrate can also enter the groundwater via excessive use of fertilizers,
including manure. This is because only a fraction of the nitrogen-based fertilizers
is converted to produce and other plant matter. The remainder accumulates in
the soil or lost as run-off. High application rates of nitrogen-containing fertilizers
combined with the high water-solubility of nitrate leads to increased runoff into
surface water as well as leaching into groundwater, thereby causing groundwater
pollution.The excessive use of nitrogen-containing fertilizers (be they synthetic or
natural) is particularly damaging, as much of the nitrogen that is not taken up by
plants is transformed into nitrate which is easily leached.
The nutrients, especially nitrates, in fertilizers can cause problems for natural
habitats and for human health if they are washed off soil into watercourses or
leached through soil into groundwater.
3. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
VOCs are dangerous contaminant of groundwater. They are generally introduced
to the environment through careless industrial practices. Many of these
compounds were not known to be harmful until the late 1960s and it was some
time before regular testing of groundwater identified these substances in drinking
water sources.
 4. Others
Organic pollutants can also be found in groundwater, such as insecticides and
herbicides, a range of organo halides and other chemical compounds, petroleum
hydrocarbons, various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and
cosmetic products, drug pollution involving pharmaceutical drugs and their
metabolites. Inorganic pollutants might include ammonia, nitrate, phosphate,
heavy metals orradio nuclides.
5. Naturally occurring
a. Arsenic contamination of groundwater
In the Ganges Plain of northern India and Bangladesh severe
contamination of groundwater by naturally occurring arsenic affects 25%
of water wells in the shallower of two regional aquifers. The pollution
occurs because aquifer sediments contain organic matter that generates
anaerobic conditions in the aquifer. These conditions result in the
microbial dissolution of iron oxides in the sediment and, thus, the release
of the arsenic, normally strongly bound to iron oxides, into the water. As a
consequence, arsenic-rich groundwater is often iron-rich, although
secondary processes often obscure the association of dissolved arsenic
and dissolved iron.
b. Fluoride
In areas that have naturally occurring high levels of fluoride in
groundwater which is used for drinking water, both dental and skeletal
fluorosis can be prevalent and severe.

ID.EFFECTS OF GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION

 Poor drinking water quality
 Loss of water supply
 Degraded surface water systems
 High cleanup costs
 High costs for alternative water supplies
 Potential health problems
Drinking water containing bacteria and viruses can result in illnesses such as hepatitis,
cholera, or giardiasis. Methemoglobinemia or “blue baby syndrome,” an illness affecting
infants, can be caused by drinking water that is high in nitrates. Benzene, a component
of gasoline, is a known human carcinogen. The serious health effects of lead are well
known—learning disabilities in children; nerve, kidney, and liver problems; and
pregnancy risks. Wildlife can also be harmed by contaminated groundwater. Other long
term effects such as certain types of cancer may also result from exposure to polluted
water.
The consequences of contaminated ground water or degraded surface water are often
serious. For example, estuaries that have been impacted by high nitrogen from ground
water sources have lost critical shellfish habitats. In terms of water supply, in some
instances, ground water contamination is so severe that the water supply must be
abandoned as a source of drinking water. In other cases, the ground water can be
cleaned up and used again, if the contamination is not too severe and if the municipality
is willing to spend a good deal of money. Follow-up water quality monitoring is often
required for many years. Because ground water generally moves slowly, contamination
often remains undetected for long periods of time. This makes cleanup of a
contaminated water supply difficult, if not impossible. If a cleanup is undertaken, it can
cost thousands to millions of peso.

IE.PREVENTION AND MANAGEMENT

1.Locating on-site sanitation system
On-site sanitation systems can be designed in such a way that groundwater pollution
from these sanitation systems is prevented from occurring. Detailed guidelines have
been developed to estimate safe distances to protect groundwater sources from
pollution from on-site sanitation.
As a very general guideline it is recommended that the bottom of the pit should be at
least 2 m above groundwater level, and a minimum horizontal distance of 30 m between
a pit and a water source is normally recommended to limit exposure to microbial
contamination. However, no general statement should be made regarding the minimum
lateral separation distances required to prevent contamination of a well from a pit
latrine.
2.Point-of-use treatment
Portable water purification devices or "point-of-use" (POU) water treatment systems and
field water disinfection techniques can be used to remove some forms of groundwater
pollution prior to drinking, namely any fecal pollution. Many commercial portable water
purification systems or chemical additives are available which can remove pathogens,
chlorine, bad taste, odors, and heavy metals like lead and mercury.
Techniques include:Boiling, filtration, activated charcoal absorption, chemical
disinfection, ultraviolet purification, ozone water disinfection, solar water disinfection,
solar distillation, homemade water filters.
3.Groundwater remediation
Groundwater contamination is much more difficult to abate than surface pollution
because groundwater can move great distances through unseen aquifers. Non-porous
aquifers such as clays partially purify water of bacteria by simple filtration (adsorption
and absorption), dilution, and, in some cases, chemical reactions and biological activity;
however, in some cases, the pollutants merely transform to soil contaminants.
Pollutants and contaminants can be removed from ground water by applying various
techniques thereby making it safe for use. Ground water treatment (or remediation)
techniques span biological, chemical, and physical treatment technologies. Most ground
water treatment techniques utilize a combination of technologies. Some of the biological
treatment techniques include bioaugmentation, bioventing, biosparging, bioslurping, and
phytoremediation. Some chemical treatment techniques include ozone and oxygen gas
injection, chemical precipitation, membrane separation, ion exchange, carbon
absorption, aqueous chemical oxidation, and surfactant enhanced recovery. Some
chemical techniques may be implemented using nanomaterials. Physical treatment
techniques include, but are not limited to, pump and treat, air sparging, and dual phase
extraction.
4.Abandonment
If treatment or remediation of the contaminated groundwater is deemed to be too
difficult or expensive then abandoning the use of this aquifer's groundwater and finding
an alternative source of water is the only other option.

PART II.SOIL CONTAMINATION

With the rise of concrete buildings and roads, one part of the Earth that we rarely
see is the soil. It has many different names, such as dirt, mud and ground. However, it
is definitely very important to us. The plants that feed us grow in soil and keeping it
healthy is essential to maintaining a beautiful planet.Soil contamination or soil pollution
as part of land degradation is caused by the presence of xenobiotic (human-made)
chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. It is typically caused by
industrial activity, agricultural chemicals, or improper disposal of waste. The most
common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons (such as naphthalene and benzo, pyrene), solvents, pesticides, lead, and
other heavy metals.

IIA. HOW DOES SOIL CONTAMINATION OCCUR?

Soil pollution occurs when soil contains chemicals that are toxic or otherwise dangerous
for humans and other living things. The chemicals may be foreign to the area, or they
may be naturally occurring materials that pollute the soil by being present in
dangerously high amounts. Soil pollution can have a number of harmful effects on
human health. The harmful effects of soil pollution may come from direct contact with
polluted soil or from contact with other resources, such as water, that have come in
direct contact with the polluted soil.

IIB. POTENTIAL SOURCES OF SOIL CONTAMINATION

1. Pesticides and herbicides
A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. A pesticide may
be a chemical substance, biological agent (such as a virus or bacteria), antimicrobial,
disinfectant or device used against any pest. Pests include insects, plant pathogens,
weeds, mollusks, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes (roundworms) and microbes that
compete with humans for food, destroy property, spread or are a vector for disease or
cause a nuisance. Although there are benefits to the use of pesticides, there are also
drawbacks, such as potential toxicity to humans and other organisms.
Herbicides are used to kill weeds, especially on pavements and railways. They are
similar to auxins and most are biodegradable by soil bacteria. However, one group
derived from trinitrotoluene have the impurity dioxin, which is very toxic and causes
fatality even in low concentrations. Another herbicide is Paraquat. It is highly toxic but it
rapidly degrades in soil due to the action of bacteria and does not kill soil fauna.
2. Agents of war
The disposal of munitions, and a lack of care in manufacture of munitions caused by the
urgency of production, can contaminate soil for extended periods. There is little
published evidence on this type of contamination largely because of restrictions placed
by Governments of many countries on the publication of material related to war effort.
However, mustard gas stored during World War II has contaminated some sites for up
to 50 years and the testing of Anthrax as a potential biological weapon contaminated
the whole island of Gruinard.

3.Lead Paint
Has lead paint been used on the outsideof homes or other buildings on or near the
property? Some paints manufactured before 1978 are likely to contain lead. As lead
paint ages and peels off or is intentionally removed through activities such as stripping,
scraping or sandblasting, lead can make its way into the soil surrounding homes or
other buildings. The concentrations of lead in soil are usually highest right near a
building, and tend to decrease with distance away from the contamination source.

4.Industrial / Commercial Site Use

Is the property near an industrial or commercial site that may be using chemicals or
might have used chemicals in the past? Was the property formerly the site of industrial
or commercial activity? The particular chemicals that may be present due to industrial or
commercial activities will depend on the type of industry and the specific procedures
used on site. If commercial or industrial activities are currentlyoccurring on or near the
property, or may have occurred in the past, it may be helpful to research what
chemicals might have been used for a specific activity. The level of contamination will
depend on many factors, such ashow close to the property a particular activity
occurred,and how long it has been since chemicals were used.

5. High Traffic Areas

Is the property located near a roadway with frequent traffic? A property’s distance from
roadways and traffic can affect the amounts of certain chemicals in the soil, especially
lead. Lead compounds were used in gasoline until the late 1970s; after this time their
use was phased out. Even though the use of leaded gasoline has now been
discontinued, the highest concentrations of lead in soils are still generally found
adjacent to busy roadways. Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are chemicals
associated with the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels and with coal tars and asphalt.
The levels of PAHs and some other chemicals may also be higher in high traffic areas
as compared to other areas. The lowest levels of contamination would be expected in
the areas of the property farthest away from traffic.

6.Automobile or Machine Repair / Junk Vehicle Storage

Has automobile or other machine repair work been done that may have resulted in
chemical spills or dumping on or near the property? Are junk vehicles stored on or near
the property? Automobile or machine repair activities may result in accidental spills or
intentional dumping of chemicals into residential or community soils. Many possible
contaminants could be associated with these activities, including petroleum products,
PAHs (particularly from motor oil), solvents like trichloroethylene (TCE), used tires and
rubber products, metals (used engine oil may contain chromium, lead, molybdenum, or
nickel from engine wear), or used batteries (which may release lead or mercury). Junk
vehicles may also be a source of these chemicals or other contaminants, depending on
their condition and how and where they are stored.

8. Acid Rain
Acid rain is caused when pollutants present in the air mixes up with the rain and fall
back on the ground. The polluted water could dissolve away some of the important
nutrients found in soil and change the structure of the soil.

9.Others
Soil pollution can be caused by the following : Oil drilling; Mining and activities by other
heavy industries; Accidental spills as may happen during deforestation activities, etc.;
Corrosion of underground storage tanks (including piping used to transmit the contents);
Acid rain (in turn caused by air pollution); Intensive farming; Agrochemicals, such as
pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers; Industrial accidents; Road debris; Drainage of
contaminated surface water into the soil;&Waste disposal.

IIC. CONTAMINANTS FOUND IN SOIL

The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents,
pesticides, lead, and other heavy metals. In a wider sense, genetically modified
plants (GMP) can count as a risk factor for soils, because of their potential to
affect the soil fauna.Any activity that leads to other forms of soil degradation
(erosion, compaction, etc.) may indirectly worsen the contamination effects in
that soil remediation becomes more tedious.
IID. EFFECTS OF SOIL CONTAMINATION

1.Effect on Health of Humans

Considering how soil is the reason we are able to sustain ourselves, the contamination
of it has major consequences on our health. Crops and plants grown on polluted soil
absorb much of the pollution and then pass these on to us. This could explain the
sudden surge in small and terminal illnesses.
Long term exposure to such soil can affect the genetic make-up of the body, causing
congenital illnesses and chronic health problems that cannot be cured easily. In fact, it
can sicken the livestock to a considerable extent and cause food poisoning over a long
period of time. The soil pollution can even lead to widespread famines if the plants are
unable to grow in it.

2. Effect on Growth of Plants

The ecological balance of any system gets affected due to the widespread
contamination of the soil. Most plants are unable to adapt when the chemistry of the soil
changes so radically in a short period of time. Fungi and bacteria found in the soil that
bind it together begin to decline, which creates an additional problem of soil erosion.
The fertility slowly diminishes, making land unsuitable for agriculture and any local
vegetation to survive. The soil pollution causes large tracts of land to become
hazardous to health. Unlike deserts, which are suitable for its native vegetation, such
land cannot support most forms of life.

3. Decreased Soil Fertility

The toxic chemicals present in the soil can decrease soil fertility and therefore decrease
in the soil yield. The contaminated soil is then used to produce fruits and vegetables
which lacks quality nutrients and may contain some poisonous substance to cause
serious health problems in people consuming them.

4. Toxic Dust
The emission of toxic and foul gases from landfills pollutes the environment and causes
serious effects on health of some people. The unpleasant smell causes inconvenience
to other people.

5. Changes in Soil Structure

The death of many soil organisms (e.g. earthworms) in the soil can lead to alteration in
soil structure. Apart from that, it could also force other predators to move to other places
in search of food.

6.Economic Losses
In addition to endangering human health, soil pollution can also cause economic
damage. For example, in some parts of China, soil that is polluted with heavy metals is
nevertheless used to grow grain. The grain grown in these soils is often polluted with
heavy metals.

IIE. PREVENTION

A number of ways have been suggested to curb the current rate of pollution. Such
attempts at cleaning up the environment require plenty of time and resources to be
pitched in. Industries have been given regulations for the disposal of hazardous waste,
which aims at minimizing the area that becomes polluted. Organic methods of farming
are being supported, which do not use chemical laden pesticides and fertilizers. Use of
plants that can remove the pollutants from the soil is being encouraged. However, the
road ahead is quite long and the prevention of soil pollution will take many more
years.There are various available techniques for remediating contaminated sites as well
as technologies presently under development. The feasibility of any remediation
technology should be carefully evaluated from site to site based on site specific
information such as local geology and type of contamination. In some cases, a
combination of treatment methods, used in a phased approach, is more efficient and
effective than one method alone. With the number of known contaminated sites
continuing to increase, there is an urgent need for scientists and regulatory agencies to
conduct more fundamental research to gain a better understanding of the physical
processes behind the contamination and to develop more innovative remediation
methods for the soil and groundwater.
DEFINITION OF TERMS

ACQUIFIER is an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock, rock fractures or

unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt) from which groundwater can be
extracted using a water well.
CONTAMINATIONis the presence of an unwanted constituent, contaminant or impurity
in a material, physical body, natural environment, workplace, etc.
GROUNDWATERis the water present beneath Earth's surface in soil pore spaces and
in the fractures of rock formations.
IMPURITYis a substance inside a confined amount of liquid, gas, or solid, which differ
from the chemical composition of the material or compound.
PERMEABLEmaterials areallowing liquids or gases to pass through it.
PLUMEis the form of effluent in water or emissions in air.
POLLUTIONis the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause
adverse change.
POROUSmaterials are those having minute spaces or holes through which liquid or air
may pass.
SUBSURFACES areearth material (as rock) near but not exposed at the surface of the
ground.
REFERENCES