: TYPES OF DRAWINGS

SINGLE PART
Shows all the information necessary to manufacture or inspect an item, ie. the shape, size, material,
treatments, finish etc.
THE COLLECTIVE
Shows similar items which have only slight differences, e.g. different dimensions, finish, material,
rivets of difference length, special bolt etc.
COMBINED
This drawing shows a complete assembly of all the individual parts, on a single drawing
CONSTRUCTIONAL (ASSEMBLY)
An assembly drawing with sufficient dimensional and other information to describe the component
parts of a construction
A complete set of drawings and associated documents are necessary to build and assemble an
aircraft and form part of the inspection records. The following are recommended by TS 88:
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION
Detail Drawings
These give component requirements, dimensions, tolerances, machining details, surface finish, and
any treatment required
Sub Assembly Drawings
These give specific information on the assembly of component parts.
Main Assembly Drawings
These contain profile particulars only, but will include the information required for the assembly of
individual parts of sub-assemblies. The sequence of assembly is given but information given in
detail, drawings and sub assembly drawings is not repeated.
Installation Drawing
These are issued to clarify external dimensions, locations, attitudes of components, adjustments,
clearances, settings, connections, adapters and locking methods. These drawings may be handed
LH or RH.

General Arrangement Drawing

These are issued for the aircraft, main assemblies and systems. They usually contain overall profile
particulars only with locations and references of the associated main assembly and installation
drawings

SINGLE PART DRAWING (DETAIL DRAWINGS)

 ASSEMBLY DRAWING

COMBINED DRAWING
COLLECTIVE DRAWIN
SUB ASSEMBLY DRAWING
PROJECTIONS AND VIEWS
PROJECTIONS
Generally a single view of an engineering part will not show all the details of every important feature.
A complete engineering drawing appears as two, three or more individual drawings, front view, end
views and plan view.
Each drawing shows the part as it looks when viewed from a different angle.
ORTHODOX- regular, correct,
accepted.
GRAPHIC - descriptive of
diagrams or curves.
PROJECTION- plan, represented by
drawing lines.

There are two methods of Orthographic Projection:

1. First angle - European
2. Third angle - American

Both methods are internationally accepted and regarded as of equal status. To avoid confusion, a
symbol is used to indicate which system is being used.
In both methods the object can be considered to be suspended in a box from which one side has
been removed. If parallel lines are projected from the object onto the remaining sides, they will
produce 5 basic views. If the box is now opened up and laid flat it will produce a basic 5 view flap
presentation
ADDITIONAL VIEWS
The number of views on any one drawing is the minimum required to ensure that there will be no
misunderstanding. A standard projection may require the use of additional views to fully show all
details of inclined surfaces or hidden details.
The most common additional views in use are:
Isometric
In this view the object is viewed ¾ face with the base lines revolved through 30 .
Oblique Projection
This is a method of projection in which lines representing edges which are in fact parallel to the line
of sight are added to the front view and drawn at a chosen angle (30 or 45 ) to the horizontal. This
is done to give a clear understanding of the form of the object.
Auxiliary
To show the true shape of an inclined surface. The view is constructed from lines projected at right
angles from the inclined surface; an arrow usually shows the precise direction in which the view is
taken
Sectional View
This shows the important features of an object that cannot normally be seen. The hidden parts are
exposed by assuming that part of the object has been broken, or cut away. Just where the imaginary
cut or break has been made is indicated on the standard projection by thin long chain lines,
thickened at the ends and where changes of direction occur. The direction of the view is shown by
arrows resting on the chain line and designated by capital letters. Where sectioning has taken place
the surface is highlighted by ‘hatching line’. If two or more surfaces are sectioned, the hatching will
be drawn in different directions and/or different spacing.

ISOMETRIC VIEW
 AUXILIARY VIEW

OBLIQUE VIEW

SECTIONAL VIEW

SECTION IN TWO PARALLEL PLANES

DIMENSIONING
All dimensions necessary for the manufacture of the part or assembly are given on the drawing. It
should not be necessary to deduce any dimension from other dimensions. Dimensions are normally
given once only, the units of measurement being stated on the drawing. Dimensions are placed so
that they might be read from the bottom or right hand side of the drawing.
When dimensions are given from a common datum, one of the methods shown below is normally
used. Chain dimensioning, ie. dimensioning between adjacent holes, is not often used, because it
allows a build up of tolerances. In the case of riveted joints, the end holes may be located and a note
given, such as ’10 rivets equally spaced’.

EXAMPLES OF DIMENSION LINES

SCALE
In practice it may not be possible or convenient to make the dimensions on the drawing the same
lengths as the actual dimensions of the object. Therefore drawing dimensions may be enlarged or
reduced by using scales which ensure uniformity.
The scale used should be indicated in the ‘Original Scale’ box in the form of a ratio eg. 1 : 2 (half
size), 1 : 10 (tenth size), 2 : 1 (twice full size) etc.
If for any reason the drawing’s dimensions cannot be verified or have been compromised in any way
eg. photocopied, then the drawing is annotated DO NOT SCALE and dimensions are not to be take
directly off the drawing.

SYMBOLS
Symbols are also used whenever possible; a key to their meaning usually appears somewhere on
the drawing. One of the most common symbols used is the machining symbol. This triangular symbol
is used to indicate any surface which is to be finished by a machining process.

IDENTIFICATION MARKINGS
Processes carried out on components are shown by standard markings put on the components and
shown on the drawing.
Identification markings, including methods of application will also be shown on the drawing.
PROCESS AND TREATMENT

SYMBOLS Process of
Treatment Symbol
Solution treated and not N
requiring precipitation
Solution treated and W
requiring precipitation
Precipitation treatment P
Solution treated and WP
precipitated
Annealed A
Hardened and tempered HT
Mechanical M
Dye penetrant check PFD
Ultra-sonic UFD
Anodic flaw detected AFD
Cleaned (pipes) AC1
Repaired and R
reconditioned
Normalised steel parts N
Proof loaded PL
Stress relieved SR
Pressure Test PT
X-ray flaw detected XR
Salvaged S
Electro-magnetic flaw MFD
detected
Welding WS
Etch inspection of steel E
 TOLERANCES
It is the aim of modern engineering methods to make parts swiftly and to an acceptable
degree of accuracy. No engineering part can be made, or needs to be made, exactly to
size. By using high quality machine tools and a certain flexibility in dimensions, parts can be
produced at high speed which are fully interchangeable.
This is done by adopting a system of limits which defines how much smaller or larger than
the basic item a part can be and yet still be acceptable.
In practice on a drawing, a basic linear dimension of 25 millimetres could appear as:
25.05 25 ± 0.05
24.95
This indicates that although the required size is 25 mm, provided that its actual size falls
between the extremes shown the item is acceptable.
25.05 mm is the HIGH limit
24.95 mm is the LOW limit

COMPUTER GENERATED INFORMATION

The modern form of presenting information is to have a CD-ROM disc (Compact Disc -
Read Only Memory) with all the appropriate manuals written on it in digital format which can
then be read by a computer.
There are several proprietary companies which specialise in writing manuals to disc. The
information can be readily brought up onto the monitor screen and then printed out as, or if,
required.
Units known as PMA (Portable Maintenance Aid) equipment are under development by
Boeing Aircraft. This is akin to a small laptop computer which can be carried by the
Engineer onto the aircraft to assist in his work. The PMA will also give a printout should it be
required. PMAs are available for several Boeing aircraft at present and are being developed
for more as time goes on.
EXAMPLE OF COMPUTER MONITOR SCREEN SHOWING A DIGITISED AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE DOCUMENT
Microfilm
Microfilm is a reduced photographic negative of an engineering, technical drawing or written
instruction.
Microfilm is normally presented as a strip of film wound onto a spool retained in a plastic
case. The spool is fitted into a reading machine where a light shines through the film and
displays the pages onto a screen so that the information can be read. Some machines have
a facility where the displayed page can be printed off for future reference.

MICROFILM SPOOL READER

MICROFICHE
Microfiche slides are clear plastic sheets with many pages printed on them in extreme
miniature. One microfiches slide, measuring four by six inches (100mm x 150mm approx)
can contain over a hundred miniaturised pages.
The microfiche slide is placed on a tray in a reader where a bright light is shone through a
small portion of it, the resulting image of the page selected is displayed onto a screen.

EXAMPLE OF A MICROFICHE SLIDE (SERVICE MANUAL FOR A CESSNA 412C)

AT A SPECIFICATION NO 100
INTRODUCTION
Most transport aircraft manuals use the Air Transport Association of America Specification
Number 100 “Specification for Manufacturers’ Technical Data”.
The manuals defined and described by ATA Specification 100 are as follows:
 Maintenance Manual.
 Illustrated Parts Catalogue.
 Wiring Diagram Manual.
 Structural Repair Manual.
 Overhaul Manual.
 Tool and Equipment Lists.
 Service Bulletins.
 Weight and Balance Manual.

AIRCRAFT GENERAL STRUCTURES

Time Limits/Maintenance Checks 5 Structures – General 51
Dimensions & Chart 6 Doors 52
Lifting & Shoring 7 Fuselage 53
Levelling & Weighing 8 Nacelles/Pylons 54
Towing & taxiing 9 Stabilisers 55
Parking & Mooring 10 Windows 56
Required Placards 11 Wings 57
Servicing 12
Standard Practices – Airframe 20
AEROPLANE SYSTEMS POWER PLANT
Air Conditioning 21 Standard Practices – Engine 70
Auto Flight 22 Power Plant 71
Communication 23 Engine 72
Electrical Power 24 Engine Fuel & Control 73
Equipment/Furnishings 25 Ignition 74
Fire Protection 26 Air 75
Flight Controls 27 Engine Controls 76
Fuel 28 Engine Indicating 77
Hydraulic Power 29 Exhaust 78
Ice & Rain Protection 30 Oil 79
Instruments 31 Starting 80
Landing Gear 32 Water Injection 82
Lights 33 Charts 91
Navigation 34
Oxygen 35
Pneumatic 36
Water/Waste 38
Airborne Auxiliary Power 49
AEROSPACE SPECIFICATIONS
INTRODUCTION
A specification is a detailed description of the conditions that an item, procedure or material
must satisfy and the qualities it must possess to ensure that it will fulfil a required purpose.
In effect, the specification standardises dimensions, procedure or the quality of material.
Materials used in aircraft parts affected by airworthiness requirements should conform to
approved material specifications. For this purpose specifications, which are normally issued
as specification sheet, include:
 British Standards, Aerospace Series.
 DTD Specifications.
 Specifications prepared by an approved design organisation and approved by the
CAA.

BRITISH STANDARDS
The BS (British Standards) specifications are issued by the British Standards Institution, a
non profit-making concern supported by grants from the Government, industry and by sales
of its publications. Before a BS specification is issued the item must satisfy the following
conditions:
 Of proven reliability.
 Of appropriate standard of quality, for the purpose for which it is intended.
 In reasonable demand, and not likely to become obsolescent for a considerable
time.
 Is not a proprietary article.
When the specification is finally approved, it is allotted a serial number and published.
General BS specifications are identified by the prefix BS followed by the serial number and
year of issue, eg BS 390:1965. Aircraft materials and component specifications are
identified by the prefix BS followed by the issue number, then the letter(s) indicating the
aircraft list group and finally the serial number within the group, eg BS 3T50. In the first
issue, the number is omitted, eg BS T49.
 BS GROUPS FOR AIRCRAFT MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS

Group Letter Material or Group Letter Material or

Component Component
A Bolts, nuts, etc M Miscellaneous
B Brass, copper, PL Plastics
etc
D Dope and R Radio Equipment
ingredients
E Electrical cable, S Steels
lamps, etc
F Fabric, etc SP Standard
Components
G Electrical T Tubes
equipment
K Cast iron V Timber, Glues,
etc
L Aluminium and W Wire, wire ropes,
light alloy etc
X Paints and varnishes

AIRCRAFT STANDARDS (AS)

Aircraft standards are issued by the Society of British Aerospace Companies (SBAC).
They cover the detailed design of small items and components for airframes, aero-engines
and accessories.
Aircraft standard specifications may be transferred to the British Standard Aerospace Series
if they fulfil the general conditions quoted earlier.

AERONAUTICAL & OTHER APPLICABLE STANDARDS INCLUDING ISO, AN, MS, NAS
& MIL

INTRODUCTION TO THE FOLLOWING STANDARD SYSTEM RELATED TO AVIATION

ISO The international Organization for Standardization (Organisation international de

normalisation), widely known as [so is an international -standard-setting body composed of
representatives from various national standards organization;

ISO 9000 is a family of standards for quality management systems. ISO 9000 is maintained
by ISO, the International Organization for Standardization and is administered by
accreditation and certification bodies. The rules are updated as the requirements motivate
changes over time. Some of the requirements in ISO 9001:2008 (which is one of the
standards in the ISO 9000.

. a set of procedures that cover all key processes in the business;

' monitoring processes to ensure they are effective;

‘ keeping adequate records;

‘ checking output for defects, with appropriate and corrective action where necessary; '
.regularly reviewing individual process and the quality itself for effectiveness; and

‘ facilitating continual improvement

A company or organization that has been independently audited and certified to be in

conformance with ISO 9001 may publicly state that it is “ISO 9001 certified” or “ISO 9001
registered”. Certification to an ISO 9001 standard does not guarantee any quality of end
products and services; rather, it certiiies that formalized business processes are being
applied.

Although the standards originated in manufacturing, they are now employed across several
types of organization; A ”product”, in ISO vocabulary, can mean a physical object, services,
or software.

ISO 9001 Aviate System Standards has three, separate, production processes, each
containing an ISO 900 1 :2008 or A591 10:2003

quality management policy: 1. Business and Planning Services (BPS) “We continually
improve our products and services to make it happen for our customer”.

2 Aviation System Standards’ production processes for Instrument Flight Procedures (IFP)
“Aviation System Standards provides our customers safe, timely, and continually improved
Instrument Flight Procedures that enable
efficient use of the National Airspace System.”

3, Aircraft Maintenance and Engineering Group (AMEG) processes “We continually improve
our processes to provide airworthy, safe and reliable aircraft.

Iso 14001 The Aviation System Standards’ Environmental Management Policy is:

Aviation System Standards is a worldwide leader in aviation. Consistent with our mission to
develop and certify procedures and systems for the global aviation community, Aviation
System Standards shall minimize environmental impacts of its operations through the
design and deployment of an organization-wide environmental management system (EMS)
confront with ISO 14001 by:

l Pollution Prevention to cost effectively reduce waste.

I Integration of environmental management with our mission and other systems.
I Communication of this environmental policy to our employees and all interested external
parties.
I Compliance with legal and other requirements to which we subscribe.
I Continual improvement of our environmental management system.

AN & MS
Specification and Standards

Before the Federal Aviation Administration issues a type certificate for an aircraft the
manufacturers must demonstrate that the aircraft conforms to all airworthiness
requirements. These requirements pertain not only to performance, but to structural
strength and integrity as well. To meet these requirements, each individual aircraft produced
frame a given design must meet the same standards. To accomplish this. all materials and
hardware must be manufactured to a standard of quality. specification and standard for
aircraft hardware are generally identified by the organization originating them. Some of the
most common are

AMS Aeronautical Material Specification

AN Airforce Navy Specification

MS Military Standard

NAS National Aerospace Standard etc.

AN -Airforce/Navy (Specification) -/ MS-Military Standard (Specification)

Standard aircraft fasteners, Nuts and bolts in America are manufactured in accordance with
Government, military and civil specifications. These speciiication provide for a range of
fasteners/ equipments with unified threads (UN C, UNF, UNlF series. extreme care is
necessary when matching up nuts with screws or bolts in these series if not properly
identified. then thread gauges must be used to check the threads AN, MS or Nas are
various standard for identification. For identification Purposes AN number is used to indicate
type of bolt and its diameter and a code is used to indicate the material, length and thread
(where these vary) and the position of locking wire or collar pin (split pin) holes. It should

be noted that the AN series has to a large extent been replaced by MS (MILITARY
STANDARD), and NAS (NATIONAL AEROSPACE STANDARD) components.

NAS

The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) is an honoriiic of distinguished scholars engaged

in scientific and engineering research. dedicated to the furtherance of science and
technology and to their use for the general welfare.

The NAS was established by an Act of Congress that was signed by President Abraham
Lincoln on March 3, 1863, at the height of the Civil War, which calls upon the NAS to
“investigate, experiment, and report upon any subject of science or art” whenever called
upon to do so by any department of the government. Scientific issues would become more
complex in the years following the war, and to expand the expertise available to it in its
advisory service to the government, the NAS created the National Research Council under
its charter in 1916. To keep pace with the growing roles that science and technology would
play in public life. The National Academy of Engineering was established under the NSA
charter in 1964, and the Institute of Medicine followed in 1970.
Since 1863. the nation’s leaders have turned to these non-profit organizations for advice on
the technological issues that frequently pervade policy decisions. Most of the institution’s
science policy and technical work is conducted by its operating arm, the National Research
Council (NRC), which was created expressly for this purpose and which Drox ides a public
service by working outside the framework of government to ensure independent advice on
matters of science. technology, and medicine. The NRC enlists committees of the nation’s
top scientists, engineers, and other expert. all of whom volunteer their time to study specific
concerns. The results of their deliberations have inspired Some of America ’ s most
significant and lasting efforts to improve the health, education, and welfare of the
population. The Academy‘s service to government has become so essential that Congress
and the White House have issued legislation and executive orders over the years that
reaffirm its unique role.

The Academy membership is composed of approximately 2, 100 members and 380 foreign
associates, of whom nearly 200 have won Noble Prizes. Members and foreign associates of
the Academy are elected in recognition of their distinguished and continuing achievements
in original research; election to the Academy is considered one of the highest honours that
can be accorded a scientist or engineer. The Academy is governed by a Council consisting
of twelve members (councilors) and five officers. elected from among the Academy
membership Dr. Ralph J . Cicirone is lhe president of the National Academy of Sciences.

MIL

A mil isa standard measurement of a round conductor‘s cross sect tonal area. One mil is
equivalent to .001 inches. Thus, a wire that has a diameter of .125. is expressed as 125
mils. To find out the cross sectional area ol'u conductor in circular mils. square the
conductor's diameter. For example ifa round wire has a diameter of 3/8“ or 375 mils. its
circular area is 1,40,625circular mils(375 x 345=1,40,625).

the square mil is the unit of measure for square or rectangular conductors such as bus bars.
To determine the cross-sectional area of a conductor in square mils. multiply the
conductor‘s length by its width. For example. the cross sectional area of a strip of copper
that is 400 mils thick and 500 mils Wide is 200,000 square mils.

ELECTRICAL DIAGRAMS
WIRING DIAGRAM MANUAL (WDM)
The Wiring Diagram Manual is a manual which is a particularly useful document for avionic
personnel, especially when used in conjunction with the Maintenance Manual. The chapters
in the WDM are laid out in the common ATA 100 format, but will have some unique leading
information
There will always be at least three types of diagram found in the WDM.

 Location diagrams.
 Schematic diagrams.
 Wiring diagrams (routing charts).
LOCATION DIAGRAMS

LOCATIONAL/ZONE DIAGRAM
LOCATIONAL OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS

WIRING DIAGRAMS
Wiring diagrams show similar information to the schematic diagrams. They do, however,
provide additional important information. They are more related to the actual physical
aspects of the wiring of the system.
Other than diagrams there is a wealth of other information contained in the WDM which is
extremely useful to the mechanical engineer as well as the Electrical and Avionic trades.
DRILL SIZES FOR BOLT HOLES
DRILL SIZING FOR BOLT HOLES
Drills for the engineering industry are available in both metric and imperial measure. The
smallest drill available to the aircraft technician is 1/16in in the case of imperial measurement
and 0.50 mm for the metric drills. The largest available being 1 in imperial and 25 mm for
metric. One other system of drill sizing in use is the letter/number system. In this system
there is no predictable change in sizing with a change in letter or number. Each letter or
number is allocated a set dimension. In the case of the letter series all letters of the
alphabet are used the largest drill is allocated the letter Z and the smallest A. The
dimension reducing from 10.5 mm for Z to 5.85 mm for A. Further reduction in size from A
continues in the number system No 1 at 5.8 mm reducing to No 80 at 0.35 mm.

THE ACCURACY OF DRILLED HOLES

Normally the diameter of drilled holes is not given a tolerance. The size of the hole is
expected to be as close to the drill size as can be obtained. The accuracy of holes drilled
with a two-fluted twist drill depends on a number of factors. These include:
 The accuracy of the drill point
 The size of the drill
 The length and shape of the chisel edge
 Whether or not a drill guide bush is used to guide the drill
 The material being drilled
 The length of the drill
 Runout of the spindle and the chuck
 Rigidity of the machine tool and the part being drilled
 The cutting fluid being used (if any)

OVERSIZE DIAMETERS IN DRILLING

Drill Diameter Amount Oversize Inch
Inch Average Maximum Mean Average Minimum
1/16 0.002 0.0015 0.001
1/8 0.0045 0.003 0.001
1/4 0.0065 0.004 0.0025
1/2 0.008 0.005 0.003
3/4 0.008 0.005 0.003
1 0.009 0.007 0.004
CLASSES OF FIT
 Three classes of fit are:
 Clearance
 Transition
 Interference
CLEARANCE FIT
This may be referred to as a running or free running fit. The clearance fit is suitable for
various types of moving parts.
TRANSITION FIT
This may be referred to as a light press or push fit. The transition fit is suitable for
detachable parts or locating parts such as dowel pins. Not suitable for moving parts.
INTERFERENCE FIT
Mechanical pressure is required for assembly. When the part is assembled no dismantling
is likely to be required.
The illustration shows the classes of fit that may be obtained between mating components.
In the ‘hole basis’ system, the hole size is kept constant and the shaft size varied to give the
desired fit. Since holes are most easily produced by such standard tooling as drills or
reamers, this is the system most commonly used

HOLE BASIS SYSTEM INTERFERENCE CLEARANCE SYSTEM

SCHEDULE OF FITS AND CLEARANCES

A schedule of fits and clearances is provided for all aircraft and aircraft engines.
The schedule provides information on dimensions, limits of wear and fit.
In the example provided the information available gives us:
 The dimension when new, with its upper and lower limit
 The permitted wear limits for both selective and non-selective assembly
 The clearance between parts when new
 The permitted clearance when worn
LIMITS FOR TWIST
All drive shafts that are under load, are in a state of twist. Twisting is due to the power being
applied to a shaft and the resistance of the component being driven by the shaft. The
danger is when the twist becomes permanent.
Permanent twist can be caused by:
 Over speeding the shaft
 Over torqueing the shaft
 Sudden stoppage

MEASURING TWIST IN A PISTON ENGINE CONNECTING ROD

PISTON ENGINE CONNECTING ROD TWIST
During piston engine overhaul the connecting rods are checked for twist.
Before this check is done a new small end bushing is pressed into place and reamed to
size. A new bearing insert is fitted in the large end and new bolts and nuts are installed.
To check the connecting rod for twist proceed as follows:
 Fit mandrels in both ends of the connecting rod
 Lay the connecting rod across parallel blocks on a surface table
 Using a feeler gauge check if there is a gap between the small end mandrel and the
parallel block. If there is a gap it indicates that the rod is twisted.
 The engine manufacturer will specify the maximum amount of twist permitted

BOWING LIMITS
Bowing can occur on tubular structures and drive shafts due to mishandling, incorrect
storage or accidental damage.
Generally the maximum permissible bow is 1 in 600. However, the equipment
manufacturers may vary this.
The amount of bow in a member can be measured using:
 A straight edge and feeler gauges.
 A three point trammel and feeler gauges.
 The procedure is as follows:
 Place the straight edge along the length of the member being checked. The straight
edge must be clear of any end fittings on the member.
 Measure the gap between the member and the straight edge.
 Using the formula calculate the bow as follows:
Bow = clearance measured by feeler gauges
length of member under test
2.29 ABNORMAL EVENTS
LIGHTNING STRIKES
INSPECTIONS FOLLOWING LIGHTNING STRIKES
 All bonding strips and static wicks should be inspected for burning or disintegration.
 All control surfaces, including flaps, spoilers and tabs, should be inspected for damage at their
hinge bearings; unsatisfactory bonding may have allowed static discharge and tracking across the
bearings, causing burning, break-up or seizure.
 A check for roughness and resistance to movement at each bearing will usually indicate damage
at such points.
 Engines and cowlings should be examined for signs of burning pitting.
 If a lightning strike is evident, tracking through the engine bearings may have occurred and some
manufacturers recommend that the oil filters and chip detectors should be examined for signs of
contamination; this check should be repeated periodically for a specified number of running hours
after the occurrence.
 A general examination of the fuselage skin and rivets for burning and pitting should be carried
out.
 If the landing gear was extended at the time of the strike, examine the lower parts for evidence of
discharge damage.
 Check for any residual magnetism and demagnetise if necessary.
 Functional checks of all radio, radar, instruments, compasses and electrical circuits should be
carried out.
 Full detailed checks will be found in the Aircraft Maintenance Manual.

INSPECTIONS FOLLOWING HIRF PENETRATION

 The evidence of HIRF penetration is seen by the pilot as equipment malfunction, or by systems
operating without an input from the crew or onboard computers.
 The checks required following the pilot’s report are similar to those following lightning strike –
all systems are functionally tested.
 The inspection will be concentrated on the electrical bonding system, static dischargers, and built-
in shielding systems.
 The aeroplane may also require a calibration compass swing to check for any changes to its
magnetic field.
HEAVY OR OVERWEIGHT LANDINGS OR FLIGHT THROUGH
SEVERE TURBULENCE
LANDING GEAR INSPECTION
 Examine tyres for excessive creep, flats, bulges, cuts, pressure loss, excessive growth and security
of balance weights/patches.
 Examine wheels and brakes for cracks, other damage and fluid leaks.
 Examine axles, struts and stays for distortion and other damage.
 Check shock struts for fluid leaks, scoring and abnormal extension.
 Examine landing gear attachments for signs of cracks, damage or movement. In some instances
this may require removal of certain bolts in critical locations, for a detailed magnetic crack
detection test.
 Examine structure in the vicinity of the landing gear attachments for signs of cracks, distortion,
movement of rivets or bolts and fluid leakage.
 Examine doors and fairings for damage and distortion.
 Jack the aircraft and carry out retraction and nose-wheel steering tests in accordance with the
approved Maintenance Manual; check for correct operation of locks and warning lights,
clearances in wheel bays, fit of doors and signs of fluid leaks.

MAIN LANDING GEAR AND SUPPORT STRUCTURE INSPECTION

 A typical check sheet for a large aircraft would include the following checks:
 Examine all tyres and wheels.
 Look for signs of fluid leakage at top and bottom of the shock strut outer
cylinder.

Examine all structural components of the main landing gear and

carefully examine the components listed:
 Shock strut
 Trunnion link
 Drag strut
 Torsion links
 Truck beam
 Side strut
 Down lock
 Truck Position Mechanism (The mechanism that sets the angle of truck beam
for retraction and extension)
  Strut doors and the mechanism that retracts and extends the doors.

Examine the support structure of the main landing gear and carefully
examine the components listed:
 Landing gear beam
 Support fittings for the landing gear beam
 Inboard
 Outboard
 Trunnion support fittings
 Forward
 Aft
 Stabiliser links and fittings between the rear spar and landing gear beam.
 Inboard
 Outboard

MAINPLANES
 Examine the upper and lower skin surfaces for signs of wrinkling, pulled rivets, cracks and
movements at skin joints. Inertia loading on the wing will normally result in wrinkles in the lower
surface and cracks or rivet damage on the upper surface, but stress induced by wing-mounted
engines may result in wrinkles on either surface.
 Check for signs of fuel leaks and seepage from integral tanks.
 Examine root end fillets for cracks and signs of movement.
 Check flying controls for freedom of movement; power-controlled systems should be checked
with the power off and the control disconnected at the PFCU output connection.
 Check balance weights, powered flying control unit mountings and control surface hinges for
cracks and the control surfaces for cracks or buckling.
 Check the operation of leading edge and trailing edge lift augmentation devices. (slats and flaps)
 Where possible, check the wing spars for distortion and cracks, which may be checked while slats
and flaps are extended

FUSELAGE
 Examine fuselage skin for wrinkling or other damage, particularly at skin joints and adjacent to
landing gear attachments and centre section.
 Examine pressure bulkheads for distortion and cracks.
 Examine, for distortion and cracks, the supporting structure for heavy components such as galley
modules, batteries, water tanks, fire extinguishers, auxiliary power units, etc.
 Check that the inertia switches for the fire extinguishers, emergency lights, etc, have not tripped.
 Check instruments and instrument panels for damage and security.
 Check ducts and system pipes for damage, security and fluid leaks.
 Check fit of access doors, emergency exits, etc and surrounding areas for distortion and cracks.
 Check overhead stowage doors for correct operation and secure latching.
  Check security of Passenger Service Panels and in particular that emergency oxygen systems
have not been activated.
 Check loading and unloading operation of cargo containers and condition of cargo restraint
system.
 Check gyroscopic instruments for erection time, precession and unusual noises

ENGINES
 Check engine controls for full and free movement.
 Examine engine mountings and pylons for damage and distortion. Tubular members should be
checked for bow greater than prescribed limits and cracks at welds. Mounting bolts and
attachments should be checked for damage and evidence of movement.
 On turbine engines check freedom of rotating assemblies and on piston engines check freedom of
rotation with sparking plugs removed.
 Examine engine cowlings for wrinkling and distortion and integrity of fasteners.
 Check for oil, fuel and hydraulic fluid leaks.
 Where applicable, check the propeller shaft for shock loading in accordance with the procedure in
the Maintenance Manual.
 Check propeller attachments and counterweight installations.
 Check oil system filters/chip detectors.

TAIL UNIT
 Check flying controls for freedom of movement.
 Examine rudder and elevator hinges for cracks and control surfaces for cracks and
distortion, particularly near balance weight fittings.
 Examine tailplane attachments and fairings, screw jacks and mountings, for distortion
and signs of movement

Towing Light Aircraft

Light aircraft are defined as those weighing less than 5700 kilograms. Great care should be taken when
manhandling light aircraft, particularly those constructed from wood and fabric.

On aircraft with a nose-wheel landing gear, a steering arm should be fitted to the nose wheel to guide the
aircraft (see illustration).

Light aircraft can be moved and guided, by hand or by a tug. Force should be applied only to those parts
of the structure, which are designed to withstand it.

Special attention should be paid to the following:

 Force should not be applied to the thin trailing or rear edges of wings or control surfaces such as
ailerons or elevators.
 Force should not be applied to areas marked to prohibit the application of force.
 Generally speaking it is better to push an aircraft backwards rather than forwards, because the
leading edges of the wings and tail plane are stronger than the trailing edges.
 The struts, which support the undercarriage on some aircraft, are suitable for pushing the aircraft
as these are the strength parts of the aircraft.
 The flat of the hands should be used when pushing, so as to spread the load over the largest area.
 When pushing on struts, the force should be applied as near to the end fittings as possible.
 A propeller must never be used to push or pull the aircraft, as the engine should always be
regarded as 'live' and a propeller may kick if it is turned.

On aircraft with a steering nose wheel connected to the rudder pedals, care must be taken not to exceed
the turning limits.

These are normally marked on the nose undercarriage leg.

On aircraft, which are fitted with a tailskid instead of a tail wheel, it is customary to raise the tail by
lifting on the tail plane struts near to the fuselage fittings.

NOTE: Total 7 people are required for towing aircraft.

Two on towing vehicle

Two on each side of wing

One inside the aircraft (break man),always insure break accumulator is charge before towing

One at tail section

One at 45º to captain side in front of aircraft

Checks before Towing
Before towing is commenced the following checks must be carried out:
 Undercarriage ground locks should be installed. Ground locks are mechanical
devices such as pins, bolts or clamps, which prevent the undercarriage from
retracting (see illustration).
 The steering should, if applicable, be disconnected or disabled (usually by
associated circuit breaker), and the nose undercarriage shock absorber should be
checked for normal extension.
 The brake pressure should be checked and, if necessary, built up to the minimum
safe pressure (this is often accomplished by operation of an electrically-driven
hydraulic pump, which must be used sparingly to prevent the motor overheating).
 Should it be necessary to turn the nose wheel through a greater angle than the
prescribed steering limits, the nose wheel may be freed by removing the apex or
upper pin from the torque links (see illustration). Attention must be paid to any limits
imposed on aircraft having bogie undercarriages with several wheels.

Precautions
 The aircraft brakes should be released before the tractor moves off, and towing
speed should be kept down to a safe speed.
 The radii of turns should be kept as large as possible, to minimise tyre scrubbing, the
removal of tire tread, and twisting loads on the main undercarriage legs and care
should be taken not to exceed any towing force limits which may be specified in the
relevant Maintenance Manual for the various nose- wheel steering angles (see
illustration).
 Before stopping, the aircraft should be towed in a straight line for a short distance in
order to remove any tyre stresses imposed by turning. Once stationary the aircraft
brakes may be re-applied, the tractor and tow bar may be removed and the nose
wheel steering links refitted and safety locked.
 In circumstances where the towing load exceeds the nose wheel limitations, towing
bridles should be attached to the main undercarriage leg and the aircraft should be
towed using two tractors, one connected to each main undercarriage leg. A steering
arm attached to the nose wheel should be used for steering purposes. Where no
special towing attachments are provided, it will often be necessary to remove the
fixed doors from the main undercarriage legs to permit attachment of the towing
bridles.
Taxiing Aircraft
As a general rule, only rated pilots and qualified airframeand powerplant technicians are authorized to
start, run up, and taxi aircraft. All taxiing operationsshould be performed in accordance with applicable
local regulations. Figure 11-22 contains the standard taxi light signals used by control towers to control
and expedite the taxiing of aircraft. The following section provides detailed instructions on taxi signals
and related taxi instructions.

Taxi Signals
Many ground accidents have occurred as a result of improper technique in taxiing aircraft. Although the

Pilot is ultimately responsible for the aircraft until the engine is stopped, a taxi signalman can assist the
pilot around the flight line. In some aircraft configurations, the pilot’s vision is obstructed while on the
ground. The pilot cannot see obstructions close to the wheels or under the wings, and has little idea of
what is behind the aircraft. Consequently, the pilot depends upon the taxi signalman for directions. a taxi
signalman indicating his readiness to assume guidance of the aircraft by extending both arms at full length
above his head, palms facing each other. The standard position for a signalman is slightly ahead of and in
line with the aircraft’s left wingtip. As the signalman faces the aircraft, the nose of the aircraft is on the
left. [Figure 11-24] The signalman must stay far enough ahead of the wingtip to remain in the pilot’s field
of vision. It is a good practice to perform a fool proof test to be sure the pilot can see all signals.

Lights Meaning
Flashing green Cleared to taxi
Steady red Stop
Flashing red Taxi clear of runway in use
Flashing white Return to starting point
Alternating red and green Exercise extreme caution
 Aircraft Jacking
The process of rising an aircraft is known as ‘jacking’ and the following are typical examples
of when this may be required:
 Undercarriage retraction and lowering tests
 Wheel and brake unit replacement
 Undercarriage component replacement
 Leveling the aircraft for rigging and symmetry checks
 Aircraft weighing
 Inspection required during scheduled maintenance and/or following a hazardous
incident (i.e. heavy landing checks

STORAGE OF AN AIRCRAFT

A/C should be stored in dry clean condition, All drain and vents
should be clear and unobstructed and blank should be fitted to
intakes, and apertures in which condensation might occur, colour
indicated type silicagel may be used in enclosed space to absorb
atmospheric moisture.

Aircraft storage is divided into 2 Parts

1. Short Term Storage
2. Long Term Storage

Short Term Storage

Those aircraft which are likely to remain out of service or use for not
more than six months due to repair, modification Or other
assignment

following procedure is followed for short term storage

1.Fit landing gear locks

2 .Remove attractive items, label them with A/ C No. and store

separately under lock & key.

3.Fit cockpit covers, intake covers, static vent plugs, exhaust covers
and blank other ducts & openings

4.Liberally apply grease to those exposed portions of control cables.

5.OLEO legs, sliding portions of hydraulic jacks and exposed portions
of electrical jacks are to be coated with grease
6. Fit external control locks.
7.Accumulator stowage’s are to be treated with solution of Bi-
Carbonate of Soda, washed with clean water dried them with sulfuric
paints.

Long Term Storage of Aircraft

A/ C is out of use for indefinite period (longer than six months) due to
major repair, modifications, withdrawal from service etc. ' -'

1.Fit landing gear locks

2.Thoroughlyclean and dry cut interior of aircraft remove all oil &
grease from fabrics, leather & wooden components,
3. External surfaces & Components of the aircraft are to be
thoroughly cleaned taking special care to remove oil and ' exhaust
deposits from fabric components.
4. External surfaces of metal components of Airframe if prone to
corrosion are to be cleaned and brushed With lenoline resin
protective for temporary rust prevention.
5. Coat all exposed control cables Jack end etc. with lenoline resin
all chain sprockets, bearings, oleo struts, sliding portions of Hyd.
Jacks etc. are to be coated with low temperature grease.
6. Touch up scratches, or. damages on surfaces with original paints
or dope

7. After all items have been removed Air Frame may be sealed, all
inspection panels, Hoods, window joints, control surface hinging and
all apertures are to be sealed with fabrics

8. External & internal control locks are to be fitted where metal control
surfaces are left in Ci-tu.

9. Metal blade propellers are to be coated with corrosion inhibitors

10. Din gees if fitted are to be removed.

11. Fit covers on cockpit, intake, wheel, propeller (wooden), all
miscellaneous ducts are to be suitably blanked off.
12. Picket Aircraft properly if Aircraft is stored out of doors.

13. Color indicator type of silica gel may be used in enclosed spaces
to absorb atmospheric moisture

Documentation

Make entry in the relevant documents, clearly stating the type of

storage, date, place and time and next due date, sign the documents
properly. Hang a card to the aircraft stating clearly no. of Aircraft date
of storage type of storage and next due date. With a warning Aircraft
under storage not to disturb.

Pressure /underwing refueling

Pressure fueling is used on many late-model aircraft. This fueling

process sometimes referred to as single-point underwing fueling,
greatly reduces the time required to service large aircraft There are
also other advantages in the pressure fueling process. It eliminates
aircraft skin damage and hazards to personnel and reduces the
chances for fuel contamination Pressure fueling also reduces the
chance of static electricity igniting fuel vapors.

Because of the limited fuel tank area there are fewer advantages of a
pressure fueling system in light aircraft. Thus they are usually
incorporated only in medium size executive jets and large military or
commercial transport aircraft

Most pressure fueling systems consist of a pressure fueling hose and

a panel of controls and gages that permit one man to fuel or defuel
any or all fuel tanks of an aircraft. A single-point fueling system is
usually designed so that an in-the-wing fueling manifold is accessible
near a wing tip or under the wing near the wing root. The valves
connecting the various tanks to the main fueling manifold are usually
actuated in response to fuel pressure signals.

Fueling and defueling procedures are normally placarded on the

fueling control panel access door. The fueling operator should
possess a thorough knowledge of the aircraft fuel system to
recognize malfunction symptoms. Since the design of pressure
fueling systems varies somewhat with each type of aircraft, the
fueling Operator should consult the manufacturer’s instructions for
detailed procedures.

Due to varying procedure in defueling aircraft, it is important to

consult the applicable manufacturer’s maintenance instructions.

procedure
 Position the fuel tanker with correct grade and specification of
fuel.
 Ground aircraft & fueling tanker.
 Connect electrical power to aircraft or start A.P.U.
note :- It is permissible for the APU to be operating or started during
fueling operation Open fueling station access door.
 Position gage test switch to test to check the gages and verify
that fueling quantity indicators are operating
 Press fueling valve position lights to test the bulbs service
ability.
 Connect fueling pressure coupling ground cable to receptacle
on wing.
 Remove fueling receptacle cap.

 Connect fueling coupling to fueling receptacle.

note :If tanks are being loaded to full capacity proceed as following
 Place all fueling value switches in open position.

 Start fueling truck pump, adjust to correct fueling pressure

 Proceed to fuel tanks until they are full or truck flow meter
ceases to register fuel flow.

 Note: The fuel tank foal switches will close each individual
tanks fueling shut off valve as fuel load reaches full level.

 Place all fueling valve switches in close position and stop

fueling truck pump [4, Disconnect fueling hose coupling.
  Disconnect grounding cable connection.

 Install fueling receptical cap.

 Close fueling station access door.

 Disconnect fueling truck grounding cable connection.

 19 Disconnect Aircraft grounding cable connection and secure

the Aircraft.
 20. Make relevant document entries in proper document.

Manual/over wing refuelling .

In the over wing fueling of large aircraft, the man with the CO2 bottle
stands close to the aircraft to be refueled. The fuel hose handler on
the truck unreels the hose and passes it up to the man on the aircraft
who is to do the fueling. Care should be taken in bringing the hose
nozzle up to the filler neck of the fuel tank to avoid excessive marring
of the aircraft finish. Attached to the nozzle is a ground wire which is
plugged into the receptacle adjacent to the fuel tank to be filled.
Another type of ground wire commonly used terminates in an alligator
clip connected to a grounding post. This connection is made before
the fuel tank cap is removed from the filler neck. This serves as a
continuous ground (connected to a suitable ground on the apron .The
aircraft should also be grounded to the apron.

This grounding arrangement may take other forms. In many cases,

the fuel truck is grounded by a metal chain that is grounded by a
carbon strip embedded in the tires; and the aircraft and fuel truck are
held at a common electrical potential by a conducting wire encircling
the fuel hose from nozzle to tank fitting. All this is to prevent a spark
from static electricity that may be created as the fuel flows through
the fuel hose into the aircraft’s fuel tank.

The fueling of light aircraft involves fewer problems. While the fueler’
s responsibilities are still the same. it is usually one or two-man
operation. The danger of marring the aircraft finish is minimized since
the height and location of the fuel tanks usually permit easy
accessibility to the filler neck. In addition, small aircraft can be easily
pushed by hand to a fueling position near a fuel truck or a fueling
island.

When the fuel tank is nearly full, the rate of fuel flow should be
reduced for topping off the tank; that is the tank Should be slowly
filled to the top without spilling fuel on the wing or ground. The filler
cap is replaced on that tank. the ground We plug removed from its
receptacle, and then the man handling the fuel nozzle takes the hose
and moves on to the next tank to the filled. This procedure is followed
at each tank until the aircraft is completely refueled. Then the ground
wires are disconnected from the aircraft, and the hose is rewound
onto the hose reel in the truck. During this operation the hose or
nozzle should not be allowed to drop to the ground.
Procedure
1 position the fuel tanker with correct grade of fuel.
2 position one man with fire extinguisher near the a/c

One man on the wing to carryout the refueling.

One man for assisting him to provide the refueling hose.

One man near the fuel tanker to check the operation. '

Position the fuel tanker on a firm and parallel ground.

Ground airplane & fuel tanker to prevent possibility of fire or explosion

due to discharge of static electricity.

Wait for 15 minutes and carry out fuel sampling, once satisfied
proceed for fueling.

Unroll the hose and take it over the wing near the refueling point,
ground the nozzle to receptical adjacent to fueling port.

Note: ~ Do not remove filler cap before grounding the nozzle

10. Remove filler cap from over wing fuller port of the fuel tank.
11. Insert fueling nozzle in to filler port and start fueling operation
maintaining proper pressure while refueling. When tank is loaded
with fuel, remove fueling nozzle and install tiller port cap.

12. Disconnect fueling nozzle grounding connection.

13. Remove fueling truck grounding cable connection.

14. Remove Aircraft grounding cable connection.

15. Remove fuller and secure the Aircraft.

16. Make relevant document entries.

17. Never reverse the refueled.

DEFUELLING

Light aircraft fuel tanks are usually filled through over-wing tiller caps,
and drained by means of suitable cocks or plugs in the tanks or
pipelines. These features are often retained on large transport aircraft
for emergency refueling and for

draining individual tanks, but as these methods are very slow,

refueling and defueling are normally carried out through pressure
refueling connections situate in the lower wing or fuselage surfaces.

Pressure defueling g of the main tanks or center-wing tank is

accomplished through a defuelling valve located in the inboard dry
bay of each wing. The fuel boost pumps in the main tanks or the
override pumps in the center-wing tank deliver fuel to the defuelling
valves through their respective fuel-manifold valves. The defuelling
rate is approximately 50 gal/min [1 89.5 L/min] for each tank.
Alternatively, fuel can be drawnfrom the tanks through the defuelling
valve by means of the truck defuelling pump. The reserve tanks are
defuelcd through the reserve-tank-transfer valve to the

adjacent main tanks. Residual fuel in each can be drained through

fuel -sump drain cocks located in the bottom of each tank. ‘