Mechanisms and Dynamics of Machinery 4th Edition - H. H. Mabie & C. F. Reinholtz PDF

www we eee EEE wwe wOWWwwwwwTTIYWHOIII WR MECHANISMS AND DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY FOURTH EDITION Hamilton H. Mabie Charles F. Reinholtz Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University JOHN WILEY & Sons New York Chichester Brisbane Toronto SingaporeDEDICATED to the late FRED W. OCVIRK whose contributions to the First and Second Editions motivated later editions, and to SALLIE MABIE and JERI REINHOLTZ whose assistance and forbearance have made this edition possible. Copyright © 1957, 1963, 1975, 1967, by John Wiley & Sons, Ine. All sights reserved, Published simultaneously in Cand, Reproduction or translation of any pact of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 and 108 ofthe 1976 United States Copyright ‘Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful. Requests for permission ‘or farther information should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data: Mabie, Hamilton H. (Hamilton Hort), 1914- Mechanisms and dynamics of machinery. Includes index 1. Mechanical movements. 2. Machinery, Kinematics al. 3. Machinery, Dynamics of. I. Reinholtz, Charles F, TT, THsMizs 1986 8S ISBN 0-471-80237-9 Printed inthe United States of America ws About the Authors HAMILTON H. MaBIE, Professor of Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Poly- technic Institute and State University since 1964, received his B.S, degree from the University of Rochester, his M.S. degree from Cornell University, and his PhD. degree from Pennsylvania State University. From 1941 to 1960, Dr. Mabie was on the faculty of the Sibley School of ‘Mechanical Engineering at Cornell University. From 1960 to 1964, he worked at Sandia Laboratory in Albucuerque, New Mexico, where he was engaged in research and development related to nuclear weapons. In addition to his work in kinematics, Dr. Mabie is engaged in research on ‘ears, torque characteristics of instrument ball bearings, environmental effects ‘onthe fatigue life of aluminum, and fretting corrosion of rolling element bearings, He has authored and coauthored many technical papers in these fields. He is a licensed professional engineer and a Life Fellow of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. ‘The frst edition of Mectanisms and Dynamics of Machinery was published by John Wiley & Sons in 1957 and the second in 1963, both with the late F. W. Ocvirk as coauthor. The third edition was published in 1975 and an SI Version in 1978. This fourth edition kas Charles F. Reinholtz as coauthor. CuaRLes F. REINHOLTZ is currently Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engi- neering at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in Blacksburg, Virginia, a position he has held since 1983. He holds B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. egrees from the University of Florida. He has also worked for Burroughs Cor- SN Ayd y y dy d dy d > d ) > > > > d dD > > ) d J d d I J d d > d By d ay M8UUE Fae nurnun poration as a design engineer in the Peripheral Products Group. Professor Rein- holtz has been active in the area of kinematics and mechanism design since 1976 He is a member of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, The Amer- ican Society for Engineering Education, and Sigma Xi. He is also a member of ‘Tau Beta Pi and Pi Tau Sigma Honor Societies. Preface ‘This textbook has been completely revised and updated. Its contents have bee. reorganized to better match the sequence of topics typically covered and to reflect, the many changes brought about by the use of computers in the classroom. These changes include the use of iterative methods for linkage position analysis and matrix methods for force analysis. BASIC language computer programs, developed on a personal computer, have been added throughout the text to demonstrate the simplicity and power of computer methods. All BASIC programs listed in the text have also been coded in FORTRAN 77 and listed in Appendix Three. ‘The text can now be used with either U.S. units, SI units, or a combination of both. Where the units Of an equation must be specified, both a U.S. and an SI form are given. An efforthas been made to maintain a balance between analytical and graphical methods. ‘This edition has been expanded to include a number of new topics. In keeping with the additional emphasis on computer methods, kinematic and dy- ‘namic analysis of linkages has been demoustiated using Wie commercially available Integrated Mechanisms Program (IMP). Analytical cam design material has bbeen expanded to include equations for determining the various disk cam contours. Both the U.S. and metric systems of gearing are covered, and a complete problem set is given for each system of units. A new section that covers nonstandard spur gears cut with a pinion cutter has been added to the chapter on ‘nonstandard gearing. Two new topics have been included in the chapter on gear trains: harmonic drives and power flow through planetary gear tr ‘Complex number methods and loop-closure equations have been used more extensively in the velocity and acceleration analysis of linkages. The chapter on force analysis has been thoroughly revised. In addition to the superposition method, vvi PREFACE it now includes the matrix method, which is a powerful tool when used in con- junction with a computer. In the chapter on balancing; a method for balancing four-bar linkages has been added. The chapter on kinematic synthesis has been revised and expanded to include many new topics, including a general discussion of function generation, path generation, and body guidance, and the problems of branch defect, order defect, and Grashof defect. The final chapter, on spatial ‘mechanisms and robotics, is completely new. The material contained in this chapter is becoming increasingly important in the design of complex automatic production machinery. We appreciate the many suggestions and helpful comments made by our reviewers: Richard Alexander, Marvin Dixon, and William H. Park. We are in- debted to the following instructors at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University for their helpful suggestions: Craig A. Rogers, Richard E, Cobb, Edger G. Munday, Joseph W. David, and Peter J. Leavesly. Finally, we would like to acknowledge the help and encouragement provided by our editors at Wiley, Charity Robey and Bill Stenquist. HAMILTON H. MABE Cuanzes F. Remnourz Contents Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction to the Study of Mechanisms 1 1.2, Mechanism, Machine 5 13° Motion 5 1.4 Cycle, Period, and Phase of Motion 7 1.5. Pairing Elements 7 1.6 Link, Chain 7 1.7 Inversion 8 1.8 Transmission of Motion 9 1.9 Mobility, or Number of Degrees of Freedom 11 PROBLEMS 15 Chapter 2 Linkages and Mechanisms 20 2.1 Position Analysis of the Four-Bar Linkage 20 2.2. Four-Bar Linkage Motion and Grashof?’s Law 24 2.3 Position Analysis of Linkages Using Loop Closure Equations and Iterative Methods 26 24 Linkage Analysis Using the Integrated Mechanisms Program (IMP) 32 2.5 Slider Crank Mechanism 35 2.6 Scotch Yoke 38 2.7 Quick-Return Mechanisms 38 RL (OAR nf RR Rf RF ft A FO A FO A LO MR Aen ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee oe yili CONTENTS 2.8 29 2:10 241 212 213 214 25 2.16 2.47 218 2.19 Toggle Mechanism 40 Oldham Coupling 41 Straight-Line Mechanisms 41 Pantograph 42 Chamber Wheels 43 Hooke's Coupling 44 Constant-Velocity Universal Joints 46 Intermittent-Motion Mechanisms 50 Computing Elements 54 Integrators 55 ‘Synthesis 57 Case Study in Mechanism Design: The Hydrominer 57 PROBLEMS 61 Chapter 3 Cams 71 a4 3.2 33 34 39 36 37 38 39 3.10 3. 32 33 3.4 Cam Classification and Nomenclature 71 Disk Cam with Radial Follower (Graphical Design) 73 Disk Cam with Oscillating Follower (Graphical Design) 76 Positive-Return Cam (Graphical Design) 78 Cylinder Cam (Graphical Design) 78 Inverse Cam (Graphical Design) 79 ‘Cam Displacement Curves 79 ‘Cam Displacement Curves—Advanced Methods 88 Disk Cam with Radial Flat-Faced Follower (Analytical Design) 90 Disk Cam with Radial Roller Follower (Analytical Design) 96 Disk Cam with Oscillating Roller Follower (Analytical Design) 106 Contour Cams 111 ‘Three-Dimensional Cams 115 Cam Production Methods 118 PROBLEMS 119 Chaptér 4 Spur Gears 128 4 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 Introduction to Involute Spur Gears 128 Involutometry 131 Spur Gear Details 134 Characteristics of Involute Action 135 Interference in Involute Gears 140 Gear Standardization 141 ‘Minimum Number of Teeth to Avoid Interference 151 ‘Determination of Backlash 156 e ‘CONTENTS 4.9 Internal (Annular) Gears 162 4.10 Cycloidal Gears 163, PROBLEMS 164 Chapter 5 ‘Nonstandard Spur Gears 171 5.1 Theory of Nonstandard Spur Gears 171 5.2. Extended Center Distance System 173 5.3 Long and Short Addendum System 183 5.4” Recess Action Gears 185 5.5 Nonstandard Spur Gears Cut by a Pinion Cutter 187 PROBLEMS 199 Chapter 6 Bevel, Helical, and Worm Gearing 206 6.1 Theory of Bevel Gears 206 62. Bevel Gear Details 210 63. Gleason Straight Bevel Gear Tooth Proportions 213, 64 Angular Straight Bevel Gears 214 65 Zerol Bevel Gears 214 66 Spiral Bevel Gears 215 6.7 Hypoid Gears 219 68 Theory of Helical Gears 220 69. Parallel Helical Gears 226 6.10 Crossed Helical Gears 229 6.11 Worm Gearing 231 PROBLEMS 235 Chapter 7 Gear Trains 245 7.1 Introduction to Gear Trains 245 7.2 Planetary Gear Trains 248 73. Application of Planetary Gear Trains 258 74 Assembly of Planetary Gear Trains 262 7.8 Circulating Power in Controlled Planetary Gear Systems 267 7.6 Harmonic Drive Gearing 273 PROBLEMS 275 Chapter 8 ‘Velocity and Acceleration Analysis 291 8.1 Introduction 291 82 Linear Motion of a Particle 293 8.3 Angular Motion 296 ixXx CONTENTS CONTENTS xi 8.4 Relative Motion 296 9.4 Force Determination 402 8.5 Methods of Velocity and Acceleration Analysis 298 3.5 Methods of Linkage Force Analysis 404 8.6 Velocity and Acceleration Analysis by Vector Mathematics 298 9.6 Linkage Force Analysis by Superposition 404 8.7. Determination of Velocity in Mechanisms by Vector Polygons 311 9.7 Linkage Force Analysis by Matrix Methods 413 8.8 Relative Velocity of Particles in Mechanisms 312 9.8 Force Analysis Using the Integrated 89 Relative Velocity of Particles in a Common Link 313 Mechanisms Program (IMP) 418 8.10 Relative Velocity of Coincident Particles on Separate Links 316 9.9, Linkage Force Analysis by the Method of Virtual Work 421 8.11 Relative Velocity of Coincident Particles at the 9.10 Linkage Force Analysis from Dynamic Characteristics 425 Point of Contact of Rolling Elements 318 9.11 Linkage Force Analysis by Complex Numbers 429 8.12 Instantaneous Centers of Velocity 321 9.12 Engine Force Analysis 434 8.13 Instantaneous Center Notation 323 9.13 Dynamically Equivalent Masses 440 8.14 Kennedy's Theorem 324 9.14 Application of Equivalent Masses 441 8.15 Determination of Instantaneous Centers 9.15 Engine Force Analysis Using Point Masses 442 by Kennedy's Theorem 325 8.16 Determination of Velocity by Instantaneous Centers 327 8.17 Rolling Elements 329 8.18 Graphical Determination of Acceleration in Mechanisms by Vector Polygons 329 8.19 Relative Acceleration of Particles in Mechanisms 330 8.20 Relative Acceleration of Particles in a Common Link 330 8.21 Relative Acceleration of Coincident Particles on Separate Links. Coriolis Component of Acceleration 333 8.22 Relative Acceleration of Coincident Particles at the Point of Contact of Rolling Elements 340 8.23 Analytical Vector Solution of Relative Velocity ‘and Acceleration Equations 344 8.24, Velocity and Acceleration Analysis by Numerical or Graphical Differentiation 349 8.25 Kinematic Analysis by Complex Numbers 354 8.26 Analysis of the Slider Crank by Loop Closure Equations and Complex Numbers 357 8.27 Analysis of the Inverted Slider Crank by Loop Closure Equations and Complex Numbers 362 8.28 Analysis of the Four-Bar Linkage by Loop Closure Equations and Complex Numbers 364 9.16 Engine Block 449 9.17 Engine Output Torque 450 9.18 Flywheel Size 456 9.19 Forces on Gear Teeth 462 9.20 Cam Forces 468 9.21 Gyroscopic Forces 470 9.22 Moment-of-Inertia Determination 475 PROBLEMS 479 Chapter 10 Balance of Machinery 503 10.1 Introduction 503 10.2 - Balance of Rotors 504 30.3 Dynamic and Static Belance 510 30.4 Balancing Machines 511 10.5 Balance of Reciprocating Masses 513 10.6 Analytical Determination of Unbalance 516 10.7. Firing.Order 525 10.8 V Engines 525 10.9 Opposed Engines 532 10.10 Balance of Four-Bar Linkages 533 8.29 Complex Mechanisms 369 ee 8.30 Velocity and Acceleration Analysis Using the is am (IMP) 370 Integrated é Mechanisms Program (IMP) Chapter 11 Introduction to Synthesis 545 11.1 Classification of Kinematic Synthesis Problems 546 Chapter 9 11.2 Spacing of Accuracy Points for Function Generation $49 Force Analysis of Machinery 395 113 Analytical Design of a Four-Bar Linkage 9.1 Introduction 395 as a Function Generator 552 FA eee oF 114 Curve Matching Applied to the Design of a Four-Bar 9.3 Inertia Force, Inertia Torque 399 Linkage as a Function Generator 557 PO FOR RN If FOR FOR fA (RO HN (I ER A LD ODew weeweeewewrewerwwewwwwwwwwwtddKIKDIVIIIIDOR xii CONTENTS 11.5 Graphical Design of a Four-Bar Linkage asa Function Generator 560 11.6 Graphical Design of a Four-Bar Linkage for Body Guidance 561 11.7 Analytical Design of a Four-Bar Linkage for Body Guidance 564 118 Analytical Synthesis Using Complex Numbers 567 11.9 Design of a Four-Bar Linkage as a Path Generator Using Cognates 570 11.10 Practical Considerations in Mechanism Synthesis (Mechanism Defects) 572 PROBLEMS 575 Chapter 12 Spatial Mechanisms and Robotics 582 12.1 Introduction $82 12.2 Mobility 583, 12.3 Describing Spatial Motions 587 124 Kinematic Analysis of Spatial Mechanisms 595 12.5 Kinematic Synthesis of Spatial Mechanisms 597 12.6 Introduction to Robotic Manipulators 600 12.7 Kinematics of Robotic Manipulators 602 PROBLEMS 608 Appendixes 612 Answers to Problems 628 Index 635 Chapter One Introduction 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF MECHANISMS ‘The study of mechanisms is very important. With the continuing advances made in the design of instruments, automatic controls, and automated equipment, the study of mechanisms takes On new significance. Mechanisms may be defined as ‘that division of machine design which is concerned with the kinematic design of linkages, cams, gears, and gear trains. Kinematic design is design on the basis of motion requirements in contrast to design on the basis of strength requirements. ‘An example of each of the mechanisms listed above will be given in order to present a comprehensive picture of the components to be studied. ‘A sketch of a linkage is shown in Fig, 1.1. This particular arrangement is known as the slider-crank mechanism. Link 1 is the frame and is stationary, link is the crank, link 3 is the connecting rod, and link 4 isthe slider. A common application of this linkage is in the internal-combustion engine where link 4 FIGURE 1.1. Silder-erank mechanism.2. IrRODUCTION ‘becomes the piston (Fig. 1.24). This figure also demonstrates how difficult it may be to discern the basic kinematic device when looking at a photograph or a drawing of a complete machine. Figure 1.2b shows the kinematic diagram of the slider-crank mechanism corresponding to the left-side crankshaft-connecting-r0d- piston in the photograph of Fig. 1.2a. Such a kinematic diagram is much easier to work with and allows the designer to separate the kinematic considerations from the larger problem of machine design. Sana ; oe . (General Motors Corporation). ey hy omesng mé FIGURE 1.26 Kine- Coschatea natic diagram of en- fine mechanism, INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF MECHANISMS 3 Figure 1.3 shows the sketch of a cam and follower. The cam rotates at a constent angular velocity, andthe follower moves up and down. On the upward ‘otioa the follower is driven by the cam, and on the return motion itis driven by the action of gravity or of a spring. Cams are used in many machines, but one o the most common is the automotive engine where two cams are used per cylinder to operate the intake and exhaust valves, also shown in Fig. 1.20, A thtee-Jimensional cam is shown in Fig. 1.4, In this cam, the motion ofthe follower depends not only upon the rotation of the cam but also upon the axial motion of the cam, Follower | | feet ‘cam ingure 13 ‘Two-dimensional cam, FIGURE 1.4 Three-dimensional cam. Gears are used in many applications to transmit motion from one shaft to nother with a constaut angular velocity ratio. Figure 1.5 shows several commonly used gears. Bevel gears Paral shaft Inbal gears FIGURE 15 (continued next page)wwe ewe eee ewe wrwwO EWU WOW WE WWE III WOR Crosed shat fale gears FIGURE 15 (continued) In some cases, the desired reduction in angular velocity is too great to achieve using only two gears. When this occurs, several gears must be connected together to give what is known as a gear train. Figure 1.6 shows a gear train where the speed is stepped down in going from gear 1 to gear 2 and again in going from gear 3 to gear 4. Gear 1 is the driver, and gears 2 and 3 are mounted fon the same shaft. In many gear trains, it is necessary to be able to shift gears in and out of mesh so as to obtain different combinations of speeds. A good ‘example of this is the automobile transmission where three speeds forward and fone in reverse are obtained by shifting two gears. In devices such as instruments and automatic controls, obtaining the correct motion is all-important. The power transmitted by the elements may be so slight as to be negligible, which allows the components to be proportioned primarily on the basis of motion, strength being of secondary importance. ‘There are other machines, however, where the kinematic analysis is only cone step in the design. After it has been determined how the various machine components will act to accomplish the desired motion, the forces acting upon FIGURE 1.6 Gear tain. 4 MOTION 5 these parts must be analyzed, From this, the physical size of the parts may be determined. A machine tool is a good example; its strength and rigidity are more difficult to attain than the desired motions. tis important at this time to define the terms used in the study of mechanisms. This is done in the following section, 1.2 MECHANISM, MACHINE In the study of mechanisms the terms mechanism and machine will be used repeatedly. These are defined as follows: ‘A mechanism is a combination of rigid or resistant bodies so formed and connected that they move upon each other with definite relative motion. An ‘example isthe crank, connecting rod, and piston ofan internal-combustion engine as shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1.25. ‘A machine is a mechanism or collection of mechanisms which transmit force from the source of power to the resistance to be overcome. An example is the internal-combustion engine. 1.3 MOTION In dealing with the study of mechanisms, it is necessary to define the various types of motion produced by these mechanisms. Plane Motion Translation ‘When a rigid body so moves that the position of each straight line of the body is parallel to all ofits other positions, the body has motion of translation. 1. Rectilinear translation. All points of the body move in parallel straight line Baths. When the body moves back and forth in this manner, it is said to reciprocate. This is illustrated in Fig, 1.7, where the slider 4 reciprocates, ‘between the limits BY and BY, 2, Curvilinear translation. The paths of the points are identical curves parallel to. fixed plane. Figure 1.8 shows the mechanism that was used in connecting FIGURE 1.76 mrROpUCTION FIGURE L8 the drive wheels of the steam locomotive. In this mechanism, link 3 has curvilinear translation, and all points in the body trace out identical eycloids as wheels 2 and 4 roll along track 1. Link S moves with rectilinear translation, Rotation If each point of @ rigid body having plane motion remains at a constant distance from a fixed axis that is perpendicular to the plane of motion, the body has motion of rotation. Ifthe body rotates back and forth through a given angle, it is said to oscillate. This is shown in Fig. 1.9, where link 2-rotates and link 4 oscillates between the positions B" and BY. FIGURE 1.9 Four-bar liskage. * Rotation and Translation ‘Many bodies have motion which isa combination of rotation and translation. Link 3 in Fig. 1.7, inks 2 and 4 in Fig, 1.8, and link 3 in Fig. 1.9 are examples of this type of motion. ‘Helical Motion ‘When a rigid body moves so that each point of the body has motion of rotation about a fixed axis and at the same time has translation parallel to the axis, the LINK, CHAIN 77 body has helical motion. An example of helical motion isthe motion of a nut as the nut is screwed onto e bolt. Spherical Motion When a rigid body moves so that each point of the body has motion about a fixed point while remaining at a constant distance from it, the body has spherical motion. Spatial Motion A body moving with rotation about three nonparallel axes and translation in three independent dizections is said to be undergoing general spatial motion. 1.4 CYCLE, PERIOD, AND PHASE OF MOTION ‘When the parts of a mechanism have passed through all the possible positions they can assume after starting from some simultaneous set of relative positions and have returned to their original relative positions, they have completed a cycle ‘ofmotion. The time required for a cycle of motion is the period. "The simultaneous relative positions of a mechanism at a given instant during a cycle are a phase. 1.5 PAIRING ELEMENTS ‘The geometrical forms by which two members of a mechanism are joined together so that the relative motion between these two members is consistent are known as pairing elements. Ifthe joint by which two members are connected has surface contact such as a°pin joint, the connection is known as a lower pair. If the ‘connection takes place at a point or along a line such as in a bali bearing or between two gear teeth in contact, its known as a higher pair. A pair that permits only relative rotation is a revolute, or turning, pair, and one that allows only sliding is a sliding pair. A turning pair'can be either a lower or a higher pair depending upon whether a pin and bushing or a ball bearing is used for the connection. A sliding pair will be a lower pair as between a piston and cylinder wall. 1.6 LINK, CHAIN A link is a rigid body having two or more pairing elements by means of which itmay be connected to other bodies for purposes of transmitting force or motion. Generally, a link is a rigid member with provision at each end for connection to two other links. This may be extended, however, to include three, four, or even more connections. Figures 1.10a, b, and c show these arrangements. Perhaps the ‘extreme case of a multiply connected link is the master rod in a nine-cylinder radial aircraft engine as seen in Fig. 1.10d. ‘A well-known example of a link with three connections is the bell crank, ‘which can be arranged as shown in Fig. 1.11a or Fig. 1.116. This link is zenerally FR FR (BN (OR OO LN fam NN I (AD) MDCee we OEE EEE Ew wrwO UYU WWW WHOTYOVTIW III 8 wTRODUCTION @ - FIGURE 1.10 used for motion reduction and can be proportioned for a given ratio with a ‘minimum of distortion of the required motion. ‘When a number of links is connected by means of pairs, the resulting system is a kinematic chain. If these links are connected in such a’ way that no motion is possible, a locked chain (structure) results. A constrained chain is obtained when the links are so connected that, no matter how many motion cycles are Passed through, the relative motion will always be the same between the links. 7) FIGURE 1.11 Itis also possible to connect links so that an unconstrained chain results, which means that the motion pattern will vary from time to time depending on the ‘amount of friction present in the joints. If one of the links of a constrained chain is made a fixed link, the result is a mechanism. 1.7 INVERSION If in 2 mechanism, the link which was originally fixed is allowed to move and ‘another link becomes fixed, the mechanism is said to be inverted.-The inversion TRANSMISSION OF MOTION 9 of a mechanism does not change the motion of its links relative to each other ‘but does change their absolute motions (relative to the ground). 1.8 TRANSMISSION OF. MOTION In the study of mechanisms, it is necessary to investigate the method in which motion may be transmitted from one member to another. Motion may be trans- nitted in three ways: (a) direct contact between two members such as between cam and follower or between two gears, (6) through an intermediate link or connecting rod, and (c) by a flexible connector such as a belt or chain. ‘The angular velocity ratio is determined for the case of two members in direct contact. Figure 1.12 shows cam 2 and follower 3 in contact at point P. The cam has clockwise rotation, and the velocity of point P as a point on body 2 is represented by the vector PM;, The line NN is normal to the two surfaces at point P and is known es the common normal, the ine of transmission, or the line of action, The common tangent is represented by 77". The vector PM is broken into two components, Pn along the common normal and Pt, along the common tangent. Because of the fact that the cam and the follower are rigid members ‘and must remain in contact, the normal component of the velocity of P as a point on body 3 must be equal to the normal component of P as a point on body 2. ‘Therefore, knowing the direction of the velocity vector of P as a point on body 3 to be perpendicular to the radius OP and its normal component, itis possible to find the velocity PM; as shown in the sketch. From this vector, the angular velocity of the follower may be determined from the relation V = Rs, where V ‘equals the linear velocity of a point moving along a path of radius R and a equals, the angular velocity of the radius R. In direct-contact mechanisms, itis often necessary to determine the velocity of sliding. From the sketch this can be seen to be the vector difference between the tangential components of the velocities ofthe points of contact. This difference10 WrRopucTION is given by the distance f because the component Pt, is opposite in direction to that of Pt. If and és fall on the same side of P, then the distance will subtract. If the contact point P thould fall on the line of centers 00,, then the vectors PM, and PM, will be equal and in the same direction. The tangential components rust also be equal and in the same direction so that the velocity of sliding will be zero. The two members will then have pure rolling motion. Thus, it may be ‘tid that the condition for pure rolling is thatthe point of contact shall lie on the line of centers. For the mechanism of Fig. 1.12, the motion between the cam and the follower will be a combination of roling and sliding. Pure rolling cam only take place where the point of contact P falls on the line of centers. However, contact, at this point may not be possible because of the proportions of the mechanism, Pure sliding cannot occur between cam 2 and follower 3. For this to happen, a point on one link, within the limits ofits travel, has to come in contact with all the successive points on the active surface of the other link. It is possible to determine a relation so that the angular velocity ratio of two members in direct contact can be determined without going through the ‘geometrical construction outlined above. From Oy and Os drop perpendiculars ‘upon the common normal striking it at ¢ and J, respectively. ‘The following relations will be seen to hold: PM OP oe and © _ PMy OP ©,” O,P ™ PM, From the fact that triangles PMan and OaPe are similar, PM; _ Pn OP ~ Oe ‘Also, PMyn and OsPf are similar triangles; therefore, PM; _ Pn OP” OF Therefore, os Pa Ore . Ox a” Of * Pa ~ Osf “With the common normal intersecting the line of centers at K, triangles O.Ke MOBILITY, OR NUMBER OF DEGREES OF FREEDOM 1 2 FIGURE 1:13 and OsKf are also similar; therefore, O.K oF ~ OK a ‘Therefore, for a pair of curved surfaces in direct contact, the angular velocities aze inversely proportional to the segments into which the line of centers is cut by the common normal, From this t can be seen that for constant angular velocity ratio the common normal must intersect the line of centers in a fixed point. tis also possible to derive the above relations forthe transmission of motion ‘through an intermediate link or connecting rod and for the transmission of motion through-a flexible connector. Figures 1.13 and 1.14 show these two cases, respectively, where the angular velocity ratio is given by OE OK ee In Fig. 1.14, the ratio ws/e is independent of the’ center distance 0,0. Ce 1.9 MOBILITY, OR NUMBER OF DEGREES OF FREEDOM. ‘Mobility is one of the most fundamental concepts to the study of kinematics, By definition, the mobility of a mechanism is the number of degrees of freedom it possesses. An equivalent definition of mobility is the minimum number of in- FIGURE 1.14 am ~ PRR OR (a (ON fa RR I PN a A aMwwe we Ow www www WTOC WOWOWW WHT HIII OR 42 INTRODUCTION dependent parameters required to specify the location of every link within a mechanism. A single link constrained to move with planar motion, such as the one shown in Fig. .15a, possesses three degrees of freedom. The x- and y-coordinates ‘of the point P along with the angle @ form an independent set of three parameters describing its location. Two unconnected planar links are shown in Fig. 1.150. Since each link possesses three degrees of freedom, these two links possess @ total of six degrees of freedom. If the two links are pinned together at a point by means of a revolute joint, as shown in Fig. 1.15c, the two-link system will possess only four degrees of freedom. Four independent parameters. describing the location of the two links could, for example, be the x- and y-coordinates of the point P,, the angle-0,, and the angle . There are many other parameters that could be used to specify the location of these links, but only four of these can be independent. Once the values of the independent parameters are specified, the position of every point in both links is determined. In the simple example described above, connecting two planar links with @ revolute joint had the effect of removing two degrees of freedom from the system. Stated in another way, a revolute joint permits a single degree of freedom (pure rotation) between the links it connects. Using this type of logic, itis possible to m 2 fn i * ° ‘FIGURE 145 MOBILITY, OR NUMBER OF DEGREES OF FREEDOM 13, develop a general equation which will help predict the mobility of any planar ‘mechanism. For example, a planar mechanism having 7 links is to be-designed. Before any connections ate made, the system of n links will have a total of 3n degrees of freedom. Recognizing that one link of every mechanism will always be considered to be fixed to the ground removes three degrees of freedom. This leaves the system with a total of 3n — 3, or 3(n ~ 1), degrees of freedom. Each ‘one-degree-of-freedom joint removes two degrees of freedom from the system. Similarly, each two-degree-of-freedom joint removes one degree of freedom from the system. The total mobility of the system is given by Grubler’s equation M=3@-1)-2f- fi a3) where M = the mobility, or number of degrees of freedom the total number of links, including the ground ‘fy = the number of one-degree-of-freedom joints fy = the number of two-degree-of-freedom joints Care must be used when applying this equation because there are a number of special mechanism geometries for which it will not work. Although no all-inclusive rule exists for predicting when the mobility equation may give an incorrect result, special cases often occur when several links of a mechanism are parallel. For example, applying Grubler’s equation to the mechanism of Fig. 1.16 gives M = 365-1) - 2 =0 Nevertheless, this device can actually move as a result of its special geometry and is a mechanism with one degree of freedom. It must also be noted that a joint connecting & links at a single-point must be counted as k — 1 joints. For ‘example, a revolute joint connecting three links at a single point is counted as two joints. Only four types of joints are commonly found in planar mechanisms, FIGURE 1.1614 BTRopuCTION ‘These are the revolute, the prismatic, and the rolling contact joints (each having, cone degree of freedom), and the cam or gear joint (having two degrees of freedom). These joints are depicted in Fig. 1.17. The following definitions apply to the actual mobility of a device: M= 1: the device is a mechanism with M degrees of freedom M = 0: the device is a statically determinate structure + the device is a statically indeterminate structure Sint Type Phil Schematic Deprow of (Srmved Form Representation Freedom Revolute 1 (Rk) (Pure rotation) Prismatic 1 e A a (Pure sting) Cam 3 s = Roling a oe SF ing = OOOO) FIGURE 1.17 Common types of joints found in planar mechanisms. Example 1.1. Determine the mobility ofthe four-bar linkage of Fig. 1.18. ‘There ae four links and four revolute joints, each having one degree of freedom. ‘The mobility is given by M = 34 - 3) ~ 44) M=1 So this is a one-degree-of freedom mechanism. Example 1.2. Determine the mobility ofthe device of Fig. 1.19. ‘There are four links connected by five single-degree-of-freedom joints (the joint ‘connecting three links at @ point counts twice). The mobility is given by M = 34 ~ 1) - 05) M=-1 ‘This isa statically indeterminate structure. MOBILITY, OR NUMBER OF DEGREES OF FREEDOM 15 1 2 3 Z Z 4 FIGURE 1.18 FIGURE 1.19 Example 1,3, Detemine the mobility ofthe device of Fg. 1.2. ‘There are three links, two one-degree-of freedom revolute joints and one two- egres-offeedom higher-par joint. In the higher-pir joint, the two contacting bodies ‘may translate along the common tangent tothe two surfaes or rotate about the contact Point, thus giving two degrossof freedom. The mobiliy i gvea by M = 36 ~ 1) ~2@) - 10) Mat ‘This is a one-degree-of-treedom mechanism. FIGURE 1.20 Problems 1A, (@) Ifo = 20 rad/min, calculate the angular velocity f link 3 for the two cases shown in Fig. 1.21. (b) Calculate the maximum angle and the minimum angle of the follower with the horizontal. 41.2, Lay out the mechanisms for Problem 1.1 to full scale and graphically deter velocity of sliding between links 2 afd 3, Use a velocity scale ofl in. = 10 in. 13. If, = 20 rad/min for the meckanism shown in Fig. 1.21, using graphical construction, determine the angular velocities of link 3 for one revolution of the cam in 60” incre ‘ments starting from the position where ws, = 0. Plot ws versus cam angle 6 letting the scale of o; be I in. = 2.0 rad/min and the scale of 8 be Fin. = 60 RF A Rf Nc (IO FN A AL A ISCEC OW EWE rw rw OW WOE WWW WOW www WII OX 16 INTRODUCTION FIGURE 121 4.4. (a) Ife = 1800 rads, calculate the angular velocity of link 3 for the mechanism shown in Fig. 1.22, (6) Calculate the maximum angle and the minimum angle of the follower relative to the horizont 1. For the linkage shown in Fig. 1.23, determine w, and Vy. 46. For the linkage shown in Fig. 1.24, determine Vy and @,. 17. Prove for the linkage shown in Fig. 1.13 that the angular velocit river links are inversely proportional to the segments into which the cut by the ine of transmission, 1L8. Prove for the belt and pulleys shown in Fig. 1.14 that the angular velocities of the pulleys are inversely proportional tothe segments into which the line of centers is cut by the line of transmission, 19. Ina linkage as shown in Fig. 1.13, the crank 2 is 19 mm long and rotates ata constant angular velocity of 15 rad/s. Link 3 is 38 mm long and link 4 is 25 mm long, The distance between centers O; and O, is 51 mm, Graphically determine the angular velocity of link of the driven and of centers is ‘MOBILITY, OR NUMBER OF DEGREES OF FREEDOM 17 FIGURE 1.22 Ora » 4 OB = Sin a> 100ra8is cow 0104 = 4 Oh = 282010 peta 4 2 Oba 2n 3 ‘ug = 14,14 rads com18 wrRopucTION MOBILITY, OR NUMBER OF DEGREES OF FREEDOM 19 FIGURE 1.31 FIGURE 132 4 when link 2 is counterclockwise 45° from the horizontal. State whether or not w, is constant. 1.10. A pulley of 100 mm diam. drives one of 200 mm diam by means of a belt. If the angular velocity ofthe drive pulley is 65 rad/s and the center distance between pulleys is 400 mm, graphically determine the speed ofthe 200 mm pulley. Willits speed be constant? LL. Determine the mobility (number of degrees of freedom) of the devices shown in Figs. 1.25 through 1.32. FO (cm (RIN FR P/M (R/O fm fm, On ICw ewer wwwwrwwwwwwwTwoWwWwwWOWWwwHOHIIIW OD Chapter Two Linkages and Mechanisms 2.1 POSITION ANALYSIS OF THE FOUR-BAR LINKAGE One of the simplest and most useful mechanisms is the four-bar linkage. A sketch of this linkage is shown in Fig. 2.1. Link 1is the frame, or ground, and is generally stationary. Link 2 is the driver, which may rotate completely or may escilate. If link 2 rotates completely, then the mechanism is transforming rotary motion into oscillatory motion. If the crank oscillates, then the mechanism multiplies oscillatory motion. ‘When link 2s rotating completely, there is no danger ofthe linkage locking. However, if link 2 oscillates, care must be taken in proportioning the links to avoid dead points so that the mechanism will not stall in its extceme positions, FIGURE 2.1. Four-bar linkage. 20 . POSITION ANALYSIS OF THE FOUR-BAR LINKAGE 2]. along link 4. This condition is shown by the dashed lines in Fig. 2.2 ‘IE the four-bar mechanism is designed so that link 2 can rotate completely ‘but link 4s made the driver, dead points will occur, and itis necessary to provide a flywheel to pass through these dead points In addition to possible dead points in a four-bar linkage, itis necessary to consider the transmission angle, which is the angle between the connecting or coupler link 3 and the output link 4. This is shown in Fig. 2.3a as angle +. FIGURE 23a An equation for the transmission angle can be derived by applying the law of cosines to triangles 40,0, and ABO, as follows: Wht rE 2rr cos 0 en also 2rsre cosy @2) Therefore, + rh 2nn cos & = 8 + rh — 2nr cosy22. UINKAGES AND MECHANISMS and or @3) ‘where the value of zis calculated from the frst of the two cosine law equations (Eq. 2.1). With the dimensions of the linkage given (Le., ri ra M5» and 7d), Y i a function of only the input angle 6. Note that there will be two values of corresponding to any one value of 8, because the arcsosine is a double-valued function. Physically, the second value of y corresponds to the second mode of assembly, branch, or closure, ofthe four-bar linkage, as shown in Fig. 2.3b. For any one value of the input angle 0,, the four-bar linkage can be assembled in two different ways, In general, for best transmission of force within the mechanism, links3 and 4 should be nearly perpendicular throughout the motion cycle. If the transmission angle deviates from +90" or —90" by more than about 45° or 50, the linkage tends to bind because of friction in the joints; lso links3 and 4tend to align and may lock. It is especially important to check transmission angles when linkages are designed to operate close to dead points. An illustration of the minimum and the maximum transmission angles for a four-bar linkage is shown in Fig. 2.3¢ by ‘y' and\y', respectively. In this mechanism, link 2 rotates completely and link 4 oscillates. ‘The output angle of the four-bar linkage (angle @, in Fig. 2.3a) can also be found in closed form as a function of 6. By referring to Fig. 2.3a, the law of ‘cosines may be used to express angles a and B as follows: ptann sron (E434) a9 e+n-n pron (SE 4) a9 ‘he ng aH, 2.38 gen by & = 180° - (a + B) 2.6) Great care must be exercised in using this result since both a and B may be either positive or negative angles, depending on which solution is taken for the arccosine function, For the second closure of the linkage (Fig. 2.36), 6 must be taken POSITION ANALYSIS OF THE FOURBAR LINKAGE 73 FIGURE 2.3¢ Positive and a must be taken negative in order to use Eq. 2.5. In general, for ‘0° < 6, < 180°, 8 should be selected such that 0° < 8 < 180"; and similarly for 180" < 9; < 360°, B should be selected such that 180°. 6 < 360°. With B selected in this way, the two values of a will yield values of ®, corresponding to the two distinct closures of the linkage. The process of finding the variable output angles of a mechanism as functions of the input angle is known as position analysis. The method of position analysis. just presented is but one of several possible approaches. Another method based ‘on the use of vectors and complex numbers is explored in Appeudix 1. All of the methods presented, however, require insights and manipulations to obtain the desired output angle as a function of the input angle. ‘The position analysis problem for linkages containing more than four links can become extremely complicated. Example 2.1, For the four-ber linkage shown in Fig. 2.4 with r, = 7 in.,r» = 3 in., 1s = Bin. r= 6in., and @, ~ 60", find the transmission angle, y, and the output angle, (RF FR RP I EN A HA FID, I MI Awee eee ewww wrwwrw www Tw www www wwr 24 LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS Substituting the known values nto the fist cosine lw equation (Eq, 2.1) gives 2 = OF + GF ~ 2018) cos 60" = 37 r= 6083 Substutng this value into Eqs, 2.3, 2.4, and 2S alongwith the link dimensions gives = wy OF = 20) 8.986" 374+ @-@F 287)" a= =m91" ecos 3+ (= 3 2a") B= #25285" Sine isbeeon and 1, B must be taken as pose. The values fae theeore given = 180° — (£82,917 + 25.285") 8, = 71.798", 237.632" (Cleary, the first value of & is correct for the closure shown in Fig. 2.4 2.2 FOUR-BAR LINKAGE MOTION AND GRASHOFF’S LAW ‘The four-bar linkage may take other forms as shown in Fig. 2.5. In Fig. 2.5a, the mechanism has been crossed and will give the same type of motion asin Fig, 2.1, In Fig. 2.5b, opposite links are all the same length and, therefore, always FOUR-BAR LINKAGE MOTION AND GRASHOFFS LAW 25 FIGURE 2.5 remain parallel; both links 2 and 4 rotate completely. This type of motion was characteristic of asteam locomotive drive. Figure 2.5c shows another arrangement ‘whereby both the driver and follower rotate continuously. This form of the four- bar linkage is the basis for the drag-link mechanism which will be discussed under the subject of quick-return mechanisms. For rotation of crank 2 at a constant angular velocity, link 4 will rotate at a nonuniform rate. In order to prevent locking of the mechanism, certain relations must be maintained between the links: OA and OB > 0,0, (O14 ~ 0,0,) + AB> OB (O.B ~ 0,0,) + O,A > AB ‘The second and third relation can be derived from the triangles O,A'B" and O,A"B", respectively, and the fact that the sum of two sides of a triangle must be greater than the third side. Figure 2.5d shows an arrangement whereby link 4 of Fig. 2.1 has been replaced by a sliding block. The motion of the two linkages is identical. ‘The motion of the four-bar linkage is often characterized by the term crank rocker to indicate that crank 2 rotates completely and link 4 oscillates as in Fig. 2.Sa. Ina similar manner, the term double crank means that both link 2 and link ‘4rotate completely as in Figs. 2.5b and c. The term double rocker indicates that Doth link 2 and link 4 oscillate as shown in Fig. 2.2. ‘As @ means of determining whether a four-bar linkage will operate as a rank rocker, a double crank, or a double rocker, Grashoffs law can be applied. ‘This law states that ifthe sum of the lengths of the longest link and the shortest26 LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS link is fess than the sum of the lengths of the other two, there will be formed two different crank tockers when the shortest link is the crank and either of the adjacent links is the fixed link 2. a double crank when the shortest link is the fixed link 3. a double rocker when the link opposite the shortest is the fixed link ‘Also, if the sum of the lengths of the longest and the shortest links i greatér than ‘the sum of the lengths of the other two, only double-rocker mechanisms will result, Also if the sum of the longest and shortest links is equal to the sum of the other two, the four possible mechanisms are similar to those of.1, 2, and 3 above. However, in this last case the center lines of the links can become collinear so that the driven link can change direction of rotation unless some means is ‘provided to avoid it. Such a linkage is shown in Fig. 2.5b, where the links become collinear along the line of centers 0,0. At this position, the direction of rotation of the driven link 4 could change unless inertia carried link 4 through this point. 2.3 POSITION ANALYSIS OF LINKAGES ‘USING LOOP CLOSURE EQUATIONS AND ITERATIVE METHODS It is possible to analyze the majority of mechanisms by using methods such as, ‘the one described in section 2.1. These are known as closed-form methods; that is, a finite number of calculations are required to find a theoretically exact so- ution. Unfortunately, however, itis difficult to develop a computer-aided analysis, package using this approach, because each different type of mechanism generally requires a separate analysis method and a separate computer program. Because of this, several of the commercially available mechanism analysis programs have ‘been developed based on iterative methods. Iterative methods attempt to con- verge on a solution by repetitive calculations. For this reason, it is not known beforehand how many calculations will be required, or even if a solution can be found. The basic concepts of iterative mechanism analysis will now be illustrated by way of a four-bar linkage example. Consider the four-bar linkage of Fig. 2.6 with the x-coordinate axis along link 1 which is fixed, Since the links of this mechanism form a closed loop, the x and y-components of the links must sum to zero. This may be expressed as follows: Components: 1 + 14.008 8, ~ 72008 Bp — 75008 8; = 0 en y-Components: sin & — rosin ® ~ ry sin 0 = 0 28) POSITION ANALYSIS OF LINKAGES USING LOOP CLOSURE EQUATIONS 27 a a * FIGURE 26 In position analysis, the link lengths r, 7, 5, and ry are-known, and the problem is to find the angles 0, and 6, for a given value of 8. Thus, Eqs. 2.7 and 2.8 appear to be a simple set of two equations in the two unknowns 8, and 6. The complication is that these equations are transcendental, and a simple linear solution is not possible. Note that the above equations will be satisfied only for those particular values of 0 and 3, that close the mechanism loop. These values are often called the roots of the equation. For any values of 8, and 0, other than the roots, these equalities will nct be satisfied, so that in general 1 + 14.008 ® — Fy 005 8 — ry 008 8 = fi(0, 8 f0)— @9) resin 04 ~ resin & ~ ry sin = (0,0) = f(0) — @.10) where the shorthand notation @ = @,, 8, has been used, Finding teroote ofthese equations is now equivalent to Snding the values of 6, and 0, for vhich f,(0) and 7) are timultscoousy eovel to ere Ae tee plat, 4 tal souton could be ted fo find the Tools ‘Aas move eiicen Procedure, however, fo tse a linear approximation tothe ancions in eckang Eozeatvely improved solutions “Suppose, or example, that values ofthe angles and have been selected arbitrarily. In general, these will not be roots of the equations. There exist, however, some ales 89, and A, which, when aded tof an 8 wl pe hg roots, This can be express fellows: 0s + AB;, 0, + AO) = F(0-+ A) eu) PI FOR RF Gm AN ON A AM ID A HO MDCwee eee eee weer www Uw wwwwewwww Yow. 28 LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS A linear approximation to this function is obtained by taking the first two terms of its Taylor series expansion about the point 8, 9: 10048) = 100+ (SED) am + (Wau, ra ean It is now possible to solve forthe values of A®, and Ad, that will drive this linear function to zero. If the linear function is a reasonable approximation to the original function, these values should also cause the original function to be approximately equal to zero. Setting the linear function equal to zero gives (0) + (22)a0, + (420, 0 8 28, ie Ce) By substituting i = 1 and i = 2 in Eq. 2.13 and by rearranging terms, the fol Jowing equations result: (G2 )an, + (0) ~f(0) a4) (2D)as, + (a0, —f:0) (2.5) ‘Once an initial estimate has been made for the values of 0, and @,, the values of fx(0) and f,(@) can be calculated from Eqs. 2.9 and 2.10, The partial derivatives needed in Eqs. 2.14 and 2.15 are found to be 2.16, Since the partial derivatives found in Eq. 2.16 are evaluated at the estimated values of 8, and 0,, Eqs. 2.14 and 2.15 are actually two linear equations in the two unknowns A@; and 40,, Solving these equations simultaneously yields the values of 48, and A®, which, when added to the estimated values @, and 6,, will make the approximate linear function equal to zero. Although, in general, these will not be the same as the roots ofthe original function, they will be an improved POSITION ANALYSIS OF LINKAGES USING LOOP CLOSURE EQUATIONS 29 estimate. By using this improved estimate, a second linear approximation is made to the function and a new set of values for 0; and 0, is calculated. This process is repeated until the rcots of the approximate function produce values of the original function which are nearly equal to zero. The method just described is ‘one of the best known and most often used numerical root-finding techniques, Itis known as the Newon-Raphson method. The following numerical example will help to show the details of this method and its application to mechanism analysis. Example 2.2. For the four-bar linkage shown in Fig. .6, solve the postion analysis problem using the Newtan-Raphson rootfinding method. Use 6 = 60", and use link dimensions r, = Tin., r= 3in., ry = Bin., and r= 6 in Before analysis can proceed, initial estimates of 6, and 0, on which to iterate must be obtained. Normally, postion analysis begins at some known starting position of the ‘mechanism and proceeds by incrementing the input angle by some small amount. The values of, and at the previous position are usually @ good estimate of the corresponding values at the present postion. Another approach isto estimate these values graphically. ‘To demonstrate the rapid convergence of the Newion-Raphson method, values of 0 and 2, willbe selected which are known to be far from the true roots. The value of 8 will be estimated at O*, and the value of wll be estimated at 00°, Substituting these estimated values along with known dimensions of the linkage in the loop closure equations (Eqs. 29 and 2.10) and also in the expressions for the partial derivatives (Eq, 2.16) gives FO) = 7 + 6 cox 100" ~ 3 cos 60° ~ 8 cos 0° = —3:542 F(0).= 6 sin 100" — 3 sin 60° ~ 8 sin O° = 3.311 AO) - 9 sin or = a0, Bsinor = 0 2D. — sin 00 = ~5.900 a 4.0 2%, 2,0) 28, 8 cos 0 = 8,000 c0s 100" = —1.042 Substituting these values into Eqs. 2.14 and 2.15 yields the following linear equations in the unknowns 48, and A& (0) a0, + (5.905) a0, = 3.542 (8.000) Ae, + (1.002) Ao, = -3.311 Solving for A, and A, gives 8, = 0.492 rad = 28.185" 0, = ~0.599 rad = - 34.344"30 LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS ‘Upon adding these to the estimated values of @, and 8, the following improved estimates are obtained: 8 = OF + 28.185" = 28.185" 0, = 100" ~ 34.344" = 65.656" ‘Vatues ofthe funetons and the paral derivatives are eclelated using these new value, and s second tet of approximate ales obained, This process repeated unl he values of te (0) and) are egal 0 20, of unl uo fuer improvement canbe Shula Adve fs erate poses hoa ia Big 27. he coven computer progam, wrtea in BASIC, is shown in ig. 28 The rel of tis program ft each eration se given in Tele 21. It evident fom this abe thatthe Newton ‘Rephson method converges rapidly for his example Twpat etna vals of and 0, i cane 00, fa Caley at ain f Sate Ea, 2318 a 2 ery and ty Stop and pent "dion dost Sis ae Tata FIGURE 2.7 POSITION ANALYSIS OF LINKAGES USING LOOP CLOSURE EQUATIONS 3} a sensesens Ee Sears covuas Sagzistner fof fink Geeetes| sen 2S Bie Setar Mapa Sepaster hgh Be Eb abe rane! Sahd ura’ PEA MIRC pray see 9 PRES UBCERScsetEt ae SUSE STRAT ce LER, ie RietsIamoraetunradineerte be ite HEE foto tecebi'afSasolan STAC STO FESp weit outa toons BS gaRESRT ATESSTRENG-ascontenray = aveoscmpn)) HS fincecad Sa Geant aS oats sees 8) PRR. Sea ae EE orBBSUEN Guts! TAIT or tac. 1 w/eeoect wo het BE Shenctecetteema, sacred of fine: } Veena to aetey HG GMS RSSISIeAN RRUIG of Eee: Y/eibes &o St HE Goneatcsetment) ‘stint oe fie: 3 apes &2 SS He PATE alt ot Ee ele HE gerteitd Sitoth 2 tans tah Czech ee ets888 Ty TMETA3/DBG28A0,TEETAA/DDGIRAD; e848 ci Fomce1,euNe.27 482846 © DELTA, SuezAs/SeczRAD, DELTA. THETM/DBC2RAD ‘ty guess for both theta 3 and theta t 350 | SHBIASoTUETA3 DELTA, TUPTAS sTHETAL@TUETAGSDELEA.TEETM 360 weko * do'toop avain is roots have not been fund 370 Reriesxiun THO “oress RETURN eo cerun progeaa’..";AGs20H FIGURE 2.8 TABLE 2.1 Results of the Iterative Analysis Program & ® QO) £40) af lay 0.000 100.003.523.311 0.000 185 65.656 0.922 0910 3.778, e716 0B 0015 3.113, msn 71.798 0.000 ~0.000 3.102 ales, afle,——afle0, 0, 0, =5.909 -8.000 1.042 BBS 34.344 -7051 2473 -5.287 6.008 -737 1.888 0.085, 0.134 134 1.874 ~0.000 0.000 PL RR FAR ma (OR NI A i ff MO) (RN I MFwww ewe were weer wwr ww Uw www WOH Ow ww Wd IW 32 LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS 2.4 LINKAGE ANALYSIS USING THE INTEGRATED MECHANISMS PROGRAM (IMP) ‘As mentioned in the previous section, several commercially available mechanism analysis programs have been developed based on iterative methods of solving the loop closure equations. One of the most widely used of these programs is the Integrated Mechanisms Program, known as IMP. This progcam was developed by Sheth and Uieker! and is currently distributed by Structural Dynamics Re- search Corporation, a subsidiary of General Electric CAE International ? Pro- fessor Uicker and his associates have developed another IMP program which is being distributed by IML Research Inc.’ The IMP system is capable of analyzing displacements, velocities, accelerations, and forces in a wide variety of two- and three-dimensional rigid link mechanisms. It must be emphasized that the use of this program is no substitute for a solid understanding of basic kinematic principles. It can, however, relieve the designer of many routine calculations and provide analysis capabilities far beyond those attainable using hand calculation for user-written programs. For these reasons, programs such as IMP are rapidly ‘becoming indispensable tools for industrial designers. The following example will illustrate how this program can be set up to analyze the angular displacements of the input and output links of a four-bar linkage. Example 2.3. tn the four-bar linkage shown in Fig, 2.94, link is the driver and rotates completely, and link 4 oscillates. Use the IMP program to determine the angles which correspond to the extreme positions of link 4 saziny 4610 FIGURE 2: "PN. Sheth, and JJ, Uiker, “IMP (Integrated Mechanisms Program), A Computer-Aided Design ‘Analysis Sysiem for Mechanisins and Linkages," ourmal of Engineering fr Indusiry, Trans. ASME, Vol. 84, May 3972, pp. 454-464 IM Integrated Mechanisms Progam,” Structural Dynamics Research Corporation, Milford, OF, Febevary, 1979. THE INTEGRATED MECHANISMS PROGRAM (IMP): A Problem Oriented Language for the Computer-Aided Design and Analysis of Mechanical Systems," JML Research In., 1984, LINKAGE ANALYSIS USING THE INTEGRATED MECHANISMS PROGRAM 33, ‘The designations O#2, A, B, and OH4 in Fig. 2.90 represent turning pairs or ‘evolutes (joints) and permit only relative rotation. These positions would contain the bearings in an actual mechanism. The ends of each link terminate in a point which is the center of the revolute. In Fig. .9b, link 2is defined by points 02 and AA, link 3 by points AA3 and BB3, and link 4 by BBA and OO4, (This use ofa single letter, for example, AA, to designate a revolute and of a double letter, AA, to designate a point is chosen for convenience to avoid confusion in specifying the mode! for tbe mechanism.) As illustrated in Chapter 1, point AA is a point on both links 2 and 3, and point BB is common to both links 3 and 4: In a similar manner, point 002 is common to links 1 and 2, and point 004 js common to links 1 and 4. ‘The additional labeling of the mechanism to specify these points is shown in Fig. 2.96. Its very important that the revolutes and points be clearly distinguished. Been Print Tae, Aas AIRE ‘a3, ane 02, 008, on tren on teen ‘002 ‘008 FIGURE 2.95 “The statements for the revolutes to be listed inthe input tothe TMP program follow: GROUND= FRAME REVOLUTE ( FRAME , LNK2)=OH2 REVOLUTE (LNK2 , LNK3)=A, REVOLUTE (LNK3,, LNK4 REVOLUTE (LNK4 , FRAME )=OH$ It should be noted in the above listing that the pattern is link 2 relative to frame, link 3 relative to link 2, link 4 relative to link 3, and frame relative to link 4, By starting with frame and ending with frame, the requirement thatthe loop must close is satisfied ‘The next step isto determine the coordinates of the revolutes and label them as shown in Fig. 2.8. Also the orientation of two local coordinate systems attached to the links on each side of the revolutes must be chosen. All data for revolute joints must be {given relative tothe global reference frame. ‘The data for each revolute must now be listed inthe input to the IMP program with a data:revolute statement. This will contain (a) the coordinates of the revolute, which is also the origin of the two local coordinate systems; (6) a point on the common local postive z-axes ofthese systems; and (c) and (d) points on the positive x-axes of the local ‘coordinate systems for the first and second links named in the corresponding revolute statement, The easiest way to give the directions in item (c) and (d) is to go fom OH2 to-A for the x-direction along link 2 for revolute OH2 and for revolute A to go back from34. LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS B 0.2012.5.8388,0) (21213212130 | A to OH2. The directions of the z-coordinates forthe other revolutes are handled in a similar manner. The data for the revolutes are as follows: DATA: REVOLUTE (OH2)=0,0,0/0,0,1/1,0,0/-2.1213,2.1213,0 DATA:REVOLUTE(A)=-2.4213,2.1218,0/-2.1218,2.1213,1/0,0,0/8 9.2242, 6.9388, 0 DATA:REVOLUTE(B)=9.2242,5.9388,0/9.2242,5.9988,1/$ +1218, 2.1218,0/10,0,0, DATA: REVOLUTE(OH4)=10,0,0/10,0,1/9.2242,5.9888,0/12,0,0 ‘The data forthe points given in the local coordinate systems of the associated joints are Tisted next, POINT(LNK2)=002 , AA2 DATA: POINT (002,0H2)=0,0,0 DATA:POINT(AA2,A)=0,0,0 POINT(LNK3)=AA3, BBS DATA:POINT(AA3,A)=0,0,0 DATA: POINT(BB3,B)=0,0,0 POINT(LNK4)=BB4,004 DATA: POINT (BB4,B)=0,0,0 DATA: POINT(004,OH4)=0,0,0 ZOOM(7)=5,1.5,0 RETURN ‘The IMP program was run on a VAX 11/780 computer using the above input listing. ‘The minimum displacement angle for the output joint OF/4 is shown in Fig. 2.9d. The value of the angle for joint OH is 15.68° (positive beceuse itis taken as link 2 relative to frame, ocw). IMP defines counterclockwise engles as postive. The value of the angle for joint OH4 is —42.55" (negative because it is taken as frame relative to link 4, ew). ‘The maximum displacement angle for the joint OF is shown in Fig. .9e. The value of the angle for joint OF? is 216.25", and the angle for joint O#4 is = 117.55". SLIDER-CRANK MECHANISM 35 2 FIGURE 2.9¢ 2.5 SLIDER-CRANK MECHANISM ‘This mechanism is widely used and finds its greatest application in the internal- combustion engine. Figure 2.10z shows a sketch in which link 1 is the frame (considered fixed), link 2 is the crank, link 3 is the connecting rod, and link 4 is the slider. With the intemal-combustion engine, link 4 is the piston upon which a8 pressure is exerted. This force is transmitted through the connecting rod to ‘the crank. It can be seen that there will be two dead points during the cycle, one at each extreme position of piston travel. In order to overcome these, it is necessary to attach a flywheel to the crank so that the dead points can be passed. ‘This mechanism is also used in air compressors where an electric motor drives, the crank which in turn drives the piston that compresses the air. Jn considering the slider crank, itis often necessary to calculate the displacement ofthe slider and its corresponding velocity and acceleration. Equa for displacement, velocity, and acceleration are derived using Fig. 2.106: X= R4+L~Reosd~Leos ='R(1 ~ cos 6) + L(1 ~ c08 4) waco safs- f= Eww] osm FO LR RI RON OR AN OM A HHewww WE wwwrwwwOWHU WWW OwWwWwwwwwWOW We 36 LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS FIGURE 2.10 In order to simplify the above expression, the radical can be approximated by replacing it with the’ binomial series SB! 246-8" where B = (R/L) sin 0. In general, itis sufficiently accurate to use only the first two terms of the series. ‘Therefore, and Roy x = R(L ~ cos 8) + 55 sint 8 where 0 = wf because w is constant; and a pefene s & v-G- rofsine + rants] 2.8) é R 4 ~ $5 nafcosa + Reos28] 19) SLIDER-CRANK MECHANISM 37 o FIGURE 21 Its possible to fix some link other than 1 on the slider erank and thus obtain three inversions, which are shown in Fig. 2.11. In Fig. 2.11a, the erank is held fixed and all the other links are allowed to move. This gives a mechanism that was used in early aircraft engines. They were known as rotary engines because the crank was stationary and the cylinders rotated about the crank. A more ‘modern application of this inversion is in the Whitworth mechanism, which will be discussed under quick-return mechanisms. Figure 2.11b shows an inversion in, which the connecting rod is held fixed. This inversion in modified form is the basis for the crank-shaper mechanism to be discussed later. The third inversion where the slider is held fixed, Fig. 2.11, is sometimes used in the hand farm pump. ‘A variation of the slider-crank mechanism can be affected by increasing the size of the crank pin until itis larger than the shaft to which itis attached and at the same time offsetting the center of the crank pin from that of the shaft. ‘This enlarged crank pin is called an eccentric and can be used to replace the crank in the original mechanism. Figure 2.12 shows sketch where point A is the center of the eocentric and point O the center ofthe shaft. The motion ofthis mechani with the equivalent crank length OA is identical with that of the slider crank. One serious disadvantage of this mechanism, however, is the problem of proper lubrication between the eccentric and the rod. This limits the amount of power that can be transmitted FIGURE 2.1238 LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS 2.6 SCOTCH YOKE This mechanism is one which will give simple harmonic motion. Its early application was on steam pumps, but its now used as a mechanism on a test machine to produce vibrations. It is also used as a sine-cosine generator for computing elements. Figure 2.132 shows a sketch of this mechanism. Figure 2.136 shows ‘the manner in which simple harmonic motion is generated. The radius r rotates at a constant angular velocity w,, and.the projection of the point P upon the seas (or y-axis) moves with simple harmonic motion. The displacement from ‘where the circle cuts the x-axis and increasing to the left is xr rcos8, where 8, = of 2.20) ‘Therefore, x= r(1- cos a) a ck V =F = ro,sin wt = ro sin, @.21) ax 2 = ru? A= Bw nt cos os = rat cos, 2) Another mechanism which will give simple harmonic motion is a circular ‘cam (cocentric) witha flat-faced radial follower. This is discussed in the following chapter. o FIGURE 2.13, 2.7 QUICK-RETURN MECHANISMS “These mechanisms are used on machine tools to give a slow cutting stroke and ‘a quick return stroke for a constant angular velocity of the driving crank and are combinations of simple linkages such as the four-bar linkage and the slider-crank. ‘mechanism. An inversion of the slider crank ia combination with the conventional slider crank is also used. In the design of quick-return mechanisms, the ratio of QUICK-RETURN MECHANISMS 39 the crank angle for the cutting stroke to that for the return stroke is of prime importance and is known as the time ratio. To produce a quick return of the cutting tool, this ratio must obviously be greater than unity and as large as possible. As an example, the crank angle forthe cutting stroke for the mechanism shown in Fig. 2.14 is labeled a, and that for the return stroke is labeled B. With the assumption that the crank operates at a constant speed, the time ratio is, therefore, a/B, which is much greater than unity ‘There are several types of quick-return mechanisms which are described as follows: This is developed from the four-bar linkage and is shown in Fig. 2.15. For a ‘constant angular velocity of link 2, link 4 will rotate at a nonuniform velocity. Ram 6 will move with nearly constant velocity over most of the upward stroke to give a slow upward stroke afid a quick downward stroke when driving link 2 rotates clockwise. Whitworth ‘This is a variation of the first inversion of the slider crank in which the crank is held fixed. Figure 2.16 shows a sketch of the mechanism, and both links 2 and 4 make complete revolutions. Crank Shaper ‘This mechanism isa variation of the second inversion of the sider eranik in which the connecting rod is held fixed. Figure 2.14 shows the arrangement in which FR RR I RO AN FF I AR fm A MO A OI ODSOO OCHO OSH SHEE HHOOHUUHEUY 40 LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS FIGURE 2.16 link 2 rotates completely and link 4 oscillates. If the distance 0,0, is shortened ‘until it is fess than the crank, the mechanism will revert to the Whitworth, Offset Slider Crank The slider crank can be offset as shown in Fig, 2.17, which will give a quick return motion. However, the amount of quick return is very slight, and the mechanism ‘would only be used where space was limited and the mechanism had to be simple. FIGURE 2.17 2.8 TOGGLE MECHANISM ‘This mechanism has many applications where itis necessary to overcome a large resistance with a small driving force. Figure 2.18 shows the mechanism; links 4 and 5 are of the same length. As the angles a decrease and links 4 and 5 approach being collinear, the force F required to overcome a given resistance P decreases as shown by the following relation: E pa 2tana (2.23) It can be seen that for a given Fas « approaches zero, P approaches infinity. A. stone crusher utilizes this mechanism to overcome a large resistance with a small force. This mechanism can be used statically as well as dynamically, as is seen, in numerous toggle clamping devices for holding work pieces. STRAIGHT-LINE MECHANISMS 41. FIGURE 2.18 2.9 OLDHAM COUPLING This mechanism provides a means for connecting two parallel shafts which are out of line a small amount so that a constant angular velocity ratio can be transmitted from the drive shaft to the driven shaft. A sketch is shown in Fig. 2.19. ‘This mechanism is an inversion of the Scotch yoke. 1 2 FIGURE 2.19 2.10 STRAIGHT-LINE MECHANISMS As the name suggests, these mechanisms are designed so that a point on one of the links will move in a straight line. This straight line wil be either an approximate or a theoretically correct straight Ine, depending on the mechanism, An example of an approximate straight-line mechanism is the Watt, which is shown in Fig. 2.20. Point P is so located that the segments AP and BP are inversely proportional to the lengths O,4 and Q,B. Therefore, if inks 2 and 4 are equal in length, point P must be the midpoint of link 3. Point P will trace42. LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS FIGURE 2.20 FIGURE 2.21 out a path in the form of a figure 8. Part ofthis path will very nearly approach. a straight line. ‘The Peaucellier mechanism is one which wil generate an exact straight line, Figure 2.21 shows a sketch where links 3 and 4 are equal. Links 5, 6, 7, and 8 are also equal, and link 2 equals the distance 0,0,. Point P will trace out an exact straight dine path. Straight-line mechanisms have many applications; notable among these are the mechanisms for engine indicators and for electrical switch gear equipment. 2.41 PANTOGRAPH ‘This mechanism is used as a copying device. When one point is made to follow ‘certain path, another point on the mechanism will trace out an identical path that is enlarged or reduced. Figure 2,22 shows a sketch. Links 2, 3, 4, and 5 form 1 parallelogram, and point P is on an extension of link 4, Point Q is on link S at the intersection of a line drawn from O to P. As point P traces out a path, point © will trace out a similar path to a reduced scale. ‘This mechanism finds many applications in copying devices, particularly in ‘engraving or profiling machines. One use of the profiling machine is in making dies or molds. Point P serves as a finger and traces oitt the contour of a template While a rotating endmill is placed at Q to machine the die to a smaller scale CHAMBER WHEELS 43 2.12 CHAMBER WHEELS This mechanism ‘akes several forms, which fall into two clasifications, The first type consists of two lobed wheels operating within a casing. The Roots blower, as shown in Fig. 2.23, is an example of this type. The rotors are cycloids and are driven by a pair cf meshing gears of equial size in back of the case. In the modern application, the Roots blower has three lobes on each rotor and is used for a low-pressure supercharger on Diesel engines ‘The other dass of chamber wheels has only one rotor placed eccentrically within the easing and is generally a variation of the slider-crank mechanism. Figure 2.24 shows a sketch of this type. The mechanism shown was originally ‘designed for a steam engine, but its modern application is in the form of a pump. Another example of the second type of chamber whee! is shown in Fig, 2.25, which illustrates the principle of the Wankel engine. In this mechanism, the ‘expanding gases act upon the three-lobed rotor, which revolves directly on the eccentric and traasmits torque to the output shaft through the eccentric which is integral with the shaft. The phase relation between the rotor and the rotation of FIGURE 2.24 PR ORR RI FOR AL mm AO), HO ON44 LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS, FIGURE 2.25 the eccentric shaft is maintained by Y a pair of internal and external gears (not shown) so that the orbital motion of the rotor is properly controlled, 2.13 HOOKE’S COUPLING “his coupling is used to connect two intersecting shafts. It is also known as a universal joint and has its widest use in the automotive field. A sketch of the coupling is shown in Fig, 2.26, and a commercial model isillstrated in Fig. 2.27 In Fig. 2.26, link 2 is the driver and link 4 the follower. Link 3 is a cross piece that connects the two yokes. It can be shown that, although both shafts must complete a revolution in the same length of time, the angular velocity ratio of the two shafts is not constant during the revolution but varies as a function of the angle f between the shafts and of the angle of rotation @ of the driver. The relation is given as oy cos B ey — sin? B sin? a A plot of this equation in polar coordinates for a quarter revolution of the HOOKE'S COUPLING 45 —~ FIGURE 2.26 diving shaft is shown in Fig. 2.28, whch larly indicates te effect of a are ingle between the has ; TEs posible to connect two shat by two Hooke’s couplings and an inter mediate shaft such tat the uneven veloc roto of the ast coping yl be canes out by the second, Figure 2.29 shows this eppaion when the two Shas 2 and 4, which are to be eonneced, do not ia the same plan, The toscion rte meso hie od iver sa and ae a tngles B withthe Intermediate satt3. Alo, the yokes on sift 3 mut be coaneted'in such a vay tet when on yoke in oe plan of sate 2 and the ther yoke les n the plan of safe and. th te shafts tobe connected iin th sme plane, then the yokes on te intermediate shat wil be paral FIGURE 2.27 Hooke-type universal joint. (Courtesy of Mechanics Uni- ‘versal Joint Division, Borg-Warner Corp.)46 LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS o DSOSGT OS OT LSAT ZIT IAL IE FIGURE 2.29 ‘An application of two universal joints connecting shafts that li in the same plane is the Hotchkiss automotive drive, which is used on most rear-wheel drive cars. 2.44 CONSTANT-VELOCITY UNIVERSAL JOINTS Engineers have been considering for many years the development of a single universal joint capable of transmitting a constant-velocity ratio. Several joints ‘that were Variations of the Hooke principle were proposed, one as early as 1870, ‘CONSTANT-VELOCITY UNIVERSAL JOINTS 47. With the intermediate shaft reduced to zero length. As far as is known, however, joints of this design have never been used to any extent commercially. ‘With the development of the front-wheel drive for automotive vehicles, the need for a universal joint which was capable of transmitting a constant angular velocity ratio was increased. It was true that two Hooke’s couplings and an intermediate shaft could be used, but this was not entirely satisfactory. With a drive such as is required on a front wheel of an automobile, where the angle B is sometimes quite large, the changing conditions made it almost impossible to obtain constant angular-velocty ratio. The need for @ constant-velocity universal joint was met by'the introduction of the Weiss and the Rzeppa joints in this country and by the Tracta joint in France. The Weiss joint was first patented in 1925, the Reeppa in 1928, and the Tracta in 1933. Operation of thece joints is not based on the same principle as the Hooke coupling. A Bendix-Weiss joint is shown in Fig, 2.30. As shown in the figure, grooves that are symmetrical with respect to each other about the center lines of the shafts are formed in the surfaces of the prongs of the yokes, and four stec! balls are located between these prongs at a point where the axes of the grooves in one yyoke intersect the axes of the grooves in the other yoke. Power is transmitted ‘rom the driver tothe follower through these balls. A fifth ball witha siot provides {for locking of the parts in assembly as well as for taking end thrust. In operation, ‘he balls wil automatically shift their positions as the angular displacement of the two shafts is varied, so that the plane containing the centers of the bells will always bisect the angle between the two shafts, A constant angular-velocity ratio will therefore result from this condition, A photograph of a Bendix-Weiss joint is shown in Fig. 2.33. A bell-type Rzeppa joint (pronounced “sheppa”) is shown in Fig, 2.31. The joint consists of aspherical housing and an inner race with corresponding grooves in each part. Six steel balls inserted in these grooves tranémit torque from driver to follower. The balls are located in curved grooves in the races and are positioned bya cage between the races. Centers of curvature for the grooved races are offset FIGURE 2,30 al eee a48 LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS ‘ FIGURE 2.31 in opposite directions from the joint center along the shaft axes. The offsets control the positions of the balls so that their centers always lie in a plane which bisects the angles between the shafts. With the centers of the balls in this plane, ‘he joint will transmit a constant angular-velocity ratio, A photograph of a Reeppa joint is shown in Fig, 2.33. ‘A Tracta joint is shown in Fig. 2.32, It consists of four parts: two shafts with forked ends and two hemispherical parts, one of which has a tongue and the other a groove to receive the tongue. In addition, each of the hemispherical bodies is provided with a groove that permits the connection of a fork. The forks subtend an angle greater than T80° so as to be self-locking when assembled. The tongue and the tongue groove are at right angles to the grooves which admit the forks. By means of the union of the tongue and groove when the joint is assem- FIGURE 2.32 CONSTANT-VELOCITY UNIVERSAL JOINTS 49, bled, the axes of the hemispherical parts must always remain in the same plane. When the joint is assembled, the forks are free to rotate about the axes of the hemispherical bodies, which lie in the plane of the tongue and groove. ‘The joint is held in proper alignment for industrial application by two spherical housings not shown. When assembled, these provide a ball joint type cof housing that support the shafts so that their exes will intersect at all times at point equidistant from the centers of the hemispherical members. With this alignment, the Tracta joint will transmit motion with a constant-velocity ratio. A photograph of a ‘Tracta joint is shown in Fig. 2.33. Tn addition to the constant-velocity joints discussed above, another type of joint kas been developed known as the ii-pot joint. The te-pot joint bas a cylindrizal housing with three partially cylindrical, equally spaced axial bores. ‘The axial bores house a spider which has three trunions, with a ball mounted on cach trunion. The contact points between the balls and housing bores always lie inva plane which bisects the angle between the two shafts. Constant angular resist Pe os FIGURE 2.33 Constant-velocity universal joints: Bendix-Weiss, Rueppa, and Traeta.50 LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS eepee FIGURE 2.34 Front-wheel drive unit. (Courtesy of Saginaw Steer- ing Gear Division, General Motors Corporation.) velocity will therefore be transmitted between the input and the output shaft at any angle between the shafts. The spider is usualy splined to one shaft, and the housing is bolted to the other shaft.* ‘A tri-pot joint in combination with a Rzoppa joint is used extensively in automotive front-wheel drives where the Rzeppa is used for the outboard and the tcepot for the inboard joint. A front-wheel drive unit of a Rzeppa and a tr- pot join is shown in Fig. 2.34. In front-wheel drive vehicles, ifthe front wheels, are designed to have independent suspension, itis necessary to use two constant velocity joints per axe to allow for the suspension motion and the steering angle of the wheel 2.15 INTERMITIENT-MOTION MECHANISMS, ‘There are many instances where it is-necessary to convert continuous motion into intermittent motion. One of the foremost examples is the indexing of a work. table on a machine tool so as to bring a new work piece before the cutters with “achive Design, une 2, 1984 (1984 Mechanical Drives Reference Issue), ms. niverel Join,” pp. INTERMITTENT:MOTION MECHANISMS 51 each index of the table. There are several ways of accomplishing this type of motion. Geneva Wheel ‘This mechanism is very useful in producingintermittent motion because the shock of engagement is minimized. Figure 2.35 shows a sketch where plate 1, which rotates Continuously, contains a driving pia P that engages in a slot in the driven ‘member 2. In the sketch, 2 is tuned one-quarter revolution for each revolution of plate 1. The slot in member 2 most be -angental to the path of the pin upon engagement in order to reduce shock. This means that angle O,PO, will be right angle It can also be seen that angle Bis one half ofthe angle turned through bby member 2 during the indexing period. For the ease shown, 8 is 45°. It is necessary to provide a locking device so that when member 2 is not being indexed, it will not tend to rotate, One ofthe simplest ways of accomplishing this is to mount a locking plate upon plate 1 whose convex surface will mate with the concave surface of member 2 except dung the indexing period. Itis necessary to cut the locking plate back to provide clesrance for member 2 as it swings through the indexing angle. The clearance arc in the locking plate will be equal to twice the angle a If one of the slots|in member 2 is slosed, then plate 1 ean make only a limited number of revolutions before the rin P strikes the closed slot and motion ceases. This modification is known as-the Geneva stop and is used in watches and similar devices to prevent overwinding. FIGURE 235Swe eee ee ee ewww wwwwwYwerwwUwwwVIIOLN 52__LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS Ratchet Mechanism ‘This mechanism is used to produce intermittent circular motion from an oscillating ‘or reciprocating member. Figure 2.36 shows the details. Wheel is given inter: rmittent circular motion by means of arm 2 and driving pawl 3. A second paw 5 Prevents 4 from turning backward when 2 is rotated clockwise in preparation for ‘another stroke. The line of action PN of the driving pawl and tooth must pass between centers O and A as shown in order to have the paw 3 remain in contact with the tooth, The line of action (not shown) for the locking pavd and tooth ‘must pass between centers O and B. This mechanism has mat i particularly in counting devices. ‘many applications, FIGURE 2.36 Intermittent Gearing ‘This mechanism finds application where the loads are light and shock is of see- ondary importance. The driving wheel will carry one tooth, and the driven mem. ber will carry a number of tooth spaces to produce the required indexing angle. Figure 2.37 shows this arrangement. A locking device must be employed to FIGURE,237 INTERMITTENT-MOTION MECHANISMS 53 ‘prevent wheel 2 from rotating when not indexing. One method is shown in the figure; the convex surface of wheel 1 mates with the concave surface between the tooth spaces on member 2. ‘Escapements ‘This type of mechanism is one in which a toothed wheel, to which torque is, applied, is allowed to rotate in discrete steps by the action of a pendulum, Because of this action, the mechanism can be used as a timing device and as such finds its widest application in clocks and watches. A second application is its use as a governor to control displacement, torque, or velocity ‘There are many types of escapements, but the one thet is used in watches and clocks because of its high accuracy is the balance wheel escapement shown in Fig. 2.38. "The balance wheel and hairspring constitute a torsional pendulum with a fixed period (time of oscillation through one cycle). The escape whee! is driven by amainspring and gear train (not shown) and haé intermittent clockwise rotation 1s governed by the lever. For every complete oscillation of the balance wheel, the lever allows the escape wheel to advance one tooth. The escape whee! therefore counts the number of times the balance wheel oscillates and also supplies vane Boner54 LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS energy through the lever to the balance wheel to make up for friction and windage losses. ‘To study the motion of this mechanism through one cycle, consider the lever held against the left banking pin by the escape wheel tooth A acting om the left pallet stone. The balance wheel rotates couaterclockwise s0 that its jewel sttikes the lever driving it clockwise. The motion cf the lever causes the left pallet * stone to sip past and ualock the escape wheel tooth A. The wheel now rotates clockwise, with the top of tooth A giving an impulse to the bottom of the left pallet stone as it sides under it. From this impulse the lever now begins to drive the jewel, thereby giving energy to the balance wheel to maintain its motion. ‘After the escape wheel rotates a short distance, it comes to rest again as tooth B strikes the right pallet stone, which has been lowered due to rotation of the lever. The lever strikes the right banking pin and stops, but the balance whéel Continues to rotate until its energy is overcome ty tension in the hairspring, by pivot friction, and by air resistance. ‘The force of escape wheel tooth B on the sight pallet stone keeps the lever locked against the right banking pin. The balance wheel completes its swing, reverses direction, and returns with clockwise motion. The jewel now strikes the left side-of the lever notch and drives the lever counterclockwise. This action unlocks tooth B, which gives an impulse to the lever through the right pallet stone. After a short rotation of the escape wheel, it comes to rest again as tooth A strikes the let pallet stone. ‘The balance wheel escapement is also known as the detached lever escapement because the balance wheel is free an¢ out of contact with the lever during most of its oscillation, Because of this relative freedom of the balance ‘wheel, the escapement has an accuracy of +1%. For more information on escapements and their applications, consult one of the many references on the subject. 2.16 COMPUTING ELEMENTS At one time, mechanical computing elements found wide application in analog computers for the solution of complicated equations. They were used in the control of guided missiles, weapon fire control, bomisights, and many other systems, both commercial and military. While electronic computing systems have largely replaced mechanical systems, there are many instances where mechanical devices are preferable because they do not require electrical power. With this advantage, mechanical units are particularly suitable for use in hazardous envi- ronments and in remote locations such as oil an¢ gas-pipeline systems. ‘Mechnical computing elements, in addition to their ability to generate particular mathematical functions, are also used to produce various types of motions in production machinery. Notable examples of these are integrators, contour ‘cams, noncircular or contour gears, and differeatials. These mechanisms have high reliability and long life. INTEGRATORS §§ 2.17 INTEGRATORS ‘A mechanism for integration is shown in Fig. 2.39. Disk 2 rotates driving the balls which are positioned by the ball carriage 3. The balls, in turn, drive roller 4, Pure rolling action is maintained between the disk and the balls and between the roller and the balls. The input variables are the rate f rotation of disk 2 and the axial displacement r of the balls. The output of roller 4 is the zesult. The action of the mechanism therefore gives the relation Reda =r do, because the linear distance traveled by the top ball on disk 2 must be equal to that traveled by the bottom ball on roller 4. Integrating the precoding equation ives 1 w= 2 fran a2 where r is a function of @;. The value 1/R is the integrator constant and is very important in the design of an integrator system. The unit can also be used as a multiplier by taking r as a constant during each operation. ‘The unit will then generate ® = (r/R) - Equation 2.25 can also be expressed in terms of x, y, and z, Let the rotation 6, be represented by x, the ball carriage position r by y, which equals f(x), and the output 6, by z. Substituting these quantities into Eq: 2.25 gives, eR frar 2.26 R ‘These. quantities are shown schematically in Fig. 2.40. In the integrator, input x and output z are shaft rotations, whereas input y is a linear distance from the ball carriage to the center of the disk, To provide the axial motion necessary for y, a lead screw is often used, By so doing, the hes 7 FIGURE 2.39 RR RR RR FN LR NN A MR56 LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS CASE STUDY IN MECHANISM DESIGN: THE HYDROMINER $7 yates ae rotator ofthe screw, which is proportional tothe carriage position, can be used to represent y. Therefore, the input and the output will all be shaft rotations. A commezcial integrator is shown in Fig. 2.41. The theory of contour cams is presented in Chapter 3. anfree 2.18 SYNTHESIS In the linkages studied in this chapter, the proportions have been given and the problem has been to analyze the motion produced by the linkage. It is quite a different matter, however, to start with a required motion and to try to proportion a mechanism to give this motion. This procedure is known as the synthesis of mechanisms. ‘The following section describes a typical mechanism design problem and illustrates how synthesis can be applied to find a solution, Chapter 11, Intro- uction To Synthesis, describes the synthesis problem in more general terms and outlines 2 variety of graphical and analytical methods of solution. FIGURE 2.40 2.19 CASE STUDY IN MECHANISM DESIGN: THE HYDROMINER® "The design of mechanisms and their implementation into machines is often a complex iterative process where many related factors must be considered at each stage of design. It would therefore be impossible to condense the details of areal design into a single section of a textbook. It is instructive however to examine a few of the detailed kinematic considerations that go into the design of a machine. ‘The example presented in this section shows that, although the kinematics of a device may be simple, the design of a complete machine is usually quite involved. ‘The value of coal as a long-term source of energy is well documented. Equally well documented are the dirty and hazardous conditions under which coalis typically mined. In an effort to overcome these problems, the U.S. De- partment of the Interior commissioned the University of Missouri-Rolla to develop a coal-mining device that used jets of high-pressure water rather than ‘mechanical saw blades to cut the coal. The principle of operation of this mining device, known as the hydrominer, is shown in Fig. 2.42. Water jets undereut the coal. A moving wedge is forced into the opening made by the water jets, and large cantilever beam sections of the coal are mechanically broken off and carried away cn a conveyor. The water jets are superior to sawing because dust is eliminated and the risk of gas explosions caused by sparks is reduced. "The design of the hydrominer calls for three high-pressure water jets to oscillate vertically along the edge of the plow, as shown in Fig. 2.43. Each spray arm pivots about a high-pressure swivel joint and is required to swing through an arc of 29° and to oscillate at a frequency of up to 200 cycles/s. The nozzles operate ala pressure of 10,000 psi with an enit diameter of 0.004 in., producing FIGURE 2.41 Au integrator. (Courtesy of LIBRASCOPE, a division ofthe SINGER 5c. Baker, “Hydiominer Spray Arm Drive System Design," Proceeding ofthe Fit OSU Applied smpany.) Machanimns Conference, 19758 LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS Sony arm Waters nae ahora swat in FIGURE 2.43 CASE STUDY IN MECHANISM DESIGN: THE HYDROMINER 59 an exit velocity of over 1000 ft/s for the water jet. This design is able to cut a slot in the coal that is 2 in, wide, 20 in, long, and from 24 to 30 in. ahead of the plow. ‘In the initial design of the hydrominer, the oscillation of the spray arms ‘was controlled by hydraulic cylinders driven by a combined electric and hydraulic control system. It soon became apparent, however, that this system would be too slow and would result in jerky arm motions that would damage the coherence of the jot. It was also felt that this system would be unreliable when operating {in a wet and dirty environment. Consequently, an alternate solution using a four- bar linkage drive system was investigated. ‘The four-bar linkage is a logical choice because it is simple and reliable. ‘Using 2 crank rocker-type linkage provides the required oscillatory motion of the output arm while the inpat link is driven at constant angular velocity. This eliminates the need for @ control system to regulate the arm motion. Several restrictions were imposed on the design ofthe linkage, however. It was required that the motion of the output arms be smooth and continuous so that the coherence of the water jets would not be interrupted. Obviously, the linkage was required to fit within the physical dimensions of the hydrominer and not to interfere with structural members of the device. Finally, to enhance the cutting action at the extreme ends of travel of the spray arms, the middle arm was required to meet the outer arms at its two extreme positions. In other words, the middle arm had to be 180° out of phase with the outside arms. In designing @ driving linkage, several important characteristics of the motion must be recognized. First, the velocity of the spray arm must be zero at the ‘extreme ends of the oscillation cycle. This is easly seen by noting that the angular position of the arm reaches a maximum value at one end and-reaches a minimum value at the other end. At these extremes, the velocity (the time derivative of position) must equal zero. Also, it is desirable to make the forward and return strokes of the spray arm occar in approximately the same length of time. Since the input link will rotate at constant angular velocity, this requirement can be satisfied by making the position of the inpat link at the two extreme positions differ by 180°. A final assumption is that the spray arm itself will function as one link of the mechenism. ‘A kinematic diagram of the proposed concept (a four-bar linkage) appears in Fig, 2.44. This mechanism is similar to the linkage analyzed in Section 2.3 but with the ground link inclined at an angle 6,. Writing the loop closure equations gives x-Components: 17, €08 0; + 7, C08 Os ~ ry 608 0) ~ 7 c0s 0 (27 y-Components: rysin 0) + 7; sin 0, ~ resin 0, — Fr; sin 8, (2.28) MP OO ROAR RAAF 9994900809990 0007© OOOO OOOO OOOO SOE SHSEESESHESHVIIIGE 60 LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS Estes ftom lion of stay FIGURE 2.44 ‘Taking the time derivatives of these two equations gives the velocity loop closure equations oars Sin 0, — ayy sin 05 + cary Sin 6 = 0 2.29) 097, 608 By + ey £05 0) ~ tare COS Oy = 0 230) noting that 8, is constant, ‘The following parameters ace substituted into these equations at cach of the two positions: Position 1 (extreme top position): = Oy = Oy wy = wy Position 2 (extreme bottom position): 165.55 ay = = Oy +18 = 02 oe = 14S wy =O Substituting these values into the velocity equations (Eqs, 2.29 and 2.30) gives a total of four equations in seven unknowns (Ba, 31, Gi On, on, 7 and 1). Dividing all four equations by ri» and considering rs, and «s/w, as one variable cach (je., using rand w, as scale factors) results in four equations in five unknowns. Solving for 03, and Os in terms of @ gives y= Oy and = By ‘which means finks 2 and 3 are in line in the two positions of interest. This result is important because it shows that the two extreme positions of a crank rocker 'ype four-bar linkage occur when the input link and the coupler link are collinear. (CASE STUDY IN MECHANISM DESIGN: THE HYDROMINER 61 Using this result and substituting the known values at the two positions into Eqs. 2.27 and 2.28 gives four equations in six unknowns (83, 81, %s fy Ys» and 4). These may be written out as follows: 7,008 By + ry €08 On — ry C05 165.5" — rycos = 0 2.31) ry sin Oy + ry sin Oy — ry sin 165.5" ~ ry sin = 0 (2.32) 72008 (On + 180°) + 75 608 Ba, — ry C05 194.5° — r, cos 8, 2.33) sin (Oy + 180") + ry sin Oy ~ resin 194.5" ~ ry sin 0, 034) Subtracting Eq. 2.38 from Bq, 2.31 and noting that cos (Q, + 180") = —c0s Oy wives 2rz cos 8, = 0 Which means that either Gs, = 90" or @y, = ~90°if, x O. Substituting the positive root for 0, into Eqs. 2.32 and 2.34 and adding the two together gives, nsin ® = 15 2.38) Similarly, subtracting Eq. 2.34 from Eq. 2.32 gives, tron 2.36) Finally, substituting this result into Eq. 2.31 gives 7008 8 = 3.8737, @3n Equations 2.35, 2.36, and 2.37 show that there are two free choices available to the designer. For example, rs and 7, can be selected by the designer to meet other requirements of the system, and r,,0,, and r, are calculated from these equations, Figure 2.45 shows a family of six possible solutions to the design equations, all having 7, = 10 in. Figure 2.46 shows the final design of the drive system and the ‘method for achieving the proper phase relation between the middle arm and the outer arms. Problems 2.1, In the four-bar linkage shown in Fig. 21, let 0:0, = 2in., O:A = 24in., AB = 1 in. and 0,3 = 12, 24, and 34 in, Sketch the mechanism full size for the three sets of dimensions, and determine for each case whether links and 4 rotate or oscillate, In the cease of oscillation, determine the limiting postions. 2.2, In the four-bar linkage shown in Fig. 2.1, link 2 is to rotate completely and link 4 ‘oscillate through an angle of 75°. Link 4 is to be 114 mm long; and when it is at oneel FIGURE 2.45, Sin, 7.8in. 6.25 Line sewean upland totem] ‘eras ss CASE STUDY IN MECHANISM DESIGN: THE HYDROMINER 63 extreme postion, the distance O,B is to be 102 mm and at the other extreme position 229 mm. Determine the length of links 2 and 3, and draw the mechanism to scale as a check. Determine the maximum and the minimum transmission angles. 2.3. Itfor the drag-link mechanism shown in Fig, 2.5¢, Oy = 76.2. mm, AB = 102mm, ‘and O,B = 127 mm, what ean be the maximum length of 0,0, for proper operation of the linkage? 2.4, In the four-bar mechanism shown in Fig. 2.47, the guide is part ofthe fixed link and its centerline isa circular arc of radius R. Draw the mechanism fullsize and, using graphical construction, determine the magnitude of the angular velocity w, of the sider when the ‘mechanism isin the phase shown and wis 1 rad/s. Give the sense of wy 2.8, Considering the slider-crank mechanism shown in Fig. 2.10b, derive equations for the displacement, velocity, and acceleration of the slider asa function of R, L, 8, 0, and 4. Do not make approximations. Let ha constant 2,6, The approximate equation for the displacement of the slider in the slider-crank mechanism is x = R(1 — 00s 0) + (R¥/2L) sin* 0, and @ = ut because w is constant. Derive the equations for the velocity and acceleration of the slider if w is not constant. 2.7. Write a computer program to calculate the slider displacement, velocity, and accel- ‘eration of the slider crank shown in Fig. 2.10. Use both the exact equations and the approximate equations. Let R = 2in.,L = 8in.,m, = 2400rpm. Calculate displacement, velocity, and acceleration at 10° intervals of @ from 0° to 360% 28. A slider-crank mechanism hat a crank length R of 50 mm and operates at 250 rad/s, Caleulate the maximum values of velocity and acceleration and determine at what crank angles these maxiamums occur for connecting rod lengths of 200, 230, and 250 ram. ‘Use approximate equations, and assume w constant. 2.9. Write a computer program to compare simple harmonic motion of the Scotch yoke (Fig. 2.13) with the motion ofthe sider crank. Let n = 1800 rpm, R = 2in., L = 8in., for the slider crank and r = 2 in. forthe Scotch yoke. Vary the angle 8 from 0° to 360° (cow) and calculate displacement, velocity, and acceleration at each value of 8. Use approximate equations for the slider crank, and assume w constant. 210. In the mechanism shown in Fig. 2.48, neglect the connecting-rod effect (assume uide FIGURE 2.47 A Aewww wevwvwwwwwwwwwWwwwvww~wwwwwwwwdIdIdIIe 64 LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS FIGURE 2.48 ‘fDanecting rod inGitely long) and determine an expression for the relative motion of the {wo sliders. Ths relation should be a function o vost. Thera function of time and reduced toa single trigonometric 2.11. If Tink 2 in the Scotch akimurn lose Seth yoke shown in Fig. 2.130 rotates a 10 pm, deterine the imum acceleration of link if ts stroke is 100 mm, ig. 2.49 is a motified Scotch yoke mechanism in which the guide of the Seeacent |, R, and r, Indicate the displacement x 2.13. Considering the drag-link quicker the velocity (ft/min) of the slider 6 increments. The crank rotat clu mens show a Fg. 235, determine fora eanpiterevsiton of the cask Sk a clockwise at 100 rpm. Use a scale of 4 in, eee ea =3in., OA = 4tin., AB = Shin., BC = 8hin., O.B nd CD = 18h in. Determine raping te toto, ad then late the velo af te 2.14, Using the proportions of the drag-ink quic FIGURE. 2.49 ‘k-retumn mechanism given in Problem ° (CASE STUDY IN MECHANISM DESION: THE HYDROMINER 6§ 2.13, graphically determine the length of stroke of slider 6, and the time ratio of advance to retum, Use a scale of 3 in. = 121 215. For the Whitworth quick-retura mechanism shown in Fig. 2.16, graphically deter- ‘mine the length of stroke of sider 6 and the time ratio of advance to return. Use a scale of 3in, = 12in., and let 0,0, = 24in., O,A = 5 in., O\B = 5in., and BC = 1Bin. 2.46. For the crank-shaper mechanism shown in Fig. 2.14, graphically determine the length of stroke and the time ratio of advance to retura. Use a scale of 3 in. = 12in., and let 0,0, = 16in., A = 6 in., O,B = 26in., BC = 12in,, and the distance from (0, to the path of C = 25 2.7. Design a Whitworth quick-return mechanism to have a length of stroke of 12 in. and atime ratio of 11/7. Use a scale of 3 in. = 12 in, 2.48, Design a crank-shaper mechanism to have a length of stroke of 12 in. and a time ratio of 11/7. Use a scale of 3 in. = 12 in, 249, For the quick-retarn mechanism shown in Fig. 2.50, derive an expression for the displacement x of the sider (ink 5) asa function only of 8 of the driving link (lik 2) and the constant distances shown. 2.20, Showa in Fig. 2.51 is quick-retu mechanism in which link 2s the driver. Link ‘S moves to the right during a Working stroke and to the left during a quick-retura stroke. ‘Draw the mechanism to full scale end, using graphics] construction, determine (a) the FIGURE 2.5066 LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS a ene ien FIGURE 2.52 angular velocity ratio w/o, when the mechanism is in the phase shown and (6) the time zato of the mechanism, 221, Derive the equations for displacement, velocity, and acceleration for the offset slider-crank mechanism shown in Fig. 2.17. They should be in form similar to Eqs. 2.17, 2.18, and 2.19. 2.22, Calculate the length of the crank and of the connecting rod for an offset slider- crank mechanism to satisty the conditions shown in Fig. 2.52. 2.23, For the offset stider-crank mechanism shown in Fig, 2.53, caleulate (a) the length of stroke of slider 4, (b) the distance OB when the slider is in its extreme left postion, ‘and (c) the time ratio of working stroke to return stroke, 2.24, Referring to Fig. 2.18 and considering only inks 4,5, and 6 of the toggle mechanism ‘shown, waite a computer program to illustrate the force development of this mechanism. Let Fhe a constant value of 10 Ib. Suggestion: Use Eq 2.23 and vary a from 10° to near o. 2.28, Plot the path of point P in the Watt straight-line mechanise shown in Fig. 2.20 if O,A = 2in., OB = 3in., AP = Ihin., BP = 1in., and links 2 and 4 aze perpendicular tolink 3. 2.26. Referring to Fig. 2.20, graphically determine the proportions ofthe Watt straight- line mechanism that will give an approximate straight-line motion of point P over a length of Sin. 2.27. Prove that point P in the Peaucellier strsightdine mechanism shown in Fig. 2.21 will trace true straight-line motion. 2.28, Prove that points P and Q in the pantograph shown in Fig. 2.22 will trace similar paths. 2.29, In the pantograph shown in Fig. 2.5¢, point Q isto trace a 76.0 mm path while P O,A=3in ‘AB= Tin FIGURE 2.53 CASE STUDY IN MECHANISM DESIGN: THE HYDROMINER 67 pA = 4in. (102 mm) ‘AD = Bin. (203 mm) OB'> 4m. (102 mm) “AG = 6m (152 mm) BG fie 008 mm ADE Sin. Go2mm) ‘a maximum working distance of 394 mm, design 2 pantograph to give the required motion using a scale of 10 mm = 30 mm. Draw the ‘mechanism in its two extreme positions, and dimension the links. 2.30. For the mechanism shown in Fig. 2.55, determine the angular postions of the output link Gink 4) when the input link (link 2) is at an angle of 60” 2.31. For the linkage of Fig. 2.56, construct a table showing the angles 6, and 0, a5 a function of 6; for 10° increments of 8, from 0° to 360°. Cleary indicate those values of ©, for which the mechanism will not assemble. 2.32. Find the range of angular positions for the input link (link 2) and for the output Tink (link 4) for the four-bar linkage shown in Fig. 2.57. 2.33. For the linkage shown in Fig. 2.58, find the angular postions of link 2 when link 4sin the position shown. Be sure to consider both closures of the mechanism. 234, Determine the angular velocity ofthe crank of the slider-crank mechanism shown in Fig. 259. 2.38. For the linkage in Fig. 2.60, determine the values of 6, and when (a) 8; = 30"; ©) 6, = 0 (6) 0 = 30 pA = 35 In. (381 me) 0.8 = 10 in. (254 mm ‘AC = 10/n. (256 mn) 010, = 30 8. (782 ne) ‘AB = 17.20. (637 mm) A ANSO OOO OO OOOO OOOO SOOOOHSSSESHSSBIIIGS HIGURE 2.57 Gin O24 = Sin, 152mm rey AB = Bin. 208 mm) O48 = 6m 1152 mn} 52mm) FIGURE 2.58 pA = Sin. (52mm) AB = ie. 203 mm 0.8 = Gin. (152 mm) p= 8790s sami) Ag = 79: Rist (28.1 mi) O44 = 3in. 76.20) AB= Tin, (78 mm) CASE STUDY IN MECHANISM DESIGN: THE HYDROMINER 69 pA = Sin. (152 mm) ‘Aa 23.79%, (962 mm) Tn, O78 mind FIGURE 2.60 2.36. For the combined linkage mechanism in Fig. 2.61, determine the maximum and ‘minimum angular postions for the output link (link 6) during fll rotation of the erank (link 2). Also determine the angolar positions of the crank when the output link is at its extreme positions. 237. A Hooke’s coupling connects two shafts at an angle of 135° (8 = 45°), as shown in Fig. 2.26. If the angular velocity of th drive shaft is eonstant at 100 rpm, calculate the ‘maximum end minimum velocity ofthe driven shaft. 2.38. Derive equations that describe the angular displacement and angular velocity of the driven member of a Geneva mechanism (Fig. 2.35) from the point where the driving pin engages the driven wheel to the point of disengagement. Find 8 = f(a) and dp/ ‘da = f(a), and ure (d/da)(da/ds) = dp/dr to determine an equation forthe angular velocity of the driven member. 2.39. Using the equations derived in Problem 2.38, write a computer program and cat ccalate the values of and w, for a varying from 60° to 0° in increments of 10°. Let a at ‘the point of first contact = 60°, O,? = 1in., 0,0; = 3hin., m, = 1000 rpm (constant. pA = Zin. 150.8 mm ‘AB > ain. 1102 mm) (203 mm G03 gb = in. (102 mn) 0404 = Ain. (202 mm) FIGURE 2.61710 LINKAGES AND MECHANISMS 2.40, Lay out a Geneva wheel mechanism to satisfy the following conditions: the driver is to rotate continuously while the driven member rotates intermittently, making a quarter revolution for every revolution of the driver. The distance between the centers of the Aiving and driven shafts isto be 34 in. Let the diameter of the driving pin be # in, The Giameters of the driving and driven shafts are to be @ in. and 1 in., with keyway for» fe X fein. and X +n. key, respectively. Show a hub on each member with the hub on the driver show in back of the plate, Let the diameters ofthe hubs be 12 to 2 times the Giameters ofthe bores. Dimension the angles « and B. Chapter Three Cams Cams play a very important part in modern machinery and are extensively used in intemnal-combustion engines, machine tools, mechanical computers, instru- ‘ments, and many other applications. A cam may be designed in two ways: (a) to assume the required motion for the follower and to design the cam to give this motion, or (6) to assume the shape of the cam and to determine what characteristics of displacement, velocity, and acceleration this contour will give. ‘The first method is @ good example of synthesis. In fact, designing a cam ‘mechanism from the desired motion is an application of synthesis that can be solved every time. However, after the cam is designed, it may be difficult to ‘manufacture, This difficulty of manufacture is eliminated in the second method by making the cam symmetrical and by using shapes for the cam contours that can be generated. This is the type of cam that is used in automotive applications where the cam must be produced accurately and cheaply. Only the design of cams with specified motion will be treated. For the automotive-type cam where the contour is specified, the reader is referred to the reference below.' Cams with specified motion can be designed graphically and in certain cases analytically. Graphical procedures will be considered first. 3.1 CAM CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE Grubler’s mobility equatioa (Eq. 1.3) can be used to create a countless variety ‘of mechanisms containing cam pairs. In practice, however, the majority of cam pairs are found in simple cam-and-follower mechanisms which contain only three "HLA, Roshan. Cama abn Winw & Sane Tee PRR I FN A (a FOR GN HO LOSCOCOCOSCSSESSSPOSSSVIIOE 72 cams links, the two links of the cam pair and a ground link. The material in this chapter deals only with cam-and-follower systems having three links; these are often referred to simply as cam mechanisms. Cam mechanisms may be classified by the type of cam or by the shape, motion, or location of the follower. The simplest ‘and most often-used cam mechanism is a rotating-disk cam with either a reciprocating or oscillating follower. Several other types of cams are in common use, and these are discussed later in this chapter. Figure 3.1 shows a disk cam with, six different follower arrangements, Figure 3.la shows a disk cam with an in-line knife edge follower. The follower is considered to be in-line (or radial) when its centerline passes through the center of cam rotation. This type of follower is of theoretical interest but is fot of great practical importance because it generally produces high contact stresses. Figure 3.1 shows a disk cam with an in-line roller follower. Figure 3.le shows a disk cam with an offset roller follower. In each of the cam-and-follower ‘mechanisms of Figs. 3.1a, b, and c, the cam rotates while the follower reciprocates. Figure 3.1 shows a disk cam with an oscillating roller follower. Figure 3.le shows a disk cam with a reciprocating flat-faced follower. In this case, there is no need to distinguish between in-line and offset followers because they are ‘inematically equivalent; any follower shaft parallel to the one shown will produce the same output motion. However, it may be necessary to change the length of the follower face when the follower is offset. Figure 3.1f shows a disk eam with FIGURE 3.1. Common cat-and-follower arrangements, DISK CAM WITH RADIAL FOLLOWER (GRAPHICAL DESIGN) 73 | Presse we Common normal sig ON et ein Ez < ‘LE ‘ \ ARE SEM Prien cune Bae cele a FIGURE 3.2 Cam nomenclature, ‘an oscillating flat-faced follower. Many other possible cam-and-follower arrange~ ‘ments are described by Chen? Figure 3.2 shows the nomenclature used to describe a typical cam mechanism. The trace point is a point on the follower that corresponds to the contact point of a fictitious knife edge follower. The trace point of a roller follower is the center of the roller. The pitch curve isthe path of the trace point relative to the cam. The base circle is the smallest circle tangent to the cam surface about the center of cam rotation. The pressure ange is the angle between the direction ‘of motion of the trace point and the common normal (the line of action) to the contacting surfaces. The pressure angle is a measure ofthe instantaneous force ‘transmission properties of the mechanism. The throw, or stroke, is the distance between the two extreme positions of the follower. 3.2 DISK CAM WITH RADIAL FOLLOWER (GRAPHICAL DESIGN) igure 3.3 shows a disk cam witha radial lat-faced follower. As the cam rotates, at a constant angular velocity in the direction shown, the fllower moves upward a distance of 1 in. with the displacements shown in half a cevolution of the cam. FRY. Chen, Mech jes ond Deign of Cam Mechanions, Pergamon Pees, New York, 198214 cans d y é FIGURE 33 Disk cam with radial Natfaced follower, ‘The return motion is to be the same. To determine the cam contour graphically, it will be necessary to invert the mechanism and to hold the cam stationary while the follower moves around it. ‘This will not affect the relative motion between ‘the cam and the follower, and the procedure is as follows: 1, Rotate the follower about the center of the cam in a direction opposite to that of the proposed cam rotation. 2, Move the follower radially outward the correct amount for each division of rotation. 3. Draw the cam outline tangent to the polygon that is formed by the various positions of the follower face. Unfortunately, in the last step, there is no graphical way of determining the contact point between the cam and the follower, and it must be determined by eye with the use of a French curve. The length of the follower face must also bbe determined by trial, Occasionally, a combination of displacement scale and ‘minimum radius of cam is selected that gives a cam profile with a sharp corner ‘or cusp. This cusp can be eliminated by modifying the displacement scale or by increasing the minimum radius of the cam. ‘Figure 3.4a shows the same type of cam with a roller follower. With this type of follower, the center of the roller will move with the prescribed motion, ‘The principles of construction are the same as for the flat-faced follower with the exception that the cam is drawn tangent to the various positions of the roller follower. From Fig. 3.4a, it can also be seen that the line of action from the cam DISK CAM WITH RADIAL FOLLOWER (GRAPHICAL DESIGN) FIGURE 3.4 (a) Disk cam with radial roller follower. (6) Disk cam with oflset roller follower. RM mMwee we eee ew wwewwwrwwwwwwWwYwwrwwdIdwL 16 cams to the follower cannot be along the axis of the follower except when the follower is dwelling (no motion up or down). This produces a side thrust on the follower and may result in deflection and jamming of the follower stem. The maximum value of the pressure angle, the angle between the line of action and the center line of the follower, must be kept as small as possible, especially in light mechanisms. In most cases, the pressure angle should not exceed approximately 30° for acceptable operation. Although itis possible to measure the maximum pressure angle from the graphical construction of a cam, itis often difficult to determine this maximum analytically. For this reason, a nomogram for finding maximum pressure angles is given in a later section on analytical cam design. ‘The pressure angle for any radial flat faced follower is a constant. For the follower shown in Fig. 3.3, where the follower face is at right angles to the stem, the pressure angle is zero so that the stde thrust on the follower is negligible compared to that on a roller follower. Pressure angles may be reduced by increasing the ‘minimum radius of the cam s0 that the follower travels a greater linear distance fon the cam for a given rise. This is analogous to increasing the length of an inclined plane for a given rise in order to decrease the angle of ascent. Also, in a cam with a roller follower, the radius of curvature of the pitch surface must be larger than the radius of the roller; otherwise, the cam profile will become pointed. Jn both the fat-faced and the roller follower, the follower stems are sometimes offset instead of being radial as shown in Figs. 3.3 and 3.4a. This may be done for structural reasons or, in the case of the roller follower, for the purpose cof reducing the pressure angle on the upward stroke. It should be noted, however, that although the pressure angle on the upward stroke is reduced, the pressure angle on the downward stroke is ineressed. Figure 3.45 shows a cam designed with the follower offset and with the same displacement scale and minimum eam radius as in Fig. 34a. 3.3 DISK CAM WITH OSCILLATING FOLLOWER (GRAPHICAL DESIGN) Figure 3.5 shows a disk cam with an oscillating flat-faced follower. Using the same principle of construction as in the disk cam with a radial follower, the follower is rotated about the cam. At the same time the follower must be rotated about its own center through the required displacement angle for each position. ‘There are several ways of rotating the follower about its own center. The method shown in Fig. 3.5 is to use the intersection of two radii (for example, point 3") to determine 2 point on the rotated position of the follower face. The first of these two radii (cam center to position 3 on displacement scale) is swung from the cam center. The second radius (follower center to displacement scale) is sivung from the follower center which has been rotated into position 3, The intersection of these two radii gives point 3'. Because an infinite number of lines. can be drawn through point 3", it is necessary to have additional information to locate the correct position of the follower face through point 3'. As shown in the figure, this was supplied by a circle tangent to the follower face which has been DISK CAM WITH OSCILLATING FOLLOWER (GRAPHICAL DESIGN) 77 FIGURE 3.5 Disk cam with oscillating Nat-faced follower. ‘extended in the zero position. For the follower design shown, this circle happens to coincide with the outside of the follower hub. The radius of this circle is then swung from each of the rotated positions of the follower center. For position 3, the follower face is drawn through point 3" tangent to the rotated circle of the follower hub. By repeating this process, the polygon of the various positions of the follower face is obtained from which the cam is drawn, Figure 3.6 shows a disk cam with oscillating roller follower. The procedure for determining the points labeled with primes (for example, point 3") is similar to that of Fig. 3.5. In this case, however, the primed points are the centers of the rotated roller follower. After these rolier circles are drawn, the cam can now be drawn tangent to them. It should be noted that in an actual design, smaller cam divisions would be used so that the circles would intersect each other to ‘minimize cam contour error. It should also be mentioned that the same procedure can be used in designing a cam with an oscillating roller follower as was used for 4 cam with an offset translating follower. ‘Although most of the cams in use are of the types mentioned, there are many others, some of which find wide application. Three of these are discussed in the following sections.78 CAMS FIGURE 3.6 Disk cam with oseilating roller follower. 3.4 POSITIVE-RETURN CAM (GRAPHICAL DESIGN) With a disk cam and radial follower, itis often necessary to return the follower in a positive manner and nct by the action of gravity or of a spring. Figure 3.7 shows a cam of this type where the cam positively controls the motion of the follower not only during the outward motion but also on the return stroke. Of necessity, the return motion must be the same as the outward motion, but in the ‘opposite direction, This cam is also spoken of as a constant-breadth cam. This type of cam may also be designed using two roller followers instead of the flat-faced followers. Ifit is necessary to have the return motion independent of the outward motion, two disks must be used, one for the outward motion and ‘one for the return motion. These double-disk cams can be used with either roller or flat faced followers. 3.8 CYLINDER CAM (GRAPHICAL DESIGN) ‘This type of cam finds many applications, particularly on machine tools. Perhaps the most common example, however, is on level-winding fishing reels. Figure CAM DISPLACEMENT CURVES. 79 FIGURE 3.7 Positive-return cam. 3.8 shows a sketch where the cylinder rotates completely about its axis imparting motion to a follower which is guided by a groove in the cylinder. 3.6 INVERSE CAM (GRAPHICAL DESIGN) Occasionally, it is advantageous to reverse the role of the cam and the follower ‘and to let the follower drive the cam. This inversion finds application in sewing machines and other mechanisms of similar nature. Figure 3.9 shows a sketch of plate can where the arm oscillates, causing reciprocation of the block by action of a roller in the cam groove. 3.7 CAM DISPLACEMENT CURVES Before a cam contour can be determined, it is necessary to select the motion with which the follower will move in accordance with the requirements of the system. If operation isto be at slow speed, the motion may be any one of several RL RR RI FOR I I GR a a Hf Mt (SFM fm tmee ee a ee ee ee es FIGURE 3.8 Cylinder cam. common motions, for example, parabolic (constant acceleration and deceleration), parabolic with constant velocity, simple harmonic, or cyeloidal. Parabolic motion has the lowest theoretical acceleration for a given rise and ‘cam speed for the motions listed, and for this reason it has been used for many cam profiles. However, in slow-speed work, this has litle significance. Parabolic ‘motion may or may not have equal intervals of acceleration and deceleration, depending on requirements. Parabolic motion may also be modified to include. an interval of constant velocity between the acceleration and deceleration; this, is often spoken of as modified constant velocity. Sy FIGURE 3.9 Inverse { CAM DISPLACEMENT CURVES §. Simple harmonic motion has the advantage that, with a radial roller fol lower, the maximum pressure angle will be smaller than with parabolic motion ‘with equal time intervals or with cycloidal motion. This will allow the follower to be less rigidly supported and more overhung in its construction. Less power will also be needed to operate the cam. ‘After :he follower motion has been selected, itis necessary to determine the displacement seale and to mark it off on the follower exis as shown in Fig. 3.3. The scale increments may be calculated, but they are more easily determined ‘raphically by plotting a displacement-time graph. In plotting the displacement-time graph, itis necessary to first determine ‘the inflecticn point if the motion is parabolic or a modification thereof. For simple harmonic and cycloidal motion, the inflection point is automatically determined by the method of generation of the curve. The inflection point for parabolic motion will be at the midpoint of the displacement scale and of the time scale ifthe intervals are equal. To find the inflection points where the ‘parabolic motion has been modified is a little more complicated, as shown below. Consider a point moving with modified constant velocity where it starts ‘rom rest with constantly accelerated motion, next has constant velocity, and finally comes to rest with constantly decelerated motion. The inflection points may be found by specifying the time intervals or the displacement intervals corresponding to each type of motion. Figure 3.10 shows a graphical means for finding the inflection points and B when the time intervals are given. Figure 3.11 shows the constriction for displacement intervals. From the relations § = 4A#, V = At, and S = Vi it is possible to prove the validity of the construction shown in Figs. 3.10 and 3.11. ‘After the inflection points have been determined as, for example, in Fig. 3.11, the constantly accelerated portion OA of the displacement curve is constructed as shown in Fig, 3.12, where the displacement Z. (corresponding to 5 of Fig. 3.11) is divided into the same number of parts as isthe time scale, in this case four parts. The deceleration portion BC of the curve in Fig. 3.11 is constructed in ¢ similar manner for its particular displacement S, and corresponding time interval. ae Ay cy 6 | 4 a q i one Lal te e “ MIGURE 30| { i t t t [ { L i p | | ‘82 CAMS isplacerent § FIGURE 3.11 Figure 3.13 shows simple harmonic motion [S’= r(1 — cos w/f)} for 2 dipeotaent Lin ‘x time intervals In Fig, 3.13, it should be noved that if the cam rotates through half a revolution while the follower moves through the ‘splacement L, the angular velocity «, of the rotational radius r equals the angular velocity © of the cam, and the equation for follower displacement can be written as $ = r(1 ~ cos wf) = r(1 — cos 8). Ifthe cam rotates only a quarter revolution for the displacement L, w, = 2w and $ = r(1 ~ cos 26). Therefore, itcan be seen that the relation between w, and w can be expressed as e 180° ‘@ ~ degrees of cam rotation for follower rise L ‘A circular cam (eccentric) will impart simple harmonic motion to a radi ‘lat-faced follower because the contact point between the cam and follower is always over the geometrical center of the cam. | ‘Figure 3.14 shows the construction for cycloidal motion 1. a La) for a displacement L in six time intervals. The radius of the construction circle Otpacement S — as Time # or am ale 0 FIGURE 3.12 Parabolic motion. (CAM DISPLACEMENT CURVES 83 7 Time tor eam ange 8 FIGURE 3.13 Simple harmonic motion. is L/2m. The circumference of this circle is divided into the same number of parts as is the time scale, in this case six parts. The six marks on the circumference are projected horizontally onto the vertical diameter of the circle. The matks on ‘the vertical diameter are then projected parallel to OA to the corresponding line on the time axis. For cams operating at higher speeds, the selection of the motion of the cam {follower must be based not only on the displacement but also on the forces acting ‘on the system as a result of the motion selected. For many years, cam design ‘was concemed only with moving a follower through a given distance in a certain length of time. Speeds were Jow so that accelerating forces were unimportant. ‘With the trend toward higher machine speeds, however, it has become necessary to consider the dynamic characteristics of the system and to select a cam contour that will minimize the dynamic loading and prevent separation of cam and follower; this topic is presented in Section 9.20. ‘As an example of the importance of dynamic loading, consider parabolic motion On the basis of inertia forces, this motion would seem to be very desirable because of its low acceleration. However, the acceleration increases from zero Tine tor ‘am agied FIGURE 3.14 Cydloidal motion. RR Nh MHSCOSCSOSH SSS SGVFFVIIIGE 84 CAMS. to its constant value almost instantaneously, which results in a high rate of application of load. The rate of change of acceleration is determined by the third derivative of the displacement and has been given the name “jerk.” Therefore, jerk is an indication of the impact characteristic of the loading; it may be said ‘that impact has jerk equal to infinity. Lack of rigidity and backlash in the system also tend to increase the effect of impact loading. In parabolic motion where jerk is infinite, this impact oceurs twice during the cycle and has the effect of a sharp blow on the system, which may set up undesirable vibrations as well as causing structural damage. i ‘As a means of avoiding infinite jerk and its deleterious effect on the cam train, a system of cam design hias been developed by Kloomok and Muley that utilizes three analytic functions: (a) cycloid (and half-eycloid), (b) harmonic (and hhalf-harmonic), and (c) eighth-power polynomial. Plots of the displacement, velocity, and acceleration curves of these functions are given in Figs. 3.15, 3.16, and 3.17. The curves have continuous derivatives at all intermediate points, ‘Therefore, acceleration changes gradually, and jerk is finite, Infinite jek is avoided at the ends by matching accelerations. It should be noted that the velocities will also match because no discontinuities can appear in the displacement time curve. As an example, when a rise follows a dwell, the zero acceleration at the end of the dwell is matched by selecting a curve having zero acceleration at the start of the rise. The acceleration required at the end of the rise is determined by the succeeding condition, If a fall follows immediately, the rise can end in a fairly high value of deceleration because this can be matched precisely by a curve having the same deceleration for the start of the fall. The selection of profiles to suit particular requirements is made according to the following criteria: 1. The eycloid provides zero acceleration at both ends of the action. Therefore, ican be coupled to a dwell at each end, Because the pressure angle is relatively hhigh and the acceleration returns to zero unnecessarily, two eyeloids should not be coupled together. 42, ‘The harmonic provides the lowest peak acceleration and pressure angle of. the three curves. Therefore, itis preferred when the acceleration at both start ‘and finish can be matched to the end acceleration of the adjacent profiles. Because acceleration at the midpoint is zero, the balf-harmonic can often be used where 2 constant-velocity zise follows an acceleration. However, a dwell cannot be inserted in the motion between H.-S and H-6 of Fig, 3.16 because jerk becomes infinite. The half-harmonic can also be coupled t0 a half-cycloid or to a half- polynomial, 3. The eighth-power polynomial has a nonsymmetrical acceleration curve and provides 2 peak acceleration and pressure angle intermediate between the harmonic and the cycloid, In Figs. 3.15, 3.16, and 3.17, the units of velocity and acceleration are given in inches per degree and in inches per degree squared. The unit of degrees instead CAM DISPLACEMENT CURVES 8§ FIGURE 3.15 Cycloidal motion characteristics: $ = displacement, inches; V = velocity, inches per degree; = acceleration, ches per degree squared. (M. Ktoomok and R. V. Muffey, “Plate Cam Design—with Emphasis on Dynamic Effects,” Prod. Eng., February 1985.) N, B. For St units, = displacement, millimeters; 'V = yelocity, millimeters per degree; ‘A= acceleration, millimeters per degree squared. of seconds was selected to make it unnecessary to consider the angular velocity of the cam until the follower motions are selected. To obtain velocity and a celeration in terms of time, the velocity from the curves V (in./deg) ean easily be converted to in./s by the relation V (in./s) = (180/x) w¥ (indeg), where w 's cam velocity (rad/s). In a similar manner, A (in./) = (180/n)'u*A (inde!)i cams 3 an A i sen (cuff . = sen Pvcaes @ a S i 5-1 (3) —— ° v v KO e-em | 7" -se ei) | ose ws | sg fi Le TE oe ES ftom) Lr 62 | C7 een ; #6 a“ tie”) FIGURE 3.16 Miarmonic motion characterintca: 3 dinplaceanenty ness Y= velocity, inches per degree; A = acceleration, inches per degree squared, Ye late Cam sis ‘A= acceleration, millimeters per degree squared. on Eng., February 1955.) N. B. For SI units, millimeters; V = velocity, millimeters per degree; CAM DISPLACEMENT CURVES 7 [sor(f} mse asm} ~ neff} eee] . LN vag [ eames(ZS ~sorvan (2) + asemo(2} ~namn(g) veer (f)] 4 17h [sem(§)-nssao(G) samsung) ~mimen () srea2(f5] P-L sez [ romeo -20505(5 came} PS E, —sae0( gf -earm(f5 simn(gS] © vap[-saene(f) enson(f) + nmap NK aot angel -n2s0n sssouo(Q) sssnao(t} © seams} sano] Pz HIGURE 3.17 Eighth-power polynomial motion characteristics: S= displacement, inches; V = velocity, inches per degree; A= acceleration, inches per degree squared. (M. Kloomok and R. V, ‘Malfey, “Plate Cam Design—with Emphasis on Dynamic Elects,” Prod. ‘Eng, February 1955.) N.B. For St units, § = displacements, millimeters; = velocity, millimeters per degree; A= acceleration, millimeters per egree squared, Example 3.1. A roler follower is to move through a total displacement and return with no dwells in the cycle. Because of the operation performed by the mechenism, 2 portion o: the outward motion must be at constant velocity, Determine the motion curves to be used. Refer to Fig. 3.182. AE: Use half-cycloid C-1 to provide zero acceleration at start of motion A and at B where connection is made to constant velocity portion of curve. BC: Constant velocity CD: Use half-harmonic H-2, which will couple at Cto the constant velocity section with zero acceleration and provide minimum pressure angle over the rest of the curve, RR NN A NR fa OR Nf a A fi fm LM fm ICOSCO SSHSHSSFTOVIIIIGE 88 CAMS FIGURE 3.18 DE: Use polynomial P-2 to match the deceleration of the harmonic at D and to provide a zero acceleration juncture at the end of the eycle at E. ‘The velocities and accelerations are matched, and their curves are shown in Figs. 3.18b and 3.18c. From Fig. 3.18c, it can he seen that jerk is finite throughout the cycle, 3.8 CAM DISPLACEMENT CURVES ADVANCED METHODS The creation of smooth cam profiles without discontinuities in velocity, accet- eration, and higher derivatives is critical to the satisfactory operation of all eams. In the previous section it was shown how segments of simple curves such as cyeloidal, harmonic, and polynomial can be pieced together to give continuous acceleration curves. In addition, the importance of minimizing peak values of acceleration, and hence minimizing peak dynamic loads, was discussed. In some high-speed applications, the methods described in the previous section may not besufficient, however. A continuous acceleration curve may have a discontinuous jerk cutve, as shown in Fig. 3.19. Such discontinuities tend to induce vibrations, which may result in noise, wear, and reduced precision of operation. Discontin Uities in higher derivatives may also produce undesirable effects. ‘A wide vatiety of methods have been proposed to address the above-mon- ‘CAM DISPLACEMENT CURVES—ADVANCED METHODS 9) a 1 Wy cure 329 tioned problems. A logical extension of the methods examined in the previous section is the use of higher-power algebraic polynomials, These polynomial curves are quite versatile, and, in most cases, determination of coefficients is straight- forward. The major disadvantage of the polynomial curves is that they do not Sirectly allow local control of the motion. Another logical extension of the material in the previous section isto create other types of composite curves. Peslups the simplest of these is the so-called trapezoidal acceleration curve shown in Fig. 3.20. This curve produces smooth velocity and displacement curves and results in finite jerk. Trapezoidal segments can be used in composite with other types of curves to produce smooth camn profiles with good acceleration properties.” As a further extension of this approach, it is possible to construct a jerk curve ‘composed of straight-line segments. This produces continuous jerk and smooth curves for acceleration, velocity, and displacement. With the advent of the programmable calculator and the digital computer, number of numerical methods have been developed for creating and modifying cam motion curves. In most cases, this is actually a process of smoothing out ‘unaceeptable portions of acceleration curves created by other methods. A finite ‘number of points on the original acceleration curve are selected, and an approximate curve is fitted through these points. This new curve is then modified {D.Tesar and G. K. Matthew, The Dynami Syheis, Analyt, and Design of Modtled Cam Syncs, Lexington Books, Lexington, Mas. 976.i i | | | 90. cams A Velocity pisslacerert FIGURE 3.20 Trapezoidal acceleration corvé and computer- ‘generated plots of the corresponding velocity and displacement by moving points or adding points through which it must pass. Popular methods of this type include finite differences, Johnson's method, the finite-integration aethod,¢ and the B-spline technique.S 3.9 DISK CAM WITH RADIAL FLAT-FACED FOLLOWER (ANALYTICAL DESIGN) ‘The treatment of the flat-faced follower allows the actual cam outline to be determined analytically. In the graphical method, the points of contact between, the cam and the follower are unknown, and itis difficult to determine their exact location as the cam outline is drawn in. Also, the minimum radius of the cam to prevent cusps can only be determined by trial. In the analytical method, which ‘was developed by Carver and Quinn, these disadvantages are overcome, and three valuable characteristics of the cam may be determined: (a) parametric equations of the cam contour; (6) minimum radius of the cam to avoid cusps; and (c) location of the point of contact which gives the length of the follower face. Of these, the first has little practical application, but the other two give information from which the cam can be produced. The development of these characteristics follows. Figure 3.21 shows a cam with a radial flat-faced follower. The cam rotates with a constant angular velocity. The contact point between the cam and follower is atx, y, which is a distance {from the radial center line of the follower. The isplacement of the follower from the origin is given by the following equatiou: R=C+#@) BD “BY, Chen, Mechanics and Design of Com Machansms, Pergamon Press, New York, 1982. ‘MCN. Sanches and. Gari de Jalon, "Application af Spline Puntioos tthe Motion Speifiaton cof Cams,” ASME Paper 8DET 23, 1980. DISK CAM WITH RADIAL FLAT-FACED FOLLOWER 9. where the minimum rads ofthe cam i represented by C and f(0) the mini and f(0) represents the deed motion ofthe flower aa freon othe sgl dopacenet of “he equation forthe length of contact can be easily determined from 1 geometry of Fig. 3.21. From the triangles shown, ¥ ne R sin @ + xcos 8 62) and I= yooso ~ xsine 63) ‘The right side of Eq, 3.3 is the derivative with o ri Phe ght side of 3 vative with respect to 0 of the right side of -RLe 12 G7 BC+ Ol and 1=7@ os If the displacement diagram is given by a mathematiéal equation $ = shen and are ay dstrnined fom qe 31 mda Beee by se be scen that the minimum length of the follower face is independent of the sminimum radius ofthe cam. Also, the point of contact is at its greatest distance ‘rom the centerline of the follower when the velocity of the fellower isa maximum. ‘When the follower moves away from the cam center with positive velocity, RR RN NO OR I NFSOOO HSSCSSUSESSTZIIIIGY CECE CESEHEEYY « 92 CAMs positive and contact occurs above the axis of the follower in Fig. 3.21. When the follower moves toward the cam center, the velocity is negative and the resulting ‘negative value of indicates that contact is below the axis of the follower. To determine the equations for x and y for the cam contour, it is only necessary to solve Eqs. 3.2 and 3,3 simultaneously, which gives x = Roos 0 ~ fsin 8 and y= RsinO + lcos@ By substituting the values of R and { from Eqs. 3.1 and 3.4, respectively, [C + f(@)] cos @ - f'(8) sin ® 3.5) y= (C+ f@] sin 9 + F*(0) 0086 66 ‘The minimums radius C to avoid a cusp or point on the cam surface can be easly determined analytically. A cusp occurs when both dxld0 and dyldd — ‘When this happens, a point is formed on the cam as shown at x, y in Fig. 3.22. “To demonstrate this, consider that the centerline of the follower has rotated through angle @ and that contact between the follower face and the cam occurs at point x, y. When the follower is further rotated through a small angle d0, the point of contact (e, y) does not change because of the cusp and is stil at x, y. ‘Thus, it can be seen that dx/d8 = dyld8 = 0. By differentiating Eqs. 3.5 and 3.6, & ee Em ~[0 + 40) + PO)sin 8 en a = [C+ f(®) + f°(0)] cos 0 3.8) Equations 3.7 and 3.8 can become zero simultaneously only when C+ I + FQ) =0 ‘Therefore, to avoid cusps, C+ FO + F)>O 69) ‘The sum f(0) + f"(@) must be inspected for all values of 8 to determine its ‘minimum algebraic value. It ig necessary to use the minimum value so that C will be sufficiently large to ensure that Eq. 3.9 does not become zero for any DISK CAM WITH RADIAL FLATFACED FOLLOWER 93, FIGURE 31 value of 0. The sum may be positive or negative. If positive, C will be negative ‘and have no practical significance. In this case, the minimum radius will be determined by the hub of the cam rather than by the function (0). Points on the cam profile may be determined from Eqs. 3.5 and 3.6, which give the Cartesian coordinates, or by calculating R and | for various values of 8. Jn general, the second method is easier, but in either case the points have to be connected by usc of a French curve to obtain the cam outline. In actual practice, however, it is seldom necessary to draw the cam profile to scale. After the ‘minimum radius C has been determined and the displacements R of the follower caloulated, the cam can be generated. For the generating process, the length of ‘the milling cutter mustexceed twice the maximum value of /. During cutting, the axis of the milling cutter is parallel to the plane of the cam. Example 3.2. To illustrate the method of writin the displacement equations, consider the following conditions: a flat-faced follower is driven through a total displacement of Abin, At the start of the eyele (zero displacement), the follower dwells for w2 rad. Te then moves 2 in. with eyloidal motion (Klaomok and Muffley curve C-5) in w/2 rad. ‘The follower dwells for a2 rad and returns 14 in, with cycloidal motion (C:4)in-n?2 rad A sketch of the displacement diagram is shown in Fig. 3.23. fire FIGURE 3.2394 cams For the eyelid C5, the Kloomok and Muffley curves give sniff da) It should be mentioned that in writing the relation $ = (0), the value of must always bbe measured from the abscissa and the value of 8 from the ordinate. In the preceding equation, however, is measured from point A in Fig. 3.23 and not point 0. Therefore, rewrite the equation using 8” as shown in Fig. 3.23: Therefore, sug = oO — gy 2d = By substituting L = 1 in. and B = w/2rad, ) - Zan 20 Seq = 6 ~ B+ D sito - 6) should be observed that wth he combinsins of del and eyed! motion used, yl nd acoraons re mathe tn jo ee Crovghost he gle DISK CAM WITH RADIAL FLAT-FACED FOLLOWER 95, Example 3.3. As en example of how the minimum radius C and the leagth of the follower face are determined, considera fa faced radial follower which moves out and back 0.8 mm with simple harmonie motion for half a revolution ofthe cam. Two motion cydes ofthe follower occur for one revolution ofthe cam. Only one displacement equation (15) is necessary to specify the follower motion: ifs s-#(.-aeef) where L= 50.8 mm and sia ‘Therefore, $= F(® = 25.4(1 — cos 28) £(0) = 50.8 sin 20 and $10) = 101.6 cos 20 ‘To find the minimum radius, the sum C + f(@) + #*(0) must be greater than zero, By substituting for (0) and J*(6) and by simplifying, C+ 25.4 + 76.2 cos 20> 0 ‘The sum of 25.4 + 76.2 cos 20 will be a minimum at § = w/2, which gives C4254 ~76.2>0 C>50.8.mm The length of the follower fce i determined from 1 = £@) = 508 sin nw = 508 mm ‘Because the motion i symmetrical, the theoretical length ofthe follower fae is 50.8 mm ‘on each side of the centerline. An additional amount must be added to each side ofthe follower to prevent contact from occurting at the very end of the face MORO MOAAAAAAARAAARA RAR AAAwe eee eCewewrerwvwwwurwEwwwwwwwwYwWWWIddde ve 96 cams 3.10 DISK CAM WITH RADIAL ROLLER FOLLOWER (ANALYTICAL DESIGN) ‘The analytical determination of the pitch surface of a disk cam with a radial roller, follower presents no difficulties. In Fig. 3.24, the displacement of the center of the follower from the center of the cam is given by the following equation: R= Rot f(0) G.10) where R, is the minimum radius of the pitch surface of the cam and (0) is the radial m of the follower as a function of cam angle. Once the value of Ry is known, itis an easy matter to determine the polar coordinates of the centers of the roller follower from which the cam may be generated. ‘A method for'checking this type of cam for pointing has been developed by Kloomok and Muffley, which considers the radius of curvature p of the piteh surface and the radius of the roller R,, These values are shown in Fig. 3.25 together with the radius of curvature p, of the cam surface. If in Fig. 3.25 p held constant and R, is increased, p, will decrease. If this is continued until R, equals p, then p, will be zero and the cam becomes pointed as shown in Fig, 3.260. As R, is further increased, the cam becomes undercut as shown in Fig, 3.26b and the motion of the follower will not be as prescribed. Therefore, t0 prevent a point or an undercut from occurring on the cam profile, R, must be less than Pay Where Pai isthe minimum value of p over the particular segment of profile being considered. If there are several types of motion through ‘which the follower passes, each case must be checked separately. Because itis impossible FIGURE 3.24 DISK CAM WITH RADIAL ROLLER FOLLOWER 97 to undereut a concave portion of a cam, only the convex portions need to be investigated. . ‘The radius of curvature at a point on a curve expressed in polar coordinates can be given by [R? + (dRidp)*P* 8 REF 2nd? — RRA) where R = f(6) and the fist two derivatives are continuous. This equation can be used for nding the radius of curvature of the pitch surface of the cam, For this case, (0) = f(@). From Eq. 3.10, R= Ry + f(@) aR Ly at ER gy we T® ‘ert © FIGURE 3.26k 98 cams Therefore, 4k? + [F'(@)PP2 O° WF UF OF - FO) eB.) Equation 3.11 may be evaluated to find the expression for p for a particular type of motion. However, o prevent points or undercuts on the cam profile, Pye mUSt be determined, Differentiation of Eq. 3.11 with its various functions to obtain rinima gives very complex transcendental equations. For this reason, three sets cof curves are given that show the plot of px/Ry versus ® for various values of LIRy. In these carves, B is the total angular rotation of the cam for a complete event, and L is the lift. Figure 3.27 shows the graph for cycloidal motion, Fig. 3.28 for simple harmonic motion, and Fig. 3.29 for cighth-power polynomial motion, By means of these curves, itis possible to determine whether or n0t Pais is greater than R,. Example 3.4. A radial roller followers to move through a total displacement of L = 0.60 in. with eycoidal motion whil the cam rotates = 30. The follower dwells for 45* and thea rtums with eyeloidal motion in 10". Check the eam for pointing or underettng ‘fe rive, ofthe roller is 0.25 in and the minimum radius Ry ofthe pitch surface is 150ia ‘The outward motion wil govern because ofits smaller B. Therefore, from Fig. 3.27 for L/Ry = 0.40 and B = 30°, and Paw = 0.22 X 1.50 = 0.33 in, ‘The cam will nt be pointed or undercut because pau, > R, Asmentioned previously, pressure angle is an important consideration when designing cams with roller followers. Itis necessary to Keep the maximum pressure angle as small as possible, and this maximum has been set at 30°. However, higher values are occasionally used wien conditions permit. Although it is possible to make a layout of the cam and measure the maximum pressure angle, analytical methods are to be preferred. Several methods are available, one of which has been developed by Kloomok and Mulley, whereby the pressure angle can be determined analytically for either a radial roller follower or an oscillating roller follower. Only the radial roller follower will be treated here. For the disk cam and radial roller follower shown in Fig. 3.30, the pressure DISK CAM WITH RADIAL ROLLER FOLLOWER 99) pmie/Ry ACTIVE CAM ANGLE, 8, DEGREES oe ee ok . prin R, 3 15a 960 ae os So ‘ACTIVE cat ancce, 6 osontes FIGURE 3.27 Cycioidl motion [f. Kloomk sal RV. Muley, “Plate {Cam Design--Rads of Curatar” Prod. Eng. Septenber 985, revised by MA. Ganter and 3.3. Uieker, Jn, “Deng Chai for Disk Cams ih ecipocating Rail Role Fellowes ASWE Tran Tourna of Mechanlet Design i0t 8) tal 179) a aleiee aia aialaialna alalnaiaialaalalaiaiaaalalaaiata. aowwe EO OEE EwCUww YU UW UWwOWTYHWVIIEd 100 cams, Eos oe oe Pe we we wee ae, ACTIVE CAM ANGLE, 8, DEGREES [- he gee “t ED ooh SS 2°) i | © aah oo "08 2030400 a0 Go ho ICTIVE caM ancl IncURe 328 tammone. c, A. oesrees Design—Radius of Curvatar Ganter and J. J. Vicker, Jt, Radial Roter Retones? Radial Role Folowers;' AME Trans, Journal of Mechanea Dace age DISK CAM WITH RADIAL ROLLER FOLLOWER 101. ACTIVE CAM ANGLE, 8, DEGREES 203040 ~GO a WOO ne ACTIVE CAM ANGLE, 8, OEGREES HIGURE 329 Hightower pelmomi motion, (M, Flom and. V. ‘Maulfley, “Plate Cam Design—Radins of Curvature," Prod. Eng., September 1055, as revised by M. A. Ganter and J. J. Uleker, Jr, “Design Charis for ‘Disk Cams with Reciprocating Radial Roller Followers,” ASME Trans., Jour- nal of Mechanical Design, 101 (3), Suly 1979.)i : ONL TEAL TSS FIGURE 3.30 angle OCA is denoted by a and the center of the cam by 0. The cam is assumed stationary, andthe follower center rotates clockwise from position Co C' though a small angle 49. From the sketch, = tm SE CE ‘As AO approaches zero, angles OCE and ACC" approach 90°. At the same time, CD approaches CF which equals R A8, and both approach CE. Therefore, aR Jim a = tant Because the sides of a and a’ become mutually perpendicular when A6 approaches zet0, a’ becomes equal to a. Therefore, aR a= ten” DISK CAM WITH RADIAL ROLLER FOLLOWER 103 An expression for a may be determined from Eg. 3.12 for any type of ‘motion. To solve for the maximum pressure angle is often very difficult, however, because of the resulting complex transcendental equation, For this reason, Kloomok and Muffley use a nomogram developed by E. C. Varnum, which is given in Fig, 3.31; B and L/R, are parameters as previously defined. From this chart, the maximum value of pressure angle may be determined for the three types of motion. Points on the surface of the cam may also be determined by using Fig. 3.30, ‘The coordinates of the point C are given by xe = Reos 8 ) Ye = Resin 0 . The coordinates of the point of contact (point A) arc obtained from the x and y projections of line segment CA and from the distances xe and ye as follows: 24 = xe + R,cos (wm — 8 - a) Ya = Ye ~ Resin ( — 6 ~ @) peels © / 200 90 for cca cam 33 a 4 pasi 20 0 a4 as ante 5 or harmonic cam = ute {Cpanel ore) FIGURE 3.31 Nomogram 10 det angle in a disk cam with a radial roll E, C. Varnun, Barber.Colman Company.) PO ROAMAR AAA AEA AAAA AMAA MAAR DE DODDSwe we OEE ewww WU WwWwwTUwwTWYVUITIIWI 104 cams ~ where R, is the radius of the roller. Sim lifying these expressions using trigonometric identities leads to mes me ee 44 = ke = R,c08 (0 + a) Ya = Yo ~ Ry sin (8 + a) a " Example 3.5. A radial roller follower is to move th dpi ler foower so move rough att dsplacement of 0.75 i ith idl moon wil th cam rotate 4 Te lower vee for Sed is ‘rns with lial modo in Fnd the ve of tank to Peed ‘motion will govern because of its smaller B. * a me For Sand ace = 3 r £025 (tom. 331) Therefore, zg 7 288in. Tf space does not permit such a value of Ry, B can be increased and the eam run faster to maintain the lift time at a constant value. ‘The analytical calculation of cam-and-follower parameters using a cxclatorbesomestedaus when more than few car snl be epee Fortunately, such repetitive calculations are conveniently carried out on a digital computer. The example below shows a computer program developed forthe case of a disk cam and translating rolier follower. This program was written in BASIC on an IBM personal computer. Although this program is specifically written for cycloidal rise, dwell, and cycloidal return, it would be an easy matter to generalize this to include other types of motion specifications or other follower.configurations. Example 3.6. 4 radial rller follower is to sige through a total displacement of sam wth C5 glial motion while the cm ster 186, Te foloee ae eae next 90° and then returns $0.0 mm with C6 cyeloidal motion in 90° of eam rotation, The sinlimum radius Ryof the piteh surface is 25.0 mm, Witea computer program to calculate the displacement S, velocity V, and acceleration A of the follower et each 10° of cam rotation, The program should also calculate the radius of the pitch surface R, the radon of curvature (p) and pressure angle (a) at each 10" of cam rotation, Solution. The BASIC program shown in Fig 3.32 was developed to solve this problem, ‘Running this program on an IBM personal computer produced the output of Table 3.1, Note from the output that the maximom pressure angle during rise will be 35.6" at a cam angle of @ = 70° and that the maximum pressure angle during return will be 542° at 8 320". These values are too high for most applications. The designer may wish to improve DISK CAM WITH RADIAL ROLLER FOLLOWER 105 ie" program for can denign (/27/ Disks bn with cadlal gobler felgerer sloldal rise = Dvell~ Cyclo sSbielSed Setahoatey tah Shee Program revised, Raspes, 20 rapor “Mininen pitch raat 50 InPor “yotal fol lover aiapi io impor “Rise angle {in degree Lo impor *2nd of vetl angle (in ae 120 Inpor "Angie sSnerenent (in deo 340 Bins .14issasestwo.erezersseRee 140 PAINE * TPO ANG DIGEL VELOcTNY —accELY; aaDras CURVATURE " "DRESS ANG" cum “th Cn oy , tea) “Chea 8b "tee cos cine Sete 180 neratense,ntes-o 200 FoR TaETA*0 20 Dec.RIsE sree DpG.TRC 210 Seu caupea/BETAL) -(1/4W0,PE) "81M (WFO. PE*MREEA/EEEAL)? 220 v= (/nanal) * (-c05(2¥0,21""nE20/ BEIALS) 230 Ae (Cao. 2T4z)/(aeval 25) ein Cav0.ETATmETR/BETAL) 240 Gosun'420 ‘Caleulate Ry RO, ALPaA and print results 250 Neer mem Bea Yates avela vee 370 ron merkebac.RISE 70 DEG,DARLL ETEP DBO.TNC 280 Seueveosneo. 250 Gogos 420" ‘calculate R, m0, ALPHA and print requite 30 Neer aaara Bio "aese cna return « 320 npzaaeseo-boo onan 350 POR TaetAcDbG-DWRLE 10 360 STEP DBG.mC 340 tenapracnne Den 350 Sone ((1-(2/BREA2)) + (1/2W0.P1) *srn(swO.Pr+2/0022)) 43€0 weecu/anzaa) *(1-coslayo.Pine/BE0A2)), 350 do—tawo. Brats aban2"2) (SEN CaN. PEe8/ DETAR) 340 dosun 4io ‘Calculate my AiO, APIA and print ceasite 420 ‘Suboutine to calculate R, 10, ALPHA and print renuite senate. eI {40 Vaevtlo/preameas(190/p0)"2_ *convert degrees to radians 50: Hos (( (RZ) #(0R~2)9™(972)97 (CREA) EC CURED) ROAR) 460. ALPaae(ae0/PD *aaNt AZ) Rn youn, 6, V, Ay Ry HHO, ALPE these pressure angles by increasing the base circle radius, Once the program is written, such changes require a minimum of effort. Running the program using Ry = 50.0 mm resulted in maximum pressure angles of 24.0° during rise and 41.6" during return. Also, note thatthe pitch surface curvature p has a minimum tabulated value of 14.1 mm at 350° of cam rotation. Since this is © concave portion ofthe cam surface, undercutting will not ‘occur here, and s0 the limiting value of p is actually 25.0 mm. In practice, table like ‘Table 3.1 should be developed using input angle steps of 1° or 2" rather than 10°. This will give more accurate extreme values of pressure angle and curvature. Another advantage of using a computer isthe ability to quickly generate plots of such things as displacements, velocities, acelerations, and the cam pitch surface. For this example problem, a computer-generated plot of the cam pitch surface is shown in Fg. 13.33. Such graphical output s valuable because it provides quick, easy-to-nterpret visual Redback.i 106 CAMs TABLE 3.1 Ontput Generated by the BASIC Program of Fig. 3.32 Tur we Drset acoet "PRESS AG (oaesn) "(s) w Srogeteo 9.0E+00 o.d0B640 Hogeson §7é1s‘s2 352005 xonevet 6.35803 Scooeeoa Perel ‘Cooeter 230R-0L Setar ie Ceseron Niseor Samson Tsoever T.sonear ioratea amigo Bett Ceara isier Gna 2t0E06 iiiess Esenor “alsosvot “oceorvo 3.1 DISK CAM WITH OSCILLATING ROLLER FOLLOWER (ANALYTICAL DESIGN) Jn Fig. 3.34 is seen the start of a layout of a disk cam with an oscillating roller follower. The displacement angle is a function of the cam angle 8. Although the cam rotates through the angle @ for the displacement angle y, the radius rotates through the angle ¢. By specifying values of R and 6, itis possible to generate the cam. From Fig. 3.34, it can be seen that e=0-2 @.15) where Angle Bis a constant for the system, and its equation can be derived from triangle DISK CAM WITH OSCILLATING ROLLER FOLLOWER 107 coSS8SEBIE e g i rig =e Tas 3 00 ities FIGURE 3.33 Cam pitch surface generated using an IBM Personal Computer and an IBM Instruments XY/149 Digital Plotter. FIGURE 3.34 RN I I LON fi Ocwer wwww wwewwwwew wows eww ewvwwrwuew www we - 108 cams O40’ as S+R-P cos p = Gan where $, Rp, and / are fixed dimensions, “Arle Pisa uncon of Rts equaon canbe devived fom tangle OBO" = Sewoe aR em cos P= ‘An equation for R can also be written from triangle OBO’ as follows: R P+ SP 28 cos (Y + 3) G.19) Angle & is a constant determined from triangle OAO"'as . P+S- cos 5 ig 620 ‘and angle wis the displacemer from the preceding equations, Values of cam angle 6 and thei nt angle for a particular cam angle @. Therefore, the values of R and ¢ can be calculated for given } Point D the center of curvature, and point O' the center of oscillation of the follower. The angular displacement of the follows ‘from the horizontal is 6, which is given by the equation oot §(0) G2 ular displacement of the follower from the reference 1m Fig, 3.35, the pressure angle a is given by where f(0) is the desired an; angle oy (not shown). Fror aso-B-y Substituting Bq. 3.21 for ¢, @= [m+ fOl-F- 4 G2) To obtain an expression for angle 7, two independent position equations are DISK CAM WITH OSCILLATING ROLLER FOLLOWER 109, FIGURE 3.35 i following the path O to ‘writen for the center ofthe roller A. One is written by following Dito A, andthe other by going frm Oto BtoO" to A. Te eatin fore first path (O-D-A) is given by R= re + perv = r(cos 8 + isin 8) + p(cos y + ésin y) G2) ‘The equation for the second path (0-B-O"-A) is given by Raat bitie = a4 bi + I(coso + isino) G24) By separating real and imaginary parts of Eqs. 3.23 and 3.24, it follows that 70088 + poosy = a+ lcos.0 6.25) rsin8 + psiny = 6 + sing 6.25 By differentiating Eqs. 3.25 and 3.26 with respect to 8, sing = Ising mrsin 85 ~ psiny Gy = ~Lsino Te 2 Sn boos eos 8 Ty + pcusy ay = loos oe119 cams For an infinitesimal rotation ofthe cam, p may be considered to remain constant. ‘Thus, point D, the center of curvature of the cam at the point of contact, and r may be regarded as fixed to the cam for an incremental rotation d9. Therefore, the magnitude of d8 is equal to d9; and since 8 decreases as @ increases, it follows that dB/d0 = -1. Also, do/d® = f'(@). Therefore, , ype si rsin8 ~ psiny St = ~17'@) sino G27 @ eos 8 + pcos y Tt = 1f"(0) cos o 6.28) By climinating dy/d8 from Eqs. 3.27 and 3.28, sin’-+ 1f'@) sine * roos 8 + 1f"(8) cos tany ‘The terms r cos 8 and r sin 8 can be evaluated from Eqs. 3.25 and 3.26 to give _ b+ fin oft + 7° 1" aloo oll + FO] ed which, when substituted in Eq, 3.22, wll give the pressure angle a. To find cou, itwill be necessary to work out design charts similar to those given by Kloomok and Mutfey. To find the radius of curvature p, it is necessary to first diferentiate Eq, 3.29 with respect to 8. Substituting y/d8 from Eq. 3.28 and withthe aid of iq, 3.21, 3.25, and 3.29, the following equation for p is obtained: [e+ pepe (C+ DML + PO) — OC + FOF @ + Wane — boos NFO G30) e where Cw at leas oft + £0) Dab +lsinoll +7) To avoid undercutting, p must be greater than the radius of the roller. Therefore, it must be possible to detertaine py for each portion of the cam profile. In order to do this, it will be necessary to work out design charts similar 10 those given by Kloomok and Muley. Once the radius of curvature has been found, points on the surface of the cam are easily determined from Fig. 3.35: R, = re + (p — Rye 3 CONTOUR CAMS 11T where R, is the vector locating the contact point and R, is the radius of the roller follower. 3.2 CONTOUR CAMS ‘The application of this type of cam is primarily in the design of computer and mechanical control systems. A sketch is shown.in Fig. 3.36. With this type of cam, the members roll upon each other without sliding; this facilitates the design for two reasons: (a) the contact point P will always lic on the line of centers, and (b) both surfaces will oll on each other through the same distance. By making use of these factors, equations for the distance from the cam centers to the contact point can easily be derived. In Fig. 3.36, Ry and R, are the instantaneous distances from the cam centers to the point of contact and C is the fixed distance between centers. If cam 2 rotates through a small angle d@, and cam 3 through d®,, the point of contact on cam 2 will move through Ry d,, and that on cam 3 will move through Ry ds. For pure rolling, Ry d0, = Ry d0s Re+Ry=C c Trea @.32) nf ty Ver fay clyos De v | 2 ———J FIGURE 3.6 [| RL RO Rt AR RR FLO an A A CA A fy© O66 6 OOOO OOOO OOOO ES SESE GISSHVIGYS 412 cams and cl = Ty ayaa a ‘These cams can be used to generate several types of funtion, thee of whi are described below. us ee ofwnich 4. Square Function. To generate the square function, = Koy ey a oe and ae 1 a, ~ 2, Therefore, py = DCO T+ 26, and R= —o_ Tm, From the equations for R, and Rs, the cam contours may be determined ‘that will generate the given square function. If the cams are operated in reverse, square roots are obtained. 2. Logarithmic Function. To generate the logarithm, 8 = logis 1 &= Zag! dy 0, ~ 73038, CONTOUR CAMS 113, and io, Se 2.3080 ‘Therefore, R= —S_ T+ 2.3030, . and y= 230800 T+ 2.3030, ‘From these equations, the cam contours may be determined that will generate the given logarithm. Operation in reverse will give antilogs. 3. Trigonometric Function. To illustrate the generation of a trigonometric function, consider eters 8, - ast and de 4, ie aoe ‘hector, eo 1 + cos? 8) and a= Com 1 + cos? 6, fone refers to the equations for R, and R, developed forthe three functions, it is evident that in (1), Ry = 0 when 0) = O and in (2), Ry = O when ® = 0. In (3), Ry = Owhen 0, = 90°, When one of the radii goes to zero, an impractical4 caus design results. With the functions illustrated, the fact that the scale of 0, cannot Start at zero in the frst two cases nor extend to 90° in the third case will probably not limit the generation of these functions. There are cases, however, where such limitations would prove a disadvantage and a means must be found for eliminating, this problem when necessary. Another problem that sometimes arises when designing contour cams is that with certain functions the value of d0,/d8, may become equal to —1, which makes the radii R; and Ry infinite. Either of these problems must be avoided if it occurs in the working range of the function. This can be accomplished by offsetting the function by a constant which can later be subtracted by a differential. As an example, consider the function sin? 0, and 2sin 8 008 6 Therefore, sy = £200 208 8) "2 sim 0; cos @; + 1 and Re £ T+ Dein 6605 6; ‘When 0; equals zero, R; = 0; when @; equals 135°, d0,/d0; = —1, To avoid these conditions, the function may be offset by a constant K@, such that in? O + KO, and 0s Sp, 7 288 008 b+ “After generation of the new function, K@, would be subtracted to give the original ‘function 0, = sin? 6. If large torques are to be transmitted, the cams can be replaced by gears hhaving pitch surfaces identical to the cam contours. This substitution is possible ‘because ofthe pure rolling action ofthe cams. Such gears are known as contour ‘gears, or noncircular gears. A photograph of a pair of noncircular gears is shown in Fig. 3.37. ‘THREE-DIMENSIONAL CAMS 115 isi z FIGURE 3.37 Noncireular gears. (Sample gears courtesy of Cunningham Corporation, 3.43. THREE-DIMENSIONAL CAMS A sketch ofa thre-dimensional cam is shown in Fig. 3.38, where the displacement {of the follower is a function of beth the rotation y andthe translation x ofthe cam. A three-imensional cam can easily be designed to solve the equation Q = 0.05Vh, which expresses the flow through an orifice (f8ls) in terms of orifice area a (in.) and pressure bead h (ft). ‘Table 3.2 has been developed to give a range of values for the parameters from which the cam ean be designed Figure 3.39 shows the orientation of the values ofthe parameter a around the circumference of the cam with the value of a = 1.0 in.* taken at the top of the cam, Fignre 3.40 shows a vertical axial section through the eam which extends through a = 1.0 in? toa 30 in.?, Figures 3.41 and 3.42 show transverse sections through the cam at h = 25 ft and h = 49 ft, respectively. The axial section shows Q as a funetion of f and the transverse sections show © as 2 al —_] y & FIGURE 3.38 POOP AMAAAMMAAAAAAARA MAASCSCO SOO COCO DPEDPOSCTCOVESIIG SeeSCeSSeELE 116 cams TABLE 3.2 Flow Q (f?/s) a By a 100 0s a0 Ais 120s 130s aad dasa } G05 00525 0.055 o.0s7s 0.060 0.0625 0065 one? oum) Ooms ams $ G49 0405 0.10 ots O20 ars’ 0180 oIas DM Ose BOS 2 C15 O15 O16 0.17 O18 ote O39 O2m OID OaIe ae i$ 020 9210 0.220 0250 240 0250 1240 0.2 0280 029) Oca 3 025 020 0275 ozs 0300 0313 325 0388 O39) Ose S30 #039 025 03 oss 030 037s 0390 Gas O20 oan OID 8 035 0368 0.385 4m 0420 0.488 0455 4.450 0508 He EE Gen 088 04850473 0805080505. en) 19 FIGURE 3.39 = 1.00 in2 = 120 in? FIGURE 3.40 FIGURE 3.41 FIGURE 3.42 and 10 ae asy Aeon u7118. cans function of a. The design of the cam can be completed by generating additional axial and transverse sections. ‘The production of a three-dimensional cam is very difficult because of the accuracy and hand finishing required. After the displacements of the follower have been specified for the desired increments of rotation and translation of the cam, a casting is made approximating the desired shape. Using a cutting tool the same size and shape as the follower, the cam blank is set up in a cam miller, and ‘cut is made at each data point. By proper rotation and translation of the cam ‘and by bringing the cutting tool down the correct displacement for each data point, the cutter will simulate the follower in its relation with the cam. In this ‘manner, an accurate point will be spotted on the cam contour. According to Rothbart, as many as 15,000 points are sometimes required with accuracy of 0.0004 in. After the data points have been spotted, the cam is next finished by hhand filing, followed by polishing with emery paper. 3.4 CAM PRODUCTION METHODS ‘The graphical method of cam design is limited to slow-speed applications. The ‘production of this type of cam depends upon the accuracy of the design layout ‘and upon the method used in following this layout asa template. Atone extreme, the layout of the cam is scribed on a steel plate and the cam cut out with a band saw. At the other extreme is production by a milling cutter whose motion is guided by a tracer moving over the cam outline on a copy of the layout drawing. ‘The drawing over which this tracer moves may be made several times the actual size to improve the accuracy of copying. In either of these cases, the cam profile rust be finished by hand. Graphical design and the resulting copying method of production are not sufficiently accurate for high-speed cams. For this reason, attention has turned ‘to analytical cam design and the method it offers for cam generation. If it is possible to calculate the follower displacements for small increments of cam rotation, the cam profile can be generated on a milling machine or on a jig borer ‘with the cutter assuming the role ofthe follower. Ifthe follower isto be a roller, the axis of the cutter will be perpendicular to the plane of the cam with the cutter ‘the same size as the roller. If a flat-faced follower is to be used, the axis of the cutter will be parallel to the plane of the cam, In either case, the cutter can be given the correct position corresponding to the cam rotation angle. Naturally, the smaller the increments of the cem angle, the better the cam finish will be. Generally, increments of 1° are used, which leave tiny scallops or flats on the cam that must be removed by hand. Automatic numerically controlled cam milling ‘machines have been developed which index the.cam a fraction of a degree, with the cutter advancing by tenths of thousandths of an inch. Although the machine ‘operates in diserete steps, the steps are so minute as to give the appearance of continual operation. Itis hoped that the cam surface finish produced by a machine of this kind will be of such quality as to allow elimination of the hand-fnishing eration. This type of machine will also produce a cam much more rapidly than 2 jig borer when both machines are using the same increments of cam angle. ‘CAM PRODUCTION METHODS 119 In the preceding discussions, it was assumed that the cam being generated was the cam to be used in the final application. Where several machines of the same model are being produced and many copies of a,cam are needed, itis generally more practical to generate what is known as a master cam and to use this master witha cam duplicating machine. The master cam is often made several times the actual size. Problems 3.1._A disk cam rotating clockwise drives a radial fat-faced follower through a total ssplacement of If in. with the following lift igures: CAM ANGLE, deg LIFT, in. 0 0.00) 20 010 a 037 20 075 0 13 150 140 80 1.50 210 140 240 13 270 075 300 037 330 030 360 0.00 Lay out the cam using @ minimum radius of 1 in. Determine the length of the follower {face (symmetrical). After the length has been found by tral, add } in, to each end to positively ensure proper contact, 32. A dak cam rotating counterclockwise drives a radial roller follower through a total isplacement of 11 in. Lay out the cam using the lit-iguzes from Problem 3.1 and ‘minimum radius of 1 in The roller diameter i to be ¥ in. By tral determine the magnitude ‘and position of the maximum pressure angle. 33. A disk cam rotating clockwise drives an olfset flat-faced follower through a total Aisplacement of 13 in. Lay out the cam using the lift figures from Problem 3.1. The centerline ofthe follower is offset} in. to the left of end parallel‘o the vertical centerline of the cam. The minimum radius of the cam is to be 1 in. Determine the length of the follower face (symmetrical). After the length has been found by tral, add fin. to each end to positively ensure proper contact. 3.4, A dik cam rotating counterclockwise drives an offet roller follower through & total displacement of 1 in. Lay out the cam using the lift figures in Problem 3.1. The centertine of the folower is offset 4 in. to the right of end parallel to the vertical centerline of the cam. The minimum radius of the cam is to be 1 in. and the roller diameter fin. By trial 4etermine the maximum pressure angle during the outward motion and during the return motion. 3.5, A dak cam rotating clockwise drives an osilatng fat-faced follower through a total RN RI AN IE AO AR AN OHwee eee wwe we rE EwUwUwWUUYoOUYWYTwwVIIIILY 120. cams angle of 20° with the following displacement figures: CAM ANOLE, deg FOLLOWER ANOLE, deg 00 30 45 o 35 % 100 120 45 150 185 180 200 210 18s 240 445 210 100 300 55 330 15 360 00 Lay out the cam using a minima radu 050 mim. The cater of the hub ofthe foliower is tbe 60 mm tothe sight ofthe enter and onthe haraaval esterioe of eee Sinila 0 Fig. 35. The distance trom the center ofthe flower hab he eof pacer! esi 0 be 70 men. Deter the length te falowe fs Ate ee gth as ben found by tl, ad’ mm to each end to pony ensure proper sort ‘Assuming a bore of 16 mm, 2 hub of 25 mm, and a5 mm Key, drt athe ea ot follower to resonable proportions. 3.6 A disk cam rotating counterclockwise eves an osciting roller follower through a toa angle of 20 Layout the cam ung the dipacement figutes om Prien Noo 8 minum rads of! in. The entra he hbo the followers tobe sip ethene ofthe enter and onthe horizontal xntetne ofthe eam sar top 8 Thee ofthe rol sto be din andthe dstance from the centr ofthe hub the cee of ihe roles iso be in. Usinga bore of fin, a hub of Tiny and et X Aim hey fees the rest ofthe follower to reasonable proportions, 3:7 postive retum cam rotating clockwite drives a Gatfaed yoke as shown ia Fi 3.7. The lift figures for the outward motion are as follows: " *e CAM ANGLE, deg LIFT, mm 0 0.03 30 127 o 432 30 9.65 129 170 350 24 180 254 Lay out the cam using a minimum radius of 25 mt the sketch of the follower. ‘3.8. A positive-return cam rotating counterclockwise drives a yoke with roller followers. ‘Lay out the cam using the lift figures from Problem 3.7 for the outward motion and minimum radius of 5 mm. The diameters of the rollers ae tobe 19 mm. Using reasonable Proportions, complete the yoke that earties the roller followers, im. Using reasonable proportions, complete CAM PRODUCTION MBTHODS 121. 3.9. An oscillating roller follower moving through a total angle of 60° drives an inverse cam as shown in Fig. 3.9, with the following displacement figures: FOLLOWER ANGLE, deg CAM DISPLACEMENT, ia, 00 0.00 45 0.06 160 024 300 050 Mo 0.76 555 0.94 0 1.00 Lay out the groove in the cam block if the cam isto move upward and to the right at an angle of 45° asthe follower moves counterclockwise. The follower moves symmetrically ‘bout the vertical centerline. The distance from the center of the roller follower to the ‘center of oscillation is 3 in., and the diameter of the roller is in. The cam block is 3 x 4in, 3.10. Prove that the method for finding infletion points when the time intervals ace known as shown in Fig. 3.10 is correct. 3.11. Prove thatthe method for finding infection points when the displacement intervals are known as shown in Fig. 3.11 is correct. 3.12, Prove that the method of construction for parabolic motion shown in Fig. 3.12 is correct. 3.13. Draw the displacement-time graph for a follower that rises through a total displacement of if in, with constant acceleration for a threesixteenth revolution, constant velocity for a quarter revolution, and consiant deceleration for a quarter revolution of the cam. After dwelling fora sixteenth revolution, the follower returns with simple har- ‘monic motion in a quarter revolution of the cam. Use an abscissa 4 in. long. 34. Draw the displacement-time graph ‘or a follower that rises 19 mim with simple harmonic motion in a quarter revolution, dwells for an eighth revolution, and then rises 19 mm with simple harmonic motion in 3 quarter revolution of the cam. The follower addendum) B+ 0-002 (min) Woking depth (4) 2.09 (once senda a ‘Whole depth (h,) 2.200 (addendum + dedendumn) PE + 0.02 (in) letra ofbaserck (7) Not een 108 ‘Tooth thickness () a ‘For shaved or ground teth,¢ = 0.350/P, + 0.002 (min) ‘TABLE 4.2 Tooth Proportions for Full Depth 14¥* and Stub 20° Spur Gears Fr Full Depth ‘Addendum (a) Dedeadum (2) , Clearance (c) Filet radius (7) ‘Tooth thickness ()148 sruR GraRS GEAR STANDARDIZATION 149 TABLE 4.3 Spur Gear Shaper Cutters* ‘TABLE 44 Metric Spur Gear Shaper Cutters: 20" Pressure Anglo-Fall Dept Diametrat Pitch ‘Number = “ Pick Diameter Teh Biameral Pach amber Ses Module ich Diameter in, of Tut () 14 Pressure Angle A apie dinhierans io samo 6 Hl ‘ - 1s 1693388 50 A A og # 4 2 me am x 2s tats 2.958 x” 8 4 5 2 a 30 8465 kom, 25 0 345 mw 8 * x ;*i 28 35 70573, A re 40 630. 2% Hs i | @ & a Sou 307 2 3 3 eS 50 som a7 » : q 2 60 43 ka 5 80 3755009 1s (+) 20° Pressure Angle “Courtesy of Dlinois Toot Works. 3 ‘ 2 ‘ 56 1% m x 5 £5 6m os 6 45 6 m4 on TABLE 4.5 British Standard Normal 8 3456 Naw ® Met Moduler 0 345 wa a 5 if Bee Fefoned Modules Seend-Choice Modes 4 ‘ 56 1 15 16 ee er as 1395 18 4 2 : Ss 175 » 204 8 | 2 225 % 3 2 | as 275 2 3 96 a ; a5 “The following cutters are also manufactured to Fellows fine- 0 oa ph rein ino. 50 Sea | 5 55 Bish Coney a ele Spat ' ‘ 7 4 8 9 From the fact that gear cutters in both the U.S. and metric systems were 4 w a taken generally as whole numbers, conversion from diameta pitehes to mogul 2 4 ailimeters doesnot give whele-number values, See Table 47 | a 8 The metric symbols used to denote the proportions of spur gears vary | 0 2 considerably ffom those recommended by AGMA. Table 48 shows the com. 2s 2 paiton between the AGMA and the proposed International Standard ISO 70 & % Similar ables are given for bevel, hei and worm gars in Chapter 6. “0 6 spur geass are cut with standard cater, they wil be interchangeable i s the folowing conditions are said: Sa Sa Si ieee moderato rape es te 1. The diametal pitches or modules of the eutes used to produce the gears Ion howe Bt Fan. asm Mache) are equa Fon itn, BB150 SPUR GEARS TABLE 4.6 German Standard Metric Modules 03 2s 8 2 be 2750 os 3 0 8 06 325 86 07 350 B® os 3s o 4 uO 1 45S 0 is 5 wo 5S is 550 8 1% 6 mo 6 2 65 2 0 227 au “The values are in millimeters. DIN- {67-From Mechinery Handbook, od ceaiion, 1984, p. 966. TABLE 4.7 Diametral Pitch and Metric Module Diametral Pitch 0.5000 0.7500 1 1.2500 1.5000, 1.7300 2 2.2500 2.5000 2.7500 3 3.5000 Bee vous Module ‘Dismetral Millimeters i 50.8000 u 33.8667 2 25.4000 B 20.3200 “ 16.9333 15 4518 16 12.7000 7 11.2889 8 30.1600 9 9.2364 2 8.4667 4 725. 32 6.3500 0 5.0800 4 4.2333, 6 3.6286 nm 3.1750 % 28202 96 2.5400 120 Module Millimeters 2.3091 267 19538 1813 1.6533, 1.5875 1.4941 ait 1.3368, 1.2700 1.0583, 0.7938 0.6350 0.5292 0.3969 03508 0317s 0.2646 217 MINIMUM NUMBER OF TEETH TO AVOID INTERFERENCE 151 TABLE 4.8 Spur Gear Symbols AGMA 180701 ‘Number of teeth Pitch radius Pitch diameter Outside radius Outside diameter Base radius Face width ‘Addendum Dedendum Gireularpited Base pitch Pressure angle Length of action Contact ratio (transverse) Conte cistance Working depth ‘Whole depth ‘Tooth thickness Clearance Backlash pRoRe oem | Sep e yeeros woo RFagNeRy ees , 2, ‘The pressure angles of the cutters used are equal. 3. The gears have the same addendums and the same dedendums. 4. Tooth thicknesses of the gears are equal to one half the circular pitch. ‘The term standard gear is often used and means that it was cut by one of ‘he standard cutters listed previously and that the tooth thickness is equal to the tooth space which equels one half ofthe circular pitch. Standard gears are i terchangeable. The spur gears'that are offered for sale in gear manufacturers’ catalogs are standard gears, However, most of the gears used in the automotive and the aircraft industriss are nonstandard to give certain advantages over stan dard gears. Chapter 5 presents the subject of nonstandard spur gears and shows that they can be cut with standard cutters. 4.7 MINIMUM NUMBER OF TEETH TO AVOID INTERFERENCE The question of interference was. considered previously for the meshing of a pinion and gear and for a pinion and rack. From the discussion of Fig. 414, it ‘as found that if there were no interference between a pinion and rack, there would be no interference between the pinion and a gear the same size'8s the Pinion or larger. Naturally, this is assurning the same tooth proportions for the Sm Rf th ly tmCOO OSS SOOO OOOOEESHSOSOSSIIIIIGS 152 sPur oars ‘Wo cases. When considering a standard those given in the tables, itis possible to calculate the mini ible to calculate the minimum number of teeth this eto ak Will mesh witha rack without involute interference. 'To solve for limiting case, the addendum line of the rack is passed through the interfer point of the pinion, Acuna a In Fig. 4.17, the essential features of a pini é atures of a pinion and: rack for this case are ‘The pitch pointis notated by P and the interference point by £,'Therefore, gear where the tooth proportions are show noe ing == also sing = 4 = HPs ing Pr ~ PE Where kis @ constant that, when divided denctum (¢ = iP). For the fulldepth sy em, by the diametral pitch, gives the ad- 7 tem, k = 1.00; and for the stub 0.80. Multiplying the two equations for sin @ together gives ag in? = Rp, But N as where V = number of teeth, Therefore, ty a 2k sint 9 = and sin? ee) oar + ve) MINIMUM NUMBER OF TEETH TO AVOID INTERFERENCE 153 ‘TABLE 4.9 Minimum Number of Teeth to Mesh With a Rack Without Undereutting 14 20 Por Full Depth Full Depth Stub Full Depth N23 8 4 2 From this equation, the smallest number of teeth for a pinion that will mesh with a rack without interference can be calculated for any given standard tooth system. These are shown in Table 4.9 for the common systems. Because the values in the table were calculated for a pinion meshing with a rack, they can also be used as minimums for a pinion meshing with a gear without danger of interference. ‘Because the tooth action of a hob cutting a spur gear is similar to that of pinion meshing with a rack, Eq. 4.12 can be used to determine the minimum ‘numbers of teeth that can be cut without undercutting. For this case, the value of k must be increased from 1.000 to allow for cutting the necessary clearance between mating gears. This results in k = 1.157 for 14H" gears and k = 1,250 for 20° and 25° gears. Therefore, the minimum number of teeth than can be hobbed is 37 tecth for 14", 21 teeth for 20°, and 14 teeth for 25° pressure angles. Figure 4.18 shows two computer-generated plots of a severely undercut spur gear having 10 teeth cut with a 20° full-depth hob. FIGURE 4.18 Undercut standard spur gear with N= 10 produced bya hob of Py = Land @ = 20°. Figures generated using an IBM 775 pen plotter. (Courtesy of CAD- CAM Laboratory at Virginia Polytectini Insitute nn State University.)154 SPUR GEARS Determining the minimum number of teeth thata pinion cutter can generate on a gear without undercutting is more difficult than determining the minimum nomber of teeth when the gear is cut by a mack or a hob. An equation for determining the approximate number of teeth can be developed from Fig. 4.19. In this figure, the addendum circle of gear 2 pastes through the interference point E of geat 1. The following relation for the outside radius of gear 2can be written as R, = V@&y + Cams By substituting, M+ 2k Ryo Rta = oe aya mace = Aboot and M+™ Cok tRee oO Gear tv) FIGURE 4:9 \MINDMUM NUMBER OF TEETH TO AVOID INTERFERENCE 455 ‘Therefore, mez _ fim 2p, V\2P, and (a + 2h)? = (NaF cost} + (Ny + NA)? sin? & Expanding and using the relation sin? + cos* = 1 gives the following equation from which the largest spur gear (Na) that can be meshed with a given gear (X%,) without causing involute interference on gear 1 can be determined: Ny = =P sin? 6.3) 2M, sin — die Equation 4.13 can be expanded to give NN; sin? — 4k, = 442 — (N,)? sin? and (Np? sin? + QNNy sin? — 4k(N, +) (My + 2M, Fag tH =0 (aay Equation 4.14 can be simplified as follows: If @ = 143°, then (Ma + 2NaN, = 63.8K(N, + = 0 (6.5) Id = 20", then (Na? + 2NGN, — 34.2k(N2 + 4.16, A curve has been plotted in Fig. 4.20 from Eq, 4.16, showing the relation (of N; as a function of N for 20° full-depth teeth (k = 1)>"This curve can also be ‘used to approximate the minimum numbers of teeth that can be cut by a pinion cutter by considering N, as the number of teeth being cut in the gear and N; as ‘the number of teeth in the pinion cutter. However, the values of N, will only be approximate because the outside radius of gear 2 used to develop Eq, 4.13 was taken as R,, = Ry + a. If gear 2is considered a pinion cutter, its outside radius I I I Mm156 SPUR GEARS eagle a aS 20° Flop teeth ee eo ase an ger 2 | erent ruber of een gee 1 AN) ral eee ee |e ee 1 Ao 20 304g 8080708030 To Nurnbar a eth in arr 2 (Np) FIGURE 4.20 ‘must be increased fo cut clearance on gear 1. In other words, the addendum of the cutter must be equal to the dedendum of the gear being cut. In addition, can be seen in Table 4.1, the equation for clearance is not identical for coarse- pitch and for fine-piteh gears. A dotted curve has been added to Fig. 4.20 to show the relation of Nj, the number of teeth generated without undercutting, to the number of teeth N; assumed in the cutter when clearance has been added, For this ease, clearance for course-pitch gears was used, and calculations were made using Eq, 4.16 with k= 1,250, 4.8 DETERMINATION OF BACKLASH In Fig. 4.212 is shown the outline of two standard gears meshing at the standard center distance c= MED (moti with zero backlash. The pitch circles at which these two gears operate are the pitch circles at which they were cut, and their radii are given by R = N/2P,. ‘The cutting pitch circles are also known as standard pitch circles, The pressure DETERMINATION OF BACKLASH 157 pera sith ‘ii ern eh ‘ a > ‘Standard piteh \\ Vera - ° IGURE 421PLT ELT LLL LT TT ES aT 158 SPUR GEARS angle & at which the gears will operate is the pressure angle at which they were cut, that is, 144°, 20°, or 25°. In other words, the cutting and operating pitch circles are identical as well as the cutting and operating pressure angles. Figure 4.21b shows the condition where the two gears have been pulled apart a distance AC to give a new center distance C’. The line of action now ‘crosses the line of centers at a new pitch point P'. It can be observed that the standard or cutting pitch circles (radii R, and R,) are no longer tangent to each ‘other. Also, the pitch point P’ divides the center distance C’ into segments which ae inversely proportional to the angular velocity ratio. These segments become ‘the radii R{ and Rj of new pitch circles that are tangent to each other at point P', Those cles are known as operating pitch circles, and equations for their radii can be determined from MR eM Ri and Ri+ R= Cc to give a (MJ and In addition to the change in pitch circles, the pressure angle also incres Angle 6" is known as the operating pressure angle and is larger than the cutting pressure angle . An equation for the operating pressure angle 6 can easily be derived from Fig. 4.216 as follows: le. Rut Ry cos cog RD oe g o ak . cos $' = G08 & aay DETERMINATION OF BACKLASH 159 a ~e$-e £08 - ze] ay ‘When the gears are operated under the condition of Fig, 4.216, backlash will be present as shown in Fig. 4.2ic. The angular-velocity ratio will not be affected as long as the gears remain in mesh. If the direction of rotation is reversed, however, lost motion will be encountered. An equation for backlash may be derived from the fact that the sum of the tooth thicknesses plus backlash ‘must be equal to the circular pitch all measured on the operating pitch circle. From Fig. 4.21c, the following equation may be written: fa a po DOR _ aR KegaBe fs aay) where 1 = tooth thickness on operating pitch circle B= backlash R’ = radius of operating piteh circle N= number of teeth From Eq, 4.3 developed in the section on involutometry, fe ani + inv 6 inv «| Ri , 7 — 2RiGinw 6" — inv 6) 20) = Ri] + i inv 6 - = 2Ri| 3 + inv & ~ inv 6 Ri vinv 6° > > d > d aR |e > NPR > Cia > € fz = + A) + 2Ciav 6 = inv o] ws) 42 3 [mm — (4, + 4) + 2C(inv 6' — inv @)] (metric) D For standard gears, > >» (U.S.) ) (met) (ne d penta 4.24 simplifies to ; B = 2C°(av 4 ~ inv) 25 1) Equation 4.24 should be used ifthe gears are not standard, that is, if te Nonstandard gears will be presented in Chapter 5. Recommended, values for D bacitash can be found in the AGMA Gear Handbook, Volume 1, 390203 (March 1980). D Bxample 4.2. (2) A-module, 20° pinion of 24 teat divs a ear of 60 teeth, Calculate ) the eat of econ and contact ait gar aes wih eo backlash, Nim x3 ta 36.000 mm sew DETERMINATION OF BACKLASH 461. Nun _ 0x3 Ry = Mat O82 - 50.000 mm Ry, = Ry cos 4 = 36,000 cos 20° = 33.829 mm Ry, = Ry 005 = 90,000 cos 20° = 84.572 mm 4, = 4, = m = 3.0000 mm Ry = Ry +, 39.000 mm Ry = Ret = 93.000 mm ce (Sm 5 (432) = 136.00 mam Z= VRS = (RY + VR = RF - Csin g = VIIDOF = SBS + VIR = BATE — 126.00 sin 20° = VISION TS + VEGI TEA - 43.095 = 19.406 4 38.686 ~ 43.095 = 14.997 mm 2nRy _ 2m x 33.629 Fae SRS » 5.0568 mm () Ifthe center distance i increased 0.500 mm, calculate the radi of the operating Pitch circles, the operating pressure angle, and the backlash produced. C=C + AC = 126.00 + 0.5000 = 126,50 am 1 = (M_) 4 n=( (qth) » mos «3610.0 Rim Cl = Ri = 126.50 ~ 36.143 = 90.357 mm cog gt = COO ¢ 4 = 206" B= 2C\(nv 9" ~ inv 6) = 2. 126.50{inv 20.61" ~ iv 20) = 2 x 126.50(0.016362 — 0.016508) = 0.3689 mm49 INTERNAL (ANNULAR) GEARS {3 many applications, an internal involute of using two ext i Portant advant in advantages. Per ‘age is that of compactness it an internal gear, the tooth profi an external gear. Becaure FIGURE 4.22 Bear is meshed with a pinion instead mal gears to derive cert CYCLODAL GEARS FIGURE 4.24 Hobbin Cincinnati 6: ig internal gear, (Courtesy of ‘ear Company.) 4.10 CYCLOIDAL GEARS Even though the eycloidal ely replaced by the involute, the Fea tLPtoile possesses corn advantages worthy ofuote phere, are discussed briefly below, Cyoloidal gears do not have interference, gear has been lay and 2 cycloidal tooth is in generat 163,164 SPUR GEARS fA FIGURE 4.25 yc ove stronger than an involute tooth because it has spreading flanks in contrast to the segar flanks of an involute tooth. Also, cycloidal teeth have less sliding. and therefore ess wear. Figure 4.25 shows acycloidal gear tooth and, for comparison, fn involute tooth. However, an important disadvantage of cycloidal gearing is the fact that for a pair of cycloidal gears there is only one theoretically correct ea ter distance for which they will transmit motion at a constant angulas-velocity seh. Another disadvantage is that, although it is possible to hob a eycloidal gear, the bob is not as easly made as an involute bob because eyloidal rick Bears are not straight-sided as are involute rack teeth. For this reason, involute fears can be produced more accurately and more cheaply than eycloidal gears. ‘Tovolute gears have completely replaced cycloidal gears for power transmission However, cyeloidal gears are extensively used in watches, clocks, and vate instraments in cases where the question of interference and strength is & {rime comsderation, In watches and clocks, the gear train from the power source Toe escapement steps up or increases its angolar velocity ratio with the gear ‘having the pinion. In a watch, this step-up may be as high as 5000:1. The gears oil therefore be so small that in order to avoid using excessively small teeth, it Je necessary to use pinions (the driven gears in this case) having as few as six or ‘sen teeth. ‘The tooth profile of these pinions must also be capable of action ser 6f of rotation. For this purpose, cycloidal gears are used in preference to rrotute gears. The problem of center distance and angular-velocity ratio is not important inthis cate because the whole train as governed by the esapement imnPies to rest and then starts again several times per second. The operation of he tein thus involves such large changes of momentum that the effect of tooth foam on change of momentum is negligible. The effect of tooth form on con sistency of velocity ratio is thus unimportant in itself. Problems—U.S. Standard “dau An involts is generated on a ase ce having a rave Ry of 4.000 in. 4s the 4a a iMppnerstedy the angle which corresponds to inv @ varies from to 15, For eg for dis angle, calzaate the corresponding pressure ange @ and radius saree onthe iqvolute, Plt the seis of points In polar coordinates an connect srt a smooth curve to give the involute. . 112. Write a computer program for Problem 4.1 letting Ry ‘Beiermine the corresponding values of pressure angle & and Ry 43, The thi = 3.000, 4.000, and 5.000 in, ‘radius R for each valve of scenes of an involute gear tooth is 0.3140 in, ata radius of 3.500 in, end a CYCLOIDAL GEARS 165 pressure angle of 144", Calculate the tooth thickness and radius ata point onthe involute ‘whieh has a pressure angle of 25°. 44, Ifthe involutes that form the outline ofa gear tooth are extended, they will intersect ‘andthe tooth become pointed. Determine the radius at which this occurs fora tooth which thas a tickness of 0.2620 in, ata radius of 4.000 in. and a pressure angle of 20° 48. The thickness of an involute gear tooth is 0.1960 in, at a radius of 2.000 in, and a ‘pressure angle of 20". Calculate the tooth thickness on the base circle. 44. The pitch radii of two spur gears in mesh are 2.000 and 2.500 in., and the outside radii are 2.250 and 2.750 in., respectively. The pressure angle is 20°. Make « fullsize layout ofthese gears as showo in Fig. 4.10, and label the beginning and end of contact ‘The prions the driver and rotates clockwise. Determine and label the angles of approach and recess for both gears. {4.7. A pinion of 2.000 in pitch radius rotates clockwise and drives a'rack. The pressure ‘angle i 20", and the addendum of the pinion and of the rack is 0.2000 in. Make a full- tize layout of these gears, and label the beginning and end of contact. Determine and Jabel the angle of approach and recess for the pinion. 4.8, Two equal spur gears of 48 teeth mesh together with pitch radii of 4.000 in. and ‘addendums of 0.1670 in, Ifthe pressure angle is 14)", calculate the length of action Z and the costact ratio my. 49. Contact ratio is defied either as the aré of action divided by the circular pitch or fas the ratio of the length of action to the base pitch. Prove that Arcot action _ Length of action ‘Greular pitch ~~ Base pitch 4.40. Verify Eq. 4.7 for the length of action Z for a pinion driving a rack in terms ofthe pitch radius R, the base radius Ry, the addendum a, and the pressure ange é. 4:1. A pinion with a pitch radius of 1.500 in. drives a rack. The pressure angle is 44". Caleuate the maximum addendum possible for the rack without having involute interference on the pinion. 4.22. A Ztooth pinion cut with a 12-pitch, 20° fll-depth hob drives a:40-tooth gear. Calculate the pitch radii, base radii, addendum, dedendum, and tooth thickness on the pitch sree. 443, Aa 18-tooth pinion cut with an &-pitch, 25° hob drives a 45-tooth gear. Calculate ‘he pitch radii, base radii, addendum, dedendum, and the tooth thickness on the pitch circle 444, A 42-tooth pinion eut with a 120piteh, 20 fll-depth hob drives a 90-tooth gear CCalouate the contact rato. ‘45, Tf the rads of a pinion and gear are increased so that cach becomes a rack, the Tengih of ation theoretically becomes a maximum, Determine the equation forthe Tength of acion under these conditions and calculate the maximum contact ratio for 14H", 20°, and 25° full-depth systems. 4.16. A.20-ooth pinion cot with a 4-piteh, 20° stub hob drives a rack. Calculate the pitch adits, base radius, working depth, whole depth, and the tooth thickness of the rack on the pitch lin. AAT. A.20°fulldepth rack has an addendum of 0.2500 in, Calculate the base pitch, and Show it as a dimension on a full-size sketch of a portion of the rack, TORR mmm NNT aA mm~ wwwwdde"d wwwwwwwwewwwowowvw ~ wwewwvuwe 166 SPUR GEARS ‘42S Determine the numberof teeth ina 14" involute spur gear so thatthe base circle iameter will equal the dedendum cree diameter, i, Determine the following for «pac of standard spur gears in mesh: () an equation the ance egmtanee Cat a function of the sumbers of teth and ciametral pithy (2) deaaarious combinations of 20 fulldepth gears that can be used t0 operate areca. Gisance of 5.000 in, with an angular velocity ratio of 3:1. The diametal pct it ane ‘exceed 12 and the gears are not to be undercut. The gears are to be hobbed, 420, A 30-tooth pinion cut with « 6pite, ‘action and the contact ratio. 421, A 24-tooth pinion cut with a2-piteh, 20° ful-dey the pines en ckse 8360 rpm, determine graphically the velociy of siding beomeen na ion tooth andthe rack tooth a the beginning of contact, pitch point San eee ‘end of contact, Use a scale of lin, = 10 fs Saar .ate shafts whose axes are 8.500 in, apart are to be coupled together by standard rein sees with an angular velocity ratio of 1.5:1. Using a diamtral pitch of 6 slog tg Pane os gaits to best fit the above requirements. What change inthe given dass sera have to be allowed if each set were to be used? pth hob drives a rack. If the pinion. 3th elements on the gear seis tums of the thread on the hob; position these elements by means of the nena, the daeeith Label the axis of the hob and gear blank, the lead angle ofthe hob at the direction of rotation of the hob and gear blank. 424. Fors pressure angle £22. the ful-depth stem, calclate the miu aunber of eth in paion to mesh with arack witout itvelutenetieecee hee barber ota na pinion fo mesh with geai equ sas wtioat ovens ase £25, A 24ooth pinion out wh an 8th, 2 flldopth hob ares Sorooe a Petrmine the ouside rai otha the addendum ie ofeach earsases he oe lntetereace point of te other. Calclate the ale off fr nee 4.26 Two equal gears ut with a Spite, 2 flledept ho mest other each hat the addendum cce ofeach gear pases through te nrieenee pee ot ae ae cont ois 1.62, cat the number fet adie oud ree eh 4.27. Two equal gears et with a 20 fall-degth hob Pitch, pies the addendum 4.28 Io the sketch of a standard gar shown in Fig 426 the eth are 2 fl dep the ich dame 480i, and the dametal pith 5, clate the ca of he ps ich contacts the profile at the pitch pont. Compute the dameter Dy meaarea oe, 420, A-40-ooth pinion cut with a 10-pitch, 14%*hob meshes witha rack with no backlash, the rack is pulled out 0.0700 in. calculate the backlash produced. $oik, An tooth pinion cut witha 12-pitch, 20° full-depth hob drives a gear of $4 teeth Prone et itance at which the gears operate is 3.050 i. caleulte the operating pressure angle. 431, A 36ooth pinion cut with a 10ptch, 144 hob drives a 6O-tooth gear. Ifthe center CYCLODAL GEARS 167 FIGURE 4. ae nd yn mt pe he it, (©) the operating pressure angle, and (¢) the backlash produced. (ra ra eer naa ear arte Quremierstern geniascsriesete hac eeeeeene =“ Gaon aie meat waeag at seb a Tec a a eae teeta ts Simm ahr atone erere a Sean santas mater Space eens rae ere mote: sei stava yiseaZaoweomen tS ier i awh en. mee ines by 0.050 in, compare acl prodse with reste og Problems—Metric sien ee rt kt gn SAeiea eats Siteminoscmvue eee168 SPUR GEARS AR for points on the involute. Plot this series of points in polar coordinates and connect ‘with smooth curve to give the invalute. 4.2m, ‘Write a computer program for Problem 4.1m, letting Ry = 762, 102, and 127 mm. Determine the corresponding values of pressure angle and radius R for each value of Re 43m, ‘The thickness of an iavolute gear tooth is 7.98 mm at a radivs of 88.9 mm and a pressure angle of 144". Calculate the tooth thickness and radius at a point on the involute which has a pressure angle of 2°. 4m, Ifthe involutes that form the outline ofa gear tooth ar extended, they willintersect ‘and the tooth becomes pointed. Determine the radius at which this occurs for a tooth ‘hich has a thickness of 6.65 mm ata radius of 102 mm and a pressure angle of 20" 45m. ‘The thickness of an involute gear tooth is 4.98 mm at a radius of 50.8 mm and a pressure angle of 20°. Calculate the tooth thickness on the base circle, 4.6m. ‘The pitch radii of two spur gears in mesh are 51.2 mm and 63.9 mm, and the ‘outside radii are 57.2 mm and 69.9 mm, respectively. The pressure angle is 20". Make a fullsize layout of these gears as shown in Fig. 410, and label the beginning and end of contact. The pinion is the driver and rotates clockwise. Determine and label the angles of approach and recess for both gears. 4.1m. A pinion of 50.0 mm pitch radius rotates clockwise and drives a rack. The pressure angle is 20°, and the addendum of the pinion and ofthe rack is $.00 mm. Make a full size layout of these gears, and label the beginning and end of contact. Determine and label the angle of approach and recess for the pinion. 4.8m, ‘Two equal spur gears of 48 teeth mesh together with pitch radii of 96.0 mm and addendums of 4.00 mm. Ifthe pressure angle is 0°, calculate the length of action Z and the contact ratio m,. 4.9m. Contact ratio is defined either as the arc of action divided by the cicular pitch or 25 the ratio of the length of action to the base pitch. Prove that Are of ation _ Length of ation Grvlarpitch ~~ Base pitch 410m. Verify Eq, 4.7 for the leogth of action Z for a pinion driving a rack in terms of the pitch radius R, the base radius Ry, the addendum a, and the pressure angle 6. 4.tim. A pinion with a piteh radius of 38.0 mm drives a rack. The pressure angle is 20", Calculate the maximum addendum possible for the rack without having involute inter- {erence on the pinion. : 412m. A 2-module, 20° pinion of 24 teeth drives a 40-tooth gear. Calculate the piteh radii, base radii, addendum, dedendurm, and tooth thickness on the pitch circle 413m. A 3-module, 20° pinion of 18 teeth drives a 45-tooth gear. Calculate the pitch rai, base radi, addendum, dedendum, toot thickness on the pitch circle, and the contact ratio. 4.l4m. A 0.2-modale, 20° pinion of 42 teeth drives a gear of 90 teeth. Calealate the contact ratio. 415m. If the radii ofa pinion and gear are increased so tbat each becomes a rack, the length of action theoretically becomes meximum. Determine the equstioa forthe length of action under these conditions and calculate the maximum contact ratio for 149", 20%, ‘rd 25° full depth systems. CYCLOIDAL GEARS 169 416m. “A 6-module, 20" pinion of 20 teth drives a rack. Caleulate the pitch radius, base radius, working depth, whole depth, and tooth thickness of the rack on the pitch line 417m, A 20° rack has an addendum of 6.00 mm. Caleulate the base pitch, and show i a5 a dimension on a full-size sketch of a portion ofthe rack. 418m. Determine the approximate number of teeth in a 20° involute spur gear so that the base circle diameter will equal the dedendum circle diameter 419m, Determine the folowing fora par of standard spur gears in mesh: (a) an equation {forthe center distance C as a function ofthe numbers of teeth and module; (b) the various ‘combinations of 20" gears that can be used to operate ata center distance of 120 mm with fan angular velocity ratio of 3:1. Tbe module is not to be less than 2, nod the gears are ‘otto be uadereut. "The gears are to be hobbed. 420m. A 4-module, 20° pinion with 30 teeth drives a rack, Calculate the length of action and the contact rato, 42m, A 12-module, 20° pinion with 24 teeth drives a rack. Ifthe pinion rotates counterclockwise at 360 rpm, determine graphically the velocity of sliding between the pinion tooth and the rack tooth at the beginning of contact, pitch point, and at the end of contact. 422m, Two shafts whose axes are 216 mm apart are to be coupled together by standard Spur goars with an angular velocity ratio of 1.5:1. Using a module of 4, select two pairs of gears to best fit the above requirements. What change in the given data would have to be allowed if each set were to be used?” 423m. A 3-module, 20° hob is used to cut a spur gear. The hob is right-handed with @ Jead angle of 2°40", a length of 75 mm, and an outside diameter of 75 mim. Make a fal. size sketch ofthe hob cutting a 48-tooth spur gear. The gear blank is 38 mm wide. Show the pitch ylinder ofthe hob on top of the gear blank with the pitch heli of the bob in correct relation tothe pitch element of the gear tooth, Show three tooth elements on the ‘gear and 1} tums of the thread on the hob; postion these elements by means ofthe normal ‘reular pitch, Label the axis ofthe hob and gear blank, the lead angle of hob, and the direction of rotation ofthe hob and gear biank. 424m, Fora pressure angle of 22.5%, calculate the minimum numberof teth ina pinion to mesh with 2 rack without involute interference. Also calculate the number of teeth in ‘pinion to mesh with a gear of equal size without involute interference. The addendum equals the module. 425m, A 3-module, 20 pinion with 24teoth drives a56-tooth gear. Determine the outside radi so that the addendum circ of each gear passes through the interference point of the other. Calculate the value of k for each gear. 426m, Two equal S-module, 20° gears mesh together such that the addendum circle of each gear passes through the interference point of the other. Ifthe contact ratio is 1.622, calculate the number of teeth and the outside radius on each gear. 427m. Two equal 20" involute gears are in mesh at the standard center distance. The ‘addendum circle of each gear passes through the interference point of the other. Derive ‘an equation for kas a function of N, where isthe number of teeth and kis a constant which, when multiplied by the module, gives the addendum, 428m. In the sketch of a standard gear shown in Fig. 4.27, the teeth are 20 fll depth. tthe pitch ameter is 120 mm and the module is 5, ealculie the radius ofthe pin which contacts the profile at the pitch point. Compute the diameter Dy messured over two opposite pins. 429m, A 2.S-module, 20° pinion with 40 teeth meshes with « rack with no backlash, If the rack is poled out 1.27 mm, calculate the backlash produced170 spur Gears FIGURE 4.27 isin Rican a onan ee tate ee an (8) the operating pressure angle, and (c) the backlash produced. “ sm . san, Acnste 9 patna Mca omer ee, Gta te ae ep rh ta ‘drawn apart the amount calculated in part a. ® cee ay = 3435 in e, = GL* 260.3690) . 1 "Far cos 20.59" ~ 3.4375 = 0.06096 in, NONSTANDARD SPUR GEARS CUT BY A PINION CUTTER 199 Problems—U.S. Standard 5.1. A12-tooth pinionisto be cut with a2-ptch, 20° hob. Make a layout of the theoretical G2) ack and pinion tooth at the standard seting és shown in Fig. 5.22. Draw the pinion ‘volute using the equations of involutometry. Show the effect on the pinion tooth of withdrawing the basic rack until its addendum line just passes through the interference point. This layout should be shown dotted and superimposed pon the frst sketch with the side ofthe rack tooth passing through the piteh point. Label the base circle, euting pitch circle, hob offset, pressure angle, and pitc lines (cutting and standard) ofthe rack. 52. A 24-tooth pinion is to be cut with a 10-ptch, 14)° hob, Caleulate the minimum distance the hob wil have to be withdrawn to avoid undercutting. Calculate the radius of the cutng pitch circle and the tooth thickness on the cutting pitch circle, 33. A26-ooth gears 1 be cut with a7pitch, 27 hob. Calevlate the maximum distance ‘the hob can be advanced into the gear blank without causing undercutting, Calculate the radius ofthe cutting pitch citele and the tooth thickness on the eutting pite circle. 54, A 2O0-ooth gear is cut by a 4piteh, 144" hob that has been withdrawn 0.10 in Determine if this hob offset is enough to eliminate undercutting, If so, caleulate the tooth, thickness on the cutting pitch irele and on the base circle, 55, A35-tooth gear isto be cut with a 4piteh, 14)" hob. Calculate the change in cutter seiting from its standard positon to give a tooth thickness of 0.400 in. on a circle for ‘which the pressure angle is 20% 5.6, A.20ooth pinion isto be cut with a G-pitch, 20° hob. What would be the change in cutter setting from its standard position to give a tooth thickness of 0.274 in, on a eile {or which the pressure angle is 144"? 5.1. A20ac for ge and that G@ta Circular pitch (normal plane) Ps Pp Pressure angle (plane of rotation) " Pressure angle (normal plane) + a Helix angle ¢ B Shatt angle = z See226 BEVEL, HELICAL, AND WORM GEARING Froposed International Standard ISO 701. Symbols which are the same as those for spur gears (Table 4.8) are not included. 69 PARALLEL HELICAL GEARS For parallel helical gears to mesh properly, satisfied the following conditions must be 4. Equal helix angles. 2, Equal pitches or modules, 4 Opposite hand, that is, one gear with a left-hand helix and the other with a right-hand helix. From Eq. 6.10, the velocity ratio can be expressed as 1 Ma _ Pa Dz 008 ty _ Dy 2 Ny ~ Py Dy cos ~ Dy ae) ‘The spur gear equation for center distance, (oh My) oR 8) + Nm c= MAMI orci can also be used for the plane of rotation, In parallel helical gear, the face width is made large enough so that for s1eiren helix angle W, the face advance is greater than the circular pitch, as illustrated in Fig. 6.21. Ie will give continuous contact in the axial plane as the gears rotate. This ratio (face advance to circulae pitch) may be considered as a Sontact ratio. From Fig. 6.21, it can be seen that to have the face advance just aval the circular pitch, the face width would have to equal p/tan p. To provide 4 margin of safety, the AGMA recommends that this limiting face width be ‘increased by at least 15%, which results in the following equation: Parallel helical gears provided P, is the diametral pitch in Fo Lie =e an) na tition fo the contact ratio resulting from the twist of the teeth, parallel helical gears will also have a contact ratio in the plane of rotation the seme as spur gears. The total contact ratio will therefore be the sum of these two values ‘nd is greater than that for spur gears. PARALLEL HELICAL GEARS 227 ¥ [i TF ace sdvence h—F FIGURE 6.21 FIGURE 6.22 Herringbone gears. (Courtesy of D. 0. ames Gear Manufacturing Company.) licl gests connecting parallel sats have line contact sinilar to spar gear However, nur use contac nes paral the a, ere hetcal gears, runs diagonally acros he face ofthe tooth, Parallel halal gers have smother action and hence les nose and vibration than spur gears an are ‘erefore tobe preferred forhigh-speed work. The reson forte smoother action is that the teth come int const gradually beginning atone end of the toa and progressing across the tooth surface, whereas in spar gear, contact takes place sltaneously over the entre face with, The daadvantage of poral Helical gars in the end thrst produced by the tooth heli If this end thrst iss lage that it cannot be conveniently erred by the bearings, it may be counterbalanced by using two lal gears of oppone and or Uy wing her Fingbone gear which isin effect a double heal gear cut on one blank Figure 622 shows a photograph ofa herringbone gear Exai ice that eds the oie le 6.1. Asan example of parle etal gear cone hat ina gear dive, Sooper gers of 30 and 80 tet, respenvely, ae tobe replaced by htc gens. The center dane andthe angularly ratio mt ema the sane228 BEVEL, HELICAL, AND WORM GEARING Determine the helix angle, the outside diameters, and the face width of the new gears. Assume the helical gears to be cut by « 16-pitch, 20° full-depth hob. From spur gear date N+M 30480 panera = 3.315 in, £ 2P, 2x16 > eM 5 Se a NMS For the helical gears, M+ Penis co MEM oy P16 2 = OM, Ness Now Aad 2G) C= 34375 in. Gikin.) By trial, find numbers of tet: mM m REMARKS 8 6 (Original spur gears 29-7733 1547 Ny not whole number 2% 7467 14.93—_N, not whole number ara) 14.40 Satisfactory to wse Therefore, Jet ‘There are other combinations of numbers of teeth and helix angle that wil satisfy the conditions, but the one listed should be selected because it will give the smallest helix angle. ‘The outside diameters ofthe two gears are Meese \ rotate A ( 8) Do, = D, + 2a Marl = B+ 4) = 2000%0. ™ 7 .of1) -sn5%n, Dy = D+ 22 = M4 af +22) = 5.05 CROSSED HELICAL GEARS 299 ‘Note that the addendum was calculated using the dismettel pitch of the hob (Py) ‘The face width is r> Use ian y Pm HA Gey a OaUsd in ‘Therefore, F> CANOE) 5 9 5199 in, tan 25.86 9 Fedin 6.10 CROSSED HELICAL GEARS For crossed helical gears to mesh properly, there is only one requirement, that is, they must have common normal pitches or modules. Their pitches in the plane of rotation are not necessarily and not usually equal. Their helix angles may or ‘may not be equal, and the gears may be of the same or of opposite hand. ‘From Eq. 6.10, the velocity ratio becomes 1 _ Ns | Pu Dz 00s vy _ Ds cos 2 Mi, Py Dy cosh, — Dy cos yy van I£¥ is the angle between two shafts connected by crossed helical’ gears and and i are the helix angles of the gears, then Zehek 6.9) ‘The plus and minus signs apply, respectively, when the gears have the same or the opposite hand, Equation 6.19 sillustrated in Fig, 6.23 showing pairs of crossed. helical gears in and out of mesh. ‘The action of crossed helical gears is quite different from that of parallel helical gears. Crossed helical gears have point contact. In addition, sliding action takes place along the tooth, which is not present in parallel helical gears. For these reasons, crossed helical gears are used to transmit only small amounts of power. An application of these gears is on the distributor drive on an automotive engine. ‘Using the principle of the velocity of sliding developed in Chapter 1, it is6 66 66 OOOO OO OOOO BOSGESSSSSIVSIIIGE 2300 weve, Hi xX tatshand) and itis required “nd en sate int Pat pal otic ne Mee a, tone poten ‘The two helices in contact at po occurs on the bottom of gear I FIGURE 6.24 WORM GEARING 231, Example 6.2. To illastrate crossed helical gears, considera pair of gears connecting two shafts at an angle of 60° with a velocity ratio of 1.5:1. The piaion has a normal iametral pitch of 6a pitch diameter of 7.75 in. and a belxaogle of 35". Determine the helix angle andthe pitch diameter ofthe gear andthe numbers of teeth on both the pinion and the gear ‘To find the helix angle ofthe gear, sssume both geers have the same hand. Then, Bahth where E = 60" and yy = 35%. Therefore, waar ‘The pitch diameter of the gear can be determined as follows: 1M _ Da cos ty Dy cos Dy DeSO8 Hee 2 , 750)(c08 355115) oe cost: oy cos Dy = 1050in, ‘The numbers of teeth on the pinion and on the gear are 1M, = Puy Dy eos y= 38 = (6)(7.750)(c08 35%) Ms = MS = Gaya.) M=57 6.1. WORM GEARING Ifa tooth on @ helical gear makes a complete revolution on the pitch cylinder, the resulting gear is known as « worm. The mating gear for a worm is desiguated a8 a worm gear, or worm wheel; however, the worm gear is not a helical gear. ‘A. worm and worm gear are used to connect nonparallel, nonintersecting shafts usually at right angles. See Fig. 6.25. The gear reduction is generally quite large. Tae relation between a spur or helical gear and its hob during cutting is similar to the relation between a worm and a worm gear. Worms that are true involute helical gears may be used to drive spur orhelical gears, but point contact obviously results, which is unsatisfactory from the standpoint of wear. It is possible, however, to secure line contact by mating the worm with a worm gear that has been cut with a hob having the same diameter and same form of tooth as the worm. IE this is done, the worm and worm gear will be conjugate, but the worm will232. BEVEL, HELICAL, AND WORM GEARING Gear & Manufacturing Corp.) (6) Hourglass worm and worm gear. (Cour tesy of Cone Drive Gears, Division of Michigan Tool Company.) WORM GEARING 233 not have involuie teeth. Figure 6.26a shows a sketch of a worm, where bis the lead angle, y.the helix angle, p, the axial pitch, and D the pitch diameter. The axial pitch of the worm is the distance between corresponding points of adjacent threads measured parallel to the axis, In considering the characteristics of a worm, the leed is of primary importance and may be defined as the axial distance that a point on the helix of the worm will move in one revolution of the worm. The relation between the lead and axial pitch is L= pd (6.20) where N, is the number of threads (or teeth) wrapped on the pitch cylinder of the worm. A worm may be obtained with one to ten threads. If a complete revolution of a thread on a worm is unwrapped, a triangle results as shown in Fig. 6.26b. From the figure, it can be seen that L mh = 52 tnd = 6.21) where D, is the diameter of the worm. 2 ‘The diameter of a worm gear can be calculated from = BM (6.22) The velocity ratio is G Dy cos Wy ce w o FIGURE 6.266 66 66 OO OOOO OE OOOO OOS HOHHUSSBIIIIGE 234 BEVEL, HELICAL, AND WORM GEARING TABLE 6.4 Worm Gear Symbols AGMA Iso 701 ‘Gireular pte (worm gear) > Axial pitch (worm) is mk Helix angle v ni Lead angle a : —— and es a7 > 624) for shafts at right angles, For a worm and worm ge ie ftoing conto’ must be sataee, "EH mer 0 mesh pope, 1. Lead angle of worm 2 asl ore of Worm = helix angle of worm gear * circular piteh of worm gear nly by the wou. However, worm ive leased be Sxample 6.3. As an exary Worm gear of 60 tect f the worm gear is 14 in, ple of worm geating, consider at ‘the shaft angle is 90° ts show in Fi 1 and the piteh diameter of the wor ee orm \ gear? FIGURE 6.27 Wor 1 WORM GEARING 235, lead angle of the worm, the belix angle ofthe worm gear, and the distance between shaft centers, ‘The lead angle ofthe worm can be found from L= pM whee py L = 1250 x3 = 3:750in, E3150 aD." we 30 P tan = 0316 ‘Therefore, hee ‘The hex angle of the worm gear equals the lead angle ofthe worm. Therefore, wean ‘The center distance is found by = Ms _ (2500) Dix Dy _ 3.000 + 23.50 z z 23.90, = 13.85 in, Problems—U.S. Standard 6.1, A pair of bevel gears have a velocity ratio of w/o, and the shaft centernes intersect at an atgle Z. I distances x and y are laid off from the intersection point along the shaft axes inthe ratio w/t, prove thatthe diagonal ofa parallelogram with sides and y will bbe the common pitch cone element of the bevel gears 62. A.Gleason crown bevel gear of 24 teeth and a diametral piteh of Sis driven by a 16-tooth pinion. Caleulate th pitch ciameter and pitch angle of the pinion, the addendum ‘and dedendum, the face width, and the pitch diameter ofthe gear. Make a full-size axial sketch of the pinion and gear in mesh using reasonable proportion fo the hubs and webs as shown in Fig. 6.7a, 63. A Gleason crow bevel gear of 48 teeth and a diametral pitch of 12 is driven by a 24-tooth pinion. (a) Caleulate the pitch angle ofthe pinion and the shaft angle. (b) Make 4 sketch (to scale) ofthe pitch cones of the two gears in mesh. Show the back cones of ‘each gear and label the pitch cones and the back cones. 6.4. A pair of Gleason miter gears have 20 teeth and a diametral pitch of 4. Calculate the pitch diameter, the addendum and dedendam, the face width, the pitch cone distance, the face angle, the root angle, ané the outside diameter, Make a full-size axial sketch of the geas in mesh using reasonable proportions forthe hub and web as shown in Fig. 6.7a. Dimension the draving with the values ealculated, 65. A Gleason G-itch, straight bevel pinion of 21 teeth drives e gear of 27 teeth. The shaft aagle is SO". Calculate the pitch angles, the addendums and dedendums, and the236 BEVEL, HELICAL, AND WORM GEARING face width of each gear, Make a full-size axel sketch ofthe gears in mesh using reasonable proportions forthe hubs and webs as shown in Fig. 6.7a. 66, A Gleason ¢-pitch, straight bevel pinion of 14 teeth drives a gear of 20 teeth. The Shaft angle is 0". Calculate the addendum and dedendum, circular tooth thickness for each pear, and the pitch and base radii of the equivalent spur gears. Make a fullsize sketch of the equivalent gears showing two teeth in contact as in Fig. 6.7b 6.1, A Gleason S-pitch, staight bevel pinion of 16 teeth drives a gear of 24 teeth. The shaft angle is 45%. After making the necessary calculations, lay out a fullsize axial sketch of the pinion and gear in mesh using reasonable proportions for the hubs and webs as shown in Fig. 6.7 6.8. A pair of Gleason bevel gears mesh with a shatt angle of 7°. The diametral pitch 4s 10, and the numbers of teeth in the pinion and gear are 30 and 40, respectively. (a) Calculate the pitch angles and the addendums and dedendums of the pinion and gear. (B) ‘Make a fullsize sketch of the pitch enone an the back cones of the two gears in aozh Label the piteh cones, back cones, and pitch angles of both gear. (c) Mark off (double size) the addendum and dedendum of the pinion on the sketch and clearly label them. 69. Prove withthe aid of a suitable sketch that in a Gleason straight tooth bevel gear the addendum angle of the pinion equals the dedendum angle ofthe gear and that T Tre. 6.10. A 1¢-to0th helical gear is to be cut by @ 10-piteh, 20° hob. Calculate the following: (©) the minimum helix angle which this gear must have to be cut at the standard seting Without undercuting. (b) the amount the hob will ave to be withdrawn to avoid undercutting if the helix angle ofthe gear is made 20°, GUL. A 12-tooth helical pinion is to’be cut with an &-ptch, 20° hob. Tf the helix angle is to be 20", ealeulate the amount the hob will have to be witherawn to avoid undercutting 6.12, Two equal spur gears of 48 teeth, 1 in. face width, and 6 diametral pitch mesh ‘together in the drive ofa fatigue tester. Caleulate the helix angle of a pair of helical gears to replace the spur gearsif the face width, center distance, and velocity ratio are to remain ‘the same. Use the following cutter: (a) Fellows of 6 diametral pitch, (6) hob of 6 normal ‘iametral piteb. 6.13. Two standard spur gears were cut with a 10piteh, 20° hob to give a velocity ratio (of 35:1 and center distance of 6.75 in. Helical gears are to be cut with the same hob to replace the spur gears keeping the center distance and angular-velocty ratio the same. Determine the helix angle, numbers of teeth, and face width of the new gears keeping the heli angle to a minimum, 6.14, ‘Two standard spur gears are to be replaced by helical gears. The spur gears were cut by an &pitch, 20° hob, the velocity rato is 1.75:1, and the center distance ie 5.5 in ‘The helical gears are to be cut with the same hob and maintain the same center distance. ‘The helix angle is to be between 1S* and 20° and the velocity rtio between 1.70 and 1.75 Find the numbers of teeth, helix angle, and velocity ratio, GAS, In a proposed gear drive, two standard spur gears (16 diametral pitch) with 36 and 100 teeth, respectively, are meshed atthe standard center distance, Itis decided to replace those spur gears with helical gears having a helix angle of 22° and the same number of teoth. Determine the change in center distance required ifthe helical geare are eut (2) with a 16-piteh, 20° hob, (6) with « 16-ptch, 20° Fellows cutter 6.16. A pair of helical gears for parallel shafts are to be cut with an 8-pitch, 25°hob. The helix sngle isto be 20" end the center distance between 6.00 and 6.25 in. ‘The angular- velocity ratio is to approach as closely as possible 2:1. Calculate the circular pitch and WORM GEARING 237 ‘the diametral pitch in the plane of rotation. Determine the numbers of teeth, pte di- meters, and center distance to satisly the above conditions. 6.17. A 10-ptch, 20-to0th spur pinion drives two gears, one of 36 teeth and the other of 48 teeth. Itis desired to replace al three gears with helical gears and to change the velocity ratio between the 20-iooth gear shaft and the 48-tooth pear shaft to 2:1. The velocity ratio and the center distance between the 20-tooth gear shaft and the 36-tooth gear shaft is to remsin the same. Using an &pitch, 20° stub hob and keeping the helix angle as low as possible, determine the number of teeth, helix angle and hand, face width, and outside tiameter for each gear, Caleulate the change in center distance between the shalt that originally mounted the 20- and 48-tooth gears. 6.18. “A 12-pitch, 2¢tooth spuy pinion drives two gears, one of 36 teeth and the other of 60 teeth. It is necessary to replace all three gears with helical gears keeping the same velocity ratios and center distances. Using a 16-pite, 20" stub hob and keeping the hel Angle as low as possible, determine the aumber of toth, helix augle aud su, face width, and outside diameter for ech gene. 6.419, Two parallel shatts are fo be connected by a pair of helical gears (gears 1 and 2) ‘The angular-velocity ratio isto be 1.25:1 and the center distance 4.5 in. In addition, geat 2is to drive a helical gear 3 whose shaft is at right angles to shaft 2. The angular-velocity ratio between gears 2 and 3 is to be 2:1. Using a9-ptch, 20° hob, determine the aumber of teeth, helix angle, and pitch diameter of each gear and find center distance Cs, (620, ‘Two parallel shafts are to be connected by a pair of helical gears (gears 1 and 2). ‘The angular velocity ratio is to be 1.75:1 end the center distance 2,75 in. In addition, gear 2is to drive a third helical gear (gear 3) with an angular velocity ratio of 2:1. Three hhobs are available for cutting the gears: hob A (7 pitch, 209, hob B (9 piteh, 20"), and hhob C (12 piteh, 207). (@) Choose the hob that wil result inthe smallest helix angle v. (@) Which hob will permit the shortest center distance Cy between shatis 2 and 3 while ‘maintaining a helic angle less shan 35°? 6.21, The formula for the center distance between two spur ar parallel helical gears is given by C = (N, + N)/2P, where Cis dependent upon the number of gear teeth N, {nd Ny and the diametral pitch Py. Show that Cy is independent of Pavfor three gears (spur or parallel helical) i mesh whose center distance Cy, and angular-velocity ratios ‘fey and wyley are known, 6.22, Two I8piteh spur gears of 36 and 90 teeth, respectively, are to be replaced by holical gears. The center distance and the velocity ratio are to remain the same. IC the ‘width ofthe gears cannot exceed in. because of space limitations, determine a pal of helical gears for this job keeping the helix angle as small ns possible, Use an 18piteh, 20° hhob, and determine the numbers of teeth, helix angle, face width, and outside diameters. 6.23, Two 18-piteh spur gears of 32 and 64 teeth, respectively, are to be replaced by helical gears. The center distance and velocity ratio are to remain the same. Ifthe width Of the gears cannot exceed 7 in. because of space limitations, determine which of the following hobs should be used keeping the heli angle at small as possible: hob A (18+ Pitch, 20°) or hob & (20-piteh, 20"). In addition, determine the numbers of teeth, hele angle, face width, and outside diameters. 6.24, Two parallel shafts are to be connected by a pair of helical gears (gears 1 and 2). ‘The angular velocity ratio isto be 18:1 and the center distance 3.50 in. Considering that hobs are available from 6 to 12 pitch (inclusive), tabulate the numbers of teeth, helix angle, and face widdh forthe various combinations (of Nand N;) that will satisfy the ven conditions. What is the best selection for this drive? Why? Let 15 be the lowest umber of teeth for the smaller gear at Pa = 6.OOOO OOO OOOO OOOOH EEOESGVHSSIIIIGE Gear 136 teeth, Gear 272 teeth, right-hand, 30° helix angle leftchand, 40° helix angle Determine the shaft an ale, the angular velocity page The oof gear 2 and the center distance may a» Day Das Nes Nis ts Ve aaa nc henge ees yaa Sen Swe ony dea ca SR and the nanben of pea eth Ma be aleeditncesay Tate ang te orignal an the now pec 6.28, A 2i-ooth heteal gear of angular veloc rato to be *op; the width of the gears isto footh element on top af the pint angle, conan 6.29. Two crossed sha is to be 1st and the cer itt 30 eth, 30° 6.30, Two cs sats are connect the shaft angle 45°, If D, wa fear have became he 631. Two shuts coed at cro tight anges ate ob connect SNM tt to be Hct andthe eter eetnce 500 in Ses sey HE a application to be cut by the Fellows method. Span Dell gees. The vlc a i Hn nd, 373, eae hele ae tnd the had ofeach gens andthe vse a 2 nd te vlc af a 634, An B-pitch, 14° hob is used to cut a heli an angle of 2°40", alent of 3.00 in al fear. The hob is sight-hand with a lead + and an outside diameter of 3.00 in. Make'a fllane WORM GEARING 239 sketch ofthe hob cutting a 47-tooth right-hand belical gear with a helix angle of 20. The ‘ear blank is 1 in. wide. Show the pitch cylinder of the hob on top of the gear blank with ‘the pitch heli ofthe hob in correct relation tothe pitch element ofthe gear tooth, Show three tooth elements on the gear and 1d tums of the thread on the hob; position these ) elements by means of the normal circular pit. Label the axis ofthe hob and gear blank, the lead angle of hob, the helix angle ofthe ger, and the direction of rotation af the hob and gear blank. 6.35. Repeat Problem 6.34 with alet-hand helical gear. 636. A double-threaded worm having a lead of 2.00 n. drives a worm gear witha velocity ratio of20:{; the angle between the shaftsis 9°, Irthe center distance is 9.00, determine the pitch diameter of the worm and worm gear. 637. A worm and worm gear with shafts at 90° and a center distance of 7.00 in. are to hhave a velocity ratio of 18:1. Ifthe axial pitch of the worm is to be in, determine the ‘maximum mimber of teeth in the worm and worm gear that can be used forthe dive and their corresponding pitch diameters. 638. A worm and worm gear connect shafts at 90°. Derive equations forthe diameters of the worm and worm gear in terms of the center distance C, velocity ratio wy, and lead angle 4. 639. A worm and worm gear with shafts at 90° and a center distance of 6.00 in. are to have a velocity ratio of 20:1. Ifthe axal pitch of the worm is to be Hin. determine the smallest diameter worm that can be used forthe drive 6440. A four-threaded worm érives a 60-tooth worm gear with shafts at 90°. Ifthe center distance is 8.00 in. and the lead angle of the worm 20%, calculate the axilpiteh of the ‘worm and the pitch diameters ofthe two gears, GL, A fourthreaded worm érives a 48-toath worm gear having a piteh diameter of 7.6¢ in. and a helix angle of 20" Ifthe shafs are at right angles, calculate the lead and the pitch diameter of the worm. 6.42. A sicthreaded worm drives a worm gear with en angular velocity rato of 8:1 and ‘shaft angle of 80°. The axial piteh ofthe werm is} in. end the lead angle 20". Calelate ‘the pitch diameters ofthe worm and worm gear and the circular pitch ofthe gear. 6.43. A five-threaded worm drives @ 3-too-h worm gear witha shaft sngle of 90°. The center distancs is 2.75 in. andthe lead angle 20°. Calelate the pitch diameters, the lead, and the axial pith of the worm, 6.44, A worm and worm gear with shafts at 90° and a center distance of 3.10 in. ae to havea velocity ati of 7:1. Using lead ange of 20", determine the pitch diameters and ‘numbers of teeth for the gears. Make the axl piteh a simple faction, 6.45. A worm and worm gear with shafts st 90° and a center distance of 3.00 in. are to have a velocity rato of 30:1. Determine a pair of gears for the job, and specify the ‘numbers of teeth pitch diameters, and lead engle. Make the axial pitch a simple fraction, Problems—Metric Gaim. A pair of bevel geass have a velocty ratio of wy/ay, and the shatt centertines intersect at an angle E. If distances x and y se laid off from the iaterseesion point slong the shaft axes in the ratio w/w, prove that the diagonal of a parallelogram with sides x and y willbe the common pitch cone clement ofthe bevel gears. (62m. A Gleason crown bevel gear of 24 teeth and a module of 5.08 is driven by a 16- tooth pinion. Calculate the pitch diameter and pitch angle of the pinion, the addendum240 BEVEL, HELICAL, AND WORM GEARING and dedendum, the face width, and the pitch diameter of the gear. Make a full-size axial sketch of the pinion and gear in mesh using reasonable proportions for the hubs and webs a5 shown in Fig. 6.7a. 6.3m. A Gleason crown bevel gear of 48 teeth and a module of 2.12 is driven by « 24- tooth pinion. (a) Calculate the pitch angle of the pinion and the shaft angle. (6) Make & sketch (to scale) ofthe pitch cones ofthe two gears in meth, Show the back cones of each gear and label the pitch cones and the back cones Gam. A pair of Gleason miter gears have 20 teeth and a module of 6.35. Caleuate the pitch diameter, the addendum and dedendum, the face width, the pitch cane distance, fhe fare angle, the root angle, andthe outside diameter, Make a fullsize aaial sketch of the gears in mesh using reasonable proportions for the hub and web as shown in Fig, 6.1a, ‘Dimension the drawing with the values calculated, 6.5m, A Glesson 4.23-module, straight bevel pinion of 21 teeth drives a gear of 27 teeth ‘The shalt angle is 90°, Calculate the pitch angles, the addendums and dedendaris, and the face width of each gear. Make a fullsize axial sketch of the gears in mesh using reatonable proportions for the hubs and webs as shown in Fig. 6.72 6.6m, A Gleason 6.35-module, straight bevel pinion of 1¢ teeth dives a goar of20 teeth ‘Tho shaft angle is 90". Calculate the addendum and dedendum, czcalar tooth thickness foreach gear, and the pitch and base radi of the equivalent spur geare. Make a full-size sketch of the equivalent gears showing two teeth in contact asin Fig. 6.76. 6.im, A Gleason 5.08-module, siraght bevel pinion of 16 teeth drives a gear of 24 teeth, ‘The shaft angle is 45°. After making the necessary calculations, ay out a fullsize axial sketch ofthe pinion and gear in mesh using reasonable proportions forthe hubs and webs as showo in Fig. 6.72. 6.8m. A pair of Gleason bevel gears mesh with a shaft angle of 75%. The module is 2.54, ‘nd the numbers of teeth in the pinion and goat are 30 and 40, respectively. (a) Calculate the pitch angles and the addendums and dedendums of the pinion and gear. (6) Make a full-size sketch of the piteh cones and the back cones of the two gears in mesh. Label the pitch cones, back cones, and pitch angles of both gears. (e) Mark off (double size) the ‘addendom and dedendum of the pinion on the sketch and clearly label them, 465m. Prove with the sid of a suitable sketch that in a Gleason straight tooth bevel gear the addendum angle of the pinion equals the dedendum angle of the gear and that I Tea 610m, A 14-tooth helical gear is to be cut by 2 2.5-module, 20° hob. Caleulate the following: (a the minimum helix angle which this gear must have to be cut atthe standard setting without undereuttng; (b) the amount the hob will have tobe withdrawn to avoid ‘ndercotting if the helix angle ofthe gear is made 20 G.tim, A 12-ooth helical pinion is to be cut with a 3-module, 20° hob. Ifthe helix angle {to be 20", caleulate the amount the bob will have tobe withdrawn to avoid undercutting, 6.12m. Two equal spur gears of 48 teeth, 25.4 mm face width, and of a 4 module mesh together in the drive ofa fatigue tester. Caleulate the helix angle of a pair of helical gears (o teplace the spur gears ifthe tace width, center distance, and velocity ratio are to remain the same, Use the following cutters: (a) 4-module Fellows, (6) 4-normal-module hob. 6.13m, ‘Two standard spur gears were cut with 2 25-module, 20° hob to give a velocity ratio of 3.5:1 and center distance of 168.75 mai. Helical gears are tobe cut with the same hhob to replace the spur gears Keeping the center distance and angular-velocity ratio the same. Determine the helix angle, numbers of teeth, and face width of the new gears keeping the belx angle to a minimum. WORM GEARING 247 6.1m, ‘Two standard spur gears are to be replaced by helical gears. The spur gears were cut by a 3-module, 20” hob, the velocity rato is 1.75:1, and the eenter distance is 132 tm. The helical gears are to be cut with the same hob and maintain the same center distance. The helix angle isto be between 15" and 20° and the velocity ratio between 1.70 and 1.95. Find the numbers of teeth, helix angle, and velocity rato. 6.1sm. In a proposed gear drive, two standard spur geats (J.S-riodule) with 36 and 100 teeth, respectively, are meshed at the standard center distance. It is decided to replace these spur gears with helical gears having a helix angle of 22° and the same numer of teeth. Determine the change in center distance required ifthe helicel gears are cut (a) with 41 Ssmodule, 20° hob, (8) with a 1.5-module, 20° Feliows ealter 6.16m. A pair of helical gears for parallel shafts are to be cut with n 3-module hob. The helix angle isto be 20" and the center distance between 152.40 and 158.75 mm. The angular velocity ratio is to epproach 2:1 as closely as possible. Calculate the circular pitch and the module in the plane of rotation. Determine the numbers of teeth, pitch diameters, and center distance to satisfy the above conditions. 6.ttm. A 2.5-modvle, 20-toath spur pinion drives two gears, one of 36 teeth and the other of 48 teeth. Tt is desired to replace all three geare with helical gears and to change: the velocity ratio between the 20ooth gear shaft and the 48-tooth gear shaft to 2:1. The velocity ratio and the center distance between the 20-tooth gear shaft end the 3écooth ‘ear shaft is to remain the same. Using a 3-module, 20° hob and keeping the helix angle as low as possible, determine the number of teeth, helix angle and hand, face width, and ‘ulside diameter for each gear. Calelate the change in eenter distance between the shafts that originally mounted the 20- and 48-tooth gears. 6.18m. “A 2-module, 2-tooth spur pinion drives two gears, one of 36 teeth and she other of 60 teeth, Te is necessary to replace all three gears with helical gears keeping the same velocity ratios and center distances. Using a 1.5-module, 20° hob and keeping the helix angle as low as possible, determine the number of teeth, Nex angle and hand, tece width, and outside diameter for each gear. 6.19m, ‘Two paralle! shafts are to be connected by a pair of helicel gears (gears 1 and 2) The angular-vlocity rato is to be 1.25:1 and the center distance 134.3 mm. In addition, Bear 2 is to drive a helical gear 3 whose shaft is at right angles to shaft 2. The angula velocity ratio between gears 2 and 3 is to be 2:1. Using a 2.75-module, 20° hob, deter- ‘mine the number of tet, helix angle, and pitch diameter of each gear and find center distance Cy, 6.20. ‘wo parallel shafts are to be connected by a pair of helical gears (gears 1 and 2). ‘The angular-velocity ratio is tobe 1.75:1 and the center distance 69.85 mm. In addition, ‘Bear 2 isto drive a third helical gear (gear 3) with an angular-velocty ratio of 2:1. Tres hobs are availabe for cuting the gears: hob A (3.S-module), hob B (2.75module), and hob C (@module). (a) Choose the hob that will result in the smallest helix angle ¥. (5) ‘Which hob will permit the shortest center distance C, between shafts 2 and 3 while maintaining a helix angle less than 35°? 6.1m. The formula for the center distance between cwo spur oF parallel helical gears 6 ven by C = [(N, + N;)/2}m, where C is dependent upon the number of gear teeth N, tnd Ns and the module m. Show that Cy is independent of m for three gears (spur oF Parallel helical) in mesh whose center distance C,, and angular-velocity ratios w/t and ‘glu, ate known, 6.22m. Two 1.5-module, 2” spur gears of 36 and 90 teeth, respectively, are tobe replaced by helical gears. The center distance and the velocity ratio are to remain the same. Tf heCO OOOO OOOO OHO OOOEOHHSSESHUSIIG:E 242. BEVEL, HELICAL, AND WoRM GEARING Re va ie termine a pit 1 tc angle as smallas posible. Use «1 Smauels ,Tespectively, are to be replaced | sto remain the same, Ifthe f Setermine which ping the helix angle as small as posible: hob A 25-module). [a of teeth, heli side diameters 624m, ‘Two parallel shafs are to be cor The at helix angle, and face width for th tons 0 ; ith forthe various comboations ot 9 and Neen iver conditions. What is the best selection for this 2 Wh rhay? it 15 be the ewe numberof tet othe anuller ea atm = fn SN? WHY? Let 1S be the lowest to have equal helix angles, calculate the module of a cutter to ger si te inion if the eutter is (a) a hob and (b) a Fell itter. De ie the change tates me Rige Snr ater | 6.26m. The following helical gears, cut wit ; om Hela eas, cut ih «2mode ho, me mesed ton (ear 1—36 tet, sght-han, 30" lc angle Gear2—72 teeth, ethan 40 ee se Detemine the ssn, the angulceocy a, snd the center di Sa ead eh age nonin bk ean) ‘oil 2 hob, Bath ears ae it hand and toe ene 15:4, = 131.64 mm and y = 60 A design modifeaion een eee 35 mm to provide erins fr tae sed for cating any new gear show tas ee enging te veloc rai, the tal gle, 0.d. of gear 2 and the cente sy tealinet of gear I can be reduced without eh ‘numbers of geat teeth Nand Ne The if necessary. In the analysis calculate and ogoaee 4 stearate calculate and compare the folowing dat fox bath fe cr 8 REW BEATE Cy Dy, De Ni My Qe nn nba roth he gal 628m. A 2i-toot helical gear ofa normal module angulr-veloity ratio isto be 2:1 and the cose oo cylinders) in contact similar to ‘opi the width ofthe gers is to be 25.0 mmm. Show the tooth 2 tooth element on top of the pinion. Label and dimension angie 6.5m. ‘Two crossed shafts are to be connected ratio is to be 14:1 and the center ¢ Fig. 6.24 with the pinion on elements in contact and also the helix angle and the shaft by hole! gat Te engularetc tance 2159 mm. Ione pear hala ae WORM GEARING 243 6.30m. Two crossed shafts are connected by helical gars. The velocity ratio is 18.1:1 and the shaft angle 45°. If D, = 57.735 mm and D, = 93.175 mm, calculate the helix angles if both gears have the same hand. 631m. ‘Two shafiscrossed at rightangles are td be connected by helical gears. The engular- velocity ratio is to be 14:1 and the center distance 125.0 mam. Select a pair of gears for this application to be eat by the Fellows method. 6.321, Two crossed shafts are connected by helical gears. The velocity rato is 3:1, the shaft angle 60, and the ceater distance 254.0 mm. Ifthe pinion bas 35 teeth and a normal ‘module of 3, calculate the helix angles and piteh diameters if the gears are ofthe seme hand, 633m. A helical pinion of 50.0 mm pitch diameter drives a helical gear of 84.0 mm siameter as showa in Fig. 6.24, 2 = 30°, Let the velocity ofthe pitch point of gear t be represented by a vector 50.0 mm ong and that of gear 2 by a vector 72.5 mm long. Using 4 face width of 26.0 mm for the gears, graphically determine the tooth element on the top of each gear, the helix angle and the band of each gear, and the velocity of siding 6m. A 3-module, 20° hob is used to cut a helical gear. The hob is right-hand with a Jead angle of "40, a length of 5 mm, and an outside diameter of 75 mm. Make a fall- size sketch of the hob cutting a 47-toath right-hand helical gear with a helix angle of 20°, ‘The gear blank is 38 mm wide. Show the piteh cylinder of the hob on top of the gear ‘lank with the pitch helix ofthe hob in correct relation to the pitch element ofthe gear tooth. Show three tooth elements on the gear and 11 turns ofthe thread on the hob; positon these clements by means ofthe normal cirular pitch. Label the axis of the hob and gear blank, the lead angle of hob, the helix angle of the gear, and the diection of rotation of the hob and gear blank 635m, Repeat Problem 6.34m with a left-hand helical gear 636m. A double-headed worm having a lead of 64.292 mam drives a worm gear with a velocity ratio of 191:1; the angle between the shafts s 90, Ifthe center distance is 235.0 mmm, determine the piteh diameter of the worm and worm gear 6.3m. A worm and worm gear with shafts at 9° and a center distance of 178.0 mm ate to have a velocity ratio of 17}:1. Ifthe axial piteh of the worm is to be 26.192 mm, determine the maximum number of teeth in the worm and worm gear that can be used forthe drive and their corresponding pitch diameters. 638m. A worm and worm gear connect shatts at 90°. Derive equations for the diameters ‘of the worm and worm gear in terms of the center distance C, velocity ratio wy/oy and lead angle 639m. A worm and worm geae with shafts at 90" and a center distance of 152.0 mm are tohaveaa velocity ratio of 20:1 Ifthe axial pitch ofthe worm isto be 17.463 mn, determine the smallest diameter worm that can be used forthe driv, 6am. A double-threaded worm drives @31-tooth worm gear with shafts at 90°. Ifthe center distance is 210.0 mm and the lead angle of the worm 18.83%, calculate the axial pitch of the worm and the pitch diameters of the two gears. GAim. A three-threaded worm drives a 35-tooth worm gear having a pitch diameter of 207.8 mm and a helix engle of 21.08" Ifthe shafts are at right angles, caleulate the lead and the pitch diameter of the worm, 6.2m, A fovr-threaded worm drives a worm gear with an angular-velocity rato of f¥:1 and a shaft angle of 90%. The axial pitch ofthe worm is 18.654 mm and the lead angle 27.22". Caleulate the pitch diameters of the worm snd worm gear.244 BEVEL, HELICAL, AND WORM GEARING GA3m. A six-toreaded worm drives a 41-tooth worm gear with shaft angle of 90°, The ‘enter distance is 88.90 mm and the lead angle 26.98. Calculate the pitch diameters, the lead, and the axial pitch of the worm, 64m. A worm and worm gear with shafts st 90° and a center distance of 76.20 mm are tohavea velocity ratio of 7:1. Usinga lead angle of 28.88, determine the pitch diameters. Select numbers of teeth for the gears considering worms with 1 to 10 threads. 6.5m. A worm and worm gear with shafts at 90° and a center distance of 102.0 mm are to have a velocity ratio of 16:1 and # lead angle of the worm of 13,63". Determine the various pairs of gears that can be used considering worms with one to ten threads. Specify the numbers of teeth and pitch diameters. Chapter Seven Gear Trains 7.1 INTRODUCTION TO GEAR TRAINS Often, it is necessary to combine several gears and to obtain by so doing what is known as a gear train. Given the input angular velocity to a gear train, itis important to be able to determine easily the angular velocity of the output gear ‘and its direction of rotation. The ratio of the input angular velocity to the out= put angular velocity is known as the angular-velocity ratio and is expressed as if doue Figure 7.1 shows a pinion driving an external spur gear and a pinion driving ‘an internal spur gear. In both cases, the angular-velocity ratio is inversely proportional to the number of teeth as indicated. The external gears rotate in opposite Girections, and the internal gear rotates in the same direction as its pinion. This is indicated by a minus sign on the velocity ratio in the first case and by a plus sign in the second case. Up to the present time, it has been unnecessary to assign POO 008886860606 Rhb dba enkhmeaname246 GEAR TRAINS ‘an algebraic sign to the angular-velocit gears are combined to because it indicates dire: of planetary gear trains. Occasionally, itis necessary to change the direction without changing it ity ratio of a pair of gears. However, when sive a gear train, itis important to consider the sign ction of rotation. This is especially true in the analysis of rotation of a gear ts angular velocity, This can be done by placing an idler gear between the driven gear and the driver gear. When an idler gear is used. the ‘direction of rotation is changed but the velocity ratio remains the same, 1 can be shown that the angular-velocity ratio of a gear train where all Bears have fixed:axes of rotation is the product of the number of teeth of all the Griven gears divided by the product of the number of teeth of all the driving sears. This relation is given in equation form by Suir _ Product of teeth of driven gears ou given Product of teeth of driving gears a) 7 illustrate the use of Eq. 7.1, consider the gear train of Fig. 7.2, where Sear 2 and gear 3 are mounted on the same shaft. The angular-velacity ratio is siven by oe 1 MXM Oot 04 NM, ‘The plus signis determined by observation. That the preceding equation iscomect FIGURE 72 INTRODUCTION TO GEAR TRAINS 247 But Therefore, ducer. (Courtesy of hing, Tae)248. GEAR TRAINS ‘When two gears are fixed to the same shaft as gears 2 and 3 in Fig. 7.2, the gears form a compound gear. Although the angular-velocity ratio is used for calculations involving just cone pair of gears, it is more convenient when working with a gear train to use the reciprocal of the angular-velocity ratio. The reason for this i thatthe angular velocity of the driver wil be known from the speed of the motor, and it ismecessary ‘only to multiply the speed of the driver by a factor to find the speed of the last gear in the train. This reciprocal is known as the érain value and is given in equation form by ayoey _ Product of teeth of driving gea ai of ing gears ca @aue Product of teeth of driven gears In general, gear velocities step down so that this value will be less than 1.00. A ‘typical gear train is illustrated in the triple-reduction speed reducer shown in Fig. 73. 12 PLANETARY GEAR TRAINS To obtain a desired gear ratio, itis often advantageous to design a gear train so that one of the gears will have planetary motion. With this motion, a gear will be so driven that it not only rotates about its own center but at the same time its center rotates about another center. Figures 7.4a and 7.4b show two planetary ‘gear trains, where gear 1 is often referred to as the sw gear and gear 2 as the planet goat. In Fig. 7.4a, arm 3 drives gear 2 about gear 1, which is a fixed external gear. As can be seen, gear 2 rotates about its center B while this center rotates about center A. As gear 2 rolls on the outside of gear 1, a point om its surface will generate an epicycloid. Figure 7.45 shows the case Where gear 1 is ‘an internal gear. In this case, a hypocycloid will be generated by a point on the surface of gear 2, Because of the curves generated, a planctary gear train is often referred to as an epicyclic, or cyclic, gear train. eis more difficult to determine the angular-velocity ratio of 2 planetary ‘gear train than that of an ordinary train because of the double rotation of the Moving xs ot Fite as of ‘olin of ‘atone ear’ m3 ; cra ° ‘gear 2 FIGURE 74 PLANETARY GEAR TRAINS 249 planet. The angular-velocity ratio may be obtained by the instantaneous center ‘method, the formula method, or the tabulation method. The instantaneous center ‘method will be reserved for Chapter 8, with the other two methods presented here. The formula method will be treated first. InFig. 7.4, let it be required to determine w,, given w,,. It should be noted that ois defined asthe angular velocity of gear 2 relative to gear Land eg defined as the angular velocity of arm 3 relative to gear 1. Because gear 1 is fixed, this is the same as the angular velocity of gear 2 and of arm 3 relative to the ground. In the solution of the problem, was/as plays an important part Consider the gear train in Fig. 7.4a to be changed so that arm 3 is stationary instead of gear 1, Arm 3 then becomes the ground, and an ordinary gear train results. The ratio w,y/ws can therefore be evaluated as NIN». Ifthe mechanism is now returned to its original condition, that is, arm 3 moving and gear 1 fixed, the ratio w2y/o, will still be ~Ny/N,. The reason for this is that when a mechanism is inverted, the relative motion between links does not change. A solution for oy in terms of the known quantities ws, and w/o» can now be affected by writing an equation of wy, and dividing by ws, as follows: On = Oy, + Os Therefore, For Fig. 742, poe 1 MN and won (2) = For Fig. 740, and N, wneas(i 4) aan eee e @ aaa @ 6 ao aaa alin aia aia ate ae ein ate ain aleOOOO OHO SCOSESESOOEESSEIIGE ee ee 250 GEAR TRAINS From compariton of Eqs. 7.4 and 7.3, the corre algebras sign of outa bested a 2st tot te ease where al ofthe gears ole & yell asthe ar, Thi is lsat in Fig. 7.5, here wy and aga nde aed ‘2. In solving this Problem, ay/ws, is th tic Sacra it is apparent why itis important that By dividing the first equation by the second, SE (on ~ 04) = ay ~ 04 n> (lo emf 2s In deriving Eqs. 7.3 and 7.4, it velocity ratio of the gears relative to aay ‘was seen that in cach case the angular- the arm was first obtained, and then the oving ans ot ‘oltion et war? Fed ai of ‘oaten of, ear 3and of am Although PLANETARY GEAR TRAINS 25]. equations of relative velocity were written and combined to contain this ratio. ‘method is basic, it means that a new equation must be developed for eack planetary system encountered. To avoid this repetition, itis possible to derive a general equation which can be applied to any planetary gear train, Consider Fig. 7.5 again and the equations Oy = ox ~ 4 and. Bae Wy = Og Oy” Oy = om If in Fig. 7.5, gear 3 is considered the first gear and gear 2 the last gear, the preceding equation may be written as fa eae os) vice ‘84 velocity rato of lst gear to fit gear both relative to arm 0, = angular velocity of last gear in train relative to fied link ‘04 = angular velocity of arm relative to fixed link ‘oe = angular velocity of first gear in train relative to fixed link In using Eq. 7.5, it must be emphasized that the first gear and the last gear must be gears that mesh with the gear or gears that have planetary motion. Also, the first gear and the last gear must be on parallel shafts because angular velocities Cannot be treated algebraically unless the vectors representing these velocities are parallel. Equation 7.5 will now be used to write the equation for the gear train in Fig, 74a, Lot gear 1 be consideied the frst gear and gear 2 the last gear252. GEAR TRAINS Substituting these values gives LM _ @u~ oy 0 and, ae which agrees with Eq. 7.32. The application of Eq. 7.5 to a more complicated ‘asia is given i the followin exanple. clockwise (ewe from the Example 7.1, if 0m 6 and goat 5 in Fig. 76 ate divea clockwise ight end) ot 150 and 50 rads, respectively, determin oy in magnitude aad ection, ‘Use Bq. 7.5 and et gar S be the fst gear and gear 2th lat gear os ra x30 _35 oa x8 a acm Nov to aan en Mig saris Fined avs of Jy ‘eaten ch fear 2 ane at arm 8 \ md at a scan FIGURE 7.6 PLANETARY GEAR TRAINS 353 agen Am Moving mis ot ON : ath [seine ame Ha fad no. anced roy PE eons = roe fr 2 R 2aen ‘re ole 706 Zi FIGURE 17 Therefore, 25 we = #309 rade ‘Because the sign of wy is the same as that of ay and ug, ws in the same direction, namely, clockwise viewed from the right ead Occasionally, itis necessary to analyze a planetary gear train that cannot be solved by a single application of Eg. 7.5 as was done in Example 7-1. For instance, it « fixed internal gear 7 i added to the train of Fig. 7.6 to mesh with gear 4 as shown in Fig. 7.7 and it it required to calculate wm given un, it will be necessary {0 use En, 7.3 twee to solve the problem. The first application of Eq, 7.5 would consider gears 2, 3, 4, and 5 and the arm 6; and the second application would consider gears 2,3, 4, and? and the ‘nm 6, This will be ilustrated inthe following example. Example 7.2. 6, rotates clockwise (viewed from the right ené) at 60 rads, determine ‘64 and its recon of rotation (Fig. 7.7) Considering fist gears 2 3,4, and Sand arm 6, let gear 2 be the fist gear and pear 5 the last gear: Oy 7 en oe fe MXM 18x28 aL ey KN, 30x 20 7 35 POCO ROR ORO MARA RRA RAMAN ne© 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 OOOO OOOO ESF OGSSSOSTIIIISS 254 GEAR TRAINS Therefore, 2 a = ou a= oe 25 ay an” ae @ However, Bq, () cannot be solved beca ‘pecessary therefore to consider and gear 7 the last gear use it contains two unknowns, a and wg. Tis gears 2,3, 4, and and arm 6, Let gear? be the fist gear 6 By solving Eq. (6) for ag, a 5 — Wx 4s Fe = $10.86 ras From Eq. (a), a F@-o, a 3 @ ~ 1086) = wy ~ 10.5 Therefore, wy = 452.14 rds, wih the diection of rotation same a that of ny Example 7.3. Consider tat in the dit . Consider that inthe differential shown in Fi of shaft is 380 raisin the iceton shown and that of sha the angular veloity of shaft C see Use Eq, 7.5 and remember thatthe frst gear and the last gear selected for the vation mast be gens that mesh with he gears hat have anette a let gear 4 be the first gear and gear 7 the last ‘gear: ae aa ig. 7.8, the angular velocity ‘is 2000 rads. Determine PLANEARY GEAR TRAINS 255 ctaere Fe pan oe ‘\ Fi Teen ; jot ° ime fer wom Siete A oe fe ts 7 Yirom t FIGURE 7.8 Alo, sant nd sane ditions, a eee 0, = 0 na Dying te tos, * Too = 350 (650) + 350 406.3 + 350 56.3 radls and opposite direction to u, ‘The tabulation method is another convenient way of solving planetary gear problems. To illustrate its use, consider the gear train of Fig. 7.4a and the fol- Towing procedure: 1. Disconnect gear 1 from the ground and lock ito atm 3 together with gear 2. There can now be no relative motion among members 1, 2, and 3. 2, Rotate arm 3 (and gears 1 and 2) one positive revolution about center A. 3, Unlock gears 1 and 2 from arm 3. Hold arm 3 fired and rotate gear 1 one negative revolution, Gear 2 therefore rotates +Ny/N; revolutions.256 GEAR TRAINS PLANETARY GEAR TRAINS 257 ‘TABLE 7.1 TABLE 7.2 See oe 2A Gear1 Gear? Gear. Arma ‘Motion with arm relative to frame (item 2) +1 + Psy Motion with arm relative to frame +1 #1 + XN % ‘Motion relative to arm (item 3) 1 *H 0 Motion relative to arm “1 4 ° N N, ‘Total motion relative to frame ° ROH ‘Total motion relative to frame ° +e boa ‘The results of steps 2 and 3 are entered in Table 7.1 together with the total ‘number of revolutions made by each member of the train relative to the ground. It can be seen from the “Total” line of Table 7.1 that with gear 1 stationary, gear 2 turns 1 + (NJ/N;) revolutions for one revolution of arm 3. This agrees with Eq. 7.34. : "Tho cumple wil be gen fase he ue of the tbular method Example 7.4, Consider that arm 4 of Fig, 7.9 rotates counterclockwise at 50 reis Determine win magnitude and direction. See Table 7.2. eu 1+ OWN 4 1 ™ a0) ov=n(it) - (+8) ~ 1 at on One distinct advantage of the tabular method is that more than one ratio can be obtained from a'solution. In Example 7.4, if it had been necessary to Fee ai of sotatin of get ‘nd of an FIGURE 79 determine the value of w, this could have easily been accomplished from the data in the table, Example 7.5. Example 7.1 and Fig. 7.6 will now be worked by the tabular method. ‘Because all ofthe gears in tis train rotate, itis easier to work with the actual speeds of ‘ear 5 and arm 6 in the table rather than with one revolution asin Example 7.4, Because ‘nm 6 rotates 150 rad/s, this must be the number of tums to which the entre trin is subjected when locked together for line 1 of Table 7.3; note the 0 for arm 6 fa line 2, ‘With +150 for gear 5 in line 1, ~100 must be inserted for gear Sin line 2 to give the Correct total of +50. With arm’6 stationary inline 2, and gear 5 now rotating « known ‘amount, the rotation of gears 2, 3, and 4 ea easily be determined for line 2. Ns) 555 gg (20% 20 soa -so( fea) = sol) 2 = 150 = 100. 3 = $30.9 rads and same direction a5 oy andy TABLE 73 . re Gear? Gears Ged Gear'S_Armé ——__ Sem? Gear Gear Gears Arm Motion with arm relative to frame +190 4150 4350 Motion relative Ns toam +107 190 0 ‘Total motion +50 4150 relative to frame Example 7.6. Example 7.2 and Fig. 77 will now be solved using the tabular method (Table 7.4), In this problem, the angular velocity of the arm is unknown, which requires «8 variation in the solution from that of Example 75. 430 Fig. 7.7, with date from Example 7.2, on = 60 radls with clockwise direction Nm OR am in RR, Rf FAN fam fm A Fa A sm FO fem a 0Gear} Gear 4 Gear5 Gan? Ame Woon wit ame relative to fame * Byer eA oaee Sele x 0 vetoneabeso am +20) ae Toa main relative to frame Viewed from the 5 and on = 0, Tet jhtend. Its required to determine wy and its direction; wis unknown, 4 and y = a: 2 Fig (00) = $10.86 rads ‘en = $10.86 ras and cretion of rotation same as that of wy s> 10841 +) « sszssia ~ #5213 radls and dvcetion of rotation se as that of ty scan be seen, this met thod of solution is somewhat shorter than that sed in the solution of Example 7.2, 7.3, APPLICATIONS OF PLANETARY GEAR TRAINS Planetary gear trains find many applications in machine tools, hoists, aircraft bropellcs reduction drives, automobile differentials, automatic transmissions, ait ral servo-drives, and many others. Figure 7.10 shows a diagrammatic sketch of ‘planetary train used as a reduction between the engine and the propeller ie sa APPLICATIONS OF PLANETARY GEAR TRAINS 259 FIGURE 7.10 of an actual unit The aircraft power plant. Fite 7.1 shows a photograph of an act caer aeratt engine seduction drives wed Devel gous hth panty tae Those were discarded, however, a favor of spar gears because fhe spur per lanetary drive could transmit moce power in & given space " In Fig. 7.10, the engine drives the internal gear 3. Gear 2 meshes with the Axed gear and withthe gear 330 tat thas pantary motion. Aw 4 or penet JURE 7.11 Planetary redaction i fr srr propeler ee, (Coney foots Broles Gaur & Mashicey Co)260 GEAR TRAINS carrier, which is connected to gear 2, drives the propeller at a slower speed than the engine. The equation for the ratio of engine speed wy, to propeller speed can easily be determined from Eq. 7.5 as follows: ou oe where ieee ou NS Therefore, ony gM cen an Its interesting to note that it would be impossible to obtain a velocity ratio as high as 2:1 because this would mean that gear 1 would have to have the same ‘number of teeth as gear 3, which is impossible. In determining the limiting ratio for a given drive, it should be noted that all of the gears will have the same iametral piteh, A planetary gear train used as a differential in an automobile is shown Fig. 7.12. Figure 7.13 shows a cutaway view of a differential and housing. This ‘mechanism makes it possible for an automobile to turn a corner without the rear ‘wheels slipping. In Fig. 7.12 gear 2 is driven by the engine via the clutch, transmission, and drive shaft. Gear 2 drives gear 3, which is fastened to the carrier 7. If the car is moving straight ahead, gears 4, 5, and 6 turn as a unit with the carrier and there is no relative motion between them, Gears 5 and 6 turn the From snare A FIGURE 7.12 [APPLICATIONS OF PLANETARY GEAR TRAINS 26 FIGURE 7.3 Aut axles. When the car makes a turn, however, geats 5 and 6 no longer rotate at the same speed and gear 4 has to turn about its own axis, as well as being driven by the carrier. It is interesting to note that, ifonc of the wheels is held stationary ‘aad the second is free to rotate, the second wheel will turn at a speed twice that of the carrie. This eharactevsc is dsadvantage when the cars stuck in snow or mud. As previously mentioned in Chapter 2 (section 2.13, Computing Elements), lectronic computing systems have largely replaced mechanical systems. How. ver, there are applications where mechanical elements are preferable beciuse they do not require electrical power. Figures 7.14a and 7.148 show a bevel gear differential and a spur gear differential, respectively. The bevel gear units are FIGURE 7.140 Bevel gear differential. "POOH ORO RR EMA ORARA MARA meen262 GEAR TRAINS o FIGURE 7.140 Spur gear differential, In this dite ferential gears 5 (481) and 6 (69T) are com: Pounded, and carrier 7 1s pinned to shaft 8. The ‘Power flows from gear 2 (48T) to planet 3 (1ST) to planet 4 (18T) to gear §, and finaly to gear 6. available commercially in several stock sizes and are used extensively where a mechanical computing or control system is required. ‘There are many planetary gear train designs and a wide range of possible ratios. The applications mentioned are only two of a wide variety. In many instances, itis possible to obtain a greater reduction ratio with a smaller drive using @ planetary train than when using an ordinary gear train. 7.4 ASSEMBLY OF PLANETARY GEAR TRAINS When a planetary gear train is designed, the question of assembling the train with equally spaced planets must be considered. With the tain illustrated in Fig. 7.35, itis possible that for @ given number of teeth in gears 1, 2, and 3 it might not be possible to have three equally spaced planet gears. ASSEMBLY OF PLANETARY GEAR TRAINS 263 FIGURE 7.15, To determine the number of planets that can be used for a given number of teeth in gears 1, 2, and 3, it is necessary to determine the angle AOB in Fig. 7.16a resulting from gear 3 having been rotated a whole number of tooth spaces ‘with gear 1 stationary. The case must also be investigated where gear 3 is sia: tionary, and gear I has been rotated a whole number of spaces. This gives angle AOB" as shown in Fig. 7.166. The following method was developed by Professor G. B. DuBois of Cornell University. Let the numbers of teeth in gears 1, 2, and 3 be N;, Ns, and Ny. If Oy, equals the angular motion of gear 3 after it has been rotated one whole tooth space with respect to gear 1, then 1 8a = 37 Fevolutions ‘The angular motion of arm 4 with respect to gear 1 when gear 3 has been rotated one tooth space is given by Oa = 6 X “ revolutions to o FIGURE 7.16264° GEAR TRAINS From the velocity analysis of the planetary train of Fig. 7.10, which is identical to the one under consideration, ‘Therefore, revolutions 1 b+ N Angle AOB is the angle turned through by arm 4 when gear 3 moves relative to {gear 1. If gear 3 moves one tooth space, angle AOB equals 0. This is the smallest possible angle between planet gears ifthe planets are allowed to overlap. If gear 3 rotates a whole number of tooth spaces c, then revolutions 7.6) A080) on and represents the angle between planets with possible overlapping. Consider next the case of Fig. 7.165 where gear 1 has been rotated one tooth space with gear 3 stationary and it is required to find angle AOB'. If 0, equals the angular motion of gear 1 after it has been rotated one tooth space and q equals the resulting motion of arm 4 (both relative to gear 3), then 1 om = a oo = 0 x88 But it can be easily derived that eM op M+ Therefore, vy Mm ASSEMBLY OF PLANETARY GEAR TRAINS 265, and 4A0B = clo) = on By comparing Eqs. 7.6 and 7.7, it can be seen that arm 4 rotates through the same angle regardless of whether gear 3 or gear 1 rotates one or more tooth spaces. ___H angle AOB is the fraction of a revolution between planets, then its reciprocal will be the number of planets. By taking the reciprocal of Eq. 7.6, itis possible to obtain an expression for the number of equally spaced planets around Bear 1. If m represents the number of planets, then MeN a (78) ‘These planets may or may not overlap each other, depending on the value of e. Itis now necessary to determine the maximum number of planets rg, that can be used without overlapping. In Fig. 7.17, the outside radii R,, of two planet gears are shown almost touching at point C. From the figure, 360_ _ _ 180 ZA0B ~ AoC 1 ae £406 @ sin FE where FIGURE 7.17 POOR ORO OAR 944994954999990999"COO SCOSCOOOSOSHSSSEHESSGESE 266 GEAR TRAINS and Ohm +R Mk Rit ano +p, (k= 1 forstandard fulldepth teeth) . ond Rene MEM ‘Therefore, for standard full depth teeth, hoe 180 ~ 14.400 — 3600 n= Fooat + 0 ~ Sty Gan esto of tn elon, = oe = 500m By substituting in iq. 7.11, r= R) ‘Therefore, from Ea. 7.10, Poa, 4x5=20hp ‘The positive value of y indicates that power flows through clementsb and ¢ in the'same direction out of or into the differential). Because power flow was given from the difen tential through element c, the circulating power ows from the differential through lemene . The magnitudes and directions ofthe flow of power are shown on Fg. 71h, CIRCULATING POWER IN CONTROLLED PLANETARY GEAR SYSTEMS 271 nw = 100 pm inte Example 7.9. Conor he deren shown in Fp. 7390 ih = 1 Geen hown and power input 20 bp, Dotrane ic power creatagla ee beh conto ee om the given dats, (oy, = 100 rpm 'N,) Aisa m ~n() = ra) = <3. oq = y= —153.33 rpm oq = 100 rpm 7 eae TAT ham A mae? BH sha hoon As Neoe U “ = comes a272. GEAR TRAINS By using the relation (Eq. 7.5) ‘the angular velocity of arm 10 can be determined as follows: Let gear 4 be the first gear and gear 7 the last gear. By substituting these gear ‘mambers into the above equation, the following relation is obtained: am = 1822 1pm rection opposite to wy) From the analysis given above, the angular velocities of elements eb, and shown in Fig. 7.194 are 6, = ay = 166.67 7pm 85 © wy = —200'rpm 0, = wm = —182.2.—pm ‘The circulating power can now be determined from Eq. 7.11: where = +1199 = +0915 182.2 HARMONIC DRIVE ‘GEARING 273 199(1 = 0.915), T= 1199 = ~0513 Pay = YP, = ~0.513(20) = ~10.3 hp ‘The negative value of indicates thatthe power flow through elements band e wil be in opposite directions relative to the differential. That ie, since power flow was given from the diferential through clement c, the circulating power flows through element b into the differential. The magnitudes and directions of the flow of power are shown in ig. 7.196. 7.6 HARMONIC DRIVE GEARING’ Harmonic drive gearing a patented principle based on nonrigid body mechanics. Jt employs the three concentric components shown in Figs. 7.202 and 7.206 to produce high mechanical advantage and speed reduction. The use of nontigi body mechanics allows a continuous elliptical deflection wave to be induced in ‘nonrigid external gear, thereby providing a continuous rolling mesh with a rigid, internal gear. Since the teeth of the nonrigid flexspline and the rigid circular spline are in continuous engagement and since the flexspline-has two fewer teeth than the circular spline, one revolution of the input causes relative motion between the Alexspline and the circular spline equal to two teeth. Thus, with the circular spline rotationally fixed, the flexspline will rotate in an opposite direction to the input at a reduction ratio equal to the number of teeth on the flexspline divided by 2. ‘This relative rotation may be seen by examining the motion of a single flexspline tooth over one-half an input revolution, as shown in Fig. 7.206. ‘The tooth is flly engaged when the major axis ofthe wave generator input is at zero degrees. When the wave generator’s major axis rotates to 90°, the tooth is disengaged. Full reengagement occurs in the adjacent circular spline tooth space when the major axis is rotated another 180°, This motion repeats as the major axis rotates another 180° back to zero, thereby producing two tooth ad. ‘vancements per input revolution. It should be mentioned that any elements of the drive can function as the input, the output, or the fixed member depending on whether the gearing is used for speed reduction, speed ineréasing, or differential operation. pees ‘The material in this section is adapted directly from the Harmonie Drive Designers Manual of Enhast Machinery Group, WakeGell, Mass, and is uted with permission SOOO NO274 Gear TRaws Circular Spine Arg niet ea! Wave Generator Antica bal basen agcembiy Flexspiine Anon extemal ea @ Epica! Wave Genera ‘paces apne engage leah at he nee a os aa ‘eon erste Floxsaine ouput rotates A opposes Roig GreuarSpine ova ‘oan fo oy FIGURE 7.20 HARMONIC DRIVE GEARING 275 Problems ‘7.1. In Fig. 7.21, gear I rotates in the direction shown at 240 rpm. Determine the speed of pinion 9 (rpm) and the speed (fom) and direction of rack 10 7.2. A hoist is operated by a motor driving a 4-threaded worm thet engages 100-tooth worm gear. The worm gear is keyed to a shaft which also contains a 20ooth spar pinion, ‘The pinion meshes with a 140-tooth spur gear mounted on the end of the hoisting drum. Make a sketch of the unit, and calculate the speed of hosting (fpm) ifthe motor operstes at 600 rpm and the drum diameter is 12 in 73, ‘Two sbiting rolls A and B for cutting sheet metal are driven by means ofthe gest tain shown in Fig. 7.22. The rolls must operate in the direction shown at a peripheral speed of 1150 mms. (a) Determine the angular velocity ratio uylay to drive the rolls at the required speed. Gear 1 runs at 1800 rpm. (4) Determine the divection of rotation of gear 1 and the hand of worm 6 to give the required rotation ofthe rolls. 1.4, In the sketch ofthe press shown in Fig, 7.23, 5 and 6 are single-threaded screws of the opposite hand, with 6 threading ito 5 as indicated. Gear 4 is fastened to terew 5. Plate B is prevented from turning by a slot init which engages the frame. Ifthe piteh of 5's fin. and that of 6 is bin, determine the direction and the number of turns of shaft A required to lower plate Bin ‘78. The gear rain in Fig, 7.24 shows the essential features of the work spindle drive for 8 gear hobbing machine. Gear blank B and the worm gear 9 are mounted on the samme shaft and must rotate together. (a) If the gear blank is to be driven clockwise, determine the hand of the hob A. (4) Determine the angular-veloity ratio wvlus to eut 2 teeth on the gear blank 2. 7.6. A gear train contains shaft A to which is keyed gears 1 and, an intermediate shaft B with & siding compound gear 3, 4 and 5 and shaft C to which are Keyed pears 6 nd 7. The geats are numbered from eft to right and are all spur gears with shaft center stances of 12 in. and a diametral pitch of 5. The compound gear can be shifted to the left to give a velocity ratio of 51 through gears 1, 4, 3, and 6, or to the right to give a velocity ratio 25:9 through gears 2,4, 5, and 7. Draw sketeh of the unit and caleulate the numberof teeth in each gear if N= Ny suon, 4azon 5 «on, 2 wan, TP bek-hana 3@0n) (say soleestes FIGURE 7.21276 GEAR TRAINS 2asn 6 Som 4.563 mm diameter saan [| ~--~ 88 1, 8026 on poe ! 3 a Wie aaanty ein Fan BORD )) = 8.392 mmdlameter = == Teed TO" erm thane s@an FIGURE 7.22 tas A 2am]; sean) sem FIGURE 7.23 HARMONIC DRIVE GEARING 277 san, ramn | raePa sco] ne anh Lk 1asn 4 iy ham ricune 7.24 7.7. Jn the gear train in Fig. 7.25, serews 5 and 6 are single-threaded of opposite hand 5 shown. Screw 5 has a pitch of 3 mm and screw 6 a pitch of 2.5 mm, Serew 6 threads Into serew 5 and serew 5 threads into the frame. Determine the change in» and y in ‘magnitude and direction for one revolution of the handwheel in the direction shown. Geats 1 and 2 are compounded on the handwheel shaft. 178. Figure 7.26 shows part of a gear tran fora vertical milling machine. Power input is ‘rough the pulley and power output through gear 12, Compound gears 1 and 2, 3 and 2 caer onde | FIGURE 7.25© 66 OOOO OOOO OOOOH HOOHHSEEESEVVGE 278 GEAR TRAINS Paley Cy |_paefse van BEM FIGURE 7.26 4, and 10 and 11 ean all of the trun values gears 1 and 2 can st 4 in, diamotar bat pulley acon) FIGURE 7.27 Bin diameter <5. 6am slide as shown to give vari possible between the pul }Ows part Of a gear train for a verte ide 80 that either gear 1 meshes aus combinations of gearing. Deteine ley and gear 12, “ al milling machine, Compound 8 with gear S or gear 2 meshes with szan| 1034 spine HARMONIC DRIVE GEARING 279 ‘motor? (b) With gear 13 meshing with gear 15 and a spindle speed of 130 rpm, determine the number of teeth for gears 1 and Sif gears 1, 2,3, and $ are standard and have the same diametral pitch, 7.10. A conventional automotive transmission is shown diagrammatically in Fig, 7.28 ‘The transmission of power is as follows: Low geat: gear 3 shifted to mesh with gear 6. ‘Transmission of power through gears 1,4, 6,3. Second gear: gear 2 shifted to mesh with gear 5. Transmission through gears 1, 4, 5, 2. High gear: gear 2 shifted so that clutch teeth or end of gear 2 mesh with chitch teeth on end of gear 1. Diet drive results, Reverse gear: gear 3 shifted to mesh with gear 8. Transmission thtough gears 1,4, 7, 8, 3. A car equipped with tis transmission has a differential ratio of 2.9:1 and a tre outside siamete- of 26 in. Determine the engine speed ofthe car under the following conditions: (@) iow gear and car traveling 20 mph; (6) high gear and car traveling 60 mph; (c) reverse fear ant ear traveling 4 mph. ‘TAL. Inthe planetary clutch shown in Fig. 7.29, the stop 6 may be engaged or disengaged. ‘When engaged, a planetary gear train results, and, when disengaged, an ordinary gear ‘rain results because arm 5 will main stationery. If gear 2 rotates in the direction shown in 300 rpm, determine (a) the speed of the ving gear 4 when the stop 6 is disengaged as shown, and (b) the speed of arm 5 when the stop 6 is engaged with the ring gear 4. 12, Considering a bevel ger differential as used in automotive drives, prove that, when. ‘one of tre rear Wheels on a car is jacked up, it wll turn twice as fast as the differential 7.13. Ita truck is rounding a right-hand curve at 15 mph, determine the speed in rpm of the differential carrier. The radius of curvature of the curve is 100 ft to the center of the truck, and the truck tread i 6 ft. The outside diameter of the tices is 36 in 7.14. For the bevel gear planetary drive shown in Fig. 7.30, determine the ratio w/o when gear 1 is stationary. 71S. For the ball bearing shown in Fig. 7.3, the inner race 1is stationary and the outer race 2 rotates with a tubular shaft at 1600 rp. Assuming pare rolling between the balls and races, determine the speed ofthe bal retainer 4 7.16. Amechanism known as Ferguson’s paradox is shown in Fig. 7.32 Forone revolution <- s8a Clutch teeth 9 (2 T) ee samy rocesee! HY 1 ty] [ro wteue EHS -— LI A Taaen LIE ran LI sean sa miurt 7.2828) GEAR TRAINS Internal gear 4cs6n) 2 Fy ZA Stop FIGURE 7.29 FIGURE 7.30 of the arm in the direction show, find the mumber of revolutions of gears 3,4, and 5 and their directions of rotation. The goars are nonstandard, 7.17._Shatt A rotates in the direction shown in Fig. 7.38 at 640 spm. If shaft Bis to rotate at 8 pm in the direction shown, calculate the angular-velocity ratio wyiay. What would the ratio wy have to be for shaft to rotate at & rpm in the opposite dtection? 7.48. In the mechanism in Fig. 7.34, gear 2 rotates at 60 zpm in the direction shown. Determine the speed and direction of rotation of gear 12. 7.19. A mechanism known as Humpage’s gear is shown in Fig. 7.35, Find the engular velocity ratio yl FIGURE 721 HARMONIC DRIVE GEARING 281 5171 4gon 369) Ny 2am lon FIGURE 7.32 7.20. In the planetary gear train shown in Fg. 7.36, determine the angular-velocty ratio wo, Compare this ratic with that obtained if the arm 4 is connected directly to the ‘output shaft and gears 5, §, and 7 are omitted. ‘721. In the gear tain for Problem 7.20, gear 2 rotates at 600 rpm in the direction shown, and gear 1 (and gear 6) rotates at 300 rpm in the opposite direction, Caleulate the speed and direction of rotation of gear 7. f Lt alka 4 I Aigh-hand tetieaed saan) oor) FIGURE 7.33, POPC OCHA AAAAAAAAAARABAAMARAMDAMAMOAMDSOOOO OOO OOO OHSS OCES SS SHVESISIGVE 282. GEAR TRAINS Thaht-nang Wole-thresdea acon) FIGURE 7.34 a 7.22.‘ planetary gear tain fora two-speed sreratt sy 737, Gear 2is driven by a 63-o0th gear (not shown) high speed, gear 2 connects to the supercharger shat REE tee 7is held stationary and shaft B is connected tothe superchager tan von es fea ratios was used between gear2 and the spercharger sb Ite es barge operates at 24,000 rpm at high speed, cleat the lowered vale Tata iRte 738 shows the planetary gear and power shaft assembly for an sreraf servo shaft A conness tothe motor, determine the angularvelocty rate os " ;ereharger drive is show in Fig. ‘whieh operates at 2400 rpm. At rough additional gearing. At low 3q7on) FIGURE 7.35 S HARMONIC DRIVE GEARING 283 Imtornal gear sen, sasn| 7 Tit 7a0n) 168 Ly nT tarot TL FIGURE 7.36 1724, Figare 7.39 shows planetary gear train fora large eduction. (a) Ifsbaft A connects to the motor, determine the angular-velocity ratio w, (ey, (b) Will ears 2, 3, and 4 and gears 5, 6, and 7 be standard or nonstandard? Why? (c) Ifthe number of teeth in gear 3 is changed from 51 tecth to 52 teeth, calculate the engular-veloity ratio ays. 78. An sisctaft propeller reduction drive is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 7.40. De- termine the propeller speed in magnitude and direction ifthe engine twas at 2450 rpm in the direction indicated. 7.26. In the planetary reduction unit shown in Fig. 7.41, gear 2 tums at 300 rpm in the tirection indicated. Determine the speed and direction of rotation of gear 5. ‘7221. In the gear train for Problem 7.26, gear 2 curns at 300 rpm in the direction shown, and gear 1 rotates at 5O rpm in the opposite direction, Calculate the speed and direction of rotation of gear 5. 3647) intemal geer 7057 3% FIGURE 7.37Bot ae Dy FIGURE 7.38 FIGURE 7.9 7.28. In the planetary gear train shown in Fig. 7.42, gear 2 turns at 600 rpm in the ction indicated. Determine the speed and direction of rotation of arm 6 f gear S rotates at 350 rpm in the same direction as gear 2. 7.29. If in the gear tren for Problem 7.28, gear 2 rotates at 1000 rpm in the direction shown and gear 5 is held stationary, arm 6 will rotate at 625 rpm in the same direction Internat ‘sagen Inter 2a AY 3 FIGURE 7.40 FIGURE 7.41 HARMONIC DRIVE GEARING 285 211257) Internal ge soon & FIGURE 7.42 1s gear 2. Determine the speed and direction of rotation which must be given to gear S to make arm 6 stand stl if gear 2 continues to rotate at 1000 rpm, 7.30. For the gear train of Fig. 7.43, shaft 4 rotates at 300 rpm and shaft B at 600 pm inthe directions shown. Determine the speed and direction of rotation of shaft C. ‘731. In Big. 7.44, shatt A turns at 100 rpm in the direction shown, Calculate the speed of shaft B and give its direction of rotation 17.32, In the planetary gear train shown in Fig. 7.45, shaft A rotates at 450 rpm and shaft ‘Bat 600 rpm in the directions shown. Calculate the speed of shaft Cand give its direction of rotation. 7.38. Shaft A rotates in Fig. 7.46 at 350 rpm and shaft B at 400 rpm in the ditections shown. Determine the speed and direction of rotation of shaft C. 7.34, In the bevel gear planetary train shown in Fig. 7.47, shaft A rotates in the direction shown at 1250 rpm and shaft B in the direction shown at 600 rpm, Determine the speed of shaft C in magnitude and direction. RRR fm GO RN TP fy JON fi I ft Nf A IM, Af MON fim ft fm© 6 6 6 OO 6 OOO OOO OBOE OUS OOO EVISIIIGSS 286 GEAR TRAINS MIGURE 7.44 S707) 7.38. Bor the planeta Possible without ove Inthe train TY Gear train of Fig, 7.37, calculate the se ‘maximum number of planets wamibers of equally spaced planets that can be used ually spaced compoun Used in the gear train of Fig, 7.36, eit emee componad ae tht can be 7.38. Por the etary gear train shown in i compound planets that ean be used, 1.39. In the plane ae 1 planetary gear train shown in Fig. 7.48, the carrier ink 4) is the ai The oa a te sum gear (lnk 3s the driven member. The intemal eating om internat gear es Bonne 25 fies the speed of the cartier. The ich dase {he nunbers of eth forthe intra ea, the sapere a OY termining Een prare, Ha Sten Pas me ta ras TAN Whether three equally spaced planets can be used, '*!Y * Possible. (b) . In the planetary gear train shown in Fi ‘ emirate in shown in Fig. 7.48, the carrier i isbeldsaonary. i 741, caleulate the maximum number of Y 2G8n FIGURE 7.45, HARMONIC DRIVE GEARING 287 eT 7 a@en 2aon FIGURE 7.46 ‘The sun gear Is to rotate 2.5 times the speed of the carrier. The piteb diameter of the Internal gear isto be approximately 13.0 in. (a) Design the gear train by determining the numbers of teeth for the internal gear, the sun gear, and the planets using 10 diametral- pitch 20° full-depth spuc gear teeth. Hold the 1J.0-n. pitch diameter a closely as possible, () Determine whether three equally spaced planets ean be used in this drive. 7.41. In the planetary gear train shown in Fig. 7.48, the carrier (link 4) isthe driving ‘member andthe sun gear (Link 3 isthe driven member."The internal gear is held stationary “The sun gear is to rotate 2.5 times the speed of the carrier. The pitch diameter of the internal gear isto be approximately 12.5 in. (a) Design the gear tain by determining the ‘numbers of teeth forthe internal gear, the sun gear, and the planets using 8 diametral- pitch, 20°full-depth spur gear teth. Fold the 12.5-n. pitch diameter as closely as possible. (6) Determine whether three equally spaced planets ean be used inthis drive, 7.42. Design a three-gear planetary train having aa output to input speed ratio of 1:8, ‘withthe output shaft turning in the same direction asthe input. Use the configuration of Fig. 7.49 and indicate which shaft is the input. Select the smallest gears possible from the {ollowing available stock sizes: even tooth numbers from 12 to L00and every fourth number from 100 to 160. Also find the maximum number of planets (gear 2) that could be used. 743. Refer to the three-gear planetary train with bevel geats of Fig. 7.50 and find the most conservative design to reduce an input of 125 rpm to 75 zpm. Use the same range of tooth sizes available in Problem 7.42. ‘ Y [ees : FIGURE 7.47 cepted288 GEAR TRAINS tera gar ue FIGURE 7.51 HARMONIC DRIVE GEARING 289 2 teal gear FIGURE 7.52 ‘14, Design a planetary gear train with an output to input speed ratio of 1:142, with ‘he output shaft turing opposite the input. Use the three-gear configurations of Fig. 7.49 and Fig. 7.50 or the basic four-gear planetary train showa in Fig. 7.51. Availabe stock sizes for bevel and spur gears are as follows: all tooth numbers from 12 to 40 and even, ‘ooth numbers from 40 to 180. Sketch the selected gear train and indicat the input shaft zor) 7asn) susr) 2ain J A itn f 4 3427) FIGURE 7.53 FRR I ff fa Rt my AM MD ct© 6 6 66 OOOO OOOO EHH OOHEEHHHSESHVIIGES 290 GEAR TRAINS 17.45. Design the smallest io Fg the ing to geer 2, Calculate the power cizculating in the branch control circuit and niche Power flow diagram. Shaft B connected to arm thal. Gent bata, ‘747. In Fig. 74, 5 hp is transmitted shown. Determine the power cicculatin Power flow diagram, Arm 10 isthe o 7.48. Figure 7.44 shows shown and teansnits 20 hy circuit and make a shes ular gear as ft is chosen as to gear 2, whic tums at 60 rpm inthe ection gin the branch contol cut and make sscheaate pt shat planetay trainin which sat tums at 100 rin the dtection pt ger 2, Determine the powcr culating athe ones crt atc power fow dagam. Arm 0 ste out ta 749, I the spur get ferential shown ing. 7, shalt Ae ot 250m nthe recon show and tants 2p Sat he ouput alt Catalog Be fees inthe schematic power flow dapat Fanch control circuit and make a Chapter Eight Velocity and Acceleration Analysis 8.1 INTRODUCTION Because motion is inherent in machine-y, kinematic quantities such as velocity and acceleration are of engineering importance in the analysis and design of machine components. Kinematic values in machines have reached extraordinary raguitudes. Rotative speeds, once considered high at 10,000 rpm, are approach- jing 100,000 rpm. Large rotors of jet engines operate at 10,000 to 15,000 rpm, and small turbine wheels rotate at 30,000 to 60,000 rpm. Size and rotatve speed in rotor are related such thatthe smaller the size, the greater the allowable rotative speed. A more basic quantity in rotors is peripheral speed, which depends on rotative speed and size (V = wR). Peripheral speeds in turbomachinery are reaching 50,000 to 100,000 fivmin. Peripheral speeds in electric armatures (10,000 fUmin) and automotive crankshafts (3000 ft/min) are lower than in aeronautical rotors. Although the rotor, or crank, speeds of linkage mechanisms are low, the trend is toward higher speeds because of the demand for higher rates of productivity irom the machines used in printing, paper raking, thread spinning, automatic computing, packaging, botting, automatic machining, and numerous other applications, ‘The centripetal acceleration at a rotor periphery depends on the square of the rotative speed and size (A" = wR). In turbines, such accelerations are ap- proaching values of 110 3 millon ts, or about 30,000g to 100,000g, values that ray be compared with the acceleration of 10g withstandable by airplane pilots or the 1000¢ of automotive pistons. “Acceleration is related to force (WA), by Newton's principle, and, in turn, related to sess and deformation, which may or may not be eitical in a mechiné 291292. VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS pact, depending on the materials used. The speed of a machine is limited ulti- mately by the properties of the materials of which it consists and the conditions ‘that influence the properties of the materials used. High temperature arising from. the compression of gases and the combustion of fuels, together with that arising ‘rom friction, is a condition in high-speed power machines that influences the strength of the materials. The degree to which the temperature rises also depends ‘on the provisions made for the transmission of heat by coolants such as ar, oil, ‘water, of Freon, ‘The successful design of a machine depends on the exploitation of know- edgein the fields of dynamics, stress analysis, thermodynamics, heat transmission, and properties of materials. However, itis the purpose of this chapter to deal solely with kinematic relationships in machines. In subsequent chapters, acceleration and force are discussed in connection with the determination of forces Acting on individual links of a mechanism and in connection with machine balance. For bodies rotating about a fixed axis, such as rotors, kinematic values are quickly determined from well-known elementary formulas (V = wR, A" = «wR, A’ = aR), However, mechanisms such as the sider crank and its inversions are combinations of links consisting not only of a rotor but of oscillating and reciprocating members as well. Because of the relative velocities and relative accelerations among the several members, together with the many geometrical relative positions possible, the kinematic analysis of a linkage is relatively complex compared to that of a rotor. The principles and methods illustrated in this chapter are primarily those for the anelysis of linkages consisting of combinations of rotors, bas, sliders, cams, gears, and rolling elements. Tn the following discussions, the individual links of a mechanism are assumed to be rigid bodies in which the distance between two given particles of a moving link remains fixed. Links which undergo large deformations during motion, such as springs, fall in another category and are analyzed as vibrating members. A. current research topic of considerable importance that should also be mentioned isthe stady of mechanisms having links which undergo small elastic deformations. Most elementary mechanisms are in plane motion or may be analyzed as such. Mechanisms in which all of the particles move in parallel planes are said to be in plane motion. An illustration is a four-bar linkage (Fig. 8.1) consisting of two rockers and a connecting rod. This arrangement is often referred to as a double-rocker mechanism. ‘The motion of a link is expressed in terms ofthe linear displacements, linear velocities, and linear accelerations of the individual particles that constitute the link, However, the motion of a link may also be expressed in terms of angular displacements, angular velocities, and angular accelerations of lines moving with the rigid tink. ‘In Fig. 8.1, the lincar velocity V, and the linear acceleration A, of particle A are shown by the fixed vectors at A. Because of the connecting pin at A, particle Az on link 2 and particle Ay on link 3 have the same motion, and the A, Midha, A. G. Erdman, and. A. Frobri, "Fite Element Approach to Mathematical Modeling ‘of High Speed Elate Linkages,” Mechantm and Machine Theor, 13, 97, pp. 6-618 LINEAR MOTION OF A PARTICLE 293 5 7 7” mGuRE 6.1 ‘ectors shown at A represent the motions of both particles. The angular motions Of links 2 and 3 are different as given by the angular velocities an, w and the angular accelerations a, a3. Usually, the angular motion of a driving link is ‘known, or assumed, such as o; and a, of Fig. 8.1, and the motions of the con- and driven links are to be determined. 8.2 LINEAR MOTION OF A PARTICLE In useful mechanisms, the particles of the links are constrained to move on given paths, many of which, such as circles and straight lines, are obvious. In Fig. 8.1, the particles of links 2 and 4 are constrained to move on circular paths. The Particles of link 3, however, are in motion along generally curvilinear paths less simple than circles or straight lines, A particle in motion on a curvilinear path is said to be in curvilinear translation. The basic kinematic relationships for a particle translating in a plane are ‘well known from the study of mechanics. These are reviewed in the following, Paragraphs with reference to Fig. 8.2 and were contributed by Professor J. Y. ‘Harrison, University of New South Wales, Australia. RR RR RR fk A GN fm I ha mm Bin AN yaCO OS OO SESH SOS O SHOES VSHEHVOSHSVSGSS 294 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS ‘The linea velocity Vp a patil Pe the in - Tet sO particle Piste instantancous ate of change o Fe estin of pst, or dplacemen, with apt hs ene S24 taal ine of time the parle land ee ee stint eth fom poston Po postion Pat tne meta ae ee Seen shagsstom Rioit + aRandunderpes nena Tefore, the displacement AS is made up of two cot to the angular displacemer of rac estar series Slacement a8 of rds Rand the ace See ees From Fig, 8.24, SS = Rep + arr where p and r are unit vectors perpendicul Caution forthe veloc oes Reena and paalel to R, respectively. The P can be determined as follows: vs a (1 a(e Therefore, Ve=Rop +, yy p+ ee here ot, by using the vector cross product v> a) ‘The acceleration of P is given by a ar d= A (rap + 2) i (ton + .) an er = FOP + Rop ~ Ror 4 FR, , aR aa o~ Ra 4 BE, a, = 25,285 4 Rip — pate 4 CF 2a GPP + Rap — Rate 4 62) The acceleration of P therefore consis of AudRidt) + Resin the drecion ay o(AR/dt) + Ré, in the direction ofthe unt wear pea oes GERIde) — Rein the duecton of the unt veaoe she ees ance ‘also be expressed by using the vector ‘cross product as a ‘wo components, one of magnitude aR Ap = 20, —= @, @, X (w@, x ce AP TEXRG x(x +R, — Ary where a, = ap, LINEAR MOTION OF A PARTICLE 295 When the origin of the coordinate system coincides with the center of curvature, dR/d0 and d?R/ dé? are zero go that dR/dt and d*R/d# are also zero, ‘Under this condition, Eq. 8.1 can be simplified to give Ver axR a and [vil = Ro, From Eq. 8.22, : Ap = 0, x (@, xR) +0, XR 6.4) ‘The term w, x («, x R) is the normal component of the, acceleration with, rection from point P toward the center of curvature, and a, x R is the tangential component with direction tangent to the curve at point P. Equation 8.4 may therefore be written as, Ap = Abt Ab where ©. * (@, xR) 64a) 2 a Rot = Veo, ~ 3 and Aye xR (8.40) JAG = Ra, TE the condition should arise where the origin of the coordinate system is ‘on the normal to the curve through the point, dR/d0 and therefore d/dt will be zero, and Eqs. 8.1 and 8.2a can be modified accordingly. Figure 8.2b shows the instantancous directional orientation with respect to the tangent and normal to the path for the velocity vector Vand the component vectors of acceleration AJ and A¥; the radius of curvature is assumed to be constant. It is important to note that the direction of Aj is normal to the path and that its sense is toward the center of curvature C of path. The direction of ‘Ab is tangent to the path and its sense is for increasing velocity. The resultant acceleration Ay is the vector sum of A and A} as shown, From Eqs. 8.3, 8.4a, and §.4b, the magnitudes of the vectors deseribing the linear motion of a particle can be calculated, and they appear repeatedly in the evelopment of kinematic relationships of particles in mechanisms where the origin of the coordinate system coincides with the center of curvature,296 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS. 8.3 ANGULAR MOTION Angular velocity and angular acceleration are the first and second derivatives, respectively, of the angular displacement @ of a line with respect to time f. In machine analysis, the angular motion of a link is expressed by the angular motion of any line visualized fixed to the link. In Fig. 8.3, line AB? is in angular motion because of its angular displacement with respect to time. Lines BC and AC ‘undergo the same angular displacements with respect o time as line AB because triangle ABC is fixed in position with link 3 as a rigid body. Since all lines of nk3 have the same angular motion, the angular velocity and angular acceleration Of these lines are w and oy of the link, with the subscript denoting the link ‘number. ‘Angular motion of a link may be the same or different from the angular ‘motions of the radii of curvature of the paths of the individual particles of the link. In Fig. 8.3, since all particles of link 2 are movirg on circular paths having common centet of curvature at the fixed center Op, itis obvious that w, and a, of the radii of curvature of the paths of all particles ere equal to the respective angular velocity and angular acceleration w, and ag ofthe link. Inthe case of the connecting link 3 in Fig. 8.3, which is not rotating about a fixed center, w, and «, of the radius of curvature of the path of any given particle are not the same 8 «and as of link 3. tis an important concept in mechanics that « particle, which has the in- Sinitely small sizeof a point, can only translate; it cannot rotate. Angular motion is motion of a line, and since a particle is a point, nota line, itis not considered to-be in angular motion. This concept must be fully understood to understand the relative motion among particles. For example, the velocity of the particle on link 2 at O, in Fig. 8.3 relative to the velocity of any particle on the fixed link 1 is zero. Linear velocity is implied, and itis incorrect to hold that, by virtue of the angular motion of link 2, the particle O has the angular velocity of the link. FIGURE 83 84 RELATIVE MOTION As will be shown in a later section, the relative motion between particles is very important in the kinematic analysis of mechanisms. In Fig. 8.42, P and Q are particles moving relative to a fixed reference plane at the respective velocities of ‘Vp and Vo, and it is necessary to determine the relative velocity Vg between the two particles. In determining Vpq, use will be made of the fact that the RELATIVE MOTION. 297 ‘addition of equal velocities to each particle does not change the relative velocity of the two particles. Therefore, if P and Q are each given a velocity equal and ‘opposite to Vo, the particle O becomesstationary inthe fixed plane, and Pacquires an additional velocity component ~Vo relative to the fixed plane. The new absolute velocity of P(V» ~ Vo) therefore becomes the relative velocity Vpg because Q is now fixed relative to the reference plane. This is shown by the vector diagram of Fig. 8.4b from which the equation for Vag becomes Yoo = Vr ~ Vo 65) In a similar manner, Vor can be obtained by the addition of ~V; to each particle. ‘This is shown in Fig. &.4c, and Vgp is given by the equation, Vor = Vo ~ Vr ‘The vector equation for the acceleration of particle P relative to particle Q is similar in form to Eq. 8.5: Aig = Ar ~ Ag 66 ‘The angular motion ofa line may be given relative to another line in motion. In Fig. 8.5, the angular velocities @, and w; of the lines on links 2 and 3, respectively, are taken relative to line a-a on the fixed link: If —w is added to links 2 and 3, link 3 becomes stationary and the new absolute velocity of link 2 (o: = @) therefore becomes the relative angular velocity w,3 because link 3 is now fixed, Therefore, Wy = & - @ en Ina similar manner, 8) Fae ok (IS FIGURE 8.4 FIGURE 8.5 NAR tm I ON RR RP mR x Ra cm fm fi fn Ry A iy a I Sy© OOOO OOOO SOOO OOS OHOHSHEHEHVBUSE 298 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS 8.5 METHODS OF VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS Of the many methods of determining velocities and accele1 three find wide usage. These, which are presented in the (@) analysis using vector math rations in mechanisms, following sections, are rematics to express the velocity and acceleration of & Point with expect to a moving and a fied coordinate system; (b) anal sitations of relative motion which are solved either analytically or graphical, 2 ‘locity and acceleration polygons; and (c) analysis using vector oop eleaa, quations written in complex form. In addition, velocities ty i 8.6 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION BY VECTOR MATHEMATICS a In Fig. 8.6, the motion of system which, in turn, is ‘The position of point Pr Point Ps known with respect to the xyz-oordiaate ‘moving relative to the fixed coordinate system XY2. relative to the XVZ-system can be expressed as Res Ro+R 69) VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS BY VECTOR MATHEMATICS 299 ‘Af unit vectors i, j, and k are fixed to the x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively, R i+ yj + ak 6.10) ‘The absolute velocity of point Prelatve to the X¥Z-system, Vp, may be obtained by differentiating Bq, 8.9 with respect to time to give Ve= Rem Ro +R 8.1) Differentiating Eq, 8.10 with respect to time gives R = (i + 5j + 2k) + (i + yi + 2k) 6.12) The term (#i + }§ + 2k) is the velocity of point P relative to the moving coordinate system xyz, For convenience, let Mt jittk=v 6.13) Consider next the terms in the second set of parentheses of Eq. 8.12. From the fact thatthe velocy ofthe tip ofa vector R, which passes through a fixed base point and rotates a3out the base point with an angular velocity , can be shown tobee x R, the veositiesofthetips ofthe unit vectorsi,j and k can be expressed oxi oxi xk ‘where w is the angular velocity of the moving coordinate system xy2 relative to the fixed system XYZ. Making the above substitutions, ait yf + rk = x(@ xi)-+ y(@ x) + elo xb) = wx GE + y) + 2k) and using the relation expressed in Eq, 8.10, ity) trk=oxR eas) Equation 8.12 then becomes, R=VtoxR 15) Equation 8.11 can now be rewritten as follows by letting Vo = Ry and substituting for R from Eq. 8.15: We Vor VtoxR 6.6)300. VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS where ‘V_ = velocity of point P in the XYZ-system Vo = velocity of origin of xyz-system relative to XYZaystem V = velocity of point P relative to xyz-system (@ = angular velocity of xyz-system relative to XYZ-system R= distance from origin of xyz-system to point P ‘The acceleration of point P relative to the XYZ-system may now be obtained by differentiating Eq. 8.16: Ar=Vr=Vot+VtaxR+oxR 17) To evaluate ¥, itis necessary to differentiate Eq. 8.13: V= (i+ +m) + G4 5f + 2) 6.18) ‘The term (2i + $j + 2k) is the acceleration of point P relative to the moving coordinate system xyz. Let +i+a A (8.19) Considering the terms in the second set of parentheses of Eq, 8.18, sit 5) + ak ( X i) + (ox j) + Ho Xk) = @ x (i + H+ Ek) But from Eq. 8.13, Ht jjtik=v Therefore, iit jjttkeoxv 6.20) Equation 8.18 then becomes V=Ataxv 6.21) Also from Eq. 8.15, oxi=0x V+ ox (xR) 8.22) Substituting V from Eq, 8.21 and w x B from Eq, 8.22 into Bq. 8.17 and letting ‘Ao = Vo, the equation for the acceleration of point P relative to the XYZ-system, becomes: Ap= Ag tA+WXV+HxXR+OX(WXR) (6.23) VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS BY VECTOR MATHEMATICS 301 where 2w x V = the Coriolis component of acceleration ‘Ap = acceleration of point P in the XYZ-system ‘Ao = acceleration of xyz-system origin relative to the XYZ-system A = acceleration of point P relative to xyz-system? o = angular velocity of xy2-system relative to XYZ-system V = velocity of point P relative to xyz-system R= distance from xyz-system origin to point P Example 8.1. Consider the mechanism shown in Fig 8.7. ink 2 rotates inthe direction showin ata constant angular velocity. The velocity and acceleration of pont A are therefore ‘mown, and itis necessary to find the velocity and acceleration of point B, Select coordinate ‘es a8 shown with point O; asthe origin ofthe XY-system and point A as the origin of he ay-system, ‘The equation for the velocity of point B can be written from Eq, 8.16 as follows: VWs=Vot VOR here: Vo = direction perpendicular to 0,5, magnitude unknown IWal = (OsA)oy = a X 24 = 6.0 fs, direction perpendicular to OA O because B isa fixed point inthe xy-system © X R = direction perpendicular to AB(w = wy, R = AB), magnitude unknown ‘The direction of w x R can be determined by knowing that the vector representing will be perpendicular to the «y-plane. When w is crossed into R, the product w Rwill FIGURE 8.7 3K shoud be noted that to specify the normal an tangential componenis Of Ay the path of pont P tative tothe syzyater ast be known, " " ansCORRE RR REPRE ROER ERCP ERR 302 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS be in the xy-plane and perpendicular to R by the right-ha Behe roan and pepe R by the right-hand rule. This can be shown in 0.9986V, + 0.052305 ¥,(e0s 30% — sin 30) = 6(0.86604 ~ o.s0009) 5.21 = 3.65 Yo Substituting the above relations in the equation for V, 0.99861 0.0528¥aj = 5.25 ~ 3.0) + (w x Rj Summing i components, 09986044 Vs 524 Salts Theretore, Vo = (099896520) + (0.000)5.21) = 524 + 0.2713 Summing j components, .0523¥j = -305 + (@ x Ry (0.0523)65.20 = -3.0) + (@ x mj (ox R) = 3271 tis i 4 a : n ® s ox FIGURE 8.8 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS BY VECTOR MATHEMATICS 303, ‘Therefore, ox R = 3275 tus sar Hig ~ SEE = an. ts, airection rom B towsrd 0, [Ay = direction perpendicular to O48, magaitude unknowa ‘Bo = [Aad = |AS| = (O,A)ul = & x 24 = 144 £02, direction from Atoward OQ, (A = 0) A = O because Bisa fixed point i the xy-system tas x ¥ = D because V = 0 4% R = direction perpendicular to AB, magnitude unknown © x (@ XR) = aR, diverton from B toward A ‘a = 491k rad/s tom velocity sition OR = (491) x = 6A Be ‘The direction of x R can be determined from the fact that the tection of the vector representing will be perpendicular to the xy-plane. When a is crossed into Ry the product « x R will be in the 2y-piane and perpendicular to R. The dizection of (w x R) can be determined from Fig. 8.9, where w is counterclockwise as determined from the veloity solution, FIGURE 89304 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS ‘The equation for Ay i solved by unit vectors in the following manner, again using the xy-coordinate system. Ape hot A+20xXV4a XR+OX(WXR) were Ay(cos 3% + sin 34) = 0.9986Ay1 + 0.052345) Bo = Ae = Ax(~c0s 60% — sin 60°) = 144(~0.5001 — 0.8660)) = -721 - 124.8) A=0 2wxV=0 OxR=@x Ri @X (@XR) = ~163i ft Substituting the above relations into the equation for As, 21 + 40.35 + O.9986AGi + 0.052445 = —721 — 324.8) + (x Rj - 6a Summing \ components, ~2i + 09986Ayi = —721 — 16.13 ‘Therefore, Ag = (0,9986)(—86.1)1 + (0.0523)(~86.1)} = ~86.01 - 4.5) ‘Summing j components, 40.35 + O.0S23Ayj = -124.8) + (@ x RY} 40.35 ~ 4.5) = -1248) + (@ x RI (xR) = 1605 fe ‘Therefore, x R= 1605) RF VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS BY VECTOR MATHEMATICS 395 and re 1605 _ 1605 : Ap SE = minare (cu) 86.1 Sew) S2 - a9 mde (ew) Aa = AG + Ab = -211 + 40.3j ~ 86.01 ~ 4.5) = ~881i + 35.8) Ay = |As| = V88T + 35H = 95.1 ft/s? To obtain a better understanding ofthe vectors involved in the velocity and acceleration analysis of the Linkage of Example 8.1, a graphical solution of the vector equations will be given. It is often helpful to make a rough sketch of the vector polygons as an aid in visualizing and checking the analytical solution. The linkage of Fig. 8.7 is therefore redrawn in Fig. 8.102, and polygens are shown which give the magnitudes and directions of the vectors which were previously determined analytically. Figure 8.100 shows the graphical represeatation of the velocity equation Ve=VotVt+axR where : Yo = Va v=o ‘Therefore, FIGURE 8.10 OR OR FR IA MN NN FO A OH MFCS OOO SOS OS OOS OOOSCOHOSESSSSBIIIG 306, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS; ‘The addition of the vectors Vy polygon of Fig. 8.105. Figure 8 10eshows the graphical representation ofthe aceleration equation Aes Ao tA + 20x V+ OxR+ 0x (oR) where An = Ab+ Ay Ao= A= AS (A, = 0) A=0 20 x¥ © (@ xR) Which resutts in Ag+ @xR— oR ‘The addition of these vectors can easil y be seen in the polygon of Fi In comparing the analytical soluti Popaen of Fis. 8.10c, ‘on with the graphical solution, itis cbvious Orda = $08 mom 0545 = 239 mm FIGURE 8.1 and w R to give Vs can casily be seen inthe VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS BY VECTOR MATHEMATICS 307 Example 8.2. As. secoud example, consider the mechanism shown in Fig 611, where the angular velocity of link 2is constant, and itis required to find the angular velocity tnd engular acceleration of link 3. The coordinate system ay is fixed in link 3 es shown ‘with its origin at point A,, The system XV has its origin at point Os, ‘The equation for the velocity of point A, cannot be evaluated diceely from Eq. 8.16 because, by placing the origin af the zy-system at point Ay, Vo equals V,, and an ‘identity results. Its therefore necessary to write Eq. 8.16 for V,, as follows: Va = Vo + V+ ay xR where Vaq ~ (OAs), = 508 X 10 = 508 manis, direction perpendicular to OsA ‘Yo = Va, = direction perpendicular to O,A,, magnitude unknown YV = ciection parallel te O,4,, magnitude unknown 1, XR = 0 because R = 0 ‘The equation for Vis sélved by urit vectors, with all components taken relative to the -prates; os calculated from [Va Va =VotVtaxR Vay = Voy(oos 24.44 ~ sin74.49) = 462.61 — 209.95 Yo= Vn = —Vai 508(0.91071 ~ 0.41314) vevi @xR=0 Substituting the above relations in the equation for Vay 462.61 — 209.95 Val + Vb ‘Summing i componenss, 4O6i = Vi ¥ = 462.6 mis ‘Therefore, V = 462.61 mis Summing j components, 209.5 Vad Voy = 209.9 mis308 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS. ‘Therefore, Vo, = ~209.9j mm/s ae ©" OA, 33.0 = 6.36 rad/s (cow) ‘The equation for the acceleration A, can be written from Eq, 8.23 as follows: An = Ao tA +20xV+ xR + ax (xR) where Ag, = (OvAs)ul = 50.8 x 10% = 5080 mm/s, direction from A, toward 0, Ay =o Ao Ay Aa, ~ Ph = 29S — 1395 mums, aetion from A, toward 0, *T OA, BO Giection perpendicular to OyA,, magnitude unknown ‘Ar = 0 because radius of curvature is infinite’ (the path of point A; relative to the xy-ystem is a straight line along the centerline of the slot) At = direction parallel to 0,4, magnitude unknown 2 x V = 2 x 6.36 x 462.6 = 5884 mmis' direction along positive y-axe (Gee Fig. 8.12) @ XR = because R = 0 @X (@ XR) = O because R ‘The equation for Avis solved ty unit vectors and is caletated from [A inthe following menner. Aye Ao tA +20 xXV4EGXR+ ox (ox R) VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS BY VECTOR MATHEMATICS 399 where Mi, = Ai(—sin 2441 ~ cos 24.49) = S0an{—O.4131i — oIaT)) = 0005 ~ 4525) My ~ 0 fom Ay AG, = 13351 mm/s Ar, = Ani (assume as positive) anno Am AL 2w XV = 5884j mms? xR @x(@xR)=0 Substittng the above relations in the equation for Au, ~ 20881 ~ 4626} = 13351 4 Ay) + A + 5885 Summing t esponents, 20991 = 13351 + a Al = ~3434 mm/st ‘Therefore, Als —34341 mm/s! Summing | components, 4626) = Ai) + 58845 Al, = —10,510j mals? Theretore, Ag, = —10,510] mist Any = Ai + Al, = 1335 ~ 10,510} dal = VEE TOS An | 10510 Se Seb ER = ss aie (eeu 10,590 mmnist It should be mentioned that the origin of the ay-system was taken at paint A; with point A as P because the path of point A; relative to point A, (and hence the xy-system) is a straight line. If the origin of the xy-system had been A2292999759922499999%" MORO OAM ARAMA OADM© 6 OOOO OOO SOOO OOOO OOOEHSSEHHSESHESBTGE 310 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS aken a€ point Az with point A, as P, the solution would have been more difficult because the path of As relative to A; is not readily known, To present the graphical solution of Example 8.2, the linkage of Fig, 8.11 is redcewn in Fig, 8.13a. Figure 8.134 shows the graphical representation of the velocity equation Va" VotVtaxR where Vo = Vs, oxR=0 Therefore, Van = Va + V ‘The addition of the vectors Va, of Fig. 8.136. The value of a, solution, namely, . and Y to give V,, can easily be seen in the polygon 's calculated in the same manner asin the analytical 7 = Gam 635 rad/s (ow) Figure 8.13 shows the graphical representation ofthe acceleration equation Au = Mot A+ 20XV+ xR 40x (oR) wee ‘at fo FIGURE 8.13, DETERMINATION OF VELOCITY IN MECHANISMS BY VECTOR POLYGONS 311. where Ag Ai, (A, = 0) Ao = Ay = AS, + Aly A=A' (A"=0) @xR=0 x (xR) =0 Therefore, Ai, = AR + AL, + AD + 20 x ‘The addition of the four vectors to give A., can easily be seen in the polygon of Fig. 8.13c. The value of a3 is calculated in the same manner as in the analytical solution, namely, Ab com Aho a8 adie! (con) = Ak a aged! (ew) 8.7 DETERMINATION OF VELOCITY IN MECHANISMS BY VECTOR POLYGONS Vector polygons are a convenient tool for determining velocity in mechanisms. ‘These polygons may be solved graphically, analytically, or by some combination of the two. Graphical methods may be used to determine the linear velocities of all particles of a mechanism quickly with relatively little caleulation, as illustrated in several examples that follow. However, « fundamental insight of the relative ‘motion of the particles in the mechanism is needed, In Fig. 8.14 are shown three types of linkages in which the driving link (link 2) is the same but in which the motion transmitted to the driven link depends on a different type of constraint. In Fig. 8.14a, motion constraint is achieved through pin connections; in 8.146, by sliding in a guide; and in 8.14c, by rolling contact. The absolute velocity of any particle on link 2 is quickly determined if FIGURE 8.14 (continued next page)Pi @ FIGURE 8.14 (continued) the driving angular velocity w; is known, The magnitude of V,, for example, may be calculated from Eq. 8.12: IVs] = Re, = (O;A}ay The direction of V, is known to be tangent to the circular path of A, and the sense of V, is known from the sense of w;. However, to determine the linear ‘velocity of any particle on the driven links or followers, a knowledge of the relative motion of pairs of particles is required. 8.8 RELATIVE VELOCITY OF PARTICLES IN MECHANISMS Referring to Eq. 8.5 and Fig. 8.4, the relative velocity Vrg of one particle relative to another may be determined from the vector difference ofthe absolute velocities ‘Vp and Vo provided the absolute velocities are known. However, in a linkage analysis, only one of the absolute velocities is usually known and the other is to be determined. The unknown absolute velocity V>, for example, may be deter- ‘mined from Eq. 8.5 in the following form: Ye = Vo + Veo 62 Although Vo may be known, it is necessary that the relative velocity Vpg also bbe known. In linkages, the motions of particles P and Q are not independent as in Fig. 84 but are constrained relative to each other so that their relative motion is controlled. In the following section, the basic types of motion constraint are discussed to show the determination of the magnitude, direction, and sense of Voo- 312 [RELATIVE VELOCI“Y OF PARTICLES IN A COMMON LINK 333 8.9 RELATIVE VELOCITY OF PARTICLES IN A COMMON LINK Considering the rigid body (link 3) in Fig. 8.15a, any particle such as Q may be at the absolute velocity Vg and the link at an absolute angular velocity wy. If observations are made relative to Q, then Q is at rest as shown in Fig. 8.15. However, since particle Q has no engular motion, the angular velocity w, of the link relative to Q is unchanged. Therefore, as in Fig. 8.15b, relative to Q, the link rotates at the absolute angular velocity a about Q as if Q were a fixed center. Relative to Q, any other particle in the link such as P is constrained to ‘move on a circular path as shown in Fig. 8.15c because the link isa rigid body and the distance PQ is fixed. The relative velocity Vip of P relative to Q is tangent to the relative path as shown. Since the radius of curvature R of the telative path is equal to PQ and the angular velocity of the radius of curvature is equal to ws, the magnitude of Vjg may be determined from Eq. 8.1a as follows: [Viel = (PQ) ° 6.25) ‘Because the relative path is circular, dR/d¢is zero. 4 om | . % — g i @ o Path of @ weve ts Co @ FIGURE 8.5 RR FFI EM© OOOO OOS SSO SHOOOOOSCHHHOHSEERORTVORS 314 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS It isto be observed from Eq. 8.25 that if the link has no absolute angular Velocity, the relative velocity Vpg of any two particles of the link is zero. The link is then in pure translation, and the absolute velocities of all particles of the link are identical, In Fig, 8.15e, the direction of Vig is tangent to the relative circular path and is shown as a fixed vector at P. The sense of Vpo is determined by making its turning sense about @ the same as the sense of «- In Fig. 8.15¢ is shown the vector Vo» denoting the velocity of Q relative to P. Tt may be seen that relative to P, the angular velocity w, of link 3 is the same in magnitude and sense os relative to Q. Therefore, the magnitudes of Vgp and Vag are the same. Their Girections are also the same since both are normal to the line PQ. However, the sense of Vor is opposite to that of Vag, As illustrated in the following example, Eqs. 8.24 and 8.25 and the know! edge ofthe direction and sense ofthe relative velocity of two particles ina given link are necessary in the kinematic analysis of mechanisms, Example 8.3. Link 2 of the fou bar linkage of Fig 8.16 the diving ink having a uniform angular velocity «w, of 30 ck yg ‘ds, For the phase shown, draw the velocity polygon. ‘a = 203 mm 048 = 76.2mm ‘AG = 102 no 462 83am s o FIGURE 8.16 RELATIVE VELOCITY OF PARTICLES IN A COMMON LINK 315 ‘and determine the velocity Vy of point 3, the angular velocities as and wy, and the relative angular Velocities and ay, Also deterinine the velocity images of all inks to show how ‘the linear velocity of any point in the linkage may be determined. Since each Vector has ‘a magnitude m and a direction d, we can conveniently tabulate the knowns and unknowns in the vector equation. One vector equation can be solved for two sealar unknowns. ‘Velocity equations can be written as follows, EL Vos Vat Vou ees ara al here Vo = direction perpendicular to O,B, magnitude unknown ‘Va = (O,Ao, = (102}20 = 3060 mm/s, direction perpendicalar to 0, ‘Vox * direction perpendicular fo BA, magaitude waknosea ‘Measured from the polygon, Vs = 1800 min/s and Vay = 3180 mms. Yau _ 3180 a on = WE as rents (oom) Va. 1800 _ OB” 762 — Seale (oom) @y = oy ~ wy = 15.7 ~ (~30) = 45.7 rad/s (cow) fg = ay ~ wy = 236-157 = 7.9 rad/s (cow) T. Ve = Vs + Yeu UL Ve where ‘Ve = direction unknows, magnitude unknown Vat Ver Yeu = direetion perpendicular to CA, magnitude unknown ‘Vex = direction perpendicular to CB, magnitude unknown “Measured from the polygon, Ve = 2050 mm/s, Veq = 1600 mais, and Ver = 2390 mim/s. Equation I expresses Vs in terms of Vy and Vy. As indicated, the components Vz and ‘Vay are known only in direction, while V, is known in magnitude, sense, and dicestion. In constructing the velocity polygon Fig. 8.166 starting with the right side of Eq. I, the ‘estor Va is drawn from pole Oy, and its tp is labeled “A.” Next, add the direction of Vas Starting at point A. As can be seen, its impossible to complete the soltion only these two components. Therefore, consider the left side of the equation and draw the direction of V, from 0, The intersection ofthe direction of Vy and the diection of ‘Va, completes the polygon. Arrowheads are now added to the vectors Vs ad Va, 80 that the addition of the veotors ofthe polygon agrees with the adtion of the terms of Eq. I ‘The tip of the vector Vp is labeled "5."316 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS: ‘The magnitudes and senses of wand w, can now be determined from Vag and Vay respectively, a8 shown. The values of wx and ag can algo be determined as indicated. To determine Ve, itis necessary to use Eqs. I and IIL, which give the relations between Ve and V, and Vs. The directions of Veg and Ves are kaown as indicated. The velocity vectors Vs and Vp are redrawn in Fig. 8.16c to give a clearer diagram. Use Eq, T and draw the direction of the vector Ve, from point A in Fig. 8.16e. Next, consider Eq, I and draw the direction of the vector Vey from point B. The intersection of the ‘ireetion of Voy and the direction of Ve, completes the polygon. This intersection is point C, which gives Ve. The veetor addition in the polygon is checked to see that it agrees with that of Eqs. 1 and 1, ‘The shaded triangle ABC of Fig. 8.16e is known asthe velocity image of link 3, ‘and as such has the same shape as link 3. The velocity of any point D as shown on link 3.can be determined by locating its corresponding positon on the velocity image of link 3. The vector from 0, to D is Vp 2080 min/s) as shown in Fig. 8.16c. The velocity image of link 1 is at the pole O, because lin 1 is‘ixed and has zez0 velocity. The images of links 2 and 4 are lines O,A and O,B, respectively, which correspond to O,A and OB, respectively, inthe configuration diagram, In the analyeis above, the engular velocity wy was deteniuod fru the scl You za Tt should also be mentioned that after the velocity image of link 3 has been completed, 1, cam also be found from Ven _ Veo. Vox ca” cB” Da In other words all relative velocities of points on a link are proportional to the distances between these points. 8.10 RELATIVE VELOCITY OF COINCIDENT, PARTICLES ON SEPARATE LINKS 1a many mechanisms such as in Fig 8.140, constraint of relative motion is achieved by guiding a particle A on one link along a prescribed path relative to another link by a guiding surface, Such constraints to be found in cams and the inversions of the sider crank, where a surface on one link controls the motion of a particle on another link by relative sliding or roling. In Fig. 8.17, particle Pon ink 3 is in motion along a curvilinear path traced on link 2 because of the guiding slot i link 2. The path of Py relative to link 2 {is shown with tangent tf end normal n-n constructed at P,, Consider a particle Q, 0m link 2 which is coincident in postion with particle Py on link 3. It may be seen that regardless ofthe absolute angular velocities wy and w, of inks 2 and 3, the guide constrains the motion of P, so that it cannot displace relative to Qs in the normal dietion n-n, and therefore there cannot be @ relative velocity of the tivo particles inthis erection. However, the guide permits freedom fr particle RELATIVE VELOCITY OF COINCIDENT PARTICLES ON SEPARATE LINKS 317 FIGURE 8.17 Ps to displace rela:ive to Q, in the tangential direction #-1, and therefore the relative velocity V;,o, ean be only in the tangential direction of the guide. ‘In mechanisms Where guiding constraint is utilized, the knowledge that the relative velocity of coincident particles can be only in the tangential dizection of the ide is sufficient to solve velocity problems as illustrated in the following Example 8.4, The disk car of Fig. 8.180 drives an oscillating roller follower and a radial point follower simultaneously. The cam rotates counterclockwise at a constant angular velocity w, of 10 rad/s. Springs (not shown) are used to maintain contact of theSCOOSCOSHSOHOOSHESCHHEEY Ceeeueueye 318 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS followers with the cam. For the phase shown, dete {he oscillating follower and the velocity Vp, ‘equations can be written as follows mine the velocity V,, of point A, on Of point By on the point follower. Velocity 1Va = Vat Va where Va, = direction perpendicular to O,Ay, magnitude unknown Vay = (Osdidos = (25910 = 25 inl, diestion perpendicular to OyAy an ‘ieetion parallel to straight side of cam, magnitude unknown Measured on the polygon of Mg. 8.286, Va, ML Va, = Va + Vann where ‘Voy = direction along centerline of follower 5, Vo = O:B.)o, Yow, ‘magnitude unkown (2.8)10 = 28 in.ts, direction perpendicular to OsB, = direction along tangent to cam contour at point Ba, ‘magnitude unknown Measured on the polygon of Fig. 8.186, Vq~ 147 in./s and Vag = 3.6 in. /a Cariering ft the oxcilating follower ink 4 ican be sen thatthe aight side of the ph eye id Surlace which constrains point Ay om link 4 to follow seuighe lee Peeve to lnk 2. Point As om tink 2 and point Aon link 4 ate eumeivenn eee Eq. abo gg of Weir vlonics, As indeated, the components Ve and Vaan 86 ‘crown in direction while Va, is known in magnitude, sense, and oheaticg Te gargmiton of the velociy polygon of Fig, 818i started wilh th right side fhe deca HE YEE Vag is drawn fom pole O with is tip labeled "acm De eae tng atom of Vary tating at point A, Because its impossible to comple the rane direcion og w= {NO components, consider the left side of the equation sad one ecton of Va, from O,, The interestion of the diecton of Viv and the diceaea Haine amet he polygon, Arrowhead ae now added tthe vectors Van Vay 0 Eat fis ton ofthe vectors of the polygon agrees with the adsition of te weg Eq. [. The tip of vector V,, is labeled “A, ‘The velocity polygon forthe determination ofthe vel senatetitum it a sinlar manner from Eq, I, Points B, and Bye colaecnts ne indicated, the components Vs, and Vy, are known in direction while Vy, paisiuae Sense, and direction. Figure 8.180 shows the polygon drawn fom the eon ole point 0, a8 was the polygon for the determination of V, locity Va, of the point follower 8.11 RELATIVE VELOCITY OF COINCIDENT PARTICLES AT THE POINT OF CONTACT OF ROLLING ELEMENTS A third (pe of constraint in mechanisms is that which occurs because one link ji constrained to roll on another link without slipping atthe point of comes 1k Fig. 6.19 are shown the rolling pitch circles of a pais of gears in mesh with the [RELATIVE VELOCITY OF PARTICLES AT POINT OF CONTACT 319 FIGURE 8.19 and P,on link 2. Because cident particles at the point of contact, P; on link 3 and Ps Because the cis have pa oli contact hese partes hove ental vebetis that Vp, = Vn and the relative velocity between the two particles wil . Example 8.5 illustrates the use of this principle zample 85. to Pg 20s ham ecaniam soning of thee bs, Wo 2, sal rack The vl V, of pont 122ml inthe dreton shown, Det ihe top: vlc wand af he vo gens nd sh the elocy images tet ean. Determine also the velocity Vp of point D on gear 5, Velocity equations can be ‘written as follows: 1 Ve= Vat Vou mee Vs = direction parallel to pitch line of rack, magnitude unknown V, = 22 mls (given), cretion perpen 10 OA Vor = dieson perpendicular to BA, magaitude eaknown ‘Measured on the polygon of Fig. 8.206, Vy = 104 m/s and Ve, = 116 mis. I. Ve = Va+ Vou where ‘Ve = ditection perpendicular to O,C, magnitude unknown ‘Ver ~ sicection perpendicular to CB, meynitude uskuowe Measured on the polygon of Fig. 8.208, Ve = 36.6 ms and Vey = 112 m/s. Measured ‘00 the polygon of Fig. 8.20, Vie, = Vp = 104 mis, Vey, = 207 m/s, Va, = Vie = 206 2S m/s, and Yor, 104 7a son als (ew) BP You _ 207 = Yon = 2 = 4060 resis (ew) cut ai320 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS +0 mm $s OyA= 508.00 452 Baton i2mm 152 FIGURE 8.20 Since the distance BC between the centers of the two gears is constant in all phases of the mechanism, an equivalent link joining the two centers may be visualized, Therefore, 1 five-bar linkage is frst analyzed to determine the velocities Vz and Ve of the centers of the gears. The velocity polygon of Fig. 8.206 shows the determination of Vy and Vag fom, Eq, L Ina similar manner, Ve and Vey ate determined from Ea. T. Jn Fig. 8.20, the velocity vectors Vs and Ve of Fig. 10.205 are redrawn for the construction ofthe velocity images of goars 4 and 5. Because the velocity Vp, of point P, is zero and Vz, = Vn (Vr, = 0), the image of both points P, and P, is atthe pole point 0, as shown. With point P, located on the polygon, the velocity image of gear 4 is drawn ‘with B os a center and radius BP,. The image of point M, on the circle is determined by Arawing a line through # on the polygon perpendicular to the lin MiB on the configuration diagram. The image of point M, isthe same as that of point M, because Vy, = Vij. The ‘image of gear 5 is, therefore, drawn with C as a center and radius CM, the image of point Dis located on a diameter ofthe etele opposite point M, ‘The magnitudes and senses of uw and ws can now be determined from Vyy, and Vouy respectively, a5 shown, INSTANTANEOUS CENTERS OF VELOCITY 321. 8.12 INSTANTANEOUS CENTERS OF VELOCITY In the foregoing paragraphs and examples, the velocity analyses of linkages were sade from an understanding of relative velocity and the influence of motion constraint on relative velocity. In the following, another concept is utilized to determine the linear velocity of particles in mechanisms, namely, the concept of the instantaneous center of velocity. This concept is based on the fact that at a given instant a par of coincident points on two links in motion will have identical velocities relative toa fixed link and, therefore, will have zero velocity relative to each other. At this instant either link will have pure rotation relative to the other lik about the coincident points. A special case of this is where one link {is moving and the other is fixed. A pair of coincident points on these two links will ten have zero absolute velocity, and the moving link at this instant will be rotating relative to the fixed link about the coincident points. In both eases the coincident set of points is referred to as an instantaneous center of velocity (sometimes referred to a instant center, or centro). From the foregoing, it can be seen that an instantaneous center is (a) a point in both bodies, (b) a point at which the two bodies Inve uo relative velocity, and (e) a point about which one body ‘ay be considered to rotate relative to the other body at a given instant. It is casily seen that when two links, ether both moving or one moving and one fixed, ace directly connected together, the center of the connecting joint is an instantaneous center for the two links. When two links, either both moving or one moving and one fixed, are not directly connected, however, en instant center for the two links will also exist for a given phase of the linkage as will be shown in the following section. In the four-bar linkage of Fig. 8.21, it is obvious that relative to the fixed link, points O; and O, are locations of particles on inks 2 and 4, respectively, which are at zero velocity. Tt is less obvious that on link 3, which has both translating and angular motion, a particle is also at zero velocity relative to the fixed link. Referring to the velocity polygon shown in Fig. 8.21, the vel image of link 3 appears as the line AB and none of the particles on this line is FIGURE 8.21 abe eeaananeanneaanreanaabuaanaanemaeeea:COO OOS OS OOO OOOO OOOO SEHOHEHEHSSETIODE 322 LOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS at zero Velocity, However, if link 3 is visualized large enough in extent as a rigid body to include O, of the polygon, a particle of zero velocity is then included in the image. To determine the location of O,, the instantaneous center of link 3 relative to link 1, on the mechanism, a triangle similar to O,BA of the polygon is constructed on the mechanism so that the sides of the two similar triangles are ‘mutually perpendicular. Itis important to note that for the particles on link 3 at A and at B, the fixed vectors V, and Yq om link 3 are normal to the lines drawn from the instantaneous center O, to A and B. Since A and the instantaneous center O, are particles on a common rigid link, the magnitude of V, may be determined from V, = w(0,A). Similarly, Vn = wx(0,B). The magnitude of the velocity of any particle on link 3 may be determined from the product of w, and the radial distance from the instantaneous center to the particle, and the direction of the velocity vector is normal to the radial line. 1¢ may also be seen that the instantaneous center of link 3 relative to link. 1 changes position with respect to time because of the changes in the shape of the velocity polygon as the mechanism passes through a cycle of phases. However, for links in pure rotation, the instantaneous centers are fixed centers, such as O, and O, of links 2 and 4, respectively, of Fig. 8.21. ‘The determination of velocities by instantaneous centers does not require the velocity polygon of free vectors and is judged by many to be the quicker ‘method. By the method of instantaneous centers, the velocity vectors are shown directly as fixed vectors, In the solution of a problem, such as in Fig. 8.22, the locations of the instantaneous centers of the moving links relative to the fixed link are generally determined frst. For links 2 and 4, O, and O,are obviously points of zero velocity For links such as link 3, only the directions of the velocities of two particles on the link need to be known since the intersection of the normals to the velocity direction lines determines the instantaneous center. ga tan, /\, sitet ‘canter of ik 2 77 edawvets tnt Instentencou FIGURE 8.22 reste ot INSTANTANEOUS CENTER NOTATION 323 Fixed velocity vectors may be determined almost entirely by graphical construction. In Fig. 8.22, assuming «; is the only information given, V, may be computed from #,(2,4) and V, drawn normal to O,4 using the instantaneous center of link 2 relative to link 1. Considering particles A and B as part of link 3, the magnitude of Vz may be determined from similar triangles, as shown by the graphical construction, since V, and Vy are proportional to the distance of A and B from the instantancous center of link 3 relative to link 1. The equation which justifies the use of similar triangles in determining V, may be written as @; = V4l(CA) = Vo/(CB). The velocity of any particle on link 4 such as D may bbe determined graphicaly from similar triangles as shown using the instantaneous center of link 4 relative to link 1. For links that are in pure translation, such as the slider in a slider-eranke mechanism, the direction lines of the velocities of all of its particles are parallel, and the normals, also being parallel, intersect at infinity. Thus, the instantaneous center ofa link in translation is a an infinite distance from the link, ina direction normal to the path of translation. 8.13 INSTANTANEOUS CENIER NOTATION In the foregoing, instantaneous centers of velocity were determined for each of the moving links relative to the fixed link. The system of labeling these points is shown in Fig. 8.23, where the instantaneous center of link 3 relative to the fixed Jink is labeled 31 to indicate the motion of “3 relative to 1.” Link J has the same instantaneous center relative to link 3 when link 3 is considered the fixed link, in which case link 1 appears to be rotating in the opposite sense (0: = —W) relative to link 3. Since points 31 and 13 are the same point, either designation is acceptable although the simpler notation 13 is preferred. “The instantaneous center of link 2 relative to link 1 is labeled 21 or 12, and that of link 4 relative to link 1 is labeled 41 or 14 as shown, 42.28 FIGURE 8.23,324 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS Also of interest is the instantaneous center of one link relative to another ‘here both links are moving relative to the fixed link. Such a center is shown at point A in Fig. 8.23, where both Az and Ay have a commion absolute velocity V, because of the pinned joint so thatthe relative velocities Vaya, and Vy are 2er0. It is obvious that point A is the instantaneous center 52 about which link 3 is rotating relative to link 2 at an angular velocity wm. Point A is also the instantaneous center 23. Ina similar manner point B is the instantaneous center 43 or 34, The instantaneous center 42 oF 24 is also shown in Fig. 8.23. However, the ‘method of determining its location will not be presented until the next se 8.14 KENNEDY'S THEOREM For three independent bodies in general plane motion, Kennedy's theorem states ‘that the three instantaneous centers lie on a common straight line. In Fig. 8.24, ‘three independent links (1, 2, and 3) are shown in motion relative to each other. ‘There are three instantaneous centers (12, 13, and 23), whose instantaneous locations are to be determined. If link 1 is regarded as a fixed link, or datum link, ‘he velocities of particles ‘Az and By on tink 2 and the velocities of Ds and £3 on link 3 may be regarded 8 absolute velocities relative to link 1. The instantateous center 12 may be located from the intersection of the normals to the velocity direction lines drawn from A; and 2. Similarly, the center 13 is located from normals drawn from particles D, and £;, The instantaneous centers 12 and 13 are relative to link 1. ‘The third instantaneous center 23 remains to be determined. On a line drawn through the centers 12 and 13, there exists « particle C, on link 2 at an absolute velocity Vo, having the same direction as the absolute velocity Vc, of a particle C, on link 3, Since Ve, is proportional to the distance of C, from 12, the ‘magnitude of Vo, is determined from the graphical construction shown, and FIGURE 8.24 DETERMINATION OF INSTANTANEOUS CENTERS 325 ‘Vc, is determined in a similar manner. From the intersection of the construction lines at k, a common location of C, and G; is determined such that the absolute velocities Vc, and Ve, are identical. This location isthe instantaneous center 23, the absolute velocities of the coincident particles are common and the relative velocities Vee, and Veo, are 22r0. It should be: obvious that 23 is on a straight line with 12 and 13 in order for the directions of Ve, and Ve, to be common. ‘Kennedy's theorem is extemely useful in determining the locations of instantaneous centers in mechanisms having a large number of inks, many of which ae in general plane motion. 8.15 DETERMINATION OF INSTANTANEOUS, CENTERS BY KENNEDY'S THEOREM Jn a mechanism consisting of m Links, there are n — 1 instantaneous centers relative to any given link. For n number of links, theze is a total of n(n ~1) instantaneous centers. However, since for each location of instantaneous centers there are two centers, the total number N of locations is given by ‘The number of locations of centers increases rapidly with nunibers of links as shown below. n LINKS —_N CENTERS 4 6 5 10 6 15 7 a Example 8.6. For the Whitworth mechanism shown in Fig. 8:25, determine the 15 locations of istantaneous centere of zero velocity. Solution, Because ofthe large number of locetions to be determined, itis desirable to tom of accounting for the centers as they are determined. The circle diagram 8.25 is one of the simplest means of accoulting The numbers of the links ated on the periphery of the circle, and the chord linking any two avmbers ‘epresents an instantaneous center. Inthe upper circle are shown eight centers which may ‘be determined by inspection. Five ofthe centers (12, 14,23, 45, and 56) are at pin-jointed connections as show. Two centers (16 and 34) are at infinity, since link 6 i in translation relative to ink 1, and link 3s in translation relative to link 4. Because the absolute velocity directions of points B and C of link $ are known, the intersection ofthe normals locates 15. Thus, eight centers are located by inspection, as shown by the solid lies on the circle diagram, A (FR fm (fi J OR FO MA MYC6 OOOO OO OOO OOS OOOOESHSOSSHHSSVIISE 326 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS fis ste Crete iagrams CN WIEZ FIGURE 8.25 we nn ea at reno ‘Besar teste rr Reon ae ys theorem fic on a straight line. Similarly, triangle 1-3-4 Tepresents smi aaa the circle shows the next step in which the center 24 is located using triangles 2-3-4 wad 26, witch cannat be drawn 28 comme 2, wh a 10n {0 two triangles until other centers have been {In Fig. 8.25, 10 ofthe 15 centers are shown, I 15 centers located a" Figure 8.26 shows the same mechanism DETERMINATION OF VELOCITY BY INSTANTANEOUS CENTERS 327 wate I e +n FIGURE 8.26 8.16 DETERMINATION OF VELOCITY BY INSTANTANEOUS CENTERS Kennedy's theorem may be used to great advantage in determining directly the absolute velocity of any given particle of a mechanism without necessarily determining the velocities of intermediate particles as required by the vector pol- ‘ygon method. In connection with the Whitworth mechanism of Fig. 8.25, for Exauple, the velocity of the tool support (link 6) may be determined from the ‘known speed of the driving link 2 without first determining the velocities of points ‘on the connecting links 3, 4, and 5. Example 8.7. For the Whitworth mechanism shown in Fig 8.27, determine the absolute velocity Ve ofthe tool support when the driving link 2 rotates ata speed such that V = 30 fs as shown. Solution. Two solutions for Ve are shown in Fig. 8.27, Inthe fst ofthese (Fig. 8.272), Tinks 1, 3, and 5 are involved sich that instantaneous centers 13, 15, and 35 are used. Vs 's the known absolute velocity ofa partite on link 3 relative to Fink 1; thus, links 3 and 1 are involved, The absolute veloity Ve is tobe determined fora particle on link 5 also relative to link 2, thus fovolving links 5 and 1, According to Kennedy's theorem, the instantaneous centers 13, 15, and 35 are on a common straight tine as shown in Fig 8.272 ‘Using center 13, the absolute velocity Vr, fora particle Ps located at 35 on tink 3 may be determined graphically from similar triangles by swinging Va to positon V, using center 43 aga pivot point, Point 35 represents the locaton of coincident particles P, on link 3 and P, on link 5, for which the absolute velocities are common (see Fig. 8.24). Thus,328 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS. FIGURE 827 ‘Vn.is also the absolute velocity V;, of a particle on link S. Since both P, and C are points ‘on ink 5, the absolute velocity Ve may be determined from similar tiangles by swinging Vr, to position Va, using center 15 as a pivot point. The length of Ve is measured to determine magnitude of velocity. - Tn the above solution, the centers 13 and 15 relative to the fixed link are pivot points, andthe center 35 of the moving inks is the transfer polnt. By properly identifying ‘hese points, the determination of velocities becomes systematic. —_ ‘The second solution (Fig. 8.278) for Ves similar to the frst, in which pivot points 2nd 16 are used beceuse V, represents the absolute velocity of s particle on link 2 and ‘Vcis he absolute velocity ofa particle on link 6. Center 26s the transfer point representing the location of coincident particles Q, and Q, on links 2 and 6, for which the absolute GRAPHICAL DETERMINATION OF ACCELERATION IN MECHANISMS 329 Velocities Vo, and Vo, are common. Ve, is determined graphically from V, using center 1258 pivot point. Since pivot point 16 at infinity, link 6 is in pure translation relative {o link 1 s0 that Veis the same in magnitude and ditestion as Vo, and Vo, as shown, 8.17 ROLLING ELEMENTS ‘The method of instantaneous centers is frequently applied to mechanisms consisting of rolling elements as in epicyclic gear trains (Fig. 8.28). As shown previously, the relative velocity of the coincident particles at the point of contact of two rolling links is zero. Thus, an instantaneous center exists at the point of contact. For the reduction drive shown in Fig. 8.28, the instantaneous centers aze as shown. The speed reduction ratio w/t (the internal gear speed to carrier speed when the sun gear is fixed) may be determined from linear velocities of particles as shown. Assuming thatthe absolute angular velocity wy ofthe cartier is known, V4 may be determined considering A as a particle on link 4. V, i also the absolute velocity of a particle om link 2; therefore, using the center 12, the absolute velocity Vp, of P, on link 2 may be determined graphically from similar tsiangles. Since center 23 is the locetioa of coincident particles on links 2 and 3 having a common absolute velocity, wy, may be calculated from V>, FIGURE 8.28 8.18 GRAPHICAL DETERMINATION OF ACCELERATION IN MECHANISMS BY VECTOR POLYGONS , the linear accelerations of particles may also be determined by graphical construction of acceleration polygons and acceleration images. It is important that the relative acceleration of pairs of particles be understood. Rf RO (A tin FA (OR FEN MR am A) MM) A) ML Iewer wr UwewerrrwWTeEWwwWOWWWWCUWOWYeCWWTWOW 330 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS. 8.19 RELATIVE ACCELERATION OF PARTICLES IN MECHANISMS. Ifthe acceleration A. ofa particle Q is known, the aceleration of another particle ‘Ap may be determined by adding the relative acceleration vector Arg as shown in the following vector equation: Arm Ag + An (6.26) As discussed in the sections on relative velocity, it is shown that the relative velocity of a pair of particles depends on the type of constraint used in a given ‘mechanism. Similarly, the relative acceleration Avg in mechanisms depends on the type of built-in constraint. 8.20 RELATIVE ACCELERATION OF PARTICLES IN A COMMON LINK As shown in Fig. 8.292, when two particles P and Q in the same rigid link are considered, the fixed distance PO constrains particle P to move on a circular are relative to @ regardless of the absolut linear motion of Q. Therefore, since the path of Prelative to Q is circular, the acceleration vector Aya may be represented by the perpendicular components of acceleration Ajo and Ag normal and tan- ‘ent, respectively, to the relative path at P. Regardless of the linear absolute acceleration of Q, the angular motions of the link relative to Q are the same as relative to the fixed link because a particle such as Q has no angular motion. For the circular path of P relative to Q, the angular velocity w, of the radivs of curvature PQ is the same as the absolute angular velocity w, of the link. Also, the angular acceleration a, ofthe radius of curvature isthe same as the absolute angular acceleration ay of the link ‘The magnitude of the normal relative acceleration Ap may be determined from Eq. 8.4 lAtol = (Poet = Vie ean PO FIGURE 829 RELATIVE ACCELERATION OF PARTICLES IN'A COMMON LINK 331 ‘The magnitude of the tangential relative acceleration Ag may be determined from Eq. 8.40: [Abel = (PQ)a5 6.28) e the relative path is circular, dR/dt is zero, . Ee Ege rt ph ltt its sense is toward the center of curvature Q s0 that the vector is directed from ‘toward Q 2s shown in Fig. 8.292. The direction of Ag is tangent tothe relative path (normal to line PQ), and the sense of the vector depends on the sense of S-In Fig 6.295, the reativeacelertion verre Ayan Ar of @ eave to Pare shown where the magnitudes and senses of w and oy are the same as in Fig. 8.290. The relative path shown is that of Q observed at P. Its to be noted that Agp = ~Ajg and Abe = —Ag, where the minus signs indicate “opposite in sense.” eee Example 8.8. When the mechanism is in the phase shown in Fig. 8.302, ns ane mene re gees eee aera ema Od = 102 wm “23 = 203 mm o FIGURE 830332 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS the selativeacaeration ay. Velocity and aeeleration equations can be writen as flows: 1 Vs= Vet Vu Bh Vem Vat Vex UL Ve = Vs + Vx where Ye = direction perpendicular to 0.8, magnitude unknown Va = (OrA)un = (102)30 = 3060 mm/s, dizection perpendicular to OA Vou = direction perpeniicular to BA, magnitude unknown, ‘Ve = direction unknown, magnitude uaknowa ‘Vex = direction perpendicular to CA, magnitude unknown ‘Vee = direction perpendicular to CB, magnitude unknowa ‘Measured on the polygon of Fig. 8.30b, Vy = 3660 mm/s, Vag = 2300 mm/s, Veq = 1130 mm/s, and Vey = 1750 muni. IV Ay= Aut Aw MEAL ALT AL t Abt AL, where Vi 3660" . AS Oy agg = 96,000 mis, direction from B toward Oy ‘Ay = direction perpendicular to As, magnitude unknown 26,100 min/s, direction from B toward A ‘Aj = direction perpendicular to Af, magnitude unknown ‘Measured on the polygon of Fig. 8.30c, Ay = 70,400 mm/s*, Ay 129,000 mm/s, and 24,700 mals", A, Ay _ 129,000 _ oy = Sit = OO esradle (cow) As 10 «199 eaalet 203 (y= 05 — ay = 635 ~ (—122) = 757 rad/s? (cow) Ve Be = ha + At, + Al VL Ac at Att Ate ‘RELATIVE ACCELERATION OF COINCIDENT PARTICLES 333 where ‘Ac = direction unknown, magnitude unkoown 2 = Ve 130 . ty = Yee - EF ~ 12,500 mis, direction from C toward A ‘Aus = direction perpendicular to A, magnitude unknown 150° Vay Aum ce 152 ‘As = direction perpendicular to Ats, magnitude unknown ‘Measured on the polygon of Fig. 8.30d, Ac = 104,000 mm/s 20,100 mavs, direction from C toward B ‘The velocity polygon of Fig. 306 shows the determination of Vp and Vay from Ba. Ina snilar manner Ve, Vx, 8nd Veg ee determined from Eqs. and Ul. The shed tangle ABC ofthe velocity polygon isthe velocity image of nk 3. Equation IV expresses Ay in tems of Ay and Aza, and all of the components of {his equation sre known es ndtated in magntode, sense, and ditecton or in siestion, In consrutng the acceleration polygon Fig. 8.30 starting withthe right side of Ba, IV, the vector Ads drewn from pole O, to which s added A. This gives the vector Ay whose tpislabeled "A." Next add the vector Ai string at peat A, and to itada the drecton of Ay. Ascan be seen itis imposible to complete te ation wing oly the components fn the right side of Eq TV. Therefore, conslder the left side ofthe equation end draw ‘ector Aj from 0, and tot ada the eirestion of Ai, The intersection ofthe dtection of ‘Ais andthe dzecon of Aj completes the polygon. Arrowbeads are now edged tothe vectors Aig and Aj so that the addition of the vectors ofthe polygon agrees with the dition of the terms of Eq. IV. The resultant of the vectoe At and As gives Ay whose ti is labeled "2." The resultant of Ads and Ali lo shown on the poygon. ‘The magnitudes and senses of and ay can now be determined ffom Aix and Ags respectively, a shown. “To determine Ac it is necessary to use Eqs. V and VE, which give the reltont between Acand Ay and Ay. The components of these equations are known ay indiated, For cary, he acceleration vectors Ay an A. ae redrawn in Fig. 630d from Fig. 8:30¢ without their normal and tangential components. Use Bq, V, and draw the vector Az, from point A in Fig. 8.30 a6 to it add the circton of At, Consider next Bq. Vi and draw the vector Ay from point B and tit add the dection of Ay. The faterction of the direction of Ats and the direction of Aty completes the polygon. Tis intersection is pit C, which gives Ae. Arrowheads are now added tothe vectors Ae, and At, 30 that the vecor aditon checks with Eqs. V and VI The shaded tangle ABC of Fig. 830d is the acceleration image of ink ‘The aczeleaton of any point Das shown on lnk 3 canbe determined by locating fs corresponding positon onthe acceleration image of lnk 3. The vecor from O, to D #8 Ap as shown io Fig. 80d. 8.21 RELATIVE ACCELERATION OF COINCIDENT PARTICLES ON SEPARATE LINKS. CORIOLIS COMPONENT OF ACCELERATION ‘The next mechanism to be considered is one in which there is relative sliding between two links, as between links 3 and 4 as shown in Fig. 8.31, and it is required to determine w, and a, given w and ay. In this mechanism, points Ay RR FR fa NF nf ON fm Hy a A fy A FA MM66 OOOO SOOO OOOH OEOOSOHSOOSOOEORTUS: 334° VeLoctTY anp acceter ELERATION ANALY: ss RELATIVE ACCELERATION OF COINCIDENT PARTICLES 335 G2) where 2 is the radius of curvature of the path of point A, relative to point Az | This component is directed from the coincident points along the radius toward the center of curvature. The tangential component Aja, is known in direction and is tangent to the path of A, relative to Aa at the coincident points. The | magnitude of the Coriolis component 2a % Vay is easily calculated because isgiven data and Va, can be determined from the velocity polygon. The direction of this component is normal to the path of Ag relative to A, and its sensc is the same as that of V4, rotated about its origin 90° in the direction of m.. An example of chis method of determining the direction will be given in a later section, In Eq, 8.31, all of the components can easily be determined in magnitude, serse, and direction or in tection except A... This component calculated from VaR can only be determined if the instantaneous radius of curvature R of the pati of Ag relative to 42 is known. Unfortunately, because this path is not easily determined for the mechanism shown in Fig. 8.3, itis necessary to rewrite Eq, 8.31 in the following form: and A; are the same point, and point Ay is oint, and point A, is their projection on anda the velocity ad acceleration ofthe tm encom nt Sa se ‘on separate links, must be analyzed > Poses dal Ae cst ‘The equation for the velocity of point A, can be written as follows: ow Va Van + Vay 8.29) | in this equation, V,, is known ia magait | Vi ate, Yai known ia magnitde, ease, and dcsion and Va, and are Known in rection. The veloc mn can eas m Yo, Setemine, fom mich oy can be eeuede on YB dav, aad Ne eceleration of point Aycan be determined from the felowing equation Aa = Aa + Baa, (8.30) Which can'be expanded as follows: Alt Adm ALC Aly + Ataae + Alay 2004 Vana - (8.33) ‘With Eq. 8.31 written in this form, A%,4, can easily be evaluated as zero because the path of Ay relative to link 4 (which contains point A,) is a straight line and Ris infinite. The acceleration polygon can now be drawn and Aj, determined, from which a, is calculated. ‘While itis easy to see in Fig. 8.31 that the peth of point A, relative to point Acis a straight line by inverting the mechanism and letting ink 4 be the fixed link, itis very difficult to visualize the path of A, relative to Ay. As a means of determining this path, consider Fig. 8.32, where link 2is now the fixed link. In this figure, link 1 is placed in a number of angular positions relative to link 2, and the relative position of A, is determined for each position of link 1. It may be seen that the postion of link 4 is always in a direction from O, through Ay and that Aq isa fixed distance from O,. As shown, the path of Ay on link 2 is curvilinear and tangent to link 4 at point A, Unfortunately, the path is not circular so that the radius of curvature is difficult to determine. Consider next the case where link 4 of Fig. 8.31 has been replaced by a curved link of circular form as shown in Fig. 8.3. In this linkage, the path of Ay relative to Ay is a circular are of known radius and center of curvature, The magnitude of Aj, s therefore not zero, and the vector representing this component will be directed from point A toward the center of curvature C. ‘The Coriolis component is always in the same direction as the A¥,., com- ppenent, if one exists, but its sense may or may not be the same. Considering the Coriolis term 2a X V,,4, or the linkage of Fig. 8.33, its direction and sense can easily be determined as follows. Draw the vector representing the relative velocity ‘Yaay its correct direction and sense. Rotate this vector 90° about its origin in the Same sense as «. This will give the direction and sense of the Coriolis component as shown in Fig. 8.34. As can be seen, the terms Aj,q, and 20 X Va,ahave the same sense for this case and will therefore add together. Obviously, this method of determining the direction and sense of Coriolis applies even if the ‘Ata, Component is 2er0. Mo Al = AB + Aly + Ala + Alan, + 20% Vou 31) In going from Soing from Eq, 8.30 to Eq. 8.3, the following substitution was made: Anas = May + Bay + 201 X Vana, To determine the relative accelesat is neesary fond a ns Carols compone, hich var’ a 6. Also, because points A, and Ay are coincident, tne one section dont repesnt heal rma nd tangential cee hn he same rigid body as previously considered. For this rearen: the ‘often appear igid body as previously considere , they caleulated from the noua 2 capt script @ The magnitude of Ady crn be tion between two moving coinci ints, i ponent a5 shown, pensct b hon ich was developed using [Adal 8.32) Pain fy ond law bev ed °Polot A, could have been used ane ener orton ese, instead fA a the pit clnieat with A, Hoyver, pol as & sce etn ink srecity connected to the rou and Ns mtn ei336. VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS 204% Visas FIGURE 8.34 Example 8.9. 1 the crank-sbaper mechanism shown in Fig. 8.35a link 2 rotates at a constant angular velocity w of 10 rad/s. Determine the aczeleration A, of point Ay on link and the angular acceleration , when the mechanism is inthe phase shown. Velocity and acceleration equations ean be written as follows: 1. Vas Vas + Vase, ‘withthe right side of Eq. II, the vector RELATIVE ACCELERATION OF COINCIDENT PARTICLES 337 ‘Vs, = direction perpendicular to OyAq, magnitude unknown (0.A;}v, = (410 = 40 ins, direction perpendicular to Oy rection parallel fo OyAs, magnitude unknown Vas Measured on the polygon of Fig. 8.356, Va, = 13 ins, Vaya, = 38 in.ls, and 1B Vag "OA, 10 3 rad/s (ew) We Aa = Aa t Aan TL Ay but Any Ait Aly = ARH AN + Atha + Alot + 2000 % Vasa where Va, _ at Gea 7 = AO0in., election trom Ay toward Op An = 0 Vi, ay, = 9 in. Ie, dicestion from A, toward O, oe 169 tion f 40. As, = dizection perpendicular to A3,, magnitude unknown, Ai = eng Rea 200% Vaway = 2(0:3)38 8.8 in, direction perpendicular to Vaya, ‘Aiza: = direction perpendicular to 2a Vays magnitude unknown Measured on the polygon of Fig. 8.35¢, Ay, = 475 in./s, Al, = 474 inl, and Au _ 4m es Baa pn Amadis (on) Link 4 is a guide link which constrains points A, and A, to follow a straight-line path on link 4, Two pais of coincident points may be considered, either A, and A, or A, and A, For this illustration, A, and A, are chosen, and the straight guide path isthe relative path of A; on link 4, Thus, the vectors Vy, and A,,, are involved, and the At,«, component of Ai can easily be determined because R= =. "The velocity polygon of Fig. 8.35b shows the determination of Vy, and Vay from Eq. 1. The ealeulation fore 8 algo shown, Equation T expresses Ay, in terms of Ay, and A... However, because the path of point As relative to point A; isnot easly determined, f29. I1 is rewritten in the form of Eq. IIT s0 as to use the component Aga, a8 discussed above. ‘All of the components of Eq. ITare known as indicated in magnitude, sense, and {recon ori direction onl. In constructing the acceleration polygon of Fig 835e starting 8 drawn frst, followed by the direction of POOH HOOAAAAEARAAARAAAAAMAADAAMMADMDASCOSC HSCHSOHSOHSTZIVODE COCSCSCSCSEEEEHES 338 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS FIGURE 8.35 ‘Avg This is all that ean be laid off from the comsider the left side of Eq, TI and. dea 24a X Vo, $0 that is ip mi Coriolis component wat it right side of Eq. IM at present. Therefore, W the vector Aj. Next, draw the vettor tts the tip of vector A,,..Draw A... perpendicular to the intersects the dzeetion of the vector tepresenting As this owheads are now added to the vectors A, and A‘, #0 that ofthe polygon agrees with the addition ofthe tert of Eq, TUL. The magnituce and sense ofc, can now be determined from A’, as shown Example 8-10. tothe mechanism shown in Fg. 8.360 ink 2 drives ink 3 through « in at point 8. Link 2 rotates ata uniform angular velocity ay of 50 radi, and the nets Feaumratute of the slot in link 3 i 305 mm. Determine the acceleration A. of point 3, on lnk 3 and the angular seceleration ay forthe position shown. Velociy foal Conte ration eyuations can be written as follows 1. Va, Vas + Vn where ‘Vs, = sitectin perpendicular to O48, magnitude unknown Vo, = (Ox8.)o, = (50.50 = 2540 m/s, direction perpendicular to 0,0; Yoo, iection perpendicular to R, magnitude unknown Measured on the polygon of Fig. 8.36b, ¥, 650 mavs, Vay, = 2540 mm/s, and 24650 25 93 rad/s (ecw) RELATIVE ACCELE ‘TION OF COINCIDENT PARTICLES 339 Ahoy 2e Yaa 20 Yan, FIGURE: 8.26 TAs, = Ay + Ans AS, + Bk, = AB, Aly + Aly + Aba, +204 % Yon where , Ag, = Zh = 28 _ sa. 000 amie, sicetion trom B,tovard O, SO, ~ 508 A=0 =O 4, = h ~ 160 «15,100 ame, ccecion trom B, toward 0, + Oa, ~ ow ‘Ay, ~ drstion perpendicular to As, magnitude unknown 2540" 305; ‘aay X Van, = 2(7.93)2540 = 40,300 mm/s, direction perpendicular to Vi, Aiga, = direction perpendicular to 20, Vay, magnitude unknown 200 mms, direction from By toward C340 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS Measure on the polygon of Fig. 8.36, Av,= 122,000 mm/s, Aj, 120,000 mmJst, and 4% _ 120,000 a, = Ae 12000 sor asst (on) ms 77 radlst (ew) Link 3 is a guide ink which constrains point B, on link 2to follow a circular path on link 3. Points B, and B, on link 3 are coincident, and the circular guide path isthe relative path of B, on link 3. Therefore, the vectors Vays, and Ay, re involved in the analysis ‘The velocity polygon of Fig. 8.36b shows the determination of Vp, and Vs, from ‘Eq, 1. The caleulation for «is also shown, Equation I gives Ag in fers of Ay, and Ay,y, Because the path of B relative to Brin known o be a circular are and the path of B, relative to Bie not enily determined, Bq. IL is rewritten in the form of Eq. {1 so as to use the componeat A ys, All ofthe components of Eq. Il are known as indicated in magnitude, sense, and direction, or in direction only. The acceleration polygon of Fig. 8.36c is stared with the right side of Eq. IM by drawing the vector AS, followed by the ditection of Aj, This is all that can be laid off on the right side of Eg, HI at the moment, so considet the left side of the equation and draw the vector A,,. The vectors Afys, and 2, X Vu, ave ‘Opposite sense. Determine the resultant of these two vectors, and aud it to the pelygoa 50 that its tip meets the tip of vector Ap,. Drew At,s, perpendicular 10 Ag, until it intersects the direction of the vector representing Aj; this completes the polygon. Ar- owheads are now added to the vectors Ai, and Ay, so thatthe addition ofthe vectors ofthe polygon agrees with the addition ofthe terms of Eg. IIL. The magnitude and sense of a can now be determined from Ay, as shown, 8.22 RELATIVE ACCELERATION OF COINCIDENT PARTICLES AT THE POINT OF CONTACT OF ROLLING ELEMENTS ‘An important type of constraint in mechanisms i that which occurs because one link is constrained to roll on another lik without relative sliding of the two surfaces at the point of contact. In Fig. 8.37 are shown the rolling pitch circles of a pair of gears ia mesh with particles Py on link 3 and P, on link 2 coincident in position atthe point of contact ofthe rolling circles. As concluded in an earlier paragraph, the relative velocity Vy, ofthe coincident particles is zero, and the absolute velocities Vand Vp, are identical ‘The relative aceleration A, of the coincident particles may be represented by component accelerations, a component Ay, in the direction of the common tangent to the surfaces atthe point of contect, and a component A, ina direction normal to the surfaces at the point of contact, The tangential’ component of relative acceleration Ajj, is the vector difference of the absolute tangential accelerations Ap, and Ay, shown in Fig. 8.37. Like the tangential velocities Vand ‘Vp, the tangential accelerations Aj, and A}, are identical because ofthe condition ‘of no slipping of the surfaces at the point of contact. No slipping requires that there be uo relative motion ofthe two particles inthe direction of possible sliding, which is the tangent divection. Thus, because Aj, and AK are identical, the tangential component of acceleration of P, relative to P, is zero. ‘The normal component of zlative acceleration Af, isthe vector difference RELATIVE ACCELERATION OF COINCIDENT PARTICLES 34), YIGURE 8.37 of the absolute accelerations Aj, and Ag, ection. Tt may be seen that the absolute normal acceleration of P, is toward O, and that of Ps is toward O;. These are parallel vectors, but the senses of the vectors are opposite so that the magnitude of Af, is the sum of the magnitudes of Af, and A},. Thus, itis important to observe that a normal relative acceleration ‘Ads, exists although the tangential relative acceleration is zero, Jn a mechanism such a5 is shown in Fig. 8.37 where the centers ofthe gears are Bxed, iti not necessary to draw an acceleration polygon to determine A» and a3, The angular acceleration as can easily be determined from a, and for the ratio of the gear radii using the fact that Aj, = A\,. After as and wy have been found, the components As, and Aj, can be ealculated and combined to give As, In more complex cases where gear centers are in motion, asin the following example, itis recommended that solutions be undertaken using polygon con struction, shown in Fig. 8.37 in the normal di- Example 8.11. tn the mechanism shown in Fig. 8.380, gear 2 rotates about O, with a constant angular velocity (yw, of 10 rad/s, and gear 3 rolls on gear 2. Determine the eeleration As, of point P, on gear 3 and the velocity and aoceleraton images of gears 2 and 3. Velocity and acceleration equations ean be written #5 follows LWe= Vit Vax TL. Vn = Va + Vow where ‘Yo = dlrection perpendicular to 0.8, magnitude vaknown Va = (OrA)u, = (2)10 = 20 inf, ditection perpendicular to OxA ‘Vou = direction perpendicular to line joining points 8 and 4, ma ‘Yn, © direction perpendicular to O,P,, magnitude unknown ‘Vn = direction perpendicular to Pa, tude waknown ignitude unknown, ROO R ROA AAAAAARAAARAAAAARADADAAAMADANDC66 OOO OSS SS OO OOOO OOOEHESOCEHSHSEITVE 342. VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS; Measured on the polygon, Vp = 16 in./s, Vag = 1¢ in/s, and Vig = 41 ints UL A= AG + Ay AST AG AL AL Ait Aly where wae Dib 7H ~ Sine, direction from B towatd O, AS = direction perpendicular to Ap, magnitude unknown 20 Dad 7 7 7 2Vin/s, direction from A toward O, » renee p Ain = pg =F = 64 ints, dizection from B toward A ‘Aig = direction perpendicular to Aga, magnitude unknown TV. An = Act Ata + Alyy where ‘An, = direction unknown, magnitude unknown Ate = Wha _ 25 A ~ Zs = 250 invs%, direction from P, toward A @=0) Ana Ve An = Ant Ait Any where ‘An, = direction unknown, magoitude unknown in, = direction parallel to line AB, magnitude unknown Abn = 0 VL Ay where A + Nia + Abg +, = diveerion unknown, magnitude unknown bag = Vie 4 ote ‘Abe = direction perpendicular to Ajye, magnitude unknown 120 in.ts, diteetion from P, toward B Measured on the polygon, Ar, = 965 ins, Te may be seen that the motions oft he centers of he gears a A and Bayete same the pins of an equivalent four-bar lind ins On A ator iy *kege connecting points Os, A, B, and O.. The velocity, RELATIVE ACCELERATION OF COINCIDENT PARTICLES 343 Dimensions: {2 Pa, Py 45" L Image, \ eg NK? FIGURE 8.38 Polygon in Fig. 8.386 shows the determination of Vz, and Vis ftom Eq, I. Ya similar ‘manner, Vp, and V,. are determined from Eq. I. The point is aleo known because ‘Voy = Voy The velocity image of link 2 is acecle with point as the center and a radiat APs. The velocity image of link 3 isa citcle with point B as tke center and a radius BP, ‘The acceleration polygon of Fig 8.38 shows the determination of Ay and A from Bq. IIL whose components are known as indicated. ‘To have a clearer diagram for determining Ay, and A,,, he acceleration Vectors Ay and Ay ftom Fig. 8.38¢ are redrawn to a differen scale in Fg. 838d. The acceleration polygon shows the determination of Ay, from Eg. IV knowing A and Aty(Aha = O)- ‘The acceleration image of link 2 isa cece with point A as the center and a rade APs To determine Aj, it is necessary to use Eqs. V and VI. The polygon shows the vector Ay, t0 whici is added the direction of Ajyy, from Eq. V (Ay, = 0). Next, from Eq. Vi, the vector Aj» and the direction of As are added to the vector Ay. Ihe intersection of the direction of Ayn, and the direction of Avs closes the polygon and determines point P,. The image of link 3 isa circle with B asa center and a radius BP).344 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS 8.23 ANALYTICAL VECTOR SOLUTION OF RELATIVE VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION EQUATIONS Another method of velocity and acceleration analysis is to use the equations of telative motion but to express the components of these equations in unit vector form. By doing this, an analytical solution can be developed in place of a graphical fone which uses velocity and acceleration polygons. Consider the four-bar linkage shown in Fig. 8.39. The veloc eration equation for points A and B can be expressed as follows: and accel- Wa= Vat Vax Aaa Ad t An ADT AD = AN + AQ + Abs + Abs ‘The basic equations from which the magnitudes of the above components can readily be calculated are Vere 634), A= Ve 6.35) Alara 630, tis obvious that these equations cannot give direction or sense. By writing them as cross products, however, directions as well as magnitudes can easily be determined. Equations 8.34, 8.35, and 8.36 may be rewritten as cross products as follows: Veoxr 637) AY = @XV= 0x (0x1) 638) Ws axr=Oxr 839) FIGURE 8.39 ANALYTICAL VECTOR SOLUTION OF RELATIVE VELOCITY 345 ‘To illustrate this method in general terms, consider Eq. 8.37 and let and By keeping in raind that ixi=jxjokxk=0 ixj=-jxiek ixk= -kxy kxi= -ixk Eq. 8.37 can be expanded to give Veoxr= —uy,i + ori from which the magnitude, direction, and sense of the velocity of the point in question can easily be determined. It is easier, however, to solve Eg. 8.37 if it is written as a determinant; thus, i o 0 aa Veoxre Consider next Eq, 8.38 written as a determinant: ijk A=ox@xa=okxfo 0 6 hn ye i jk =] 9 0 af = ~ute,t — wryag ee) From the above discussion, illustrated with Eqs. 8.37 and 8.38, it ean be seen that it is an easy matter to express the components of the relative motion equations in unit vector form. A complete solution is then obtained by substituting ‘a the equations of relative motion and summing the i and j components. A ‘complete solution is lustrated in the following example, which analyzes the same ‘mechanism as Example 8.2. Pyar rrTyTyrTrrrrrrreserrrrrrrrree©6666 OOOO OOOO OOOOH OEEEHEHHHSTVEVE 346 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS. Bxample 8.12. Cousider the Geneva mechanism a8 analyzed in Example 8,2, and let it now be required to determine o, and a, using the equations of relative motion with components expressed in unit vector form. A skeleton diagram ofthe mechanism is shown, in Fig. 8.40. ‘The velocity and acceleration equations are writen as follows considering the vee locity and acceleration of point A, relative to A, because the path of point 4, is known to bea straight line relative to Ay. 1. Vig = Vay + Vag where Va = 0% Vy =a xr Van = Vawlsind0.5i + c0540.51) = Vay (0.6494 + 0.76049) = 0.5494 V4 ee D ( AD) = 0.6494 Vayuh + ©, ~ ~10k rad/s = ok = n(~sin25.14 + c0:25.1)) = 50.8( 0.40421 + 0.9056) = —21.551 + 46.00 55 = n(~sind0.Si ~ cos40.5j) = 38.0(—0.64041 - 0.76049) = —21.43% ~ 25.095, ‘Substituting the values of, rand ty, , into the equations for V,, and V,,, respectively, tives i i Yaz waxn=| 0 0 460.01 + 215.5} -2155 46.00 0 i k Va 0 0a) = 25.00as — 21.490,5 —13 -2509 0 MIGURE 8.40 ANALYTICAL VECTOR SOLUTION OF RELATIVE VELOCITY 3477 Substituting the above values fOr Vay, Vay ad Vay into Ea, I, gives the following: 460,01 + 215.5] = 28.08044 — 21.A3u§ + 0.6494 Vinal + 0.7604 Varig ‘By summing \ components, 460.01 = 25.0914 + 0.6494 Vayah ‘By summing j componenss, 25.5] = ~21.43ayj + 0.7604 Vagal ‘Therefore, 25,00, + 0.6494 Vina, 460.0 21S + 0.7604 Vayy = 215.5 “Multpiyiag the second equation by 2.09/21.43 and adding the two equation gives 1.580 Vig = 7123 Vana = 462.5 mms “Therefore, Vays = A62.5(0.64984 + 0.7604) = 300.51 + 351.7) and $60.0 = 0.6699862.9) = 636 ars (cow) S 25.0 Th A= Au + Ate Aigt Ay © AR, + Aly + Mga, +20 % Var + Alats hes Ai, = 0% Va, = 0% (OL) i i =-mx} 00 21554600 i oj k a ee) soo 115s 0 | Ag, = 21554 ~ 46005 A= 0 (= 0)348. VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS A= XV, = (OX) i i k 63x] 0 a 636) 2.43 -25.09 0 i Kk a 0 636 5.6 13630 866.95 + 1015) ie ea Aig = oy X | 0 0 a 2143-2509 0 M20 (R=) i i Kk 0 0 270 3003 3570 Ass Aly (0.6494i + 0.76045) 694A, uh + OTA yd Dea, Vay = 4476 + 30245 Substituting the above values into the component form of Eg, II gives 21SSK — 4600} = 866.91 + 1015} + 25.0944 — 21.4305 = MTA + 3} + 0.694Alaa + OTEDASg By summing i components, 2USSi = 866.95 + 25.09iyi — 4474 + D.6AD4AL 4h By sununing j components, ~4600j = 1015} — 21.43:nf + 38205 + 0.76044 uh ‘Therefore, 25.08%, + 0.64044) 21.8, + O-76O4ASg = ~9835 = 5162 ‘Multiplying the second equation by 25.08/21.43 and adding the two equations gives 1SHOAY,,, = —5286 Alyy, = ~3434 rams ‘Therefore, Ages = ~3434(0.64944 + 0.76049) = ~22304 — 26115 = 25.0635 ~ 21.433) VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS 349 and = BPO sine Gey Ai = Bas - ahaa} 1908 Aa, = eo ~ [As] = \V800F 6856 = 10,530 mm/s? 1.433) Ag, = 866.9% + 10155 [As] = V8669 + TOTS! = 1335 mm/s Ay = AL + Ay [Aa = VERE TOS = 10,610 mm/s? __ The resis ofthis example, worked using the equations of relative motion, are seen to agree with the results of Example 8.2, which was worked using vector methods with fixed and moving coordinate systems. 8.24 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS BY NUMERICAL OR GRAPHICAL DIFFERENTIATION A Kinematic method that should not be overlooked is numerical or graphical ifferentiation. The displacement curve is differentiated to obtain the velocity curve, and the velocity curve is then differentiated to obtain the acceleration | curve. Once the displacement curve is known, either of these methods may be | wed regardless of the type or complexity of the mechanism being analyzed. Graphical techniques, such as the one to be demonstrated in this section, arc often inaccurate, especially in obtaining the acceleration curves. Fortunately, ‘numerical differentiation based on finite difference methods are ideally suited for programming on a digital computer, and itis possible to obtain very accurate results, All the graphical and numerical methods use one or more points an a curve (0 approximate the derivative. In the graphical approach, the slope is found by drawing the tangent to the curve at the specified point. The method is ilus- ‘ated graphically in Fig. 8.41 for a linkage in which the driving link 2 rotates at constant angular velocity and the driven link 4 oscillates as shown. Twelve phases (of the mechanism are shown to scale K, for equal increments of time as given by the equal angular displacements of link 2. ‘The velocity and acceleration of point B are desired. Curves are shown for the coordinate displacements X and _ Y of the point # as it traverses its curvilinear path. See Fig. 8.415, RAMA AAAARAAARA AANA AMODDMD© 66666 OOOOH SOHO OOOSHHEEHESESEVIVIGE 350 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS ey Dapeameaot BY) Tonn) = (orny » U FIGURE 8.41 ‘he shan ofthe displacement cure is ane of binary length. divide into 12 egal parts to represent equal tie interval iv one seven of hee Since the tne for one tevelton of ink 2 fen minor GO soe the time sale forthe acta = 60m ain, The dpleccre Xd Point B ae shown on the ordinate ofthe duplacement cae Oe a coe 0 ae He of he mena rape diferentation is scomplihed by drawing a tangent to the di placement carve at some pont (seh for poston Tin Fig, Bald) sod de Iinngthe slope ofthe eave fom the ta (oR)x, (Qk, oD In Eq. 8.40, the lengths QR and PQ ate inches on the paper, and the scales K, and K, are required to convert slope to units of velocity. If K, ae is in inches per ‘nd n seconds pr ioe, veloc then in ieee por eeon To plo curve of velost agaist tine a show ini he slopes at the inremental poins on the dpincement curve ate vaunted peptic I FQ is taken as the same length forall triangles drawn to determine slope, then the distance OR isthe variable showing te vasitons in veloc OR ay be transfered tom te tangle ofthe displacement eure tothe veloc Cone the ordinate. As shown in Fig. Bey the veloc eires fon the coe eae NV ein es VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS 35) velocities Vy and Vy of point B are plotted. However, since QR is in inches, the velocity scale K, for the curves must be determined: V = (OR)K, v KOR By substituting for V from Eq, 8.40, = ORK, ** (RPO, K POR ean ‘Thus, Eq. 8.41 gives the velocity scale in terms of the other scales and the length PQ, which, although an arbitrarily chosen length in inches, is the same for all triangles ‘The velocty Vs is the vector resultant of the component coordinate veloc- jes Vz and Vp. As shown in Fig. 8.414, for position 1 of the mechanism Vs is the resultant of ts components and should be normal to line O43. As shown by inspection ofthe velocity curves, the maximum velocity of point # is near positions 6 and 7. Also, the curves show that at the extreme positions of link 4, namely, positions 5 and 10, the velocity of B is zero TTo determine the coordinate accelerations Ax and Ay of B, the velocity curves may be differentiated graphically in a similar manner and curves may be shown of acceleration against time. The acceleration scale may be caleulated from the following expression: ik: PonK (8.42) where X, is the acceleration scale and P'Q' is an arbitrary length similar to PQ. "The accuracy of differentiating graphically depends on the care taken in drawing tangerts and on the number of increments into which the abscissa of the displacement carve is divided. Accuracy increases as the number of increments is increased and the individual increments are made smaller ‘As has been shown above, graphical differentiation is a very simple method of determining velocity and acceleration curves from a displacement-time curve ‘when a complete cycle of a mechanism is to be analyzed. The method is rapid in plotting one curve from another but, unfortunately, the accuracy is limited. It is obvious that in a case where the equations for displacement, velocity, and acceleration are readily available, asin the slider-erank mechanism, itis easier to calculate the values and plot the curves if desired than to resort to graphical differentiation, In other mechanisms, however, such as that shown in Fig. 8.41,352 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS graphical differentiation is much quicker than analytical methods provided thet sufficient accuracy can be obtained, The accuracy of this method can be greatly improved by using a digital computer to perform the differentiation instead of doing it graphically. This can easily be done if the displacement-time values, or the equation from which they can be calculated, are available. The example that follows shows a comparison of the values of velocity for the piston in a slider-crank mechanism found by computer differentiation and by formula, Example 8.13. 4 slder-crank mechanism with a crank of 2 in. and a connecting cod of Bin. operates at a crank speed of 3300 rpm. Determine the piston velocity (ft/s) for 90° of crank rotation starting from top dead center in increments of 1° by the following methods 4. Numerical differentiation of tie dsplacement-time values calculated from the equa- bine > ROL coe 0) + Faint from Chapter 2 using foite difference methods. 2, Direct calculation of velocity from the equation v : (ors an) Show the improvement in accuracy for numerical differentiation by also taking increments of 0.1" and 0.01" Solution 2 a = 2. 45.40 atis ‘Time for stroke (180") = 0.00909 ¢ ‘Time for T° of crank rotation = 0,0000505 s K t ® Bayk, ~ D0000505 = 1650.1 fustin ‘The space scale is taken full size and converted to ft/in. The term (PQ)KG is the value ofthe increment in seconds and ehanges ifthe increment is changed, ‘After the valve of piston displacement x bas been calculated for each angular increment, the change in displacement Ax between increments is determined. The value of ‘ix is proportional to the velocity for the particular point under consideration, and the product of Ax and X, gives the velocity in ft/s, assuming a constant value of At. An ilustation of this is shown in Fig. 8.42 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS 353 on) FIGURE 8.42 ‘Values of velocities determined by formula and by numerical differentiation for ‘increments of 1, 0.1, and 0.01" ate shown in Table 8.1, It is interesting to note how closely the velocities by ditferentation with 0.01" inecements match the velocities calculated by formula, Although not included in this example, piston accelerations can be det 8 similar manner from velocities It should be mentioned that the values of V with I* increments will more nearly spate those of ¥ by formula if the later are calculated atthe midpoints of the interval, that is, at 0.5, 1.5%, 2.5, and so on. This can be seen in the tabulation forthe first 10 Single-degree increments Siown on the following pase termined in TABLE 8.1 Velocity Analysis by Numerical Differentiation % YM, Yi fils, ¥, ts, ¥, tis, eg Formula 1"Increment 0.1" Inerement__0.01° Increment et Ee Inerermet O00 Increment 1 126 0.63 119 125 2 2 138 245 251 eee ra 34 370 3.76 4 son 439 4396 501 5 627 565 6a 6.25, 6 782 639 145 149 7 876 aid 870 8.76 8 10.00 9.38 9.94 10.0 sua 10.62 17 123 10 1246 11.85 1240 24s 2D 1433 23.16 24.27 2431 335.03 3453 34.98 35.04 4 aan 8.0 4.07 44a 30 stan 50.91 51.18 5122 oO 56 35.92 36.09 56.02 7 58.75 58.67 58.74 58.69 DIB 59.28 30.9 sa 0 57.59 50.2 57.61 579 POP HORROR AMAA AMAAAAAAARAMADADAAMDAADASDDM&COSC OSOOSSESCHOSESHOEVOVE 354 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS 4 ¥, Fvis, Deo FORMULA os 0.628 4s 1.883 25 3.138 35 4301 45 5.642 55 6.890 65 8.135 1S 9.376 as 10.613 9s 1184 ‘The reason for this is that V by numerical ditferentiation more nearly represents the velocity atthe midpoint iastead of at the end of the interval. As the increments become smaller, this differcoce will decrease until it becomes negligible as inthe case of the O Ol" 8.25 KINEMATIC ANALYSIS BY COMPLEX NUMBERS In addition to the methods of velocity and acceleration analysis already presented, ‘analytical solutions with vectors expressed in complex form are often used, A simple kinematic case is shown in Fig. 8.43a in which link 2 rotates about a fixed axis O;. It is desired to determine the velocity and acceleration vectors ‘Ve and Ay of particle P when the link is in the phase given by 8, and the known tantaneous angular velocity and angular acceleration are a and a, ‘The position of particle P may be represented by the vector r, shown in Fig. 8.436. By establishing real and imaginary axes as shown, r, may be expressed by a complex number in any of the following equivalent forms: erat io tp = rolcos Bs + Ein 0) 6.43) te neh Although all forms of the complex number are useful ones, the simplest form for differentiation is the exponential form in which rp is the magnitude of the position vector and e™ represents a vector of unit length at a counterclockwise ‘angular position 0 Differentiation of Eq. 8.43 yields the velocity vector V» Vo = tr = rogio®) Vr = rran(ie") (8.44) KINEMATIC ANALYSIS BY COMPLEX NUMBERS 355 Imageary ineinay FIGURE 8.43, 4 By = doer = -m in parenthesis in Eg. 8.44 where iy = drpldt and §, = d0,ldt = w,. The term in parenthes is the unit vector maltiplied by Gand is equivalent to i(cos @ + isin 0). By using trigonometric relationships, it may be shown thet i(cos 0, + i sin 8) is equal to cos(@, + w/2) + Fsin(@; + /2) s0 that e® = ef *9) Thus, Vp = ratte 48) As shown in Fig. 8.43c, the direction of the velocity vector Vp is given by the ange (0) + w/2) and is shown tobe a an angle 90" preter than the angle of fp. Thus, multiplication of the unit vector by I rotates the vector 90° in the counterclockwise sense. Also, each subsequent multiplication of the unit vector by {rotates the vector an additional 90° increment inthe counterclockwise sense. Differentiation of the velocity Eq. 8.44 gives the acceleration vector Ay as, follows: An = fe = reil(Pe) + relic) = ryal(Pes) + rpoy(ie%) (8.46) where ay = dayldt = Ga. The first right-hand term of Eq. 8.46 represents the356 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS normal component of acceleration Ag, in which rou} is the magnitude and ? indicates that the direction is 180° greater than ® as shown in Fig. 843d. The second term is the tangential component of acceleration Af of magnitude rpa, ‘and direction 90° greater than 0, as indicated by i. To designate the directions of the component accelerations, Eq. 8.46 may be rewaitten as follows: Ap = rele + rpageltstwd 6.47) Equations 8.46 and 8.47 show that the acceleration vector Apis the resultant of two perpendicular vectors. To determine the magnitude of the resultant vector and its angular position, the following algebraic steps may be made beginning with Eq. 8.46: Ap = ~rpol{cos 0; + isin 83) + roa cos &; — sin 84) = —(rra} 60s 8; + pay Sin 0) + i(—rotad sin 0, + reo 608 64) sath (8.48) As Eq. 8.48 shows, the acceleration Ay may also be expressed as the resultant ‘of two component vectors in which “a” is the real component and “Bh” is the perpendicular imaginary component. The magnitude of Ay may be determined as follows: Ap= VER = Vivo} 005 8, + ra sin 0) (—rpak sin OF rye 608 By = Veni Fa? 6.9) ‘The direction of Ay is given by the angle B in Fig. 8.43d, and this angle may be determined as follows wl sin Oy + a 60s 8) (o§ cos O; + ap sin 0) tn = 2 (6.50) ‘Using the angle fi, the acceleration vector Ay may be expressed as asingle vector instead of two vectors as follows: Ap = Aye® (651) In Fig. 8.43, the velocity and acceleration vectors Vp and Ay are shown 1 Gxed veclurs at the particle P on the link. Itis important to note that the preceding relationships are based on the assumption that w, and a; are known quantities for all phases 8, of the link. In ‘many problems related to machinery, the link may rotate at constant angular velocity 50 that w is constant and ag is 2270. Tf, for example, a; is not zero but is 2 constant, then w; is a function of time or 0. Considering the case where ANALYSIS OF SLIDER CRANK BY LOOP CLOSURE EQUATIONS 357 ‘3 = constant = &, and v2 is zero atthe intial condition 6 ‘of w2 on 0 may be determined as follows: 0, the dependence do nat By expressing the derivative dup/dt as (duy/d0,)(ddy/d) = w,(dy/d), en( ta (Ge) -* Jrrde =x fo. of = 28, + 6, es Gis the constant of integration and is equal to 2er0 for w: = 0 at 0p 8.26 ANALYSIS OF THE SLIDER CRANK BY LOOP CLOSURE EQUATIONS AND COMPLEX NUMBERS In the slider-crank mechanism of Fig. 8.44a, the crank fotates at constant angular Yelocity w,, and the velocity V_ and acceleration Ap of the slider are to be determined. As shown, the position of particle B relative to the fixed point O; is given by the vector ry. Referring to Fig. 8.448, it may be seen that two in. ‘dependent vector equations may be written for rs, namely, tp = r,andrg = ry + ty Imaginary FIGURE 8.44 OCC OOEOOEO OHHH OOHMOD OOD OOES OSA© 6 6 OOO OOO OOOO SOOO OHSHHHESUSEIHBGE 358 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS ‘The obvious result of combining the e: equation: nenty 8.33) If the vectors are to be represented by comy ex numbers, real and imaginary | axes may be shown as in Fis 5 fallen ig 8.446, and Eq. 8.53 may be written as follows: net = eh + net 6.54) Where r; and ry are the fixed lengths of links 2 and 3, and. aiving the position of the slider. The angle 6 e* = 1, Thus, vis variable length of rj is fixed at 0, = 0 50 that Fs nett relly 8.55) ‘wo suceesive difrentations of Eq, 855 yield exprestions giving the velocity Vp and acceleration A, as follows: ue eg Ve ratio) + ryosie ) 8.56) An = hy = nflcz ~ wl)e™ + r(ia5 — we 6.57) It may be seen feom an insp ton of Eas 8.5 8.56, and 8.57 ta, althou the differentiations are made ae eee to determine the kinematic values of particle B, the equations also involve the angular velocities and accelerations of links 2 and 3.as well as their angular positions. In these equations, r, ry 3, uy ad ag are the known quantities, and the unknown quantities to be determined are tix in ‘number, namely, ry Fy fy 63, Ws, and ay ‘Two of the unknowns, r; and Os, may be determined from Eq. 8.55 by separately equating the real and imaginat al ” Y parts of the equation as follows: 1 = ra(e0s 6; + Fsin &) + r3(c08 0 + ésin 6) r= rons +r e088, (real) (8.58) O = rysin 8; + ry sin 8 inary) (8.59) Equation 8.59 may be solved to determine 0, o in ) 8.60) Equation 8.58 may then be used to determine r, Jn a similar manner, the unknowns f, and wy may be obtained from Eq, vations for tit the following vector ANALYSIS OF SLIDER CRANK BY LOOP CLOSURE EQUATIONS 359 8.56 by separately equating the real and imaginary parts of the equation: #, = rani cos 8; — sin 8) + ryax(i cos 85 — sin 03) i, = —rozsin — ryussin (real) (6.6) 0 ri, COS O, + rw, cos 8, (imaginary) 8.2) Equation 8.62 allows the determination of ws & ~o (28) 6.6) Equation 8.61 may then be used to determine hy = Vy. ‘The remaining unknowns, F, and a5, are determined from the real and imaginary parts of Eq. 8.57: Fy = rw} 00s 0, + ay sin 05) rw 05 8 + a sin 03) (real) 8.64) 0 = r(oyc08 8 ~ of sin €) + (as c08 8, ~ asin) imaginary) 6.68) From Eq. 8.65, the unknown a; may be determined. wa sin 65 a= Say cos 85 From Eq. 8.64, F; = Ag may then be determined. For constant angular velocity ‘of the Cau, te angular acceleration a, Is 2er0, so that Eqs. 6.64 and 8.66 giving Ag and cy are somewhat simplified. ‘Those kinematic quantities of engineering interest, such as the velocity Vp ‘and acceleration A. of the slider and a and ay of the connecting rod, may be Setermined numerically from the preceding equations for all phases 0, of the crank and for arbitrary values of the crank speed w, and L/R ratio (ry/r,). Al- though the calculations to be undertaken involve voluminous arithmetical operations, such operations may be assigned to the digital computer with the advantage that a great number of variations of the problem may be solved to optimize a design: ‘The velocity and acceleration of other particles of the mechanism may also be of engineering interest. For example, as discussed in Chapter 9, the accelerations of the mass centers of the individual links are important because they are related to the forces acting on the links. In considering the acceleration A,, of the mass center g, of link 3 in Fig. 8.44a, the following equations result from the 8.66)360 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS vector addition shown in Fig, 8.44c: net + rae 6.67) tn 4, ty = raosie™) + ryos(ie™) (8.68) 1» rhing — wDe% + rfiay — wie 6.0) For constant angular speed of the crank, a: = 0, so that —rgoje + r,(las — wie = (—rauf cos 6, — rues sin 0; — ral 605 85) + i(—ryof sin & + rye cos 0; — rgo} sin 63) = ay, + iby 6.70) ‘The magnitude of A,, may be determined from A,, = Vay, + Bj, and the angle B which A,, males with the real axis may be determined trom tan B = b,,/a,. ‘The vector A,, is shown as a fixed vector in Fig. 8.444. Example 8.14. The sider erank ofan nternal-combustion engine (Fig. 8.44a) includes ‘crank of 2.0 length and a connecting rod of 8.0 in. length. The crank speed of the ‘engine is constant at 3000 rpm (514 rad/s), Determine the acceleration ofthe mass center AA, of the connecting rod when the crank angle is = 30°. The mass center gis located 2.8 in. from the erank pin at A. Tn addition, determine curves showing (1) the magnitude fof A,, versus @, and (2) the angle B which A,, makes with the real axis versus @- Solution, Toe calculation ofthe sectration Ay may be made vsing Ea. 8.70 and the following given dat: = 2.0in.,r5 = 8.0in.,r, ~ 20in.,o, = 314radls,and & = 30. However, before the calculation can be undertaken, the unknowns 8, and ay mst fist be determines. “The connecting-od sngle 8, may be determined from Eq, 8.60 as follows sin = 0 = 7.18" or 352.82" 992 cos 0 1K may be seen that for sin 8, = —0.125, there are two positions ofthe connecting rod, cither 8 ~ 352.82" or 187.16, depending on whether the slider is to the right or to the Taft ofthe erank center 0. “The angular velocity wy and the angular acceleration a, of the connecting rod may ANALYSIS OF SLIDER CRANK BY LOOP CLOSURE EQUATIONS 363. be determined from Eqs. 8.63 and 8.66, respectively: y= mo, 228M _gyg(20) cos 30 vnre ~ (GS) aaer = 68.56 ras ay = (72) isin 6 = an 08 | asin ( ‘) 314 sin 30° — 0 | (~ 68.56) sin 352.82" 8.0) es 38287 * con Br = 11840 rie With the preceding goanties determined there i i detomind, te rel and imaginary components of he aselerton A, maybe determine by evaluating and Eq be aloes w= “Tiel cos 0 ~ re sin 8, ~ ru cos 8, ~2.0(814(0.866) ~ 2.0(11,840)(~0.125) 2.0(~68.56)10.592) 177,300 in. by, = ~10d sin Be + rem 0088, ~ ra sin 0, = =2.0(814)(0.500) + 2.0(21,840)(0.992) =2.0(—68.56)4 0.125) = 74,000 inst 8 8 360 200 Bs cegees eo Acceleration Aya in/s? a 5 20 B eo Saw TF 20 Be BH US FIGURE 8.45 ™ DObOeHn HR OOe RHEE MOOEHMAEOOAeOaeenedCOCO FSOOEEESSHSTSSEER RS CECE H HESS 362 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS ‘The magnitude of A, is the vector sum of the components: Ay = Vai, + Bi = VTS + (74 02oF = 192,200 inst fand the angle of A,, with the real or horizontal axis is given by B: Calculations similar 0 those illustrated for increasing crank angle 6, in 0°increments ‘make possible the plotting ofthe curves of 4,, and f for one cycle of the crank a8 shown in Fig. 645. 8.27 ANALYSIS OF THE INVERTED SLIDER CRANK BY LOOP-CLOSURE EQUATIONS AND COMPLEX NUMBERS Of the inversions of the slider ecank, the erank shaper (Fig. 8.462) to analyze by complex numbers because the Coriolis component of acceleration is involved. In Fig. 8.460 are shown the vectors giving the position rp, of particle B, on the crank at the pin connection to the slider. Two independent vector equations for the position of B;, namely, rp, = ty and ra, = %) + r, may be combined to give the following vector equation: is interesting nenty rem ny + rem @.7) Differentiating Eq. 8.71 yields the following velocity equation: rodie™) + tem = ruon(iet™) 6.72) From an inspection of Eq. 8.72 term by term, it may be seen that the equation is another form of the equation Vp, + Vj, = Vz, Tor the coincident particles 4B. and B,, Ditterentiating Eq. 8.72 yields the following acceleration equation: rawi(e) + ryay(ie™) + Qhaaie™) + He = roiPe™) + raxlie™) 8.73) Inspection of Eq. 8.73 term by term shows that the equation is an alternate form of the equation Aj, + Aj, + 2m, x Vag, + Alan, = AB, + A, In the crank-shaper mechanism, link 2 is the driving link usually rotating at a known constant angular velocity w,, with a equal to zero. Thus, referring ANALYSIS OF INVERTED SLIDER CRANK BY LOOP-CLOSURE EQUATIONS 363 eat FIGURE 8.46 to Eas 8.71 8:72, and 872 it maybe seen tat rt yan ae the known quantities, and the six unknowns to be determined are Oy yey Tas fy tnd By equating te tel aad iagiary pa of enh of the Boe 3.11, 878 and 8.73, sic equations are obtained which make possible the determination of the si unknowns, After 0, 04, and a, have been determined for a known value of w and an arbitrary vale of it becomes possible to determine numerically the velocity and acceleration of other particles of the mechanism. For example, since the cratk shaper isa quick-return mechanism, itis of interest to determine the velocity ‘Ve, of the tool-holding slider (ink 5) of Fig. 8.46a for comparison of the mag- nitades ofthe sider velocity during the working an¢ retua stokes ofthe mech- ‘nism. In Fig. 8.46¢ is shown the vector polygon which includes the position vector r, of particle C;, From the polygon, uentn nen nett = neh — (78) Differentiating Bq. 8.74 gives the following velocity expression: Vo = hel = runic) + fe (ee In Eqs. 8,74 and 8.75 r, is @ known fixed length, and 0, and oy are known from previously developed equations. By equating the real and imaginary parts364 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS of each of Eqs. 8.74 and 8.75, four equations become available for the deter- rmination of the four unknowas fz, fe, ray and Fz, of which #, is the velocity magnitude Ve, of the slider 8.28 ANALYSIS OF THE FOUR-BAR LINKAGE, BY LOOP CLOSURE EQUATIONS AND COMPLEX NUMBERS Although it may at first seem surprising, velocity and acceleration analysis of the four-bar linkage is generally a much simpler task than position analysis. To see the reason for this, consider once again the planar four-bar linkage of Fig. 2.6, which for convenience has been repeated here as Fig. 8.47. The loop closure equation for this mechanism written in complex number form is ret + rye = ne — 7 = 0 (6.76) ‘This equation may be expanded into real and imaginary parts and written ia the form used in Chapter 2: 008 8) + 175608 95 — rec08 8 — 11 = 0 @7 rysin 6, + 7 sin 8, ~ r4sin 8 = 0 6.78) Tn position analysis, the values of r, r2, 75, ro, and the input angle 0, are given, ‘and the problem is fo find the angles @, and f,. Since these unknowns are embed- ‘ded within the sine and cosine terms, the equations are said to be transcendental. A relatively simple mettiod for solving the position analysis problem using the FIGURE 8.47 ANALYSIS OF FOUR-BAR LINKAGE BY LOOP CLOSURE EQUATIONS 365 law of cosines was presented in Chapter 2, section 2.1. Methods for analytically solving Eqs. 8.77 and 8.78in complex number form are somewhat more involved. For this reason, they have been presented in Appendix 1, It should also be noted ‘that numerical techniques such as the Newton-Raphson method presented in Chapter 2 are easy (0 implement, provide relatively quick solutions, and are easily extended to handle the position analysis problem for more complex mechanisms Velocity loop closure equations for the four-bar linkage are obtained by Uifferentiating the position loop closure equations with respect to time as follows: ~nlGin 8Jo, — n{sin ®s)os + r(sin 8Jeny = 0 8.79) 19 (cos 8,)ay + r3(C08 Os) — r4(cos B.)ive = 0 6.80) In velocity analysis, itis assumed that the values of 7,7, ry ta and 6, are given, and that the values of 6 and 0, have already been determined from a position analysis, In addition, the angular velocity of the input link w must also be given. ‘The only unknowns in tke above equations are the angular velocities of links 3 and 4. These equations may therefore be written in the following, form: Aw; + Buy = C 6.81) Du; + Bu, = F 8.82) where the values of A through F are calculated from A= ~rsin Oy B= nsin 9 C= rsin Qa, ae D = ryc05 6 B= rn co F = —n(cos 0), ‘This form clearly shows Eqs. 8.81 and 8.82 to be linear ia the two unknowns «oy ‘and a. Solving this pair of equations gives Fo ~ Ec “= DB EA (8.84) De Fa = DBS EA 4s) ROP ORA OREO AOAAMARAASAMMAMAAMADRMEMDH6666S OOS SS SOSH OHOOSHESSESESOEEO SRE 366 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS Dilfrentaton ofthe velocity equations to time yields the acceleratic a t eget (E48. 8.79 and 8.80) wih respet ~ Pleo Ja} ~ n(n Bon — (608 Oa} ~ nfs 8a ew (sin au} + (608 Bay — rfsin Oo} + r(co 0,)a, + nisin Oo} ~ r(c08 Oey = 0 (8.87) alysis, it is assumed t Fay F514 Bay Wy, 18 {hat the values of 0, 04 os, and a, have already been ang oct analyse. "hs, the only unknowns inthe | © angular accelerations of links 3 and 4, ay and as, and.) ay be rewritten as follows: a In acceleration at and ag are given and determined from positi above equations are th Eqs. 8.86 and 8.87 m: hat the values of ry, Aay + Boy = Cr 68) Day + Ea, = FY 8.89) Where A through # can be ealeulated as follows: i tae inet Xe IM Sige, tos. ee eo ““rivewat force A= -1sind, B= sino, C= nfe0s oi + nin Bas + (e08 Ou} ~ n(cas 8)o2 on 200 hack (ws(rave, ANALYSIS OF FOUR-BAR LINKAGE BY LOOP CLOSURE EQUATIONS 367 anism has been performed in Chapter 2, Example 2.2. The results of ths analysis are 0; = 22.812", = 71.798". The values cE vatiables A through F may now be calculated A= ~8sin22,812 = ~3.102 B = 6sin 71.798 = 5.700 3(in 6001) = 2.598, B cos 22.812 = 7.374 ~6 cos 71.798 = ~1.874 =2eas 60)(1) = ~1.500 S"hncantaon oesion = promiaceraes, vaiocter accunuaaston MiAceeTS Se nevtorenaptgon oot finding method to deternine unnour 43 ts Saglen'se TuntE'a: anda of a fous bay Lingages Alas nless SiS Ebiis hedecltste't atetietatione’ sf Linke and 1 S212 sgbletdngreinhottes dees" Gp sbeaesESSRESR ESTES Maseta Steet TEr Seals eae a eheaneeensteaneenens aned.14189/100 | constant to, convert dogs to ral.e wes of inte 2,54 (deg. "y2nEDA2,THEEAS,OEIAL fneiasexieral spin! unmadcmneents2R Vets of dine 2 (rad-2/ae0)"/OMEEA2 ace; Se Line 2 (radla/eee"2]° aupun Sf dank Lengths! ely 22, e5 p24 Alyy #3 Ra Sop size tar input ink’ egeasion (aegea) ")ANG.C wbnths” “fubme"Tonacas “Owegae” ‘AGBiis " ALBERC™ Geese) Toes) (eea/a) ¢rea/s) (z0e/s"2) (2ea/e"2) If coei on Sastrones219 002) MD PASSNCHAX PASSE Hie ““eaeCaekie (eascos{mnreha) fe aecodtnainad} "(wa scostaame) 220° Fuwecze(ngesontnaend))- (tases (ais3ns])= (a sSEN (SHEE) 2 Piste baytiate a iiceece eh eee "sin 0:)0 ~ ros las + (sin Oo} — r(sin Oo} ie Sac tnene(orson sonetoraom Sx aon Jit Seieasanents<(nrboresvinc, eoesoeusnine. 2) poe ILis interesting to note that the va Ban ‘Hanicauea anita Sas0hdauetatstoeSneopEonCaMEEAS Rote that the values of A, B, D, and E are the same ie fasstenassral used in velocity analysis, and hence these valuce di he same a8 those 10 not need to be recalculated ly shows them to be linear in the two Solving this pair of equations pives ™ ‘The form of Eqs. 8.88’ and 8.89 clearl Bb Traasstoary unknowns cs and 330 buostea sounniae Bitar oe preety «, -PB= aC oS DE aes 9 230 Aupan 240 Arpene=(0' ‘0 dae ‘oem! PETES (62) Example 8.15, For we IS. For the four-bar linkage off the angulor accelerations of links 5 ne ek t= Bins = bins toi ‘ais and the inp link ancl 8147, Bnd the angulas velocities an ks 9 and 4. The link lengths are y= 7 ins med link position is 0, = 6or, i i FIGURE 8.48, 310 wan * go back 1 fune.200 and number of su tia costa 350" EESE Go SHEOAZVANG. INC*EAR ner 350 Teale, ver, and acc. of Links 3 and 4 and print results nu (ureas) se=n2¥ Sin ouend) sOKoA2 {COSI HEEA) Pa-i2 COS (SHETAR) SONEGR2 usente(DeG-Pen)/ (DeR=BS) + volocitios 380 Chenzecos(naenaa) sonscn2 2+n2se2N (OREsAZ)CALIAa tpark of C. 9RIME oo c-bmtueecisns *c0e (tuprns toncAs “2-Recgs(mnzraa) SoMEGAA™2 {220 Fieszssin unas) Sowscn2 "Zotz" Cog OHERRA)SALPERA. 420 Febxtneerisnssgin (muerns) conncAS 2-ResbIn (TuEA4) *BMESAA2 EE of. PRIAE EG, RIWE)/iDes-ErA) angular aeceleretions ‘BRINE™A)/|Dva~gea) rtaeni2/b2xj ue /o2RynaweN4/02R) *TOWEGRS ;ONBGAS ;ALPNAS ALPHA 280 'eeen, doar nor agzenble message 490 pubis “weesanfas docs nor asaensle at SHEN ="xupzaa/D2R" deg.368. VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION AiZALYsIs ‘rgpraz mgemasmyprag onan ‘ $4 The pein aaa pros wing he New apn mtd (Chapter 2, Section 23) velocities and aceertfons are clelated in Sete fom fom gs 84, 885,991, ant 892. Therefore, (= 1.500)5:700) = (1.574) 2.599 * (7374)(5.700) — (— L874 ~3.100) = PIWVASB) ~ (-1.500)(-3.102) _ 9 409 sg (73745100) = (=La74y=3.102) ~ “4 = 0.102 rads Substituting the known quantities into the expressions for C’ and Fin Eg. 8:90 gives C! = 30s &YC + 36in60)2) + ons 2.812)(—0.1027 ~ (cos 71.798)(0.400) = 3.875 = Hsin GOL! + 3(c0s 6OY(1) + Bfsin 22.612)(—0.1027 = (ia 71.796)(0.400)* = 0.238 COMPLEX MECHANISMS 369 Therefore, (0218)65.700) — (=1.878.879) 6 a35 aye (374.700) = (=1.814}(=3.100) ~ 0735 rads 13.875) ~ OIN=3.10) op sayy (7A}(5.700) = [=1.874)(=3.102) ‘ABASIC:Jang.age computer program for iterative position analysis ofthe for-ba linkage was described fn section 2.2. The velocity and acceleration analysis methods discussed a {his section have been added to that program, and the new listing is shown in Fig, S48 ‘The eorresponting output for 10" increments ofthe input angle is shown iu Fig. 8.49, 8.29 COMPLEX MECHANISMS ‘The addition of extra links to the basic four-bar mechanism increases the complexity of the kinematic analysis of the mechanism. In Fig. 8.50 is shown a six. bar linkage in which the addition of links 5 and 6 to the basic four-bar linkage GZ. 2.3, 4) forms a second four bar linkage consisting of links 3, 4, 5, and 6. By the addition othe two links, the number of kinematic unknowas is increased by Six (0s, Gop tty 45, and a) So that the total number of unknowns is 12. Thus, 12 independent equations are required to determine the unknowns, By combining the independent vector equations for the position of point B, the following equation is obtained to include the kinematic quantities of the links in the loop formed by the lower four-bar linkage: nts nt 6.93) Similarly, a second combined vector equation may be written for the position of FIGURE 8.50, ann 22eoOoee0* POCO HOOHOOHOAAAAMHAAReeeseesssese Sees eeeesess COSSCCECE CES 370 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS point C such as to involve a loop of links including links 5 and 6: ts tt form: net + nem rye + rye + rei =r, + rie! (6.96) ‘By equating the reat and imaginary components of the preceding equations, foue independent equations are obtained from which the four unknown angles 83, Be, 8s, and 8 may be determined as functions of 8. The angle 0; may be given 4s 6, minus the fixed angle 7 of link 4 shown in Fig. 8,50. The determination of the unknown angles is complicated trigonometrically and requires the determination of auxiliary lengths and angles as illustrated in the discussion af the four. bar linkage. Differentiation of Eqs. 8.95 and 8.96 and equating the real and imaginary components result in four additional independent equations which may be used in the determination of the four angular velocities ts, ti, Ws, and wx as functions of os. The solution of the numerous simultaneous equations is best accomplished by the use of determinants. Further differentiation and equating of real and imaginary parts yield four equations for the determination of the four unknown angular accelerations. The preceding method of analysis may be applied to plane mechanisms of higher order of complexity. If two more links are added to the linkage of Fig, 8.50, making an eight-link mechanism, a third independent vector equation cn closing another independent foop of links makes available the additional equations required for solution. 8.30 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS USING THE INTEGRATED MECHANISMS PROGRAM (IMP) ‘In Chapter 2 (section 2.4), the use of the Integrated Mechanisms Program (IMP) ‘was introduced as a convenient method of displacement analysis of four-bar Uinkages. At that ime, it was stated that IMP could also be used for velocity and acceleration analyses. The use of IMP for the determination of velocities and accelerations is presented below. Figures 2.9b and 2.9 from section 2.4 are repeated as Figs. 8.51¢ and 8.51b here, ‘The following revolute statements, revolute data, and point data are also te 8.94) | The independent equations 8.93 and 8.94 may be written in complex number nt ne (8.95) 4 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS USING THE (IMP) 371 rae Tea ‘8S Be 002, 00 og ogee 219.2242, 59368,0) o reproduced from section 2.4 as follows: DATA: REVOLUTE (OH2)=9,9,8/9.0.1/1, 9,8 /-2.1218,2.1213,. 9 pega etn eee 8 on eve 8 ET G.8,0/19.0,1/9.2242,5.9388, 9/8 12,68 DATA: POINT(002,0H2)=6,8,2 DATA:POINT(AA2,A)=8,8,.8 DATA: REVOLUTE (OH4372, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS POINT(LNK3)=AAS, BBS DATA:POINT(AAS ,A)=#,8,8 DATA:POINT(BB3,B1=f 0,5 POINT(LNK4)=BB4,004 DATA: POINT(BB4,8)=2,9.9 DATA: POINT (004 ,OH4)=9.8.0° ZOOM(7)=5,1.5,8 RETURN Itis now necessary to enter the angular position of link 2 (135°) for which the analysis is required and to enter the angular velocity of link 2 (S00 radis, cw) which is constant. These will be specified for revolute OH2. The velocity and acceleration of point B are to be determined as well as the angular velocity and acceleration of link 4. These requirements will be entered for point BB4 and revolute OH, The velocity of point AA2 will also be determined as a check on the computer analysis, DATA: POS (OH2)=135 DATA: VELO(OH21=~500 PRINT: VELO(AA2 , BBA ,OH4) = (sd, Jetbrn 0.38) ‘where By + m indicates thatthe sense of F, is opposite to that of A, which has ‘the angular sense given by 8. Because of the angular acceleration’zy, the bine of action of Fis offset e, = ‘sas/F, from the line of action of A, as shown in Fig. 9.22. For convenience in making calculations, the location of the line of action ofF, may be given by the distance f, shown in Fig. 9.22 a RB a 4, balk, Se @~ 6) 39)SSCS SSSSSSGGSSVVVIEGe SOOO HSSCEHH HUES 430 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY ° a FIGURE 9.22 ‘or static equilibrium of the forces, the following equations apply: " Fe +h +R, =0 FALE) + Fale) + (een) (9.40) Equating real and imaginary parts of the Eq. 9.40, we obtain Fy e089 + Fi, c08 04 | Fy, cos (Bs + 7) ean, Fy sin ys + Fasin Oy + F, sin (B, +) = 0 (042) LINKAGE FORCE ANALYSS BY COMPLEX NUMBERS 431. It may be seen that the number of unknowns to be determined is three, the ‘magnitude of Fi and its direction , and the magnitude of F. The direction of Fj is 6 and is known because link 4 is acted on by only two forces when considering R,, acting alone as shown in Fig, 9.22c. To determine the three unknowns, another equation is required in addition to Eqs. 9.41 and 9.42. The additional equation is one of equilibrium of moments, about either point 4 or B. By choosing. point A, the sum of the moments about this poirt is required to be zero as follows: Fars sin (By ~ 63) — Fas sit (Bs ~ 6) 0 sin (B ~ 04) Fo = Fain (= 8) cao ‘On determining Fy from Eq. 9.43, the real and imaginary components of ‘Fy may then be determined from Eqs. 9.41 and 9.42 as follows: @ Fy = Fy cosy) = ~ Fe cos 0, ~ F005 (B+ 7) 44) 5 Fy = Fysiny) = —Fa sin @,~ F,,sin (By + 7) 0.45) ‘The symbols & and s indicate real and imaginary components of the vector Fs, ‘The resultant of these components isthe vector Fy, the magnitude of which may be determined as follows: Fis = VRS) + (Fa)? (9.46) ‘The direction of Fis the angle yf, which may be determined from the following expression: tan yj = oan) ‘Thus, the magnitudes and directions ofthe bearing forces at A and B may be calculated from the preceding equations. From the free body of link 4 shown in Fig. 9.22, itis to be observed thet the bearing force Fj, at O, is identical to ‘the force Fi, because only two forces act on lik 4. Similarly, since there ae only two forces on link 2 as shown in the free bedy, the bearing force Fi, at Os is identical to P, ‘The final step of determining the shaft torque T; may be realized from the static equilibrium of couples aeting on link 2: T, = -Funsin (@ - ¥) Fars sin (@ — 8) 9.48) ‘The preceding analysis has led to the determination of equati bearing forces and shaft torque due to the load F,,. A similar analysis with only432, FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY F,, acting would yield another sét of equations giving the influence of F,, on thé bearing forces and shaft torque, and a third analysis would give the influence of F,, The resultant force at each of the bearings would be determined by super- Position by summing the real and imaginary components calculated in the indi Vidual analyses. At bearing A, for example, the superposed resultant real and imaginary components of the bearing force are the sums % &Fy and E $F, and = 100 fears ies, “B= 0002034 bgt PetS3e ny Fain) Fa(e76N) P4u(675) (534) w FIGURE 9.23, LINGAGE FORCE ANALYSIS BY COMPLEX NUMBERS 433 the resultant bearing force Fy may be determined from fy = VEGR) + Ooh 0.49) and the angle ofthe resultant force from ESF pa rie 9.50) en = Fan 9.50) Example 9.6. Toe drive link ofthe four-bar linkage shown io Fig, 9.23e rotates about 0, at a constant angular velocity w, = 100 rad/s. Using the data given in Fig. 9.232, 10° am Solution me 5 _M_ 8x0 #7 Dana 1 aM 26 ky w= oi stnip = (2 : ww wane aon tim = asa =e reasonable weight of flywheel. However, as Eq. 9.74 indicates, a larger flywheel is required at low speeds, although A may be much less at low speeds. eeeceereenanennnnananaananeaaaanananSOSSSSZIIVGS COSSSSSCSCSSOHHTEOHEES 462. FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY For rim-type fywhels, 1 = Mi in which the radius of gyration. is sufficiently accurate to assume that the mean radius rf the rim is equal to k. 4g the hub, web, of spokes also contribute a small amount tothe moment of inerSa ofthe flywheel, with the result that the speed fluctuation is somewhat lst than the assigned vaive Components of an engine installation other than the flywheel may contibute flywheel effect. The crankshaft and the equivalent mass ofthe connecting rod at the crank pin acta a fywhec. In automotive installations duting road operation | with elutch engaged, the rotating parts ofthe driving system at well ae the car itself serve to reduce engine speed fluctuation to the degree that almost no flywheel is required, However, the idling condition at low speed in automotive engines is the prime condition for automotive fywheel design, Fiywheel effect ‘simportant also in maintaining motor spin uring starting. Avera piston engines axe normaly without a flywheel because of the large flywheel eect of propelles and propeller reduction gears. In the design of al reciprocating machinery such. as dioseleleccie systems, compressor, steam winches operated by donkey en. gines, quickretum mechaisms, motoreyes, outboard motors, and punch preses, flywhecl effect is requieed, but the degree to which moment of inertia must be added in a flywheel depends on the requirements of the installation, 9.19 FORCES ON GEAR TEETH For gears in mesh, the line of transmission of force is along the line of action, which is always normal to the contacting tooth surfaces as the teeth traverse the. | are of action. As shown in Fig, 9.37, the line of action of the tooth force F is at the pressure angle ¢ to the tangent of the pitch circles. ‘The tooth of the driver shown in Fig. 9.37 isin contact with a tooth of the driven gear atthe pitch point. In this position, the teeth are in the state of pure rolling, and no friction due to relative sliding exists. At other positions in the arc of action, relative sliding exists 276 and the resultant force on the gear tooth is inclined to the line of action by the angle of friction. In a force analysis of mechanisms with gears, the friction angle ‘may be neglected with little error in the determination of the magnitude of tooth force, If two sets of gear teeth are in contact, the transmitted force is divided between the two sets of teeth. The free-body diagram of the driving gear, for example, would show two tooth forces, both of which act along the line of action, ‘The resultant of the two forces, equal to the transmitted force, also acts along the line of action. The proportion of transmitted force carried by each tooth depends on the accuracy with which the gear teeth are in mesh, which in turn depends on the accuracy of manufactuce of the tooth forms. Since one tooth is likely to carry more force than the other, itis usual to assume that one tooth carries the full transmitted force FORCES ON GEAR TEETH 463 Line ofan Tangant to poh exces FIGURE 9.37 As shown in Fig. 9.37, the tooth foree F is represented by the components F, and F,, of which I, is called the tangential force and F, the separating force; F, = Foos 6 and F, = F sin 6. In many problems, the shaft torque 7, applied to the driving gear is known, and F, may be determined from the equilibrium of moments about the shaft axis: T= FR om where Ris the pitch radius of the gear. The transmitted force F may be determined from wb" Fas orm Equation 9.78 shows that, for a given torque applied to the gear, the tooth force F increases with pressure angle. The separating force F, also increases with pressure angle. It may be seen that F, acts to shear and bend the tooth and that F, acts to compress the tooth. The transmitted force F causes high local stresses in the material in the vicinity of contact on the tooth face, Fxample 9.11. 1s desiced to determine the tooth forces acting on the several gears of te planetary gear vain shown in Fig. 9.380, One hundred horsepower s transmitted bythe gear tan at eorstant spe. The aun gat (Kink 4) rotating clockwise et n= 2000 pms the Input side ofthe tenn, and the etic (lak 2) rotating clockwise a m= 67 rpm & the output side, The shaft torque 7, acting onthe sun gear is the driving torque,464 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY FORCES ON GEAR TEETH 465 ‘The free-body dingram ofthe sun gear in Fig. 9.380 shows the driving torque T, and two tooth forces Fy, which are shown along the line af action for 20° pressure angle. Since the power transmitted and the speed of the gear are known, 7, may be ealclated os follows: Panet ‘Sun gear, 4 bag }4| _+—Besri a ego Tago 350 = 550bp _ 550 bp Oa al _ (Ss0)(100) 22000160 = 228-1 (ew) Since two couples in equilibrium act on link 4, Rd = 7, ts Be = 840 a” 575% ‘The free-body diagram of the planet in Fig. 9.38 shows that four forces act on the link, of which the forces Fy and F,, are known. The direction and sense of the tooth force FF, may be ascertained by considering the moment equilibrium of forces acting about the Planet ceater. IF, also acis atthe pressure angle of 20%, then Fy, and Fate equal in ‘magnitude to satisfy equilibrium of moments about the planet center. The foree Fesof the | ‘arcer acting on the planet is the remaining unknown, which may be determined trom ‘the force polygon in Fig. 9.38c or analytically as follows: ‘Tae equation of equilibrium can be written from the free-body diagram ofthe planet one 938 oD Fy + F, + Fo + Fy =0 ing nt cars tes shal treo he Sper where involute shaped teeth at 20° pressure angle are used in the gear tain. Fy = Fy(eos 20° ~ sin 20°j) = O9397Fyi — 0.3420F aj B= 76.) Solution. Careoty dcovn fee-body digrams ofthe inva links as showa in Fig. 9,38 id in the determination ofthe ores acting on eat ink fr tac equ, ner = foros are zero for the son gear and easier 88 well as fr the internal gear since the accsleratons ofthe mas centers f thor elements are 22; he neta tongues are seo ‘ero since the train operetes st constant angle Velocity and zero angular aceleratcn Insofar the planets are conceame, cers] inert force at bec of the centripetal acceleration of the centers of the plants. By sstuning « plenct weight of 2 I, the Centrifogal force acting renm= (2IRCET i~ = 1610 Eq = Fo(e0s 20° 1 + sin 20°) B40 x 0.93071 + BA x 0.34205 = 789.351 + 287.284 Fol = fel466 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY ‘Therefore, B= 789.35i ~ 257.285 Atco, Fy = Foi + hi) (retion unknown) Substituting in the equation of equilibrium gives: 789.351 — 287.28] + 76.0) + 789.351 + 287.28) + AiFyl + d,Fo] = 0 By summing i companencs, 739.3 + 799.351 + Fai = 0 Afi = ~1578.705 By summing j components, 16.0) + Fa} = 0 A, Fol = ~76.0) ‘Therefore, By = -1578.10i - 16.0) [ol = 1580.53 1b From the free-body diagram of the carrier be determined from the equilibrium of moments about the eartier ax Ty = Poh 39 = 1600 x 52 2 = TET R-tb (ecw) May also be determined from the transmitted horsepower and the speed of the 550-bp _ 550 hp oe (6s0)(100) 2657160 = TET (een) Fig. 9.384, the shaft torque 7, may FORCES ON GEAR TEETH 467 ‘The foregoing solution indicates that the tooth force to be expected is 840 Ib. ‘However, a subtlety exists in interpreting the effect of the inertia force Fon forces. In te solution above, it as assumed that the carrer constrained the planet centet to remain at the meshing pressure angle of 20° atthe pitch point by providing the reaction to the planet inertia force F,,, However, ifa large clearance exists for the pin connecting the planet to the carier, then the cartier cannot provide the reaction to F,, in which case the planet will displace slightly toward the internal gear in such a way that it meshes with the internal gear at a pressure angle slightly Jes than 20° and with the sun gear at a pressure angle slightly more than 20°. The results that Fy wil be somewhat greater then 840 Ib and Fy somewhat less. ‘An interesting extension of this example isto consider the effect of replacing the spor gears in the planetary drive of Fig, 9.38 with belial gears while keeping the center distances, gear ratios, and power transmitted the same. If the helical geas have a normal pressure angle 6, of 2° and a helix angle of 30, the following relations ean be developed {or planet 3 assuming that the normal force inthe plane of rotation Fy remains at 840 Tb By refering to Fig, 9.38, - and, _ tan {ane = Cosy cor 30° e=2e Fy = Fy(cos 61 ~ sin 6 j) ‘= B40(c0s 22.8" ~ sin 22.8") = 774.391 — 325.455 FIGURE 9.39468 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY | Therefore, F = 74351 i B= —35.45 j ad 1 hl = Rang = 71439 tn 30 = 4709 47.09 Therefore, B, = TH39i ~ 325,45) + 447.004 ie = 951.57 10 It's left to the reader to determine how this change wil affect the bearing force Fy. 9.20 CAM FORCES At high cam speeds, the force transmitted at the contact of cam and follower is high and may cause serious wear of the contacting surfaces. Figure 9.40 shows a «isk cam wit radial roller follower. Two phases of the cam are shown as it rotates counterclockwise at a uniform speed n, of 8550 rpm. In Fig, 9.40a, the cam isin such a phase that the acceleration A, of the follower is away from the cam, In this phase, the inertia force F, of the follower is such that even without the force Sof the compressed spring, the follower is held in contact with the cam. However, in Fig. 9.408, the phase of the cam is such that a high downward acceleration Ay of the follower is present. In this instance, the follower inertia force Fy is great enough to ceuse the follower to leave the cam unless a force $ equal to F, is applied by the spring. By assuming that the weight of the follower including roller, stem, and spring is 1 Ib, Fp= MyAy (=fa)o.00 = sto and the required spring force is S = 3140 Ib. Since $ and F, are equal forces but ‘opposite in sonse, the force F acting at the contacting surfaces of cam and roller is zero. Since the spring is compressed 8 = 2 in. corresponding to the lift of the cam, the required spring constant fis pe S30 57 yay 7 £280 lovin, FIGURE 9.40 Oy CAM FORCES 469 (201,000 175%)470 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY By returning tothe phase ofthe cam shown in Fig. 840a, it may be observe thatthe fore F a the contacting srfaces wil be high because x represents ¢ ‘eatin o both the inertia force fy andthe spring fore Ss shown fet home boy dagrom of the follower in Fig 90s snore othe surfaces of conta and the angle which F makes with the direction of motion of the follower is the pressure angle ¢. For static equilibrium, the summation of forces in the direct Of follower displacement is zero: she recon Foos$ --S$=0 Ets P F 7 0.79) Inertia force F; is ona (2 f= y= (ds) an. a0 ‘The pressure angle g = 25° (cos 25° From Eq. 9.79, 0.907), 3450 + 785 5 = ES 8 e101 A stoe free F = 4670 band spring constant = 6280 Bin, are hi fora cam ofthe se shown. A stes analy would show thatthe cca ote com should be ited to «smaller vale, Valve cams n astomotive eeahoning area constant challenge tthe mechani designe becse of the denne oe increased engine speeds In Fig. 9.40c is also shown the free-body diagram of the cam. ‘The shaft torque; may be determined from the couple formed bY ¥ and the sat eacton equal ond oppoie to Sine the ctner of pay go the eam gos oe axis rotation, centeifgl neta oes or Neem shouldbe shown lowes since the cam rotates a constant sped, the cam inertia force dot not alone the calculation of the shatt torque 7, but does eater into the calculation of the resultant shaft reaction, 9.21 GYROSCOPIC FORCES Inv icles having engines with rotating parts of high moment of inertia, gyr0- scopic forces are in action when the vehicle is changing direction of motion. In automotive vehicles undergoing roadway turns at high velocity, gyroscopic forces GYROSCOPE FORCES 471 fact on such spinning parts as crankshaft, flywheel, clutch, transmission gears, propeller shaft, and wheels. Engine parts as well as the propeller and the gear reduction system of ao airplane are under the action of gryscopic effects in turns and pullouts. Locomotives and ships are similarly affected. Figure 9.41 shows a rigid body spinning at a constant angular velocity w ‘about a spin axis through the mass center. The angular momentum Hi of the spinning body is represented by a vector whose magnitude is Zo, in which I is the moment of inertia of the body about the spin axis and axis through the mass center, Although the angular momentum of the body is in a plane parallel to the planes of motion of the individual particles of the body, itis represented by a vector normal to the plane of motion as shown. The sense of the vector is determined by the right-hand screw rule in which the arrowhead of the vector is jn the sonse of the advance of a right-hand screw tumed in the sense of the angular velocity w of the body. The length of the vector represents the magnitude of the angular momentum, From the study of mechanics, it is known that the rate of change of angular momentum with respect to time is proportional to an applied torque Tas deter- ‘mined from the following equation of motion: fod Tr 1-5) Also, Hl Therefore, ait rot 0.80) In the case shown in Fig. 9.41, a torque applied in the plane of motion of the spinning body in the sense of w increases the angular momentum at 2 given rate which may be shown as an increase in the length of the vector. Tn the foregoing discussion, the spin axis was considered fixed. If the spin axis is made to change angular position as in 2 vehicle traversing a plane curved path as shown in Fig. 9.422, gyroscopic action results. For constant o, the mag- 1 FIGURE 9.41472. FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY ne | So Spin as < (od é 1 eet ¥ = er CI ° © RIGURE 9.42 nitude of the angular momentum remains constant for an angular displacement ‘A@ of the spin axis as shown by the vectors. However, a change in angular ‘momentum exists because of the change in direction of the momentum as shown | 7%) by the polygon of free vectors in Fig. 9.420. Fora small value of 40, the magnitude Of the change in angular momentum AH is AH = (Ia) 60 ‘The rate of change of angular momentum with respect to time is, a, c rate at which the spin axis displaces angularly. sociated with the precession of ‘The magnitude of the torque T which is associated wit the spin ans can easily be determined from Eq, 9.81, and its now pecessary to determine is direction. Referring agin to Fig, 9.425, one can see that as A approaches zero, the vector AH becomes normal to the vector H,, which has the Same direction asthe spin ais. Therefore, the torque vector T wil also be normal to the spin axis in the plane of H and AH. Figure 9.42c shows the x-axi spin axis and the y-axis as the precession axis. The z-axis becomes the torque GYROSCOPIE FORCES 473 + axis because the direction of torque T is normal to the spin axis and lies in the ) xzplane. From the orientation of the spin, precession, and torque axes, it can bbe seen that Eq. 9.81 can be written in the following vector form: T=0,xlo 0.82) ‘The applied torque T in Eq. 9.82 is a couple referred to as the gyroscopic couple. Because this couple has the same direction as AH, the couple les in the "sovplane and reprecente a torque applied to the body ubuul the z= or torque axl. _ Thus, it may be seen that to cause precession of a spinning body, a torque must bbe applied to the body in a plane normal to the plane in which the spin axis is precessing. ‘The flywheel of an automotive engine is an example of a spinning body that is subject to the gyroscopic couple in roadway turns at high Vehicular speed. As shown in Fig. 9.43, the flywheel of a single-cylinder engine is fixed to the crankshaft, which in turn is supported by the main bearings. The crankshaft and the equivalent mass of the connecting rod are also spinning masses which may be considered as part of the flywheel. Forces Fz, which represent the gyroscopic couple, are applied to the crankshaft by the bearings. These forces are superposed oon the forees produced by the operation of the slider-crank mechanism. Other bearing forces which are induced by the turning vehicular motion are those ‘resulting from centrifugal force while the vehicle isin the curved path. Example 9.12. For the single-cylinder engine of Fig. 9.43, determine the bearing forces _ Fp caused by the gyroscopic action of the flywheel of Example 9.9 as the engine vehicle ‘waverses a 1000--radius curve at 60 mph (88 f/s) ina tur tothe right. The engine speed }) is 2300 rpm ani is turing clockwise viewed from the front of the engine. PCCCHHEH EERO ORE HOHE AAA AO aanenaanann666666 OOS SOO OH SOOO SEHEOSHESSOSSIIIGS 474 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACITINERY Solution of Nywheet = 0.236 Ib 38 T where 0.0884 a = (0.236 ~ 3461) = 81.664 ‘Therefore, T= (—0.088)) « (81.664) 118K fe-1b (ew) and 118 Fe 7 ona 44 With the direction of torque T clockwise, the sense of force F., applied to the crankshaft i by the bearing wil be up at the rear bearing and down at ae . e atthe front bearing as shown in As may be sean from Example 9.12, th , the gyroscope forces onthe Bearings ave smal compared tothe defo ldersrank ston, These forces are eae, insharperroavay tin. Gyroscpie ores on bearing supporting cc tas mission gears, and drive shaft are also small because of the low moment of inertia: af the pars. However the moment of ern of the hoor oy the moment of ie nt whes! may be peat nou 0 ap epresile oso ores th al unt td een mechanism. The gyotconie forces of the sionng pts gre ete ee transmitted to the ear body have the effet of raising the from end of the core ie surpension ast waves a crv fhe sight “The gyroscope foes of heavy fywhetr shipboard : i of thipboard engines may be of ws ma el he ihn ns ay scope coeples in some manewers ar shown nthe alone oe Example 9.13. Determine the gy the gyroscopic couple ofa 3.05-matiameter sold aluminum Aly faded pret in whic each de has amas of 61 iT tet mae ‘of the airplane isa power-on flat spin in which the propeller speeds 1500 mpm and the Toation othe Nat spn trad. The ads gyration kok tats of reton £08 the propel th respect to the propeller axis is approximately oneal of he propeller radu MOMENT-OFINERITA DETERMINATION 475 Solution ke= ry = 1.05) T= Mie = 18.1 « 1529 2 kgs 2am 200500) oo 4, = Anadis 197 rads T= low, = 42.1 «157 X1 = 6610N-m ‘The effect of the couple is to impose a large load on bearings supporting the propeller shaft as well as to impose large bending moments on the individual blades near the propeller hub. The gyroscopic effect is great enough to affect the ‘maneuver by raising or lowering the nose ofthe airplane depending on the senses of the propeller spin and the precession. It is a characteristic of the gyroscope that a gyroscopic couple must be applied to cause precession. In many instrument applications such as the gyro- ‘compass and artificial horizon used in aireraft, precession is undesirable and great care is taken to reduce the gyroscopic couple to a minimum as the vehicle in ‘which itis mounted undergoes turns that would cause precession. The resistance of a gyroscope to precession becomes greater as fa increases; a high moment of inertia and high spin velocity give it the characteristic of “rigidity” against precessing in space. Rigidity is the desired characteristic in the gyrocompass, which provides a fixed datum required for navigational purposes. Although the gyroscope is miounted in low-friction bearings in such a manner that the vehicle's turning transmits a minimum of gyroscopic couple, some torque is nevertheless applied by friction and the gyroscope must periodically be reset to the desired datum position, The rigidity characteristic in gyroscopes is also utilized in control equipment, In naval gua directors, the gyroscope provides a datum during pitch- ‘ng and rolling of the ship, and an electrical signal may be transmitted to machinery which holds gun positions relative to the gyroscope ratber than relative to the ship. Gyroscopes in automatic pilots control the flight position of aircraft by transmitting signals to the control surfaces as wind currents and other distur- ‘ances cause the aircraft to yaw, pitch, and roll 9.22 MOMENT-OF-INERTIA DETERMINATION In the foregoing discussions of force analyses, the moments of inertia J of the individual links were known or assumed. ‘The designer or analyst of a machine js often confronted with the need for determining moment of inertia, Formulas fre available in handbooks and textbooks on mechanics for the determination of the moment of inertia of bodies having simple geometrical forms such as cylinders,476 VORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY disks, and bars and tubes of round and rectangular cross section. Many machin¢ clements such as gears, pulleys, flywheels, gyroscopes, rotors, and shafts are simple enough in form that determination of moments of inertia by formula is quite accurate. Although calculations of J for links of more complex forms such as connecting rods, crankshafts, planet carriers, and odd-shaped cams may be ‘made by considering the complicated forms as composites of simpler forms, the determinations are less accurate. If parts are available, moments of inertia may be determined experimentally in most cases. One of the most useful experimental methods is to mount the part in such a way that it may oscillate as a pendulum and to observe the period of oscillation, which is a function of the moment of inertia of the pendulum. ‘Figure 9.44 shows a pendulum suspended from the knife edge at O so that is the axis of rotation about which the pendulum oscillates from 0, to ~ ‘The mass center g is at a distance fo from O. Two forees act on the pendulu the force of gravity W and the supporting force of the knife edge. ‘The following equation of motion is written using the moment center O: 2 Te = lew ’ eo =Wsin 8 = foe ~ To 08) where Jo is the moment of inertia of the pendulum about the axis through O. ‘The moment To depends upon the position 0 of the pendulum from the vertical Since a is in the same sense as increasing values of @, the minus sign of Eq. 9.83 indicates that Tp is in the opposite sense to a. For small oscillations of the pendulum, @ = sin @ may be assumed with litle error. Thus, 0 _ Wo Pi aae (0.84) Equation 9.84 is a differential equation, which on double integration yields FIGURE 9.44 MOMENT-OFINERTIA DETERMINATION 47 an equation relating time # and 0: «= viam or (2) ox ‘The two constants of integration are evaluated for the conditions Date = 0, and 0 = 0 ats = 0. Since the time ofthe oscillation is measured from the startiog position @ = @,, the time to reach the vertical position is determined by substituting c t= 5 ViolWe (9.86) ‘The period + of the pendulum, or the time for one complete oscillation, is four times the time given by Eq. 9.86 2nViol Wig Whe 0.87) Jo= 73 Wlo where pis the moment of inertia about the axis through O. Usually, the moment of inertia I about the axis through the mass center is wanted and may be deter ‘mined from the parallel axis theorem: . do = 1+ Mlb I= Ip - Mi - Gm) - Ga) t= m4) os Thus, I may be determined from Eq. 9.88 by experimentally noting the time for a large number of oscillations of a part suspended as a pendulum. A connecting rod, for example, may be suspended on a knife edge from either the ‘wrist pin bore or the crank pin bore. The quantity in parentheses in Eq. 9.88 approaches zero as /p becomes large because the two terms are nearly equal in magnitude. Under these conditions, the accuracy of determining depends on the accuracy of measuring both I and 7. Accuracy is greatly increased hy making Jga small measurable value other than zero. Thus, accuracy is better for the case in which the connecting rod is suspended from the end closest to the center of gravity. Tt should be mentioned, however, that it is often difficult to obtain anSCSSSBTIVIIGSE SOSCCSSCOOHVOCOVOVEY 478 FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY FIGURE 9.45 Accurate time of oscillation if the point about which the body is swung is too close to the center of gravity ‘The moment of inertia of a part may also be determined experimentally by ‘mounting the part on a pendulum made ofa lightweight platform suspended by chords as shown in Fig. 9.45. To determine the moment of inertia of the part about the centroidal axis g-g, the partis oriented such that gg is directly below and parallel to the suspension axis O-O. The period for small oscillations is observed by counting oscillations for a time of several minates. The following equation, which determines / of the pact, is a modific the second term accounts for the effect of the platfo of the platform without the part

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