B. E.

(Automobile) Semester–V

UNIT 6
CI ENGINE EMISSION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES
AN OVERVIEW OF CONTROL OF CI ENGINE EMISSIONS
For emission control in the CI engines, usually called as the diesel engines the following are important;
 CI engines emits pollutants in solid (soot), liquid (poly aromatic hydrocarbons, fuel and oil
components, sulphur acids) as well as those in gaseous (CO, HC, NOX) state.
 Emissions of nitrogen oxides and particulate matter from diesel engines are of main concern.
 Emission regulations do have limits for CO and HC as well from the CI engines, but
concentration of their emissions is rather small and these have been relatively easy to control
through improved engine and fuel system design.
 NOX - PM trade off governs selection and optimization of many engine design variables e.g.,
injection timing, injection pressure, boost pressure etc., as change in some engine variables may
although causes reduction in NOX but increases PM and vice versa.
 Engine design changes to reduce NOX emissions many a times result also in higher brake
specific fuel consumption (BSFC). This is important as the emissions of the greenhouse gas, CO2
are also to be reduced.
The development efforts like for the SI engines have been focused on reduction of engine-out emissions
and treatment of the exhaust gases. Improvements in fuel quality also have been made to meet the needs
of advanced emission control technology.
In CI engines, mixture formation and combustion is heterogeneous and complex in nature. It is governed
by:
 Mixture formation which depends on interactions between the injection spray, air motion and
combustion chamber geometry.
 Air motion – Swirl, squish etc.
 Injection spray formation - Precise control of fuel injection process is necessary for formation of
the desired spray and fuel atomization.
 Combustion chamber type- Indirect Injection or Direct Injection. The indirect injection engines
are being phased out of production due to their poor fuel efficiency.
 Intake boost pressure
Turbocharging especially with variable boost pressure coupled with EGR results in substantial
reductions in both the NOX and PM.
Exhaust after treatment such as diesel particulate filter (DPF), diesel oxidation catalysts (DOC),
selective catalytic reduction (SCR) of NOX etc., are already in use.
An overview of various technologies and direction of research and development which have been
pursued to control NOX and PM emissions from the CI engines are presented in Fig. 6.1 and 6.2
respectively.

Fig. 6.1 An overview of NOx reduction techniques in CI engines

Prof. Vyom Bhushan Department of Automobile Engineering, DYPSOET, Pune U-6.1

 B. E. (Automobile) Semester–V

The technologies used for control of PM emissions are presented on Fig. 6.2

Fig. 6.2 An overview of PM reduction techniques in CI engines

EMISSION CONTROL BY ENGINE VARIABLES AND EGR

FUEL INJECTION VARIABLES
Demands Made on Injection System
To achieve low soot formation, rates of fuel-air mixing are to be enhanced. Fuel injection and air motion
in the cylinder are key parameters to achieve rapid fuel-air mixing. The following strategy is adopted to
improve fuel air mixing and the diesel engine combustion, which leads to reduction both in the soot and
NOX formation:
 Use of high fuel injection pressures and smaller nozzle hole size to produce very fine fuel
atomization for rapid fuel evaporation and mixing with air.
 Fuel spray not to impinge on walls but fuel to be distributed mainly within the air inside the
combustion chamber.
 Matching of injection spray configuration and development with in-cylinder air motion for rapid
fuel-air mixing throughout the injection duration period
 Use of variable injection timing, multiple–injection and injection rate shaping technology
High Injection Pressures
The mass flow rate of fuel injected, mf is given by:

, kg / cycle
where Cd is coefficient of discharge, An is nozzle flow area in m2, ρf is fuel density in kg / m3, (Pinj-Pcyl)
is the pressure drop across nozzle orifice in Pascal, Δθ is the injection duration in degrees crank angle
and N is the engine speed in RPM.

Prof. Vyom Bhushan Department of Automobile Engineering, DYPSOET, Pune U-6.2

 B. E. (Automobile) Semester–V

Generally, Pinj >> Pcyl

Thus, for a given injection rate and injection duration Δθ in crank angles, the injection pressure should
vary with speed as,
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑗 ∝ 𝑁 2
The speed of engines for road vehicles from lowest working speed to rated speed may vary by a factor
of; Nmax/Nmin = 4 to 5..To achieve similar injection duration and spray penetration from the lowest to
rated engine speed, the injection pressure therefore, is required to vary by a factor of 16 to 25. This of
course is not possible in practice but it has led to use of as high an injection pressure as possible. In the
pre-1990 engines, maximum injection pressures were limited to about 700 bar. Since then, the injection
pressures have increased to a value exceeding 2000 bar. Modern electronic fuel injection systems
employing unit injectors, common rail systems etc. provide use of very high injection pressures.
The beneficial effects of high injection pressure are;
Improved fuel atomization producing finer fuel droplets.
 The smaller fuel droplets evaporate at a faster rate resulting in rapid fuel-air mixing.
 A shorter injection duration
 With shorter injection duration injection timing may be retarded. Fuel may now be injected
closer to TDC in hotter air giving shorter ignition delay, resulting in emission benefits
 Higher spray penetration and better air utilization.
The effect of peak injection pressure on PM-NOX tradeoff is shown on Fig. 6.3. The width of band on
this figure relates to the contribution of lubricating oil to the particulate emissions. With increase in peak
injection pressure, the PM-NOX trade-off curve moves closer to origin indicating reduction both in the
PM and NOX , although the reductions in PM at a given NOX level are more obvious as seen in Fig 6.3

Fig. 6.3 Effect of peak injection pressure on PM-NOX trade-off for a turbocharged, inter-cooled,
DI diesel engine
Injection Rate Shaping and Multiple Injection
NOX formation is influenced by
a) duration of ignition delay,

Prof. Vyom Bhushan Department of Automobile Engineering, DYPSOET, Pune U-6.3

 B. E. (Automobile) Semester–V

b) amount of fuel injected during delay period, and

c) the rate of mixture preparation within the combustion chamber.
The shape of ideal rate of injection curve during ignition delay and the main injection period depends on
engine load and speed. General principles of fuel injection scheduling are;
 Rate of fuel injection within the delay period must be kept small to reduce the amount of fuel
burned during „pre-mixed‟ combustion phase, and
 During the main injection period, rate of injection should be increased steeply to inject fuel
within a short period when the temperature and pressure in the combustion chamber are high for
rapid combustion of the injected fuel.
The pilot injection is a form of multiple-injection with two injection pulses. In the pilot injection, a small
quantity of fuel (about 10% of fuel per cycle) is injected 3 to 10 crank angle degrees before the main
injection event. The pilot-injected fuel has more time to undergo pre-combustion reactions .When the
main fuel injection is made, the combustion begins soon after, resulting in a short delay period. As the
pilot fuel quantity injected during delay period is rather small, the peak rate of combustion pressure rise
and peak pressures are reduced. Typical pilot injection strategy and cylinder pressure are shown on Fig.
6.4

Fig. 6.4 Pilot injection, injector needle lift and combustion pressure traces in a naturally
aspirated diesel engine at low loads.
With pilot injection, the injection timing of main fuel can be retarded to give low NOX emissions
without adversely affecting the engine power and fuel efficiency. Also, with pilot injection less fuel
burns as pre-mixed and a larger fraction of fuel burns in diffusion combustion mode. In the normal
engine, NOX reduction is obtained by retarding the injection timing which results in higher smoke and
PM emissions, and higher BSFC. Results with pilot injection and conventional engine with retarded

Prof. Vyom Bhushan Department of Automobile Engineering, DYPSOET, Pune U-6.4

 B. E. (Automobile) Semester–V

injection are compared in Table 6.1. At the same NOX emission levels of 5.5 g/kWh, with pilot injection
typically 23 % lower PM, 50% lower HC and 4 % lower BSFC were obtained.
Table 6.1 Comparison of Performance and Emissions of Pilot Injection and Conventional
Injection with Retarded Timing

ELECTRONIC FUEL INJECTION (EFI) SYSTEMS

Electronically controlled fuel injection systems have the capability to fulfill the ideal injection rate
requirements, The EFI also are capable of providing multiple injections. Electronically controlled diesel
fuel injection systems have the following advantages over the mechanically controlled injection systems
as they provide:
 Very high injection pressures exceeding 2000 bar
 Precise control of injection timing.
 Precise fuel metering to control power output and limit smoke.
 Extremely low cylinder to cylinder variation in the quantity of fuel injected.
 Injection rate shaping with controlled initial rate of injection to reduce noise and emissions
 Sharp end-of-injection to eliminate nozzle dribble, prevent nozzle fouling and, reduce smoke and
hydrocarbon emissions.
 Injection rate shaping for controlling heat release rates during pre-mixed and diffusion
combustion phases for controlling smoke and NOX formation.
Electronically controlled unit injectors, distributor pumps and common rail injection systems are in use.
Electronic Unit Injectors
In the electronic unit injectors (EUI) the injection pumping element that raises the fuel to injection
pressure and the injector nozzle are integrated into one unit. One each of the EUI is directly mounted on
every engine cylinder. The injection pump plunger of every EUI is driven directly by the engine
camshaft via a rocker arm. The electronic unit injectors were introduced on heavy-duty diesel truck
engines in the USA around 1990 as these could develop much higher pressures than the in-line
mechanical injection systems. A EUI design is shown in Fig. 6.5. In this design, metering of the fuel
delivery is done by the plunger and the injection timing is controlled by opening and closing events of
the solenoid valve of the EUI. Normally, the fuel from the plunger bypasses the solenoid valve and the
fuel goes back to the return fuel line. As soon as the solenoid valve closes the fuel bypass passage, a
high pressure is generated in the fuel passage above the injector nozzle and the fuel is injected. Opening
of the solenoid valve releases the fuel pressure and the injection ends. Another design of EUI developed
by Cummins Engine Company, Inc. consists of two plungers in the same unit injector, one controls
injection timing and the other controls the injection quantity. As the dead volume between the pumping
plunger and injector nozzle is very small, very high injection pressures can be used with a high
reliability and injection efficiency. Operation of the EUI at more than 2500 bar has been demonstrated.
Common Rail Diesel Injection (CRDI) Systems
In the common rail systems, the high fuel pressure is generated by a common pump that is separate from
the injectors. The fuel pressure is independent of engine speed and load. A typical layout of the common
rail systems is shown in Fig. 6.6.The CRDI has four main components;
a) high-pressure pump

Prof. Vyom Bhushan Department of Automobile Engineering, DYPSOET, Pune U-6.5

 B. E. (Automobile) Semester–V

b) high-pressure distribution rail (common rail) and pipes

c) injectors, and
d) Electronic engine control unit (ECU).
A mechanical pump raises the fuel pressure and feeds the common rail with fuel at high pressure. The
common rail is connected to the injectors by short pipes. A solenoid valve in each injector controls the
injection timing and quantity.

Fig. 6.5 A typical electronic unit injector for high pressure

Prof. Vyom Bhushan Department of Automobile Engineering, DYPSOET, Pune U-6.6

 B. E. (Automobile) Semester–V

Fig. 6.6 Schematic layout of a common rail diesel injection system

In one design of the common rail systems, the rail pressure is same as the injection pressure. In another
design known as „intensified‟ CRDI system, the fuel pressure in rail is lower and it is multiplied by a
factor of 3:1 to 10:1 in the injector body by a stepped piston to raise it to the injection pressure.
The CRDI systems mostly operate at pressures of around 1600 bar.
The injection pressure characteristics of the CRDI, EUI and inline pump- nozzle systems are compared
in Fig 6.7. The main advantage of the common rail system over the conventional in-line jerk pumps is
that injection pressure is constant and independent of engine speed and load. For inline pump- nozzle
systems, the injection pressure is quite low at low engine speeds which increase due to inertia effects at
high speeds. It is therefore, difficult to obtain the required engine performance with low emissions
throughout the engine speed range with inline fuel injection systems. Electronic unit injectors are better
than the inline systems but the CRDI provides more flexibility as a constant injection pressure is
maintained at all engine speeds. In the common rail systems, the injection timing and rate can be varied
precisely depending upon the engine requirements.
As very high injection pressures are possible with electronically controlled CRDI, its benefits are
available throughout the engine speed range. Because of reduction in particulate emissions due to high
injection pressures, higher EGR rates can be used at part loads to reduce NOX emissions, which lead to a
better NOX particulate trade off. With the common rail systems, injection rate shaping and pilot injection
are also easier to implement.

Prof. Vyom Bhushan Department of Automobile Engineering, DYPSOET, Pune U-6.7

 B. E. (Automobile) Semester–V

Fig. 6.7 Peak injection pressure as a function of engine speed for different fuel injection systems
TURBOCHARGING
Presently, almost all the modern light, medium and heavy-duty diesel engines are turbocharged. A
turbocharger consists of a turbine driven by the engine exhaust gas which is directly coupled to a
compressor. The fresh air from the atmosphere is drawn into the compressor of turbocharger where its
pressure and hence density are raised before it enters the engine cylinder The higher mass flow of air in
the turbocharged engines compared to the naturally aspirated engines of the same swept volume, results
in an increase in engine power, lower fuel consumption, better transient operation response and lower
specific exhaust emissions (in g/kW-h). Advantages of turbocharging are;
 With turbocharging, excess air of more than 50% can be easily used in DI engines while still
developing enough engine power.
 Due to higher air density and higher temperatures at the end of compression stroke shorter
ignition delay period is obtained.
 As a result of shorter ignition delay period, the fraction of fuel burned during premixed
combustion phase decreases resulting in lower NOX emissions.
 A shorter delay period gives lower HC emissions.
 With turbocharging, the injection timing can be retarded to further lower NOX emissions without
compromising fuel efficiency and power.
 High excess air results in lower soot emissions.
 Inter-cooling of the boosted air charge further increases charge density and lower intake
temperatures helps in reducing NOX emissions.
The effect of turbocharging (TC), aftercooling (TCA) and injection retard typically observed on the NOX
– particulate trade off compared to naturally aspirated diesel engines is shown in Fig. 6.8.

Prof. Vyom Bhushan Department of Automobile Engineering, DYPSOET, Pune U-6.8

 B. E. (Automobile) Semester–V

Fig. 6.8 Effect of turbocharging on NOX Particulate trade off.

Control of Boost Ratio and Variable Geometry Turbocharging
For the conventional turbocharger, boost pressure ratio characteristics vary nonlinearly with the airflow
rate. At the low airflow rates, the boost pressure ratio is small. The pressure ratio increases as a power
law of air flow rate. As the flow rate increases the boost pressure ratio increases disproportionately.
Secondly, at low engine speeds the available exhaust gas energy is low and hence, boost pressure is also
low which further compounds the problem. The turbine power therefore, is matched to provide adequate
airflow to the engine at low engine speeds. At high speeds, a waste gate valve is used that makes the
exhaust gas to bypass the turbine. As the engine speed increases, an increasing fraction of total exhaust
gas is made to bypass the turbine directly to the atmosphere to reduce power of the turbine. These are
„fixed geometry‟ turbochargers‟ and their use results in a compromise between low speed and high-
speed performance of the engine.
Variable geometry turbochargers (VGT) have been developed to overcome the limitations of the fixed
geometry turbochargers. The VGT are better matched with the engine operational needs. The turbine of
VGT has movable vanes that can change turbine flow area or the angle at which the exhaust gas enters
or leaves the turbine rotor. VGT are also designed where both the flow area as well as angle at which
gas enters or leaves the rotor can be changed simultaneously. A reduction in turbine flow area increases
upstream exhaust gas pressure and it results in an increase in speed of the turbocharger and higher boost
pressure. With the variable geometry turbochargers, the closed loop control of engine boost pressure by
ECU is possible.
The VGT have been introduced on the automotive engines during the late 1990‟s in Europe and their use
is increasing. Although, the variable geometry turbochargers were primarily developed to improve low
speed torque and transient response, but their use also provides emission reduction under low load
operating regime and a better optimization throughout engine operating range is possible.

Prof. Vyom Bhushan Department of Automobile Engineering, DYPSOET, Pune U-6.9

 B. E. (Automobile) Semester–V

EXHAUST GAS RECIRCULATION

Exhaust gas recirculation has been widely used since 1970s to reduce NOX emissions in the SI engines.
During 1990s, when emission standards for diesel passenger cars in Europe were tightened, EGR found
application for the first time in small high speed engines and later in the heavy duty diesel engines as
well.
With the use of EGR, reduction in NOX is accompanied with an increase of smoke, particulate and HC
emissions. Fuel consumption also increases with the use of EGR. As the EGR is applied, excess air
decreases. With 25% EGR in a turbocharged engine at full load operation, the excess air ratio decreased
from around 1.7 to 1.3. Simultaneously with 25% EGR, the NOX reduced by 85%, smoke increased
manifold from around 0.5 Bosch smoke units to 3.5 Bosch units and BSFC increased by 8%. Smoke and
BSFC increased sharply beyond about 12% EGR rate. At part loads when air-fuel ratios are high, EGR
rates even up to 50% can be applied. In practice, on the production engines, EGR is applied at part loads
and at high loads NOX control is obtained by retarding injection timing. A typical EGR map for a
passenger car diesel engine is shown on Fig 6.9.
EGR rates are varied with engine load and speed and an electronic control of EGR is usually employed.
In addition to the input data on engine speed and load, EGR is controlled based on air mass flow rate.
Air mass flow rate is measured by a flow meter. From air flow signal the engine control unit determines
EGR rate from a look-up table to control EGR rates. Measurement of airflow rate compensates for any
changes in volumetric efficiency that may result due to deposit build-up in combustion chamber, valve
timing adjustment etc.

Fig. 6.9 Typical EGR rate map for a passenger car DI diesel engine.
Cooled v/s Un-cooled EGR
Cooling of EGR before mixing with air has the following possible effects:
 Lower intake charge temperature would further reduce NOX formation.
 Higher intake charge density, higher volumetric efficiency and higher oxygen content in charge
would give higher flame temperatures resulting in higher oxidation of soot.
 A higher volumetric efficiency provides lower BSFC.

Prof. Vyom Bhushan Department of Automobile Engineering, DYPSOET, Pune U-6.10

 B. E. (Automobile) Semester–V

 Lower charge temperatures would result in longer ignition delay period, more premixed
combustion and higher unburned HC emissions.
 For the same reduction in NOX, loss in fuel economy is lower with cooled EGR compared to
uncooled EGR.
Due to a better NOX BSFC trade-off, the cooled EGR is more commonly employed in practice.
EGR Systems for Turbocharged Engines
Two methods are used for application of EGR in the turbocharged engines. The layouts of the two
systems given below are shown on Fig. 6.10.
Low- Pressure Route: Exhaust gas from downstream of turbine is tapped and inducted to the intake
side of the compressor. In this method, the required pressure difference across the EGR valve is easily
obtained and EGR is possible over a wide range of engine operation. The main disadvantage is that the
exhaust gas along with air also passes through the compressor and intercooler resulting in durability
problems of compressor due to presence of soot particles.
High-Pressure Route: Exhaust gas from the upstream side of the turbine is tapped and led to the exit
side of the compressor. The EGR gas does not pass through the intercooler or compressor. EGR is
additional to the intake charge of compressor and amount of oxygen in the charge remains constant.
With this method, higher reductions in NOX can be achieved with lesser increase in smoke and
particulate emissions.
In the high-pressure route of EGR sufficient pressure difference between pressure upstream of turbine
and downstream of compressor is not available under all the engine speed-load conditions. At high loads
the pressure at the exit of compressor may be higher than the pressure upstream of turbine. To introduce
EGR at high engine loads:
a) Turbine back pressure is increased, by use of a variable geometry turbocharger, and
b) A venturi is fitted between the compressor and intake manifold. The EGR is introduced at the
throat of venturi.

Prof. Vyom Bhushan Department of Automobile Engineering, DYPSOET, Pune U-6.11

 B. E. (Automobile) Semester–V

Fig. 6.10 Schematic layouts of (a) ‘Low Pressure Route’ and (b) ‘High Pressure Route’ EGR
system for turbocharged, inter-cooled diesel engines

Prof. Vyom Bhushan Department of Automobile Engineering, DYPSOET, Pune U-6.12

 B. E. (Automobile) Semester–V

DIESEL EXHAUST GAS AFTERTREATMENT

The combustion process and hence the exhaust gas composition and its thermodynamic state in diesel
engines differ from SI engines. The main differences are;
 The overall air-fuel ratio in the diesel engines varies from about 19:1 to 75:1 resulting in large
variations in the exhaust gas composition with excess oxygen always present in the exhaust
gases.
 Due to heterogeneous combustion in diesel engines, a large concentration of particulate matter is
present in the exhaust gases.
 The exhaust gas temperature varies usually from 150ºC to 350ºC. The gas temperatures at the
exit turbocharger are further lower compared to temperatures at the exhaust port due to
expansion in the turbine
In the European heavy duty engine cycle, the exhaust temperatures vary from 200ºC - 400ºC, although
in US transient cycle, the gas temperatures may reach up to 600ºC. On the other hand, in the driving
cycle for light duty vehicles, the gas temperatures vary in the range of 150ºC -350ºC only. Until the year
2000, the diesel vehicle emission standards in the US and Europe were largely met by use of improved
injection system, engine combustion improvements, EGR and turbocharging. The three-way catalytic
converters are unable to function in diesel engines as a high amount of excess oxygen is always present
in the exhaust gases. Hence, the nature of exhaust treatment in diesel engines is considerably different
than for the stoichiometric SI engines. In the light duty diesel vehicle segment, diesel oxidation catalysts
have found application for the Euro 2 and 3 vehicles. For the later standards such as Euro 4 and 5,
advanced forms of exhaust after treatment like diesel particulate filters and lean de-NOx catalysts are
being employed.
Exhaust after treatment in diesel engines may be grouped in two broad categories;
a) Diesel catalytic exhaust after treatment and
b) Diesel particulate filters (DPF)
DIESEL OXIDATION CATALYSTS
The diesel oxidation catalyst is also termed as DOC. The DOC works in a similar fashion as the
oxidation catalytic converter in the gasoline engines. However, the performance of DOC differs from
oxidation catalysts in gasoline engines due to;
 Low exhaust gas temperatures
 Presence of particulate matter in the diesel exhaust and
 High fuel sulphur content compared to gasoline
Typically use of DOC depending on engine design and operating conditions results into;
 30 –80% conversion of the gaseous HC
 40 to 90 % reduction of CO
 Dry soot does not get oxidized. But, oxidation of 50 to 80% of soluble organic fraction and some
PAH occurs that gives 30 to 50 % reduction in total PM emissions.
 Conversion of fuel sulphur to SO3 and emission of sulphuric acid aerosol.
The fuel sulphur on combustion gets converted to sulphur dioxide in the combustion chamber. The SO2
however, gets further oxidized to SO3 on the catalyst which combines with water vapours to form
sulphuric acid aerosols which is also termed as sulphate emissions. Part of SO3 produced is stored on the
catalyst. The reactions involving fuel sulphur proceed on the catalyst as below:
Oxidation of SO2:
SO2 + ½ O2 → SO3
Sulphate storage:
SO3 +MO (washcoat metal oxide) → MSO4
The particulate emission reduction by DOC is influenced by the exhaust gas temperature as shown on
Fig. 6.11. The optimum temperature range for the DOC operation is observed to be from about 200 to

Prof. Vyom Bhushan Department of Automobile Engineering, DYPSOET, Pune U-6.13

 B. E. (Automobile) Semester–V

350ºC. At lower temperatures poor oxidation of SOF and PAH is obtained and at temperatures higher
than 350ºC a high conversion of SO2 to sulphates results in an increase of mass of PM emissions.

Fig. 6.11 Effect of exhaust gas temperature on conversion of particulate mass by DOC.
The diesel fuels during early 1990s contained 0.2 to 0.3 % sulphur by mass Due to high fuel sulphur
content the DOC design has to address to the following requirements;
 Minimize conversion of SO2 to SO3 at high exhaust gas temperatures
 Minimize formation and storage of the sulphate on the catalyst.
 Good conversion of SOF so that DOC reduces the mass of PM emissions in addition to
conversion of HC and CO.
As sulphur in the diesel fuels has been reduced to around 0.03% the sulphate formation on DOC is not
of serious concern.
Design Features of DOC
The catalyst volume is typically equal to the engine swept volume. A DOC although, may appear similar
to the oxidation catalysts used for gasoline vehicles but the following differences in the design features
are incorporated;
 Ceramic monoliths of a lower cell density having 200 to 400 cpsi are normally used to keep it
free of clogging by soot.
 As alumina is more readily gets converted to Al2(SO4)3, different washcoat materials like
titanium oxide, silicon dioxide, or mixtures of 50 % CeO2 and 50% γ-Al2O3 are used.
 Mainly platinum is used in DOCs with metal loading varying from 0.5 to 2.0 g/l.
 The diesel oxidation catalyst is placed downstream of the turbocharger and experiences much
lower temperatures (100ºC -550ºC) compared to the gasoline engine catalyst (300ºC -1100ºC).
The thermal deactivation of DOC is not a major problem.
 Diesel engines burn more lubricating oil in the cylinder and the engine oils have a higher metal
additive content than the gasoline engines. The pore structure of washcoat must be formed to
tolerate larger amounts of these inorganic oxides.
DIESEL DE-NOX CATALYSTS
The diesel engine exhaust always has high amount of excess oxygen. Conversion of NOX to N2 requires
a reducing atmosphere. In the diesel engines due to oxidizing atmosphere in the exhaust, a NOX

Prof. Vyom Bhushan Department of Automobile Engineering, DYPSOET, Pune U-6.14

 B. E. (Automobile) Semester–V

reduction catalyst different than the conventional 3-Way catalyst is required. For reducing NOX in the
oxygen rich atmosphere, the reducing agents also termed as „reductants‟ are necessary. The reductants
can be supplied either from the engine itself or added by external sources in the exhaust.
Hydrocarbons or ammonia are the two most frequently used reductants. As discussed earlier, the main
strategies employed for NOX reduction in oxygen rich atmosphere are:
a) NOX Storage – Reduction (NSR) Catalysts
b) Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)
Low temperature plasma/catalyst systems are also being developed for application to diesel engines
NOX Storage-Reduction (NSR) Catalysts
The NOX storage-reduction catalyst system or „NOX Trap‟ was first developed for application to
gasoline direct injection, lean-burn DISC spark ignited engines. In the diesel engines, diesel derived
hydrocarbons are used as reductants. The principle of operation and basic features of Diesel NSR
catalysts are the same as for the lean burn SI engines. The first step is to absorb NOX (NO converted to
NO2 on the catalyst itself) on rare earth metal oxides and the second step is release of NOX in presence
of hydrocarbons for reduction to N2.
For significant reduction in NOX, typically 2 to 5:1 HC/NOX molar ratios are required. Normally, engine
out hydrocarbon emissions are quite low in the diesel engines. In the diesel NSR system, hydrocarbons
are added to the exhaust gas by;
 Post injection of fuel in the cylinder after the main fuel injection event
 Adding secondary fuel into the exhaust system.
About 2% of the main injection quantity is injected from 90ºC to 200ºC after the main injection in the
cylinder. The common rail injection system is well suited for providing post injection.
The best NOX storage and conversion efficiency of NSR catalysts are obtained in a narrow temperature
range of 200ºC -350ºC. Peak conversion efficiency may reach around 55 to 60% but overall conversion
efficiency under driving cycle conditions is only around 35%. A number of catalyst modules to reduce
space velocity and improve over all conversion have been employed in prototypes.
Sulphur Poisoning of NSR Catalysts
Sulphur on combustion forms sulphur dioxide, which gets oxidized to SO3 over the catalyst and reacts
with the rare earth oxides to form their sulphates such as barium oxide present in washcoat gets
converted to barium sulphate. The mechanism of sulphur poisoning is similar to the mechanism of NOX
trapping by the catalyst. Hence, presence of sulphur in fuel reduces NOX trapping efficiency. Even with
5 ppm sulphur in fuel the conversion efficiency has been seen to drop by half after about 25000 kms of
operation.
To improve the catalyst resistance to sulphur poisoning new formulation of the adsorber material are
being developed. The NSR catalysts so far are not being applied in diesel engines.
Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)
The selective catalytic reduction of NOX by ammonia has been applied now for several decades in the
stationary systems like gas turbines, utility boilers, diesel engine power plants, and incinerators. Now,
SCR is being used in heavy duty diesel vehicles quite widely in Europe to meet Euro 4 and later
emission standards. On the road vehicles, urea is used as the carrier of ammonia. Hydrolysis of urea is
carried out at first on a catalyst on board of the vehicle to produce ammonia and carbon dioxide.
Ammonia then, reacts on the SCR catalyst with the NOX and converts it to nitrogen. Vanadium and
titanium oxide mixture (V2O5 + TiO2 + WO3) coated on a ceramic honeycomb substrate of 200- 400 cpsi
is used as SCR catalyst. The basic chemical reactions in the urea-SCR process are as follows:
Hydrolysis of Urea:
(NH2)2 CO + H2O → CO2 + 2 NH3
NOX Reduction:
4NO + 4 NH3 +O2→ 4 N2 + 6 H2O
6NO2 + 8 NH3 →7N2 + 12 H2O

Prof. Vyom Bhushan Department of Automobile Engineering, DYPSOET, Pune U-6.15

 B. E. (Automobile) Semester–V

Urea concentrations of 30 to 40 % in water solution are stored on board as the temperature of

crystallization is the lowest (-11ºC) for 33% solution.
NH3/NOX Ratio and Ammonia Slip
Based on the stoichiometric considerations, 90% conversion of NOX requires the NH3/NOX molar ratio
of about 0.9, assuming NO2 constitutes 10% of NOX. Concentration of NOX in the exhaust gases varies
depending upon engine operating conditions. Hence, for a vehicle continuously variable injection rate of
urea is required. If more urea than stoichiometric requirements is injected, unreacted ammonia is emitted
in the exhaust which is called „ammonia slip‟. To minimize ammonia slip, a dynamic urea dosage
system governed by engine operating conditions is to be employed. Even with the dynamic dosage
system, ammonia slip occurs during transient operation.
Typical conversion efficiency at different NH3/NO molar ratio and ammonia slip are shown on Fig 6.12.
With increase in NH3/NO molar ratio NOX conversion efficiency increases and but the ammonia slip
also increases. An oxidation catalyst is therefore, added to SCR system to prevent emissions of

Fig. 6.12 NOx conversion and ammonia slip for a SCR catalyst as a function of NH3/NOx ratio.
SCR Catalyst System
The basic SCR system using urea consists of three catalysts viz,
a) Hydrolysis catalyst
b) SCR catalyst, and
c) An oxidation catalyst to oxidize ammonia slip
NOX conversion efficiency can however, be improved at low catalyst temperatures (< 300ºC) when all
the NOX is converted to NO2 before entering the SCR catalyst. An additional oxidation catalyst
therefore, ahead of SCR catalyst is used in the modern SCR systems. A typical SCR system for heavy-
duty vehicles is shown schematically in Fig. 6.13. NOX conversions of more than 70 % have been
obtained with SCR over the HD driving cycle. On road, over all reductions of close to 68 % have been
obtained for heavy duty trucks. Urea consumption is about 5.5% of the fuel consumption. Urea
requirements for several thousands of kilometers of operation can be stored on board.

Prof. Vyom Bhushan Department of Automobile Engineering, DYPSOET, Pune U-6.16

 B. E. (Automobile) Semester–V

Fig 6.13 Schematic layout of SCR catalyst system using peroxidation catalyst
Table 6.3 Comparison of SCR and NSR de-NOX Technologies

Prof. Vyom Bhushan Department of Automobile Engineering, DYPSOET, Pune U-6.17

 B. E. (Automobile) Semester–V

DIESEL PARTICULATE FILTERS

Diesel particulate filters (DPF) also called as „particulate traps‟ have been developed to filter out PM
from the diesel exhaust gases to meet very stringent emission limits. Alumina coated wire mesh, ceramic
fiber, porous ceramic monoliths etc., have been studied as filtration media. Presently, ceramic monolith
of honeycomb type structure is used to trap the particulate matter as the gas flows through its porous
walls. These filters are also termed as „ceramic wall flow filters‟.
A ceramic honeycomb type particulate filter is shown in Fig. 6.14. In this cellular structure, alternate
cells are plugged at one end and open at the opposite end. The exhaust gas enters the cells that are open
at the upstream end and flows through the porous walls to the adjacent cells. The adjacent cells are open
at the downstream end from where the filtered gas exits .to the atmosphere. Flow path of gas through
walls of the filter is also shown on Fig 6.14.

Fig. 6.14 Ceramic wall flow filter for diesel particulate

Some advantages of wall flow filters over other filtration media are;
 The wall flow filters have a large filtration surface area per unit volume
 The pore size of walls can be controlled to provide gas flow without excessive pressure drop.
 Very high filtration efficiencies close to 98% are possible with acceptable pressure drop.
DPF Material, Cell Density
 DPF material should be chemically inert and have low thermal expansion and high melting
temperature.
 Porous cordierite ceramic (2MgO2.Al2O3.5SiO2) has been commonly used for diesel particulate
filters. Its melting temperature is ≈ 1460ºC.
 The soot burns without catalyst at a temperature of 500ºC - 600ºC. However, if the soot starts to
burn uncontrollably the DPF may experience temperature of 1300ºC or higher resulting in
melting of the ceramic filter. Typical temperatures achieved in the ceramic filter when soot gets
burned are shown on Fig 10.15 for a 100 cpsi and 200 cpsi DPF. Due to lower thermal capacity
of the 100 cpsi DPF, higher ceramic temperatures result when soot deposited on the DPF is

Prof. Vyom Bhushan Department of Automobile Engineering, DYPSOET, Pune U-6.18

 B. E. (Automobile) Semester–V

burned. To overcome possible meltdown due to uncontrolled regeneration of DPF more

advanced materials withstanding even higher temperature are required.

Fig. 6.15 Maximum temperature attained during uncontrolled regeneration for two diesel
particulate filters (144 mm diameter x 150 mm length) having 100 cpsi and 200 cpsi cordierite
substrates, 200 cpsi substrate has higher mass hence lower peak temperatures
 High melting point materials of „NZP‟ family like Na, and silicon carbide „SiC‟ have also been
developed for diesel particulate filters. Melting point of NZP material is and of SiC of about
2400ºC.
 Diesel particulate filters commonly have a cell density of 100 cpsi or 200 cpsi with 0.30 to 0.45
mm wall thickness. The 200 cpsi substrates provide 41 % higher filtration area but have a higher
pressure drop.
 Filters with circular cross section are mostly used due to their superior mechanical strength and
high thermal resistance as they experience less severe temperature gradients and have more
uniform temperature distribution. Cylindrical filters are easy to pack and install on vehicle.
 Filter size is normally equal to the swept volume of the engine.
Pore Size and Soot Holding Capacity
 For good mechanical strength, wall porosity is kept about 48-50%.
 Pore size range from 12 to 35 μm.
a) Pore size of about 35 μm gives filtration efficiency of 60-75%
b) 20 to 25 μm pore size filters are used for 80-90 % efficiency and
c) 12 to 14 μm pore size for efficiency > 90%.

Prof. Vyom Bhushan Department of Automobile Engineering, DYPSOET, Pune U-6.19

 B. E. (Automobile) Semester–V

With higher pore size filtration efficiency as well as pressure drop is low. Hence, optimization of pore
size, cell density and wall thickness is essential.
 Soot loading before regeneration ranges 5 to 10g/liter volume of substrate. When a 10-20 μm
pore size DPF was loaded with soot in the range of 5 to 10 g/liter of substrate volume, pressure
drop was 7 kPa and 11 kPa with 5 and 10-g/liter soot loading respectively.
Regeneration of DPF
It is relatively easy to filter and collect the particulate matter in the trap but the soot is to be burned in-
side i.e., „regenerate‟ the trap so that pressure drop across the filter is kept always at an acceptable level.
 Soot and other particulate get collected on the filter that although improves the filtration
efficiency, but it results in an increased pressure drop across the filter. The pressure loss in the
new and clean filter is about 70 mm H2O for the 0.1 m/s gas velocity in filter channels. Design
considerations limit soot loading to about 10 g/l of filter volume before filter should be cleaned
or regenerated. As the soot is collected up to the limit of 10g/liter, pressure drop increases to
300mm-350mm of H2O. An increase of engine backpressure by 350 mm results in 1 % loss in
fuel economy at 65 km/h vehicle speed.
 For engine out PM emissions of about 0.25 to 0.33 g/kW-h and engine power output of about 17
kW/ liter swept volume, 10g/liter soot would get collected on DPF in about 2 hours. Hence, the
DPF regeneration should take place approximately every 2 hours.
 Burning of soot particles begins at about 540ºC. Such high exhaust gas temperatures do not
occur during engine operation for sufficiently long periods of time. The diesel exhaust gas
temperatures in the exhaust pipe typically reach to about 300ºC only.
 For regeneration of the DPF, therefore additional measures are to be adopted.
Types of Regeneration Systems
Regeneration of the DPF to its original clean state has been a challenging task. Two types of
regeneration systems have been investigated and a few developed for employment on production
vehicles
a) Active regeneration
b) Passive regeneration
Active DPF Regeneration
A positive source of heat is employed to raise temperature of DPF to about 540ºC. When oxidation of
soot starts, the exothermic reactions sustain the combustion of soot particles and the DPF is regenerated.
In the active regeneration systems, sensors are used to monitor pressure drop across the trap. On
receiving the signal from the sensor, the exhaust gas temperature is increased above 500ºC using any
one of the following techniques:
 Engine throttling
 Use of electric heater upstream of filter
 Use of burner upstream of filter
Throttling of air reduces airflow that results in decrease of overall air-fuel ratio, which increases the
combustion and exhaust temperatures. However, engine throttling increases the engine pumping losses
which results in loss of fuel efficiency. Throttling also decreases oxygen concentration in the exhaust
and for oxidation of soot 2% - 5% oxygen in the exhaust is necessary. Hence, the extent of throttling is
to be controlled. Under normal cruising conditions, throttling is unable to increase the exhaust
temperature to the levels needed for regeneration. Hence, throttling can work only at high loads, which
is deliberately applied to raise the gas temperatures. It also increases HC, CO and smoke emissions.
Engine throttling as a means of trap regeneration therefore, has had only a limited success.
For electric filter regeneration, power to the electric heater is supplied by the engine alternator. A typical
truck DPF regeneration system may require a 3 kW heater. The electric regeneration hence, needs a high

Prof. Vyom Bhushan Department of Automobile Engineering, DYPSOET, Pune U-6.20

 B. E. (Automobile) Semester–V

battery back-up or is to be done while the vehicle is in garage, which may not be accepted by the
operators as regeneration is required quite frequently.
Burner Regeneration
A diesel fuel burner is placed in the exhaust in front of the filter to regenerate the diesel particulate filter.
This system can perform at all engine speeds and loads. Two types of system have been used;
a) burner full flow system and
b) burner bypass system
In the full flow system the total exhaust gas is to be heated to about 540ºC. A large air pump for the
burner and high burner fuel consumption are needed. Complex electronic controls to regulate burner fuel
flow to maintain safe levels of gas temperature at inlet of filter are necessary. In the bypass system, only
a small part of exhaust is allowed to flow through the filter when regeneration is carried out. A smaller
air pump is required. A bypass burner regeneration system is shown on Fig 6.16.
Regeneration process is independent of engine operating conditions, as the filter during regeneration is
isolated from the engine exhaust. The fuel consumption by the burner to heat the inlet face of the filter to
540ºC is an order of magnitude lower compared to the full flow system. The relative magnitudes of
energy required to raise the exhaust temperature to 540ºC in the full flow and bypass type burner
regeneration system (10 % of total flow) are presented in Fig 6.17 for a 5.7 liter diesel engine.

Fig. 6.16 Schematic of diesel-fuelled Burner Bypass Regeneration system for Diesel Particulate
Traps
When the inlet face is heated up to 540ºC, soot oxidation begins. Increase in temperature of the gas
accelerates combustion of soot further. The burning process progresses from the front and oxidizes soot
in the remainder of the filter.
Control of Active Regeneration
The active regeneration is carried out once the filter is plugged and when the pressure drop across the
filter increases to the threshold level. The entire filter is plugged with soot. The regeneration process
starts at the front end and progresses towards downstream. Once the regeneration starts, heat released
further heats-up the filter and soot burns at a progressively increasing rate. This may lead to
uncontrolled rate of soot burning and high rates of heat release. Eventually, it may melt the filter
substrate. Therefore, the filter temperatures are to be monitored continuously. To control temperatures
during regeneration, the burner may be shut off midway through the regeneration cycle to prevent
melting of the filter substrate. The DOF regeneration is thus, a carefully controlled process.

Prof. Vyom Bhushan Department of Automobile Engineering, DYPSOET, Pune U-6.21

 B. E. (Automobile) Semester–V

Fig. 6.17 Energy required to heat exhaust gas to 540ºC for full flow and by-pass diesel particulate
filter regeneration systems, 5.7 liter diesel engine.

Continuously Regenerating Trap (CRT) System

The principle of CRT is based on the fact that is a much superior oxidizing agent for soot than the
molecular oxygen. oxidizes the dry carbon soot trapped in the filter below 300º C by the following
reactions:
2NO2 + C→ CO2 + 2NO
NO2+C→ CO+NO
Although the trap substrate can be coated with a catalyst material to reduce soot oxidation temperatures
to as low as 200º C, but installation of an oxidation catalyst upstream of particulate filter where NO is
preferentially converted to NO2 which then oxidizes the soot has been found more effective. The
catalysts used are noble metals. The oxidation catalyst is a flow through ceramic monolith using Pt-Pd
catalyst impregnated on Al2O3 washcoat.
The schematic of a CRT is shown in Fig. 6.18. NO2 is produced by oxidation of NO upstream of DPF.
The soot trapped in the downstream DPF is continuously oxidized on the filter substrate by thus keeping
the particulate filter essentially clean and the exhaust backpressure remains nearly unchanged.

Prof. Vyom Bhushan Department of Automobile Engineering, DYPSOET, Pune U-6.22

 B. E. (Automobile) Semester–V

Fig. 6.18 Schematic of a continuously regenerating trap (CRT)

Passive/Catalytic Regeneration
The active regeneration systems need complex control systems and are expensive. The passive
regeneration systems employ catalysts to reduce soot oxidation temperatures to the levels that lie within
the normal exhaust gas temperature range. The catalyst is either added to diesel fuel in the form of
additives or is impregnated on the surface of the filter substrate. Another approach for passive
regeneration uses a special oxidation catalyst in front of the ceramic wall flow particulate filter to
promote soot oxidation. This system is known as the continuously regenerating trap (CRT).
Regeneration by Fuel Additives
Several fuel additives based on Fe, Ce, Mn, Zn, Cu and Pb to lower the soot oxidation temperature.
Cerium and copper based additives in 60 ppm to 100 ppm concentration have been found very effective
in lowering soot ignition temperature to about 300ºC and soot regeneration has been achieved at
temperatures below 400ºC. The additives on oxidation produce metal oxides which promote oxidation of
soot. For example, cerium fuel additive is converted to cerium oxide on combustion and on reaching the
DPF it catalyses soot oxidation. The oxidation mechanism is as below;
Oxidation of soot:
Oxidation of CO:
Ce2O3 being an unstable compound gets converted back to CeO2 in the exhaust gas as excess oxygen is
available
These reactions are quite fast and are completed within 2 to 6 seconds once the temperature is
sufficiently high. The fuel additive based approach for particulate trap regeneration is considered quite
promising. The additive can be dosed into the fuel line when required by automatic dosing equipment on
board of the vehicle.
Fuel sulphur is an important factor that affects conversion of NO to NO2 on the oxidation catalyst and
hence the efficiency of CRT. Fuel sulphur lower than 30 ppm has been found necessary to maintain the
functioning of CRT at an acceptable level. In Europe, where low sulphur fuel is available several
thousand vehicles with CRT are in operation. To achieve the best performance of CRT, the following
conditions should be met:
 Sulphur-free fuel (sulphur <30 ppm) is necessary to prevent catalyst poisoning
 For best performance temperature should be in the range 250ºC – 450ºC.

Prof. Vyom Bhushan Department of Automobile Engineering, DYPSOET, Pune U-6.23

 B. E. (Automobile) Semester–V

 The NOX/soot ratio should be adequately high otherwise NO2 available will be too low to
oxidize soot.
Partial Diesel Particulate Filters
Although wall flow diesel particulate filters have very high particulate trapping efficiency, but their
regeneration over the entire life span extending up to 496,000 kms for heavy duty vehicles is a
challenging problem. In Europe, many diesel vehicles meeting Euro 4 standards are fitted with „wall
flow‟ particulate filters as original equipment. Metal supported flow- through diesel filters employing
CRT operational principle have also been developed recently. These filters have been developed to
provide 50 to 70 percent reduction in PM emissions and therefore, are called as „Partial Particulate
Filters‟. Like CRT, upstream in the first section an oxidation catalyst is installed where NO is oxidized
to NO2. In the second section, which consists of flow-through type filter element collection of soot and
its combustion processes occur.
A schematic cut-away section and working principle of the filter is shown on Fig. 6.19. The metal PM
filter consists of flat and corrugated foils in a flow-through monolithic configuration. The corrugated
foils are stamped to produce blades like structure to direct the flow towards the flat foil. The flat foil is
made of porous sintered metal fleece (wool) packed in the form of a sheet and compressed between
metal foils. Part of the exhaust gas is directed by the blades in the corrugated foil towards the porous
metal wool that traps the particulate matter. The soot trapped by the metal wool is oxidized by NO2
generated on the catalyst in the upstream first section. The design of this diesel particulate filter has open
channels and it does not get clogged due to excessive accumulation of soot as happens in the „wall flow‟
filters on failure of regeneration. All the exhaust is able to flow through the open channels if the metal
fleece is choked. However, in such a situation removal of PM from exhaust does not take place. Typical
cell density of these filters is 200 cpsi. With use of these particulate filters reduction in PM emissions
ranging from 30% to 70% can be obtained.

Fig. 6.19 Working principle of metal supported partial PM filter-Catalyst

Summary of Diesel Engine Emission Control
Developments in diesel engine emission control technology that have taken place over several decades
are summarized in Fig. 6.20. The developments have been directed towards advancements in technology
to control;
a) Engine out emissions and
b) Exhaust after treatment

Prof. Vyom Bhushan Department of Automobile Engineering, DYPSOET, Pune U-6.24

 B. E. (Automobile) Semester–V

Fig 6.20 Summary of advancements in diesel emission control technology

Summary of advancements in diesel emission control technology.
As seen from the Fig 6.20, the engine technologies have been able to reduce emissions to Euro IV
emission levels. The technologies employed progressively included;
 Turbocharging with inter-cooling
 Variable geometry turbocharging
 Improved fuels esp. low sulphur in addition to low final boiling point and closer control on
density, viscosity etc.
 High injection pressures
 Optimization of combustion bowl geometry and air motion
 EGR
After treatment Technology for Euro V and beyond:
The second stage is the exhaust after treatment. In some engine models even to meet Euro IV standards
diesel oxidation catalysts and SCR de-NOX catalysts were employed. However, for Euro V and later
standards some form of exhaust treatment is almost essential. Most engines would employ:
 Diesel particulate filters: DPF or CRT
 de -NOX catalysts: SCR or other types

REFERENCES:

[1]. B.P. Pundir, “Engine Emissions”, Narosa Publishing House, 2007.

[2]. E.F. Oberts, “Internal Combustion Engine and Air Pollution”, Harper & Row Publisher.
[3]. Heywood J. B., “IC engines fundamentals,” McGraw Hill Book Co., New Delhi, 2011.
[4]. G.B.S. Narang, “Automobile Engineering”, CBS Publishers & Distributors, Delhi, 2011.
[5]. Richard L Bechtold P.E., “Alternative Fuels Guide book”, Society of Automotive Engineers,
1997.
[6]. James D Halderman, “Automotive fuel and emission control system,” Pearson Education, Inc.,
2012.
[7]. Online Resource: B. P. Pundir, “Engine Emissions,” NPTEL Online, 2012.

Prof. Vyom Bhushan Department of Automobile Engineering, DYPSOET, Pune U-6.25