ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

FARM ANIMALS
 ANATOMY vs PHYSIOLOGY
• Anatomy - the study of the form and structure
– External Anatomy - Are structures found outside the body
which an integral part of the organ systems located
internally. Generally involved in the following functions
• Protection/covering
• Digestion
• Sensation
• Aesthetic
– Internal Anatomy -Are organs and organ systems which
functions in a well-coordinated manner to enable survival,
growth and reproduction
• Thoracic cavity
• Abdominal
• Pelvic cavity
Physiology
– the study of the integrated functions of the body
and the functions of all its parts (systems, organs,
tissues, cells, and cell components)
– Study of the function of the parts or organ
systems of the body.
 Importance of Physiology
• The study of physiology will provide
knowledge on the structure and function of
the body and consequently, the care of the
body.
• Homeostasis
– The maintenance of constant conditions in the
internal environment in response to
environmental changes.
– Key word in modern physiology
 Homeostasis
• Coordination and of the functions of different
organ systems
– Respiratory – provides oxygen required for metabolic
activities of cells
– Digestive – provides nutrients
– Circulatory – circulates the blood that carries oxygen,
nutrients, hormones, and other metabolites
– Excretory – waste disposal
– Nervous and endocrine – perform control,
coordination, and integration of functions of other
organs or systems
 Basic Structural Levels
• Cell – basic structural, functional, and biological unit of life.
Also called as “building blocks of life”
– Somatic Cells – body cells
– Germ Cells or Sex Cells – reproductive cells
• Tissue – group of cells joined together to perform
physiological functions
– Epithelial tissues – cover body surfaces and line body cavities,
ducts, and vessels
– Muscular tissues – move skeleton, pump blood, move food
through digestive tract
– Nervous tissues – form the brain, spinal cord, and nerves
– Connective tissues – for support and attachment of other
tissues
 Basic Structural Levels
• Organs – two or more tissues joined together to
form more complex physiological activities
– Brain
– Heart
– Lungs
– Stomach
– Intestines
– Kidneys
– Etc
• Systems – two or more organs working together to
perform specific parts of body functions
 Body orientation terminologies
• Superior – Above
• Inferior – Below
• Cranial or Anterior – Towards the head
• Caudal or Posterior – Towards the tail or buttocks
• Dorsal – Towards the back
• Ventral – Towards the belly
• Medial – Towards the median plane
• Lateral – Away from the median plane
• Proximal – Towards the body or body part
• Distal – Away from the body or body part
• Visceral – Towards the organ
• Parietal – Away from the organ
 Anatomical Planes
• Sagittal Plane – a plane that runs the length of the
body and divides the left and right parts, not
necessarily equal halves
• Median Plane – a sagittal plane that runs down the
center of the body and divides into equal left and right
halves
• Transverse Plane – a plane across the body which
divides into cranial and caudal parts, not necessarily
equal
• Dorsal Plane – a plane at right angles of the sagittal and
transverse planes, not necessarily equal
Skeletal System
 Functions
a) protection of vital organs
b) structural framework and support
c) gives shape and form to the body
d) act as levers for locomotion, defense,
offense, etc
e) site of muscle attachment
f) storage area for minerals
g) production of blood cells
 Components
• Bone - main structural tissue; site of blood cell
production.
• Cartilage - Padding for joints
• Tendons - joins bone to the muscle.
• Ligaments - connects bones to one another
Cellular Components of Bone Tissues
 Osteoblasts – secrete the calcium and collagen
for bone formation.
 Osteocytes – are new cells that mature from
osteoblast secretions; aid in bone formation,
maintenance of bone structure, and control of
calcium levels in the bone.
 Osteoclasts – breaks down bone tissues.
Performs critical functions in the maintenance,
repair, and remodelling of bones of
the vertebral skeleton.
 Classification of Bones
• Long Bones
• Short Bones
• Flat Bones
• Sesamoid Bones
• Irregular Bones
 Long Bones

• Function to
support the
weight of the
body and
facilitate
movement.
 Short Bones

• Provide
stability and
some
movement.
 Flat Bones
• Protect internal
organs such as the
brain, heart, and
pelvic organs. Flat
bones are
somewhat
flattened, and can
provide protection,
like a shield; flat
bones can also
provide large areas
of attachment for
muscles.
 Sesamoid Bones

• Protect
tendons
from stress
and wear.
 Irregular Bones
• Vary in shape and
structure and
therefore do not
fit into any other
category (flat,
short, long, or
sesamoid). They
often have a fairly
complex shape,
which helps
protect internal
organs.
 Division of the Skeleton
a) Axial skeleton includes the skull, spinal
column, and rib cage.
b) Appendicular skeleton includes the
appendages, pelvic girdle, and shoulder
girdle.
Nervous System
 Nervous system
– Controls the rapid activities of the body such as
muscular contractions, secretions of some
endocrine glands, heart rate, respiration rate, to
mention a few.
– One of the most important biological systems
because it performs control.
– most complex and highly organized body system
 Functions of Nervous System
• Initiate and/or regulate movement of body parts by
initiating and/or regulating the contraction of skeletal,
cardiac, and smooth muscles

• Regulate secretions from glands

• Gather information about the external environment

and about the status of the internal environment of the
body, using senses (sight, hearing, touch, balance,
taste) and mechanisms to detect pain, temperature,
pressure, and certain chemicals, such as carbon
dioxide, hydrogen, and oxygen
 Functions of Nervous System
• Maintain an appropriate state of
consciousness
• Stimulate thirst, hunger, fear, rage, and sexual
behaviors appropriate for survival
Divisions of Nervous System
 Components
• Central Nervous System
– brain, spinal cord
– Control center
• Peripheral Nervous System
– sensory neurons, clusters of neurons called
ganglia, and nerves connecting them to each
other and to the central nervous system.
• The CNS and PNS transmit
and process sensory
information and
coordinate bodily
functions
• They receive data and
feedback from the
sensory organs and from
nerves throughout the
body, process the
information, and send
commands back out.
 Three Components of Central
Nervous System
• Brain
• Spinal Cord
• Nerves
 Brain
• Soft, wrinkled organ is located inside the
cranial cavity where the bones of the
skull surround and protect it.
 Brain
• directs our body’s internal functions
• also integrates sensory impulses and
information to form perceptions, thoughts,
and memories
• Four regions
– Cerebrum
• cerebral cortex, gives us conscious control of
our actions
– Diencephalon
• mediates sensations, manages emotions, and
commands whole internal systems
– Cerebellum
• adjusts body movements, speech coordination,
and balance
– Brain stem
• relays signals from the spinal cord and directs
basic internal functions and reflexes
• Spinal Cord
– is a long, thin mass of bundled neurons that
carries information through the vertebral cavity of
the spine
 Spinal Cord

• elongated cylinder of
neuron cell bodies,
bundles of axons and
other cells, protected
by connective tissue
and bone
• serves as a kind of
superhighway
• Neurons
– The nerve cells
– Specializes in impulse conduction or the relay of
message from effector organs to the nervous
system and vice versa.
 Neurons
• Neurons are charged cells
• they conduct electrical
signals to pass information
through the body. A typical
neuron consists of a cell
body, dendrites, and an
axon with an axon
terminal.
• Synapse: a gap between
two neurons; where nerve
impulses are transmitted
from one nerve cell to
another
 Classification of Neurons
• Afferent neurons (Sensory Neurons)
– Transmit nerve impulses from effector organ to the spinal cord or
brain.
– receptor neurons that receive messages from the external
environment and sends it TO the brain for processing.

• Efferent (Motor Neurons)

– Transmit nerve impulses away from the brain or spinal cord to or
towards effector organs.
– neurons that send messages FROM the brain to the appropriate parts
of the body
• Interneurons
– Conduct impulses from an afferent neuron to an exerrent neuron
– are found only in the spinal cord, and they become active during a
reflex action
Structure of Neurons
 Parts of Neuron
• the cell body
– The cell body is like any other cell with a nucleus
or control center.
• Dendrites
– Receives the stimuli that initiate the conduction of
impulses to the cell body of neuron.
• Axon
– a long, thin process that carries impulses away
from the cell body to another neuron or tissue.
• Synapse
– Small gap where nerve impulses are transmitted
and is located between the axon terminals of one
neuron and the cell body or dendrites of another
neuron
 Central Nervous System

– The brain and spinal cord together form the central

nervous system, or CNS.
– Acts as the control center of the body by providing its
processing, memory, and regulation systems.
– Takes in all of the conscious and subconscious sensory
information from the body’s sensory receptors to stay
aware of the body’s internal and external conditions.
– also responsible for the higher functions of the
nervous system such as language, creativity,
expression, emotions, and personality.
 Peripheral Nervous System
• Divided in Autonomous and Somatic Nervous
System
 Somatic Nervous System
• that includes all of the voluntary efferent
neurons. The SNS is the only consciously
controlled part of the PNS and is responsible
for stimulating skeletal muscles in the body.
• This part of nervous system brings out quickly
adjustments of the muscles to changes in
environment
 Autonomic Nervous System
• Includes all of the involuntary efferent
neurons.
• controls subconscious effectors such as
visceral muscle tissue, cardiac muscle tissue,
and glandular tissue.
 Division of Autonomic
• Sympathetic.
– forms the body’s “fight or flight” response to stress, danger,
excitement, exercise, emotions, and embarrassment.
– increases respiration and heart rate, releases adrenaline and
other stress hormones, and decreases digestion to cope with
these situations.

• Parasympathetic
– forms the body’s “rest and digest” response when the body is
relaxed, resting, or feeding.
– works to undo the work of the sympathetic division after a
stressful situation.
– the parasympathetic division works to decrease respiration and
heart rate, increase digestion, and permit the elimination of
wastes.
Organ Sympathetic Stimulation Parasympathetic
Stimulation
Eye Dilation of pupil Constriction of pupil
Salivary Glands Vasoconstriction Vasodilatation
Lungs Relaxes muscle of Constract muscles of
bronchioles bronchioles
Cardiovascular Accelerates heart, Inhibits heart, dilates
constricts arterioles certain blood vessels
Gastrointestinal tract Inhibits motility, constricts Excites motility, relaxes
sphincters sphincters
Skin Sweat secretion
Erection of hairs
Endocrine System
 Endocrinology
• Branch of physiology dealing with the
coordination of various body tissues by
chemical mediators produced by restricted
areas (endocrine gland) and transported
through the circulatory system to the organ or
tissue on which they exert their effects
• Endocrine glands secretes chemical mediators
(hormones) that regulate growth and
development, metabolism, reproduction,
stress response, body and tissue fluid and
electrolyte balance
 Hormone
• Substance or chemical mediator produced by the
endocrine glands and carried by the blood to some
distant parts of the body where it exert it effects.
• Do not initiate reaction in a cell but only excite or
inhibit the on-going cell reaction.
• It is effective in minute amount (biocatalytic amount)
• Not secreted in a regular amounts, it depends on the
need of the animal.
• Hormones can be classified as simple protein,
glycoprotein and steroids.
 Characteristics and Functions of
Hormones
• Hormones appear to regulate rather than initiate
reactions
• Hormones are effective in biocatalytic amounts
• Hormones are not secreted in uniform rates
• Hormones are inactivated rapidly either at the
site where it exerts its effect or at some other
glands and organs
• Hormones are transported through the
circulatory system or blood stream
 Classification of Hormones
• Polypeptides - Chains of amino acids, each less
than 100 amino acids long. (ex. Insulin)
• Glycoproteins - A polypeptide chain, longer than
100 amino acids, attached to a carbohydrate. (ex.
FSH and LH)
• Amines - Hormones derived from the amino
acids tyrosine and tryptophan. (ex.
Catecholamines)
• Steroids - Lipids derived from cholesterol. (ex.
Corticosteroids)
• Endocrine glands
– Hypothalamus and Pituitary glands
– Thyroid and Parathyroid glands
– Adrenal glands
– Pineal glands
From Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals
 Pituitary Gland or Hypophysis
• Located at the base of the brain in a concavity
of the spehnoid bone called Sella turcica
which protects it from outside pressure.

• It has three lobes:

– Anterior Pituitary Lobe or Adenohypophysis
– Intermediate Lobe or Pars intermedia
– Posterior Pituitary Lobe or Neurohypophysis
 Anterior Pituitary Lobe
• Growth Hormone or Somatotropic Hormone
(STH)
– Promotes growth of the long bones
– Over secretion: Gigantism (before adulthood) and
Acromegaly (after adulthood)
– Defeciency: dwarfism
– Stimulates growth and cell reproduction
• Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
– Stimulates adrenal cortex to produce
glucocorticoids such as cortisol, cortisone and
corticosterone

• Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

– Stimulates thyroid gland to produce thyroid
hormones (T4 and T3)
• Prolactin or Luteotropic Hormone (LTH)
– Stimulates milk secretion and milk production in
lactating mammary gland

• Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

– Stimulates the ovary to produce Graafian follice
– In the male, it maintains the integrity of the
semineferous tubules of the testis
• Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
– Stimulates ovulation in the maturing graafian
follicle and the formation of corpus luteum in
ovulated follicle as well as the production of
progesterone by the corpus luteum
– In male, stimulates the cells of Leydig or
interstitial cells to produce testosterone
 Neuropophysis
• Oxytocin
– Stimulates milk ejection in lactating females and
contraction of uterine muscles during parturition

• Vasopressin or Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

– Important in conserving body water by reducing
urine formation
Hormone Target Functions
Organ
A. Anterior Lobe
Growth Hormone Bone Promotes growth of the long bones before the
or Somatotropic and epiphyseal – diaphyseal plate is fused together in
Hormone (STH) muscle adulthood
cells Stimulates body growth through protein synthesis,
stimulates lipolysis, stimulates secretion of IGF-1,
inhibits action of insulin on carbohydrates, and lipid
metabolism
Oversecretion of STH in man:
Gigantism - when happened before adulthood
Acromegaly - when happened after adulthood
Deficiency:
Dwarfism – occurs when there is deficiency during
growth development
Adrenocorticotropi Adrenal Stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce
c hormone gland glucocorticoids such as cortisol, cortisone and
(ACTH) (cortex) corticosterone
Maintains size of zona fasciulata and zona reticularis
of the cortex
Thyroid Thyroid Stimulates production of thyroid hormones T3 and T4
Stimulating gland by thyroid follicular cells, maintains size of follicular
hormone (TSH) cells, increase in metabolism
Follicle Stimulating Ovarian Stimulates the ovary to produce graafian follicle
Hormone Target Organ Functions
Luteinizing Ovarian follicle Stimulates ovulation in the maturing graafian
hormone (LH) follicle and the formation of the ovarian corpus
luteum
Stimulates production of estrogen and
progesterone by the ovary
Stimulates testosterone production by the testis
Prolactin or Mammary Stimulates production and maintains milk
Luteotropic gland secretion in lactating mammary gland
hormone (LTH)
B. Intermediate Lobe
Melanocyte Skin Skin pigmentation (melanin)
Stimulating (Melanocytes)
hormone (MSH)
C. Posterior Lobe
Oxytocin Mammary Stimulates milk ejection in lactating females
gland Contraction of the uterus at parturition for fetal
Uterus expulsion
Vasopression or Kidney Maintenance of body water through reabsorption
Anti-diuretic
hormone (ADH)
 Thyroid Gland
• This gland is located at the neck area just
below the larynx
• There are two lobes of thyroid connected to
each other by a bridge of tissues called
Isthmus
• Maintains the level of metabolism in the
tissues that is optimal for their normal
function.
 Thyroid Gland
• Secretes hormone Thyroxine (T4) and
triiothyronine (T3)
• Stimulates the oxygen consumption of most of
the cells in the body, helps regulate lipid and
carbohydrate metabolism and is necessary for
normal growth and maturation
 Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands
• Thyroid Gland
– secretes thyroxine (T4)
(increases the basal metabolic
rate of an individual) and
triiodothyronine (T3) (along
with T4 stimulates the oxygen
consumption of most of the
cells in the body, and helps
regulate lipid and
carbohydrates metabolism).
– Releases calcitonin (maintain
blood calcium)
• Absence of thyroid gland:
– Poor resistance of cold
– Mental and physical slowing
– In children, mental retardation and dwarfism

• Excess thyroid secretion:

– Body wasting
– Nervousness
– Excess heat production
• Hypothyroidism (simple goiter)
– Lack of thyroxine (T4) secretion due to deficiency
of Iodine in the diet
– Iodine, important component of thyroxine
• The secretion of T4 is controlled by TSH of the
pituitary.
• T4 is low, TSH production will increase, the T4
production will increase and vice versa
 Parathyroid Glands
• In humans, there are four parathyroid glands
that are embedded in the thyroid gland.
• The two distinct types of cells making up the
parathyroid:
– Chief cells: secretes Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
– Oxyphil cells: function is still unknown
• Parathyroid Gland (PTH)
– Mobilizes calcium from bone and increases urinary
phosphate excretion, thus in effect increases blood
calcium level.
– In young animals, demineralization of the bone results
in rickets, for adults it is called osteomalacia
– Osteoporosis, when there is decrease in bone mass
with preservation of the normal ratio of mineral to
matrix.
– These bone diseases will also manifest in severe
Vitamin D deficiency since it is closely associated with
the function of parathyroid gland
• Calcitonin
– Known as thyrocalcitonin, lowers the calcium level
in the blood, thus, an
– Mobilizes calcium from the bone and increase
urinary phosphate excretion, thus in effect
increases blood calcium level.
• Three types of cells associated with bone
formation and bone resorption:
– Osteoblast: stimulates bone formation
– Osteoclast and Osteocytes: associated with bone
resorption

• Hypersecretion of PTH, osteoclast and osteocytes

will predominate to cause bone resorption
• Hyposecretion of PTH, osteoblast cells will
predominate to cause bone formation
 Pancreas
• Located at the duodenal lope of small
intestine.
• Endocrine functions: limited to cells of the
islets of langerhans
– Alpha cells of islets of langerhans: secretes
glucagon which is responsible for increasing blood
sugar level
– Beta cells: secretes insulin for lowering blood
glucose level
• Insulin facilitates the transport of glucose from
the blood into the cells of the tissues, thus
increasing glucose utilization by the cells.
• Excess insulin causes hypoglycemia, which
leads to convulsions and coma
• Insulin deficiency causes diabetes mellitus
 Adrenal Gland
• Main secretions of the inner medulla are
epinephrine and norepiniphrine.
• Outer medulla secretes:
– Aldosterone: for sodium metabolism by
reabsorbing sodium from the kidney tubules
– Glucucorticoids which stimulates glycogenolysis
and glucogenolysis
• The adrenal cortex has three types of cell
making up the three zones of the cortex:
– Zona glomerulosa secretes aldosterone
– Zona fasciculate and Zona reticularis both secrete
the glucocorticoids
Hormones Functions

Adrenal cortex

Glucocorticoids (cortisol, (secreted by zona fasciculate and zona

cortisone, and reticularis)
corticosterone) Stimulates glycogenolysis and
gluconeogenesis
Aldosterone (secreted by zona glomerulusa)
Regulates mineral metabolism and water
balance; regulates sodium metabolism by
reabsorbing sodium from the kidney
tubules
Adrenal Medulla

Epinephrine (adrenalin) Emergency hormone, increase heart rate,

vasoconstriction
Norepinephrine Maintenance of blood pressure
 Gonads
• Male gonad: Testes produce male gametes (sperm)
– also produces the hormone testosterone for the
development of male characteristics
• Female gonad: Ovary produces female gametes (ova)
– produces Estrogen to enhance female receptivity during
estrus, development of accessory sex glands (mammary
gland)
– produces Progesterone from the corpus luteum to
maintain pregnancy and to develop alveoli of the
mammary gland
– produces Relaxin for the relaxation of the cervix during
parturition
Cardiovascular System
 Functions
• To convey the nutrients absorbed from the
digestive tract to the tissues
• To carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and
carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs
• To remove the waste products of metabolism and
take them to the excretory organs for disposal
• To transport hormones from one part of the body
to another
• To help in maintaining the water equilibrium in
the body
• To assist in keeping the normal temperature of
the body
• To regulate the hydrogen ion concentration in
the body
• To assist in overcoming diseases by the
antibodies contained in the blood.
 Components of Cardiovascular
System
• Heart
• Blood vessels
• Blood
 Heart
• A muscular organ that pumps blood to all
parts of the body

• Located at the middle mediastinal space

– In the thoracic cavity between the right and the
left lungs
 Heart
• Layers of the heart:
– Visceral pericardium
• Connective tissue
covering
– Myocardium
• Muscular wall
• Heart muscle
– Endocardium
• Smooth innermost wall
Chambers of the heart
 Chambers of the Heart
• Right Atrium
– Receives deoxygenated blood from the superior vena
cava
• Right Ventricles
– Receives blood from the right atrium
– Contract to push blood to the pulmonary artery
• Left Atrium
– Receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins
• Left Ventricles
– Receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium
– Contact to push blood to the aorta
 Valves of the Heart
• Tricuspid Valve
– With three cusps and separates the right atrium from the
right ventricle
• Bicuspid Valve or Mitral Valve
– Has two cusps and separates the left atrium from the left
ventricle
– Ensures unidirectional flow of blood to the left ventricle
• Semilunar valve
– Found in the aorta and pulmonary arteries
– Ensures unidirectional flow of blood to these vessels and
to prevent backflow of blood to ventricles
 Cardiac Cycle
• Refers to the atrial contraction and ventricular
contraction
• Systole (contraction), Diastole (relaxation)
• As the atria contracts, blood is pushed to the
ventricles
• When the ventricles contract, blood is pushed to
the arteries
• All of these events occur in one heart beat
• These contraction and relaxation creates heart
sounds
 Heart sounds
• During auscultation, the normal heart will
have rhythmic lupp-dupp sounds
– Lupp sound( first sound) caused by the closure of
the mitral and tricuspid valve
– Dupp sound (second sound) caused by the closure
of the aortic and pulmonary valves
• However, if there is damaged valve, backflow
of blood to the atrium is heard through a
heart murmur of lupp-shhh-dupp
 Normal average pulse rate of farm
animals
Species Pulse rate/
minute
Cattle and 54 external maxillary artery slightly on the outer
Carabao surface of the lower jaw, and at the coccygeal
artery at the base of the underneath of the tail
Goat 78 femoral artery
Horse 38 external maxillary artery; about the middle of
the lower jaw
Chicken 200-400 auscultation method using stethoscope at the
chest region
Pig 70–120 auscultation method using stethoscope at the
chest region
 Blood vessels
• Walls of blood vessels (inside to outside)
– Tunica intima
• Smooth inner wall
– Tunica media
• Middle layer
– Tunica adventitia
• Outtermost connective tissue covering
 Arteries
• Carry pressurized blood away from the heart
• All arteries carries oxygenated blood to all
organ-systems of the body except the
pulmonary artery that carries deoxygenated
blood to the lungs
• The walls of the arteries are thick to
accommodate increases blood pressure
• Small arteries are called ARTERIOLES
 Veins
• Carry blood towards the heart
• All veins carry deoxygenated blood from all
organ-systems, except the pulmonary vein
that carries oxygenated blood from the lungs
to the heart
• Equipped with valves to prevent backflow of
blood
• small veins are called VENULES
 Capillaries

• Made of a single-layered wall of endothelial

cells
• site of exchange of materials between the
surrounding tissues
Blood Circulation
Types of Blood Circulation
 Systematic Circulation
• Flow of blood from the left atrium from left
ventricle, to the aorta that distributes blood to
the arteries and the capillaries of different
organs, and back to the heart through the
venules and the veins that carry blood to the
right atrium
 Systemic Circulation
• Coronary – supplies blood to the heart
• Hepatic – supplies blood to the liver
• Cerebral – supplies blood to the brain
• Renal – supplies blood to the kidneys
• Splanchnic – supplies blood to the digestive
tract
Blood
 Characteristics of blood

• A person has 4-6 liters of blood depending

upon his body size, height
• The color of blood is red
• The pH of blood ranges from pH 7.35 to 7.45
• Blood is three to five times thicker (viscous)
than water
 Composition of blood
• Plasma
• Blood cells
a) erythrocytes or RBC
b) Leukocytes or WBC
c) Platelets
 Plasma
• Makes up to 52-62% of the total volume of
blood
• It is 91% water
• Contains blood cells, plasma proteins,
hormones and respiratory gases (oxygen and
carbon dioxide), metabolic wastes and
electrolytes
 Red blood Cells
(Erythrocytes)
• Packed red blood cells is referred to as
Hematocrit
• Carries oxygen to all parts of the body
 White blood cells
(Leukocytes)
• Can be divided based on presence or absence
of cytoplasmic granules
– Granulocytes
– Agranulocytes
• Involved in defense against infection and
cancer
 Granulocytes
• Eosinophils
– Nucleus is bilobed
– 1-3% of total WBC
– Granules have affinity for acidic dye
• Basophils
– Nucleus is bilobed
– 0.5-1% of total WBC
– Granules have affinity for basic dye
• Neutrophils
– Nucleus is miltilobed
– 55-70% of WBC
– Granules have no affinity for either stain
 Agranulocytes
• Monocytes
– Have large bean-shaped nucleus
– This becomes the phagocytic macrophage once it
moves to tissue spaces

• Lymphocytes
– have large round nucleus and a thin rim of
cytoplasm
 Platelets
• Are produced from cytoplasmic fragmentation
of large cell megakaryocyte
• Essential for blood clotting
Lymphatic System
 Functions
• A network of tissues and organs that help rid
the body of toxins, waste and other
unwanted materials.
• Transport lymph, a fluid containing infection-
fighting white blood cells, throughout the
body.
 Components
• Lymph nodes
• Lymph vessels
• Lymph
 Lymph Nodes
• Ovoid or bean-shaped tissues located in
strategic points of the body through which the
lymph passes on its way to the bloodstream
• Produces lymphocytes and stops foreign
materials that come to them
• Become swollen or inflamed during severe
bacterial infections
 Lymph Vessels
• A system of vessels draining from the lungs
and from the rest of the body tissues ending
in the venous system
• Also contain valves which prevent the back
flow of its contents (like the veins)
 Lymph
• It is generally similar to blood plasma except
that it also contains white blood cells.
• returns proteins and excess interstitial fluid to
the bloodstream.
• may pick up bacteria and bring them to lymph
nodes where they are destroyed.
• also transports fats from the digestive system.
 Inter-relationship of Circulatory and
Lymphatic Systems
• All tissues are supplied with blood capillaries
and lymph capillaries
• Metabolites of big molecular size which
cannot be absorbed by the lymphatic
capillaries
Muscular System
 Functions
• Creates movements
• Protects vital organs
• Cardiac muscles pumps blood
• Smooth muscles aids digestion
• Smooth muscles ensures blood flow
 Types of Muscle Tissues
• Skeletal muscles
• Smooth muscles
• Cardiac muscles
 Skeletal Muscles
• Skeletal muscles attach to
and move bones by
contracting and relaxing in
response to voluntary
messages from the nervous
system.
• Skeletal muscle tissue is
composed of long cells
called muscle fibers that
have a striated appearance.
• Muscle fibers are organized
into bundles supplied by
blood vessels and
innervated by motor
neurons.
 Smooth Muscles
• Smooth muscle is found in the
walls of hollow organs
throughout the body.
• Smooth muscle contractions
are involuntary movements
triggered by impulses that
travel through the autonomic
nervous system to the smooth
muscle tissue.
• The arrangement of cells
within smooth muscle tissue
allows for contraction and
relaxation with great elasticity.
• The smooth muscle in the walls of organs like the
urinary bladder and the uterus allow those
organs to expand and relax as needed.
• The smooth muscle of the alimentary canal (the
digestive tract) facilitates the peristaltic waves
that move swallowed food and nutrients.
• In the eye smooth muscle changes the shape of
the lens to bring objects into focus.
• Artery walls include smooth muscle that relaxes
and contracts to move blood through the body
 Cardiac Muscles
• The heart wall is
composed of three
layers. The middle layer,
the myocardium, is
responsible for the
heart’s pumping action.
Cardiac muscle, found
only in the myocardium,
contracts in response to
signals from the cardiac
conduction system to
make the heart beat.
Respiratory System
 Functions
• To obtain and deliver oxygen to be used by the
cells.
• To remove the carbon dioxide produced by
the cells.
 Components
• Nose
• Paranasal Sinuses
• Pharynx
• Larynx
• Trachea and Bronchi
• Lungs
• Pleura
 Nose
• The part of the
face rostral to
the eyes and
dorsal to the
mouth
• The external
nares (nostrils)
are the external
openings of the
respiratory tract.
 Paranasal Sinuses
• Air-filled cavities found in cranial bones
• Provide protection and insulation to the head
 Pharynx
• Common passage of food an air.
• Openings of the pharynx include:
– Two caudal nares
– Two auditory tubes from the middle ears
– Oral cavity
– Larynx
– Esophagus
 Larynx
• The gatekeeper to the entrance of the trachea
• Regulates the size of the airway ad protects it
by closing to prevent substances other than
air from entering the trachea
• Organ of phonation, hence the name voice
box
 Trachea and Bronchi
• The trachea extends from the caudal end of the larynx
to the bronchi
• Divides into two principal bronchi
• Principal bronchi branch into secondary, then tertiary,
subsequent braches becomes smaller and smaller.
• When the diameter is less than 1mm, the airways are
called Bronchioles
• Eventually branches into alveolar ducts
• Terminates in cluster of air sacs called alveoli, where
the exchange of gases with the blood occurs.
 Lungs
• Pair of spongy, air-filled organs located on
each side of the chest
• The medial aspect of each lung features an
indentation called the hilus where the
principal bronchi, pulmonary vessels,
lymphatics, and nerves enter and leave the
lung.
• Lobes of the lungs are defined by the presence
of secondary bronchi.
 Pleura
• Thin tissue layer covering of the lungs.
• The surface of pleura are lubricated with
serous fluid which allows the lungs to slip
smoothly as they expand and contract during
breathing.
 Breathing
• The process of respiration, during which the air is
inhaled (inspiration) into the lungs through the
mouth or nose due to the contraction of the
muscles and exhaled (expiration) due to the
relaxation.
• The primary muscles used for the process of
respiration includes the intercostal muscles which
is located between the ribs and the diaphragm
which is located between the thoracic and
abdominal cavities.
 Inspiration
• These muscles contract during inspiration
which results to the expansion of the lungs
• The expansion causes the pressure in the
lungs and alveoli to become slightly negative
relative to the atmospheric pressure which
results to the movement of air from an area of
higher pressure (atmosphere) to an area of
lower pressure (lungs)
 Inspiration
• Contraction of the
external intercostal
muscle and
diaphragm
• Elevation of the
ribs and sternum
• Increased
dimention of the
thoracic cavity
• Lowers air pressure
in the lungs
• Movement of air
into the lungs
 Expiration
• These muscles relax during expiration
• The volume of the lungs decreases
• The pressure in the lungs and alveoli becomes
slightly positive relative to the atmospheric
pressure
• Air moves out of the lungs
 Expiration
• Relaxation of external
intercostal muscles
and diaphragm
• Diaphragm, ribs, and
sternum returns to
resting position
• Restores thoracic
cavity to pre-
inspiratory volume
• Increases pressure in
lungs
• Air moves out of the
lungs
 Transport of O2
• Oxygen is carried in the blood
• 98.5% of O2 is chemically bound to
hemoglobin in erythrocytes and 1.5% is
dissolved in the plasma
• Most of the O2 in the blood is bound to
hemoglobin the relation between the partial
pressure of O2 and the percent saturation of
hemoglobin by oxygen is important.
 Transport of CO2
• Carbon dioxide are transported from the cells
to the lungs as:
– Carbaminohemoglobin (23%) – formed when CO2
chemically combines to hemoglobin molecules
that gave up their oxygen
– Carbonic acid (70%) – Carbonic acid dissociates to
hydrogen ion and bicarbonate ion by the enzyme
carbonic anhydrase
– Dissolved in the plasma (7%)
Digestive System
 Function
• Digestion
• Absorption
• Defacation
 Digestion
• The breaking down of larger food molecules
into smaller molecules
• ingestion - is the taking of food into the mouth
• secretion - cells within the digestive system secrete about 9
L/day of water, acid, buffers, and enzymes.
• mixing and propulsion - contractions of smooth muscles in
the walls of the GI tract help to mix food and secretions, and
to propel the food down the tract (peristalsis).
• mechanical and chemical digestion
– mechanical digestion is the physical breaking down of food into
smaller particles to increase the surface area for chemical
digestion and also mix food and secretions.
– Chemical digestion is the breaking down of large molecules which
cannot be absorbed, into smaller pieces which can be taken into
the body. Usually accomplished by enzymes.
 Absorption and Defacation
. Absorption
– The passage of these smaller molecules into blood and lymph
is termed absorption.
• Once the nutrients are small enough, they can be taken into
the body by active or passive processes. The materials are
absorbed and then pass into the blood stream where they
can be distributed throughout the body.
• Defecation
– Anything that cannot be absorbed into the body, as
well as bacteria which live and die in the GI tract are
eliminated in the feces.
Classification of Animal Based on type
GI Tract
• Simple Non-Ruminant

• Non-Ruminant with Developed Hindgut

• Ruminants
 Simple Non-Ruminant

• Single compartment stomach

• Digestion of nutrients is accomplished by the
enzyme secretions
• Limited capacity and limited microbial action
and fiber digestion
 Ruminants
• Have one true gastric stomach

• With additional compartments (4 compartments)

which evolved for fiber digestion
• Digestion of feed is accomplished mainly by the
microflora (microorganisms) of the rumen
• The Micloflora are latter killed and digested
which serve as the main protein source of the
host= Microbial protein
• End production of digestion: Volatile Fatty Acid
 Non-Ruminant with Developed
Hindgut
• Single-compartment stomach
• Well-developed cecum and colon which are
populated by microorganisms capable of
digesting fiber
• Digestion of digestible nutrients take place in the
stomach and small intestine
• Less digestible materials or fiber is digested by
microorganisms in the hindgut
• Absorption of digestible nutrients-small intestines
• Absorption of fiber- hindgut
 Components
• Alimentary Canal
– Mouth
– Esophagus
– Stomach
– Small Intestine
– Large Intestine
– Rectum
– Anus
• Accessory Organs
– Pancreas
– Liver
– Gall Bladder
 Parts of GI Tract
• Mouth
– Formed by the cheeks, hard and soft palates, lips, and tongue, which aid mechanical digestion in the process
of mastication.

– The oral cavity is the space between the palate and tongue.
• Vestibule – space between the cheeks and lips and teeth and gums
• Cheeks – lateral walls of the mouth.
• Lips – contain skeletal muscles and sensory receptors for determining the temperature and texture of food

– Composed of 3 Accesory Glands

• Tongue- Grasping Food
• Tongue
– Forms the floor of the oral cavity.
• It is composed of skeletal muscle covered with mucous membrane.
• The upper surface and sides of the tongue are covered with papillae which provide friction for food.
• Some papillae contain taste buds.

• Teeth- Mastication of food

• Salivary glands- Produce saliva
– Saliva Contains: Water (Moisten food)
Mucin to lubricate food for easy swallowing
Bicaborantes salts to buffer (pH regulation)
Salivary Amylase to start CHO digestion
• Palate
– The palate forms the roof of the oral cavity and is made up
of a hard anterior portion and a soft posterior portion.
• Teeth
– The teeth project into the mouth and are adapted for
mechanical digestion.
– Composed primarily of dentin - a bonelike substance, and
are covered by enamel, the hardest substance in the body.
• Incisors - cuts
• Canine - tears
• Molars – grind
• Salivary Glands
– Produces the saliva that moistens food particles,
and begins the chemical digestion of carbohydrates.
– Saliva acts as a solvent, dissolving food so that it
can be tasted.
– Salivary glands are scattered throughout the
mucosa of the tongue, palate and cheeks.
– Saliva is 99.5 % water.
– It also contains ions, various organic substances,
and lysozyme (kills some, but not all oral bacteria),
and salivary amylase.
– Amylase splits starch and glycogen into
dissacharides.
 Parts of GI Tract
• Esophagus
– Muscular tube that allows passgae of food from mouth to
stomach
• The esophagus is a collapsible, muscular tube that
connects the pharynx to the stomach.
• It contains an upper and lower esophageal sphincter.
• Food is passed down the esophagus by peristalsis
– contraction of the circular and longitudinal muscles of the
muscularis layer.
• Passage of food is aided by mucus produced by glands
in the esophagus.
 Parts of GI Tract
• Stomach
– Muscular digestive organ
– 3 Major functions:
• Storage of ingested food
• Mechanical breakdown
• Production of HCl, enzymes and mucus
– 3 Major Regions:
• Cardiac Region- cells produce mucus to protects stomach
lining
• Peptic Gland- cells produce HCl, enzymes and mucus
• Pyloric Region- primarily mucin producing cells
 Stomach
• The stomach connects the esophagus to the
duodenum.
• The principal anatomic subdivisions of the stomach are
the cardia, fundus, body, and pylorus.
• Primary function of stomach is to receive food, mix it
with gastric juice, begin digestion of proteins, and
move food to the small intestine.
• Chief cells secretes pepsinogen and gastric lipase
• Parietal cells secretes HCl which helps convert
pepsinogen to pepsin which breaks proteins down into
smaller peptide fragments
 Parts of GI Tract
• Small Intestine
– Absorption of nutrient takes place
– Has 3 Divisions
• Duodenum- active site of digestion that receives
secretions from the pancreas, liver and intestinal walls
• Jejunum- middle section that is involved in nutrient
absorption
• Ileum- last portion, involved in nutrient absorption
 Small Intestines
• 3 divisions
– Duodenum – an active site of digestion that receives secretions
from the pancreas, liver and intestinal walls.
– Jejunum – middle section that is involved in nutrient
absorption.
– Ileum – last section – also involved in nutrient absorption.
• Digestion in the small intestine is enhanced by:
– Proteolytic enzymes continue protein hydrolysis.
– Pancreatic amylase converts starch to maltose
– Peptidase enzymes reduce dipeptides to single amino acids.
– Bile is produced by the liver, and stored and secreted by the gall
bladder (not present in the horse). Bile aids digestion in the
small intestine by emulsifying fat particles
 Pancreas
• is a glandular organ in the digestive system and endocrine
system
– Pancreatic islets secrete hormones (1%), and clusters called acini
(99% ) secrete pancreatic juice.
– Pancreatic juice contains water, some salts, sodium bicarbonate,
and enzymes which digest all the food types.
– Pancreatic juice contains enzymes that digest starch (pancreatic
amylase), proteins (trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase, and
carboxypeptidase), triglycerides (pancreatic lipase), and nucleic
acids (ribonuclease and deoxyribonuclease).
– All the proteolytic enzymes are released in an inactive form.
– Trypsin is activated when it comes in contact with an enzyme in
the brush boarder of the intestine, and trypsin activates the
other proteolytic enzymes.
 Liver
• together with the pancreas and the intestines
work together to digest, absorb, and process
food.
• Hepatocytes (liver cells) are responsible for
bile formation.
• Bile – greenish-yellow solution consists of bile
salts, cholesterol, phospholipids (lecithins),
and bile pigments (bilirubin).
• Bile acts an emulsifier of dietary lipids
 Gall Bladder
• a sac located on the inferior and posterior
surface of the liver.
• stores and concentrates bile.
• produces cholecystokinin (CCK) which
stimulates ejection of bile into the common
bile duct.
 Absorption
• Occurs by diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, and
active transport; 90% occurs in the small intestine.
• Carbohydrates are absorbed by facilitated diffusion or
active transport.
• Proteins are absorbed by active transport, mostly in the
duodenum and jejunum.
• Lipids are absorbed by simple diffusion.
• Water is reabsorbed by osmosis.
• Vitamins :
– fat soluble vitamins are included in micelles and absorbed by simple
diffusion.
– Most water soluble vitamins are absorbed by simple diffusion.
– B12 is actively reabsorbed.
 Large Intestines
• Cecum – first section which is relatively large in
the horse and rabbit; when well developed as in
the horse contains many bacterial which
produced enzymes that digest fiber
• Colon – middle section which is involved in
reabsorption of water; length is related to
amount of water reabsorption of water; length is
related to amount of water reabsorption
• Rectum – last section
 Large Intestines
• The last stages of chemical digestion occur in the large intestine
through bacterial action; no enzymes are secreted by the colon.
• The bacteria ferment any remaining carbohydrates and release
hydrogen, carbon dioxide and methane.
• Bacteria also convert the remaining proteins to amino acids and
simpler substances.
• Some vitamins are synthesized by bacteria, including some B
vitamins and vitamin K.
• The large intestine absorbs water, electrolytes, and vitamins.
• The chyle has become feces which consist of water, inorganic salts,
epithelial cells, bacteria, and undigested foods.
 Parts of GI Tract
• Large Intestine
– It has 3 sections:
• Secum- first section which is relative large in the horse
and rabbit. Contains bacteria which produced enzymes
for fiber digestion
• Colon- Involves in water reabsorption.
• Rectum
GI Tract for Ruminants
 Parts of GI Tract
(Ruminants)
• Rumen
– Large muscular compartment which fills the left
side of body cavity
– Covered by projections called papillae which are
required for absorption
• Rumen
– the main site of microbial fermentation of feeds;
the largest of the four compartments; located
predominantly on the left side; the muscular walls
secrete no enzymes and are covered by projections
called papillae which are required for absorption of
nutrients
– The three major benefits of microbial fermentation
in ruminants are the:
• Conversion of cellulose from vegetative materials
to volatile fatty acids as sources of energy
• Production of microbial protein from feed proteins and
non-protein nitrogen sources that provide the essential
amino acids
• Synthesis of Vitamin K and the B-Vitamins
 Functions of Rumen
• Provides favorable environment for protozoa and
bacteria
– These bacteria are responsible for pregastric
fermentation which produces:
• Enzymes that breakdowns fiber as well as starch and protein
• Water soluble vitamins and Vitamin K
• Bacterial synthesis of amino acids and protein
• Storage
• Soaking
• Physical mixing and breakdown
 Functions of Rumen Microorganisms
• They make possible for ruminants to utilize
fiber
• Synthesize AA and CHON from non-protein N
• Synthesize all water soluble vitamins including
Vitamin K
 Favorable conditions which are
provided in the rumen
• Anaerobic Environment
• Constant warm Temperature
• Moisture
• Constant food supply
• Mixing
 Parts of GI Tract
(Ruminants)
• Reticulum
– To move food into the rumen to omasum
– Collection of dense particles of food and in
regurgitation of ingesta during rumination
• Reticulum
– Regulates the passage of feed from the rumen to
the succeeding compartments
– Aids in the regurgitation of feed back to the mouth
– Also a site of microbial fermentation
– Has 2 functions (1) to move food into the rumen or
omasum and (2) collection of dense particles of
food and in regurgitation of ingesta during
rumination (the process of movement of ingesta
back up the esophagus to the mouth for additional
mechanical breakdown – “chewing the cud”).
 Parts of GI Tract
(Ruminants)
• Omasum
– Round muscular which contains many muscular
laminae (sometimes called manyplies)
– Possible functions: Controlling the passage of
ingesta to lower tract (acts as pump), reduce
particle size of ingesta and absorption
 Parts of GI Tract
(Ruminants)
• Abomasum
– Very similar to the true gastric stomach
– General characteristics are identical to the gastric
stomach of non-ruminants
 Additional Unique Features of
Ruminant
• Esophageal Groove
– Begins at the base of the esophagus and when stimulated
by sucking forms a tube which empties into the abomasum
– Function: Direct milk obtains from sucking to escape
microbial digestion in the rumen

• Eructation
– Belching of Gas
– Allows for removal of large volume of gas produced in the
rumen.
– Contractions of the upper part of the rumen force the gas
up the esophagus and from there the gas penetrates into
the trachea and gas
Avian GI Tract
 Parts of GI Tract
(Avian)
• Mouth
– Does not contain teeth
– Beak is used to collect particles of feed and break
some particles into smaller pieces
• Esophagus

– Esophagus of most birds include an enlarge area

called Crop
– Functions of Crop:
• Temporary Storage and moistening of food
• Place for salivary amylase to work
 Parts of GI Tract
(Avian)
• Proventriculus
– Corresponds the true stomach
– Site of HCl and pepsin production
– Ingesta passes through the proventriculs very
rapidly- 14 seconds
 Parts of GI Tract
(Avian)
• Ventriculus
– commonly called as gizzard
– Muscular area which contains grit
– Muscular contractions which are involuntary aid in
the mechanical breakdown of food
– Similar to the mastication of teeth
 Parts of GI Tract
(Avian)
• Small Intestine
– Similar to the small intestine of the non-ruminant
and ruminant

• Large Intestine
– Contains 2 areas which are very similar in form
and function to the cecum of non-ruminants and
ruminants. These are called ceca.
Excretory System
 Functions
• responsible for the elimination of wastes
produced by homeostasis.
• several parts of the body that are involved in
this process, such as sweat glands, the liver,
the lungs and the kidney system
 Kidneys
• Play a prominent role in regulating
– Concentration of metabolic wastes
– Osmotic pressure
– Fluid volume
– Ionic composition of internal environment
• Aid in keeping the composition of blood plasma
constant
– Excretion of urea and other nitrogenous waste products
– Elimination of excess inorganic salts
– Elimination of excess water
– Elimination of non-volatile, soluble, foreign substances
that entered the blood
 Kidneys
• Paired, bean-shaped organ
• Composed of over million units of nephron
• regulates the concentration of water and
soluble substances like sodium salts by
filtering the blood, reabsorbing what is
needed and excreting the rest as urine.
 Nephron
• Glomerulus – filter small solutes from the blood
• Proximal Tubule – reabsorbs ions, water, and
nutrients; removes toxins and adjusts filtrate pH
• Descending Loop of Henle – allows water to pass
from the filtrate to the interstitial fluid
• Ascending Loop of Henle – reabsorbs Na+ and Cl-
from the filtrate into the interstitial fluid
• Distal Tubule – secretes and absorbs different ions to
maintain blood pH and electrolyte balance
• Collecting duct – reabsorbs solutes and water from
the filtrate
Reproductive System
 Functions
• essential for the perpetuation of species to
prevent extinction
• to produce egg and sperm cells
• to transport and sustain these cells
• to nurture the developing offspring
• to produce hormones
 Male Reproduction System and their
Functions
• Testis
– Paired primary sex organ of the male
– Functions:
• Production of sperm
• Secretion of the male sex organ: Testosteronethe
paired primary sex organ of the male
• secretion of androgen
• In birds, it is located within the body cavity.
• In mammals, it is located in the scrotum, outside
the abdominal cavity
 Male Reproduction System and their
Functions
• Scrotum
– External covering of the testes
– Protects testes from direct mechanical injuries
– Provided the testis an environment which is a few
degrees cooler than the body temperature
 Male Reproduction System and their
Functions
• Excurrent Ducts
– Epididymis
• Long convoluted tube which connects the vasa
efferentia of the testis with the ductus deferens
• Place for maturation of spermatozoa before ejaculation
 Male Reproduction System and their
Functions
• Excurrent Ducts
– Ductus Deferens (Vas deferens)
• Muscular tube which merges with the epididymis
• Propels the spermatozoa from epididymis to the
ejaculatory duct in the urethra

– Urethra
• Canal starting from the junction of the ampulla and
ends at the opening of the penis
• Common passage of semen and urine
 Male Reproduction System and their
Functions
• Accesory Sex Glands/Organs
– Ampulla
• Temporary storage of sperm until ejaculation
– Seminal Vesicles
• They produce a secretion in high in fructose which acts
as vehicle for sperm transport
– Prostate Gland
• Produces a viscous secretion which stimulates sperm
activity and gives the semen its characteristic odor
– Cowper’s Gland
 Male Reproduction System and their
Functions
• Penis
– Erectile tissue whose main function is to drain the
urinary bladder of urine.
– Organ of erection and ejaculation
– Serves to introduce spermatozoa into vagina
Schematic diagram comparing the reproductive anatomy of the boar, stallion, ram, and bull. T,testicle; U, urinary bladder; dd, ductus deferens; a, ampulla;
vs, vesicular gland; p, prostate; b, bulbourethral gland; sf, sigmoid fl exure.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
 Female Reproductive System
• Components
– Ovaries
– Infundibulum
– Oviduct
– Uterus (horn and body)
– Cervix
– Vagina
– Vulva
Female Reproduction System and their
Functions
• Ovary
– Principal sex organs
– Paired, alomond shaped organ situated near the uterine
horn just behind the kidney
– Fucntions: Produces the ova and secretes female sex
hormone (estrogen)

• Infundibulum
– Portion of uterine tube adjacent to the ovary whose
expanded form is like a funnel-shaped structure
– Picks up the egg when released by ovary at the time of
ovulation
Female Reproduction System and their
Functions
• Oviduct or Fallopian Tube
– Conducts the ova from each ovary to the
respective horn of the uterus
– Site of fertilization and site of early embryonic
development
– Passage way of the egg in its way to uters
Female Reproduction System and their
Functions
• Uterus
– Tubular structure extending from the termination
of fallopian tubes to point where the horn of the
uterus joins the body of the uterus and continues
to the cervix
– Site of implantation for the fertilized egg and
serves in a nutritive and productive capacity for
the developing embryo
Female Reproduction System and their
Functions
• Cervix
– Neck of the uterus
– Passage way of semen
– Protects uterus from foreign material
– During pregnancy, secretes sticky mucus seal
Female Reproduction System and their
Functions
• Vagina
– Tube extending from the cervix down to the vulva
– Primary organ of copulation
– Receives the penis in copulation
– Provides passageway for the fully developed fetus
during parturition
Female Reproduction System and their
Functions
• Vulva

– Serves the common passageway for the products

of reproduction and urine
 Puberty and Estrous Cycle
• Puberty
– Indicates that the female has reached sexual
maturity-capable of producing offsprings.
– The first manifestation to indicate that the female
animal reached the age of puberty is when it
starts to show the sign of estrus
Estrus VS Estrous Cycle
• Estrus
– Period of sexual receptivity in the female

• Estrous Cycle
– The period from one estrus to the next estrus
– the interval from the beginning of one heat period
(estrus) to the start of another heat period
– divided into four stages
 Classification of animal based on
occurrence of Estrus
• Monoestrus
– Animals that have only one estrous cycle per year
– Example: Wolves

• Polyestrus
– Animals that come in heat throughout the year
– Cattle, swine and carabao

• Seasonally polyestrus
– Animals that come in heat at certain seasons only
– Sheep
 Phases of Estrous Cycle
• Proestrus
– the building-up phase
– Characterized by follicular growth
– The ovarian follicle enlarges and begins to secrete estrogens.
• Estrus
– Influence of estrogen
– Primarily initiated by the elevation in estrogens from mature
follicles just prior to ovulation
• Metestrus
– Characterized by CL formation
• Diestrus
– Under influence of progesterone secreted by CL
 Signs of Estrus
• Reddening and swelling of the vulva
• Mucous discharge from the vagina
• Frequent urination
• Restlessness and lack of appetite
• Mounting animals in the herd
• Female stands still when mounted by male
 Estrous Cylce
• The period from one estrus to the next estrus
 Progesterone

GNrh

Formation of
corpus luteum
FSH LH
Ovary
Growth of
graafian follicle
in the ovary
Inibin

Estrogen
Estrous Cycle and Menstruation
 When to breed or inseminate?
• Mating or insemination must be done at the time
that the ovulation would likely take place, or as close
as possible to the expected ovulation time.
• Too early insemination reduces conception rate due
to the loss of sperm viability
• The best time to inseminate is towards the end of
estrus.
• The duration of estrus is variable. When observed
that the animal is in heat, inseminate right away.
 Cow
• Length of Estrous Cycle
– The estrous cycle averages 20 days for heifers and
21 to 22 days for mature cows
• Length of Estrus
– This standing heat averages about 18 hours in
both dairy and beef cows, somewhat less in
heifers. The normal range is 12 to 24 hours.
– Ovulation normally occurs about 10 to 14 hours
after the end of estrus in the cow.
 Cows
• When to breed
– For artificial insemination, cows that come into
standing heat in the morning are bred the same
afternoon, and cows that come into standing heat
in the afternoon are bred the next morning
 Sows
• Length of Estrous Cycle
• The average estrous cycle in swine is about 21 days, with a
range of 18 to 24 days considered normal.
• Length of Estrus
– The estrous period may range from 15 to 96
hours, with an average duration between 40 and
46 hours
• When to breed
– The best time to breed or inseminate is on the 2nd
day and third day of estrus.
 Mares
• Length of Estrous Cycle
– Average lengths are about 21 to 22days.

• Length of Estrus
– The average length of estrus in the mare is
approximately 6 or 7 days

• When to breed or inseminate

– Recommended on the fourth and fifth day of estrus.
 Fertilization
• Fertilization - the process in which a sperm
fuses with an ovum to form a zygote
• Zygote – a fertilized cell in which the genetic
materials of the sperm and ovum are
combined
 Fertilization and Pregnancy
• Sperm Capacitation
– process that occurs here to convert nonfertile
spermatozoa to fertile spermatozoa
– Process wherein the sperm cells must reside in
the female reproductive tract before capable of
attaching and penetrating the ovum.
 Fertilization
• Critical events in fertilization
• Migration of sperm from the site of deposition
to the oviduct and convergence of the
spermatozoa to the ovum
• Attachment of sperm and penetration
• Fusion of sperm and ovum
• Zona Pellucida
– semipermeable membrane that helps protect the
ovum and that has receptor sites for attachment
of spermatozoa during fertilization.

• ZP3
– Specific protein the zona serves as a binding site
for spermatozoa
 Methods of Fertilization
• External fertilization - both parents expel
their gametes into another medium, such as
water, without necessarily coming into contact
with each other
• Internal fertilization - the male deposits
sperm inside the female reproductive tract.
– Oviparity
– Ovoviviparity
– Viviparity
• Oviparity: The embryo formed inside the female is
deposited outside her body as an egg. After development,
offspring hatch out of the egg and directly into the
environment. All birds and some reptiles are oviparous.
• Ovoviviparity: The embryo develops inside the female
body, although it still obtains all nourishment from the egg
yolk. The young hatches fully developed and are released
from the female’s body. Many reptiles and some fish
undergo ovoviviparity.
• Viviparity: The embryo develops inside the female’s body
and the young obtain their nourishment from the female’s
blood, rather than egg yolk. The young emerges fully
developed from the female body. Almost all mammals
undergo viviparity.
Maternal Recognition and Pregnancy
• Implantation allows the conceptus (fertilized
egg) and uterine endometrium to achieve
intimated contact for nutrient exchange and
endocrine communication.

• Prostaglandin
– Causes morphological regression of the corpeus
luteum and cessation of progesterone production.
 Placental Development
• A unique feature of early mammalian
development is the provision of nutrients
from the maternal organisms by way of
placenta

• Placenta
– Fusion of fetal membranes to the endometriem of
the uterus to permit physiologic exchange
between fetus and mother.
 Gestation
• the process of carrying or being carried in the
womb between conception and birth
• Gestation period - as the period of time from
conception to birth of the offspring
 Hormones of Pregnancy
• Progesterone
– for maintaining a normal pregnancy.
– provides negative feedback to the hypothalamus
to inhibit any further estrous cycles
– inhibiting the smooth muscle of the uterus to
permit the attachment and development of the
fetus, and
– assisting with maintenance of the contractility of
the cervix to protect the uterine environment.
 Parturition and Lactation
• Parturition
– Physiologic process by which the pregnant uterus
delivers the fetus and placenta from the maternal
organisms
 Three Stages of Parturition
• Dilation of the cervix
– Uterine contractions are painful
– Restlessness and signs of abdominal discomfort
• Expulsion of the fetus
– Most of the domesticated animal assume lateral
recombency with limbs extends durimg delivery
• Expulsion of the placenta
• The onset of milk secretion follows parturition

• Relaxin
– is a protein hormone secreted by the corpus
luteum in some species (sow and cow) and the
placenta in others (bitch and mare).
– The primary function of relaxin is preparation for
parturition and ultimately lactation
• Colostrum
– the first milk produced upon delivery of the newborn,
– important for the survival and vitality of newborn
domestic animals.
– One of the unique differences between colostrum and
typical milk is that colostrum contains a high
concentration of immunoglobulins
– These immunoglobulins are needed by the neonate to
provide temporary immune protection against
infectious agents in the environment.
System Structure Function
Skeletal Bones Structural support and framework,
protection, attachment of muscles
Articular Joints Connects/joins
Muscular Muscles Locomotion
Digestive Stomach, Mechanical and chemical process to
intestines, liver breakdown large organic substances
and pancreas into smaller molecules in preparation
for absorption
Respiratory Lungs, bronchi, Exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon
bronchioles dioxide)
Urinary Kidney, urinary Filtration, reabsorption and excretion
bladder, ureters, of metabolic wastes from the blood
urethra
System Structure Function
Reproductive Ovary, uterus, Reproduction through
testes, ducts production of ova and sperm,
and conveyance of sperms to
the female reproductive tract
for fertilization and pregnancy
Endocrine Ductless glands Production of hormones
Nervous Brain, Spinal cord Coordination and integration of
and nerves the functions through relay of
information to and from the
body
Circulatory Heart, arteries, Distribution of blood and its
veins, capillaries constituents
Integumentary Skin, accessory Protection, aesthetics and
organs sensation
Sensory Eye, ear, nose, skin Reception of external stimuli
Body Temperature Regulation
• 2 groups based on the ability to regulate body
temperature with respect to their
environment
• Homeotherms – body temperature is largely
independent of that of the environment
• Poikilotherms – body temperature varies
directly with that of the environment
 Heat Dissipation
• Conduction – involves direct contact of the animal with a part
of its environment
• Convection – heat is transferred to or from the animal by the
movement of the heated air particles; posture of the animal
and other conditions affecting surface area affect heat
convection
• Radiation – transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves; no
material medium or physical contact
• Vaporization – the most important process by which animals
lose heat to maintain a constant body temperature; heat loss
from the skin and respiratory surfaces