BIO 1010 Term 2 Study Guide

Unit 4.1 Thermodynamics, ATP, and Enzymes

● Thermodynamics: Is The Study of energy and energy transfer involving physical matter.
○ LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
■ The first law of thermodynamics states: Energy can be transferred and
transformed, but cannot be created or destroyed.
■ The second law of thermodynamics states that the transfer of energy is
not completely efficient.
● Entropy is a measure of disorder, or randomness
○ With each chemical reaction, some energy is lost in a form that is unusable, such
as heat energy. The result is increased entropy
○ The evolution of more complex organisms does NOT violate the second law of
thermodynamics
● Energy Transformations
○ Light Energy ► Chemical Energy
○ Chemical Energy ► Kinetic energy
● Gibbs Free Energy: (G) = amount of energy available to do work (aka usable energy)
○ All chemical reactions affect G; change in G after a reaction is abbreviated as ∆G
● ΔG = ΔH − TΔS
○ a)ΔH is change in total energy of the system
○ b)T is the Temperature in Kelvins
○ c)ΔS is change in entropy (energy lost to disorder)
● Exergonic Reactions: If energy is released in a chemical
reaction, then ΔG<0.
○ Products of these reactions will have less free
energy than the substrates
○ These reactions are classified as Exergonic
■ Exergonic reactions are spontaneous
reactions because they can occur without
the addition of energy.
■ However, spontaneous reactions do not
necessarily occur quickly!
 ■ The hump shown in the free energy
diagram is the reason.
○ A spark is required to provide sufficient heat to
exceed the activation energy.
○ Once the reaction begins, enough heat is
released to drive additional reactions.
○ The breakdown of gasoline is another example
of an exergonic reaction
● Endergonic Reactions: If a chemical reaction requires
an input of energy, then ΔG>0.
○ Products of these reactions will have more free
energy than the substrates.
○ These reactions are classified as endergonic
● Activation Energy: is the energy required for a
reaction to proceed.
○ Every chemical reaction between molecules
involves bond breaking and bond forming
○ Activation energy is often in the form of
thermal energy that the reactant molecules
absorb from their surroundings
○ Heat energy is the main source for activation
energy in a cell
○ Heat helps reactants reach their transition state
○ Activation energy is why, for example, the
rusting of iron happens slowly despite being a
spontaneous, exergonic reaction.
○ activation energy is lower if the reaction is catalyzed
● ATP: Adenosine triphosphate
○ ATP is composed of an
adenosine backbone with three
phosphate groups attached.
○ Adenosine is a nucleotide
○ The bonds that link the phosphate groups are
high-energy bonds:
○ ATP is an unstable molecule and will
hydrolyze quickly.
■ If it is not coupled with an endergonic
reaction this energy is lost as heat.
 ■ If it is coupled with an endergonic reaction, much of the energy can be
transferred to drive that reaction.
■ ATP
Hydrolysis
is
reversible
● ATP Use in Active
Transport
○ The sodium-
potassium pump is
an example of
energy coupling.
○ The energy
derived from
exergonic ATP hydrolysis is used by the integral protein to pump 3 sodium ions
out of the cell and 2 potassium ions into the cell.
● Enzymes: are biological protein catalysts that speed up reactions by lowering the
required activation energy. / Enzymes bind with reactant molecules promoting bond-
breaking and bond-forming processes.
○ Enzymes are very specific, catalyzing a
single reaction.
● Enzyme-Substrate Specificity
○ The 3D shape of the enzyme and reactants
(aka substrates) determines this specificity.
○ Substrate molecules interact at the
enzyme’s active site.
○ Enzymes can catalyze a variety of
reactions. In some cases, two substrates
bond together to form a larger molecule; in
others one molecule breaks down into smaller
products.
● How Enzymes lower activation energy
○ The enzyme can help the substrate reach its
transition state in one of the following ways:
■ position two substrates so they align
perfectly for the reaction
■ provide an optimal environment, i.e.
acidic or polar, within the active site
for the reaction
■ contort/stress the substrate so it is less stable and more likely to react
■ temporarily react with the substrate (chemically change it) making the
substrate less stable and more likely to react.
○ After a catalyzed reaction, the product is released and the enzyme becomes
available to catalyze another reaction.
● Enzyme Regulation
○ Regulation of enzyme activity helps cells control their environment to meet their
specific needs.
■ For example, digestive cells in your stomach work harder after a meal
than when you sleep.
○ Enzymes can be regulated by
■ Modifications to temperature and/or pH
■ Production of molecules that inhibit or promote enzyme function
■ Availability of coenzymes or cofactors
● Enzyme Inhibition
○ Competitive inhibitors
■ have a similar shape to the substrate,
competing with the substrate for the active site.
○ Noncompetitive inhibitors
■ bind to the enzyme at a different location,
causing a slower reaction rate
● Enzyme Cofactors
○ Some enzymes require
one or more cofactors or
coenzymes to function.
○ Cofactors are inorganic
ions, i.e. Fe++, Mg++,
Zn++
○ Coenzymes are organic
molecules, including
ATP, NADH+, and
vitamins
○ These molecules are
provided primarily from
the diet.

● Feedback Inhibition in Metabolic

Pathways
○ Reminder, metabolic
pathways are a series of
reactions catalyzed by
multiple enzymes.
○ Feedback inhibition,
where the end product of
 the pathway inhibits an
upstream step, is an
important regulatory
mechanism in cells.

Unit 4.1 Questions

Consider a pendulum swinging. Which type(s) of
energy is/are associated with the pendulum in the following instances: i. the moment at which it
completes one cycle, just before it begins to fall back towards the other end, ii. the moment that it is in the
middle between the two ends, iii. just before it reaches the end of one cycle (just before instant i.).
A. i. potential and kinetic, ii. potential and kinetic, iii. kinetic
B. i. potential, ii. potential and kinetic, iii. potential and kinetic
C. i. potential, ii. kinetic, iii. potential and kinetic
D. i. potential and kinetic, ii. kinetic iii. kinetic
CORRECT ANSWER: C

Which of the following comparisons or contrasts between endergonic and exergonic reactions is false?
A. Endergonic reactions have a positive ∆G and exergonic reactions have a negative ∆G
B. Endergonic reactions consume energy and exergonic reactions release energy
C. Both endergonic and exergonic reactions require a small amount of energy to overcome an
activation barrier
D. Endergonic reactions take place slowly and exergonic reactions take place quickly
CORRECT ANSWER: D

Which of the following is the best way to judge the relative activation energies between two given
chemical reactions?
A. Compare the ∆G values between the two reactions
B. Compare their reaction rates
C. Compare their ideal environmental conditions
D. Compare the spontaneity between the two reactions
CORRECT ANSWER: B

Which of the following is not an example of an energy transformation?

A. Turning on a light switch
B. Solar panels at work
C. Formation of static electricity
D. None of the above
CORRECT ANSWER: A
Label each of the following systems as high or low entropy: i. the instant that a perfume bottle is sprayed
compared with 30 seconds later, ii. an old 1950s car compared with a brand new car, and iii. a living cell
compared with a dead cell.
A. i. low, ii. high, iii. low
B. i. low, ii. high, iii. high
C. i. high, ii. low, iii. high
D. i. high, ii. low, iii. Low
CORRECT ANSWER: A
The energy released by the hydrolysis of ATP is
A. primarily stored between the alpha and beta phosphates
B. equal to −57 kcal/mol
C. harnessed as heat energy by the cell to perform work
D. providing energy to coupled reactions
CORRECT ANSWER: D

Which of the following molecules is likely to have the most potential energy?
A. sucrose
B. ATP
C. glucose
D. ADP
CORRECT ANSWER: A

Which of the following is not true about enzymes:

A. They increase ∆G of reactions
B. They are usually made of amino acids
C. They lower the activation energy of chemical reactions
D. Each one is specific to the particular substrate(s) to which it binds
CORRECT ANSWER: A
An allosteric inhibitor does which of the following?
A. Binds to an enzyme away from the active site and changes the conformation of the active site,
increasing its affinity for substrate binding
B. Binds to the active site and blocks it from binding substrate
C. Binds to an enzyme away from the active site and changes the conformation of the active site,
decreasing its affinity for the substrate
D. Binds directly to the active site and mimics the substrate
CORRECT ANSWER: C
Which of the following analogies best describe the induced-fit model of enzyme-substrate binding?
A. A hug between two people
B. A key fitting into a lock
C. A square peg fitting through the square hole and a round peg fitting through the round hole of a
children’s toy
D. The fitting together of two jigsaw puzzle pieces.
CORRECT ANSWER: A
Unit 4.2 Photosynthetic Reactions

● OVERVIEW
○ Living cells require energy from outside sources
○ Some animals, such as the giraffe, obtain energy by eating plants, and some animals feed
on other organisms that eat plants
○ Energy flows into an ecosystem as sunlight and leaves as heat
○ Photosynthesis generates O2 and organic molecules, which are
used as fuel for cellular respiration
○ Cells use chemical energy stored in organic molecules to regenerate ATP, which powers
work
● Redox Reactions: Oxidation and Reduction
○ The transfer of electrons during chemical reactions releases energy stored in
organic molecules
○ This released energy is ultimately used to synthesize ATP
● The Principle of Redox
○ The electron donor is called the reducing agent
○ The electron acceptor is called the oxidizing agent
○ Chemical reactions that transfer electrons between
reactants are called oxidation-reduction reactions, or
redox reactions
■ In oxidation, a substance loses electrons, or is
oxidized
■ In reduction, a substance gains electrons, or is
reduced
● Overview PART 2: The Process That Feeds the Biosphere
○ Photosynthesis is the process that converts solar energy into chemical energy
■ Directly or indirectly, photosynthesis nourishes almost the entire living world
○ Autotrophs sustain themselves without eating anything derived from other organisms
■ Autotrophs are the producers of the biosphere, producing organic molecules from
CO2 and other inorganic molecules
■ Almost all plants are photoautotrophs, using the energy of sunlight to make
organic molecules
○ Heterotrophs obtain their organic material from other organisms
■ Heterotrophs are the consumers of
the biosphere
 ■ Almost all heterotrophs, including humans, depend on photoautotrophs
for food and O2
● PHOTOSYNTHESIS TIME
○ Photosynthesis occurs in plants, algae, certain other protists, and some prokaryotes
○ These organisms feed not only themselves but also most of the living world
○ Chloroplasts of various photosynthetic cells are structurally similar to and likely evolved
from photosynthetic bacteria
● Chloroplasts: The Sites of Photosynthesis in Plants
○ Leaves are the major locations of photosynthesis
○ Their green color is from chlorophyll, the green pigment within chloroplasts
○ Chloroplasts are found mainly in cells of the mesophyll, the interior tissue of the leaf
○ Each mesophyll cell contains 30-40 chloroplasts
○ Chloroplasts are solar-powered chemical factories
○ Their thylakoids transform light energy into the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH
● Process of photosynthesis
○ CO2 enters and O2 exits the leaf through microscopic pores called stomata
○ The chlorophyll is in the membranes of thylakoids (connected sacs in the chloroplast);
thylakoids may be stacked in columns called grana
○ Chloroplasts also contain stroma, a dense interior fluid
○ Tracking Atoms Through Photosynthesis
■ Photosynthesis is a complex series of reactions that can be summarized as the
following equation
■ 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Light
energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2
● The Splitting of Water
○ Chloroplasts split H2O into hydrogen and
oxygen, incorporating the electrons of
hydrogen into sugar molecules and
releasing oxygen as a by-product
● The Two Stages of Photosynthesis: A Preview
○ Photosynthesis consists of the Light Dependent
Reactions and the Calvin cycle
○ The light reactions (in the thylakoids)
■ Split H2O
■ Release O2
■ Reduce the electron acceptor, NADP+, to
NADPH
■ Generate ATP from ADP by adding a
phosphate group, photophosphorylation
○ The Calvin cycle (in the stroma) forms sugar from
CO2, using ATP and NADPH
○ The Calvin cycle begins with carbon fixation,
incorporating CO2 into organic molecules
● The Nature of Sunlight
○ Light is a form of electromagnetic energy, also called
electromagnetic radiation
○ Like other electromagnetic energy, light travels in
rhythmic waves
○ Wavelength is the distance between crests of waves
○ The electromagnetic spectrum is the entire range of
electromagnetic energy,
or radiation
○ Visible light consists of
wavelengths that produce
colors we can see
○ Light also behaves as though it consists of discrete
particles, called photons
● Photosynthetic Pigments: The Light Receptors
○ Pigments are substances that absorb visible light
○ Different pigments absorb different wavelengths
○ Wavelengths that are not absorbed are reflected or
transmitted
○ Leaves appear green because chlorophyll
reflects and transmits green light
○ An absorption spectrum is a graph plotting a
pigment’s light absorption versus wavelength
○ The absorption spectrum of chlorophyll a suggests
that violet-blue and red light work best for
photosynthesis
○ Accessory pigments include chlorophyll b and a
group of pigments called carotenoids
○ Accessory pigments called carotenoids absorb
excessive light that would damage chlorophyll
● A Photosystem: A Reaction-Center Complex Associated
with Light-Harvesting Complexes
 ○ A photosystem consists of a reaction-
center complex surrounded by light-
harvesting pigment molecules
○ The light-harvesting complexes transfer
the energy of photons to the reaction
center
○ There are two types of photosystems in the
thylakoid membrane
○ Photosystem II (PS II) functions first (the
numbers reflect order of discovery) and is
best at absorbing a wavelength of 680 nm.
The reaction-center chlorophyll a of PS II
is called P680
○ Photosystem Ib (PS I) is best at absorbing
a
wavelength of 700 nm.
■ The reaction-center chlorophyll a
of PS I is called P700
● Linear Electron Flow
○ involves the flow of electrons through both photosystems to produce ATP and NADPH
using light energy. Linear electron flow can be broken down into a series of steps
■ A photon hits a pigment and its energy is passed until it excites PS II
■ An excited electron from PS II is transferred to the electron acceptor
■ H2O is split by enzymes ► electrons are transferred from the hydrogen atoms
to the primary electron acceptor ► O2 is released as a by-product
■ Each electron “falls” down an electron transport chain from the primary
electron acceptor of PS II to PS I
■ Energy released by the fall drives the creation of a proton gradient across the
thylakoid membrane; diffusion of H+ across the membrane drives ATP
synthesis
■ In PS I, transferred light energy excites PS I, causing it to lose an electron to an
electron acceptor
■ Excited electrons “fall” down an electron transport chain from the primary
electron acceptor of PS I to the protein ferredoxin (Fd)
■ The electrons are transferred from ferredoxin to NADP+, reducing it to
NADPH, and become available for the reactions of the Calvin cycle
■ This process also removes an H+ from the stroma
○ ATP and NADPH are produced on the side facing the stroma, where the Calvin cycle
takes place
○ In summary, light reactions generate ATP and increase the potential energy of electrons
by moving them from H2O to NADPH
● The Calvin Cycle uses the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2 to sugar
○ The Calvin cycle, regenerates its starting material after molecules enter and leave the
cycle
 ○ The Calvin cycle is an anabolic reaction (an endergonic pathway)
○ It builds sugar from smaller molecules by using ATP and the reducing power of electrons
carried by NADPH
○ Carbon enters the cycle as CO2 and leaves as a sugar named glyceraldehyde 3-
phosphate (G3P)
○ For net synthesis of one G3P, the cycle must take place three times, fixing three
molecules of CO2
○ 2 G3P molecules are then bound together to
form glucose
○ The Calvin cycle has three phases
■ Carbon fixation
● Phase 1, carbon fixation,
involves the incorporation of
the CO2 molecules into
ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP)
using the enzyme rubisco
■ Reduction
● Phase 2, reduction, involves the
reduction and phosphorylation
of
3-phosphoglycerate to G3P
■ Regeneration of the CO2 acceptor
● Regeneration, involves the rearrangement of G3P to regenerate the initial
CO2 receptor, RuBP
● Evolution of Alternative Mechanisms of Carbon Fixation in Hot, Arid Climates
○ Adaptation to dehydration is a problem for land plants, sometimes requiring trade-offs
with other metabolic processes, especially photosynthesis
○ On hot, dry days, plants close stomata, which conserves H2O but also limits
photosynthesis
○ The closing of stomata reduces access to CO2 and causes O2 to build up
○ These conditions favor an apparently wasteful process called photorespiration
● Photorespiration
 ○ In most plants (C3 plants), initial fixation of CO2,
via rubisco, forms a three-carbon compound (3-phosphoglycerate)
○ In photorespiration, rubisco adds O2 instead of
CO2 in the Calvin cycle, producing a two-carbon compound
instead of G3P
■ Photorespiration decreases photosynthetic output by
consuming ATP, O2, and organic fuel and releasing
CO2 without producing any ATP or sugar
● C4 Plants
○ C4 plants minimize the cost of photorespiration by
incorporating CO2 into a four-carbon compound
○ These four-carbon compounds are exported to bundle-sheath
cells, where they release CO2 that is then used in the Calvin cycle
● CAM Plants
○ Some plants, including succulents, use crassulacean acid
metabolism (CAM) to fix carbon
○ CAM plants open their stomata at night, incorporating CO2
into organic acids
○ Stomata close during the day, and CO2 is released from organic
acids and used in the Calvin cycle

Unit 4.2 Questions

Which of the following components is not used by both plants and cyanobacteria to carry out
photosynthesis?
A. chloroplasts
B. chlorophyll
C. carbon dioxide
D. water

CORRECT ANSWER: A

What two main products result from photosynthesis?

A. oxygen and carbon dioxide
B. chlorophyll and oxygen
C. sugars/carbohydrates and oxygen
 D. sugars/carbohydrates and carbon dioxide

CORRECT ANSWER: C

In which compartment of the plant cell do the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis take place?
A. thylakoid
B. stroma
C. outer membrane
D. mesophyll

CORRECT ANSWER: B

Which statement about thylakoids in eukaryotes is not correct?

A. Thylakoids are assembled into stacks.
B. Thylakoids exist as a maze of folded membranes.
C. The space surrounding thylakoids is called stroma.
D. Thylakoids contain chlorophyll.

CORRECT ANSWER: B

Unit 4.3 Cellular Respiration

● Catabolic pathways yield energy by oxidizing organic fuels

○ Several processes are central to cellular respiration and related pathways
● Catabolic Pathways and Production of ATP
○ The breakdown of organic molecules is exergonic
○ Aerobic respiration consumes organic molecules and O2 and yields ATP
○ Anaerobic respiration is similar to aerobic respiration but consumes compounds other
than O2
○ Cellular respiration includes both aerobic and anaerobic respiration but is often used to
refer to aerobic respiration
○ Although carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are all consumed as fuel, it is helpful to trace
cellular respiration with the sugar glucose

○ C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy

(ATP + heat)
● Oxidation of Organic Fuel Molecules During Cellular Respiration
○ During cellular respiration, the fuel (such as glucose) is oxidized, and O2 is reduced
○ Organic molecules with an abundance of hydrogen, like carbohydrates and fats, are
excellent fuels
 ○ As hydrogen (with its electron) is transferred to oxygen, energy is released that can be
used in ATP synthesis

● The Stages of Cellular Respiration: A Preview

○ Harvesting of energy from glucose has three stages

● Phosphorylation
○ In Substrate-Level phosphorylation a phosphate group is transferred from an organic
molecule (the substrate) to ADP.
○ Oxidative phosphorylation involves the use of O2 and electron carriers in order to
generate ATP.
■ ATP is made through a mechanical reaction
○ Oxidative phosphorylation accounts for almost 90% of the ATP generated by cellular
respiration
○ A smaller amount of ATP is formed during glycolysis and the Krebs cycle by substrate-
level phosphorylation
○ For each molecule of glucose degraded to CO2 and water by respiration, the cell makes
up to 32 molecules of ATP

● Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing

glucose to pyruvate
○ Glycolysis (“sugar splitting”) breaks down
glucose into two molecules of pyruvate
○ Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and has
two major phases
■ Energy investment phase
■ Energy payoff phase
 ○ Glycolysis occurs whether or not
O2 is present
● The Krebs Cycle completes the energy-
yielding oxidation of organic molecules
○ In the presence of O2, pyruvate
enters the mitochondrion where the
oxidation of glucose is completed
○ Before the Krebs Cycle can begin,
pyruvate must be converted to
acetyl CoA, which links glycolysis
to the citric acid cycle
○ The Krebs Cycle, also called the
citric acid cycle, completes the
breakdown of pyruvate into CO2
○ The cycle oxidizes organic fuel derived from pyruvate, generating 1 ATP, 3 NADH, and
1 FADH2 per turn
○ The Krebs Cycle has eight steps, each catalyzed by a specific enzyme
■ The NADH and FADH2 produced by the cycle relay electrons extracted from
food to the electron transport chain (ECT)
○ Following glycolysis and the Krebs Cycle, NADH and FADH2 account for most of the
energy extracted from food
○ These two electron carriers donate electrons to the electron transport chain, which
powers ATP synthesis via oxidative phosphorylation
● The Pathway of Electron Transport
○ The electron transport chain is in the
inner membrane (cristae) of the
mitochondrion
○ Most of the chain’s components are
proteins, which exist in multiprotein
complexes
○ The carriers alternate reduced and
oxidized states as they accept and
donate
electrons
○ Electrons drop in free energy as they
go down the chain and are finally
passed to O2, forming H2O
● ATP is Produced in the ETC
○ Electrons are transferred from NADH or FADH2 to the electron transport chain
○ Electrons are passed through a number of proteins including cytochromes and eventually
to O2
 ○ Electron transfer in the electron transport chain
causes proteins to pump H+ from the
mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane
space
○ H+ then moves back across the membrane,
passing through the protein complex, ATP
synthase
■ ATP synthase uses the flow of H+ to
drive phosphorylation of ATP
○ The H+ gradient is referred to as a proton-
motive force
● ATP Production by Cellular Respiration
○ During cellular respiration, most energy
flows in the following sequence:
■ glucose → NADH →
electron transport
chain → proton-
motive force → ATP
○ About 34% of the energy in a glucose
molecule is transferred to ATP during
cellular respiration, making about 32
ATP

UNIT 4.3 Questions

The effect of high levels of ADP is to ________.
A. increase the activity of the enzyme
B. decrease the activity of the enzyme
C. have no effect on the activity of the enzyme
D. slow down the pathway

CORRECT ANSWER: A

The control of which enzyme exerts the most control on glycolysis?

A. hexokinase
B. phosphofructokinase
C. glucose-6-phosphatase
D. aldolase

CORRECT ANSWER: B
Unit 4.4 Fermentation and other Metabolic Pathways

● Fermentation & anaerobic respiration enable cells to produce ATP without the use of
oxygen
○ Most cellular respiration requires O2 to produce ATP
○ Without O2, the electron transport chain will cease to operate
○ In that case, glycolysis couples with fermentation or anaerobic respiration to produce
ATP
■ Most cellular respiration requires O2 to produce ATP Without O2, the electron
transport chain will cease to operateIn that case, glycolysis couples with
fermentation or anaerobic respiration to produce ATP
○ Fermentation uses substrate-level phosphorylation instead of an electron transport chain
to generate ATP
● Fermentation uses substrate-level phosphorylation
instead of an electron transport chain to generate ATP
○ Fermentation consists of glycolysis plus
reactions that regenerate NAD+, which can
be reused by glycolysis
○ There are two common types of fermentation:
■ Fermentation consists of glycolysis
plus reactions that regenerate NAD+,
which can be reused by glycolysis
■ There are two common types of
fermentation:
● alcohol fermentation, pyruvate is converted to
ethanol in two steps
○ The first step releases CO2 from pyruvate
○ Acetaldehyde is reduced to ethanol
■ Alcohol fermentation by yeast is used in
brewing, winemaking, and baking
● In lactic acid fermentation, pyruvate is reduced by
NADH, forming lactate as an end product, with no
release of CO2
○ Lactic acid fermentation by some fungi and
bacteria is used to make cheese and yogurt
○ Human muscle cells use lactic acid fermentation
to generate ATP when O2 is scarce
● Comparing Fermentation with Anaerobic and Aerobic Respiration
○ All use glycolysis (net ATP = 2) to oxidize glucose
and harvest chemical energy of food
○ In all three, NAD+ is the oxidizing agent that accepts electrons during glycolysis
○ The processes have different final electron acceptors: an organic molecule (like
pyruvate) in fermentation and O2 in cellular respiration
○ Cellular respiration produces 32 ATP per glucose molecule; fermentation produces
2 ATP per glucose molecule
○ Obligate anaerobes carry out only
fermentation or anaerobic respiration and
cannot survive in the presence of O2
○ Yeast and many bacteria are facultative
anaerobes, meaning that they can survive
using either fermentation or cellular
respiration
○ In a facultative anaerobe, pyruvate is a fork in
the metabolic road that leads to two
alternative catabolic routes
● The Evolutionary Significance of Glycolysis
○ Ancient prokaryotes are thought to have used
glycolysis long before there was oxygen in the atmosphere
○ Very little O2 was available in the atmosphere until about 2.7 billion years ago, so early
prokaryotes likely used only glycolysis to generate ATP
○ Glycolysis is a very ancient process
● Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle connect to many other metabolic pathways
○ Glycolysis and the Krebs cycle are major intersections to various catabolic and anabolic
pathways
○ The Versatility of Catabolism
 ■ Catabolic pathways funnel electrons from many kinds of organic molecules into
cellular respiration
■ Glycolysis accepts a wide range of carbohydrates
■ Proteins must be digested to amino acids and amino groups removed before
amino acids can feed glycolysis
■ Fats are digested to glycerol and fatty acids
■ Fatty acids are broken down to yield acetyl CoA

Unit 4.4 Questions

During the second half of glycolysis, what occurs?
A. ATP is used up.
B. Fructose is split in two.
C. ATP is made.
D. Glucose becomes fructose.

CORRECT ANSWER: C

Which of the following fermentation methods can occur in animal skeletal muscles?
A. lactic acid fermentation
B. alcohol fermentation
C. mixed acid fermentation
D. propionic fermentation

CORRECT ANSWER: A

Unit 5.1 Cell Signaling