TABLE OF CONTENTS

A. PREFACE 3
B. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 4
C. ABSTRACT 5
D.ABOUT NHPC 6
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 7- 10
1.1WATER POWER
1.2ADVANTAGES OF
HE PLANT
1.3HYDROLOGY
1.4SITE SELECTION
1.5 HYDROELECTRIC
SCHEMES
CHAPTER 2: COMPONENTS OF 11-25
HYDRO PLANT

CHAPTER 3: HYDRAULIC TURBINE 26-42

3.1TYPES OF TURBINE
3.2BRIEF INTRODUCTION
3.3OPERATING RANGE
OF TURBINES
3.4TURBINE CHARACTERISTICS
3.5CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF
TURBINE
3.6COMPARISON BETWEEN
TYPES OF TURBINE
3.7COMPONENTS OF
HYDRAULIC TURBINE
3.8CAVITATION
3.9GOVERNOR AND SPEED
REGULATION
CHAPTER 4: HYDRO GENERATOR 43-61
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF
HYDRO GENERATORS
4.3DESIGNATION OF
HYDRO GENARATORS
 4.4COMPONENTS OF HYDRO
GENERATOR
CHAPTER 5: TRANSFORMERS 62-84
5.1TRANSFORMER CONS.
5.2CLASSIFICATION
5.3COOLING OF
TRANSFRMERS
5.4SELECTION CRITERIA
OF TRANSFORMERS
5.5TRANSFORMER
ACESSORIES
CHAPTER 6: DESIGN & ENGG. 85- 111
ASPECTS OF HYDRO
POWER PLANT
CHAPTER 7: POWER POTENTIAL STUDIES 112-114
-ROR PLAN
D.CONCLUSION 115

2
 PREFACE
The concept of power plants was conceived in the 1890s due to
the requirements of advanced performance and built-in
intelligence for modern power needs. Since then, the study of
power plants and generators has become a very active research
area in engineering and science. Across the wide spectrum of
power a number of them are considered to be `smart' in
complete examination include generation and irrigation plants
.In particular, power generation and effective transmission is a
relatively well in both . Therefore, this type of system has
attracted substantial attention from researchers in academia and
industry.
In recent years, it seems that research on generation within the
realm of flawless power plant has been overwhelmingly focused
on the analysis of country’s needs. In fact, there are many other
countries using our technologies. However, such applications
are usually studied by researchers in physics and electrical
engineering and may not be known to colleagues working in the
area of power. In view of this, a special issue on power
generation was undertaken.

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Materials in this report have been drawn from a wide variety of sources
including weekly journals, books, magazine and internet. Sources of
these works are cited where they are discussed in the text, and I hope
that I have made no omissions.

We are deeply indebted to Mr. J. Choudhary, Chief Engineer (Design

E&M) and our project in charge Mr. Pankaj Prasoon without whose
support and encouragement, this project couldn’t have been
accomplished.

We sincerely extend our deep felt regards for their able guidance
throughout this training period, and NHPC for providing us with
eminent environment and essential resources to complete our summer
training.

Pankaj Prasoon J. Choudhary

Engineer(E) Chief Engineer
(Design E&M)

Neha Bhushan Vandana Kumari

(DE/06/EE/O3) (DE/06/EE/05)

4
 Sweta Kumari Sonali Chakraborty
(DE/06/EE/06) (DE/05/EE/103)

ABSTRACT

Power plants are automated methods to cater the needs of

country’s power requirements . Among the features measured are;
generators, transformers ,frequency converters, dams The need for
power plants can be found in federal, state and local governments, in
the military, and in public transport .A country could be well developed
if its power resources are well developed The primary power
disciplines include the following:

• Survey of sites for power plants.

• Hydrographs on the basis of years of research of the
sites.
• Government approval and funding for plant setup.
• Residence for the locals and irrigation too.
• Power plant setup at the site.
• Power transmission.
• Plant maintenance.
• Peak and lean period requirements.

5
ABOUT THE ORGANIZATION; NHPC PIONEER IN HYDRO POWER
DEVELOPMENT:
National Hydroelectric Power Corporation Ltd.,(NHPC) was established in
1975. With an authorized share capital of Rs 15,000 crore and an investment
base of about Rs 24,000 crore, NHPC is ranked as a premier organization in the
country for development of hydro power and aims to become a 10000 MW plus
company by 2012.
So far, NHPC has completed 10 projects with a total installed capacity of 3755
MW which includes 1000 MW Indira Sagar Project, a joint venture of NHPC
with govt. of Madhya Pradesh. Besides this, NHPC has commissioned the 14.1
MW Devighat Project in Nepal, 60 MW project Kurichu Project in Bhutan and
the 5.25 MW Kalpong Project in Andaman & Nicobar Islands as a deposit
work. At present 15 projects with a total installed capacity of 5722 MW are
under execution.
POWER GENARATION-
Power generation from NHPC is increasing year after year. During 2005-06,
NHPC power stations together generated 12567 million units. Over the years,
the machine availability has also increased and during 2005-06, the overall
capacity index achieved was 98.16%.
CONSULTANCY SERVICES-
The technical “know-why & know-how”, proficiency & experience of NHPC
places it in a leading position to offer a wide range of “world class”
consultancy services from” concept to commissioning along with operation and
maintenance”.
RESEARCH AND DEVELPOMENT-
The R&D wing of the Corporation is carrying out extensive experimental
studies for extension of life of underwater components subjected to erosion by
silt in the power stations.
FORTE OF NHPC –
Hydroelectric projects involve Head works related to dams/barrages with
associated structures, power channel etc. and underground works related to
desalting basins, head race tunnel, surge shaft, pressure shaft, power house, tail
race tunnel etc.NHPC has gained expertise in executing these works which is
unmatchable in the country.

6
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1. Water Power:

Power plants are automated methods to cater the needs of country’s power
requirements . The need for power plants can be found in federal, state and
local governments, in the military, and in public transport .A country could be well
developed if its power resources are well developed .

India is blessed with immense amount of hydro-electric potential and ranks 5th in
terms of exploitable hydro-potential on global scenario. As per assessment made
by CEA, India is endowed with economically exploitable hydro-power potential to
the tune of 1 48 700 MW of installed capacity. The basin wise assessed potential is
as:-

Basin/Rivers Probable Installed Capacity (MW)

Indus Basin 33,832
Ganga Basin 20,711
Central Indian River system 4,152
Western Flowing Rivers of southern
9,430
India
Eastern Flowing Rivers of southern India 14,511
Brahmaputra Basin 66,065
Total 1,48,701

In addition, 56 number of pumped storage projects have also been identified with

probable installed capacity of 94 000 MW. In addition to this, hydro-potential from

small, mini & micro schemes has been estimated as 6 782 MW from 1 512 sites.
Thus, in totality India is endowed with hydro-potential of about 2 50 000 MW.
However, exploitation of hydro-potential has not been up to the desired level due

7
to various constraints confronting the sector.
In 1998, Government of India announced "Policy on Hydro Power Development"
under which impetus is given to development of hydropower in the country. This
was a welcome step towards effective utilization of our water resources in the
direction of hydropower development. During October 2001, Central Electricity
Authority (CEA) came out with a ranking study which prioritized and ranked the
future executable projects. As per the study, 399 hydro schemes with an aggregate
installed capacity of 1 06 910 MW were ranked in A,B & C categories depending
upon their inter-se attractiveness. During May 2003, Govt. of India launched 50
000 MW hydro initiative in which preparation of Pre Feasibility Reports of 162
Projects totaling to 50 000 MW was taken up by CEA through various agencies.
The PFRs for all these projects have already been prepared and projects with low
tariff (first year tariff less than Rs.2.50/kWh) have been identified for preparation
of DPR.

1.2. Advantages of Hydro-electric Plants

Hydro-electric plants offer many distinct advantages over other means of power
generation. These advantages can be summarized as under:

 The useful life of a hydro-electric plant is around 50 years as compared to

around 25-30 years for a steam engine.
 Operating cost is low.
 It can be used as synchronous condenser.
 Hydro projects are generally multipurpose projects. In addition to electric
power generation, they are also useful for irrigation, flood control, navigation,
etc.
 They have quick start/stop.
 They have better stability due to high SCR.
 Efficiency of hydro power plant does not reduce with age.
 Hydro plants are free from air pollution.
 They also lead to the development of infrastructure.

1.3. Preliminary Investigations-Hydrology:

 RUN-OFF

8
 It is the part of the precipitation that flows on the ground surface of the
Catchment area & can be used for power generation. Investigations of run-off
form the first phase in the planning of a hydro-electric plant. The factors
effecting run-off are-rainfall pattern, geology of the area, shape & size of the
catchment area, the topography and nature of soil in the catchment area, amount
of vegetation and weather conditions in the catchment area.

 STREAM FLOW
A knowledge of the quantity of water flowing in the stream and its variation
with time over a period of time is necessary to estimate the available energy.
The stream flow measurements are generally done on “10 daily basis”. The
measurement are done by stream gauging at site, every ten days, which amounts
to three times a month and 36 times a year. The investigations over a long
period, say 10 years, are necessary to cover the minimum & maximum flow
conditions.

 HYDROGRAPH
A hydrograph provides the following information-
1)the discharge at any time during the period under consideration.
2)the maximum & minimum run off during the period.
3)total volume of flow up to any time is given by the area under the curve
up to that time.

1.4. Site Selection for Hydro-Electric Plants

Many factors have to be considered in the selection but the following are the
most important:

a) Availability of water-The run-off data pertaining to many years should be

made available so that an estimate of the power potential of the project can
be made. The data should include the average flows, minimum & maximum
flows and their periods.

b) Water storage-Storage is needed in most power plants to store water during

high flow periods & use it during lean periods. The storage capacity is
calculated from the hydrograph or the mass curve by using analytical methods.

c) Head of water-An increase in the effective head reduces the quantity of

water to be stored & handled by penstocks, screens & turbines and therefore the

9
 capital cost of the plant is reduced. The head of water depends upon the
topography of the area.

d)Geological investigations-Geological investigations are needed to see that

the foundation rock for dam & other structures is firm, stable & strong enough
to withstand water thrust & other stresses.

e) Water pollution-Polluted water may cause excessive corrosion & damage to

metallic structures. As such it is necessary to see that the water is of good
quality.

f) Sedimentation-The capacity of reservoir is gradually reduced due to

deposition of silt. & it may also cause damage to turbine blades. Silting from
forest area is negligible, & in regions not covered by natural vegetation &
subjected to storms, there’s a lot of silt content in the run-off.

g) Environmental effects-Hydro projects submerge huge areas & many

villages. As such, the environmental effects are also important.

h) Access to site-The site selected should be such that the material &
machinery required could be transported easily.

10
1.5. HYDRO ELECTRIC SCHEMES

• RUN OF RIVER(ROR)

• PONDAGE

• STORAGE

• TIDAL PLANTS

• DEPRESSION PLANTS

• PUMPED STORAGE

Run of river: In this type of hydro electric schemes river water flow is used to
generate power but this system isn’t applicable in seasons when water isn’t
available in full flow that is in offsprings.

ROR with pondage : In this type of system river water is stored in a pond
constructed at some distance from the power house .This pond is known as
forebay and water is transferred from the forebay to power house using

11
penstocks. It provides with enough water in times of peak hours and during lean
periods river flow is used to generate power.

Storage: This type of system is generally meant for multipurpose projects such as
irrigation+flood control + power generation these provide us with enough water
for peak requirements. These are built up with adjacent dam storage so that there
is enough water during peak requirements.

Pumped storage: In this type of scheme water is pumped back using the same
turbine as turbine from the tail race during lean periods, and this water can be
utilized during load requirements.

Tidal plants : These are the plants were the level difference created by the
tides inside the river is used to generate power . These depend totally on the tidal
range available at the site. Tidal range is given by:

Tidal range = High tide level-low tide level

Main problem which is encountered at the tidal plants that the power gene
ration at these plants is totally dependent on the geology of the site .

Depression plants : In remote areas vast areas of low level lying land with
water are available , these are used to generate power at the sites. Power is
generated by dropping water in the depression.

Problem faced by depression schemes: That the outlet is a generally not available
therefore there is a lot of problem in the excavation of water through the
depression, and this is more pronounced when evaporation is not enough.

SCHEMES BASED ON LOCATION OF SITE

CHEMES BASED ON LOCATION LOF

OCATIONTYPE
THE SITES

CONCENTRATEDFALL DIVIDEDFALL

12
 • CONCENTRATED FALL TYPE: In this type of scheme power station is
adjacent to the diversion structure were water falls i.e. dam type storage is
provided for power plants.

• DIVIDED FALL TYPE: Power station is away from the diversion structure
therefore water is transferred through the penstock from forebay to the
power house.

SCHEMES BASED ON THE CAPACITY OF THE POWER PLANTS

• MIDGET : 99kw
• LOW CAPACITY PLANTS : 100-999KW
• MEDIUM CAPACITY PLANTS : 1000-9999KW
• HIGH CAPACITY PLANTS : 10,000KW

POWER PLANTS ARE ALSO CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO

THE INTERCONNECTION:

• ISOLATED PLANT: It is an independent power plant and is not a part of

any grid or transmission.

• INTERCONNECTED POWER PLANTS: These power plants are a part of

grid or network to meet load, peak requirements.

Interconnected power plants are further classified in to two types based on load
requirements-
INTERCONNECTED

BASE LOAD PEAK LOAD

THESE PROVIDE US WITH CONSTANT

POWER THROUGHOUT THE YEAR POWER IS ONLY
NUCLEAR PROVIDED DURING
THERMAL
ROR PEAKREQUIREMENTS
PONDAGE

13
 POWER STATION

SEMI-OUTDOOR
INDOOR OUTDOOR UNDERGROUND

• INDOOR: Generators are placed inside machine hall having indoor crane.
Generator room is fully enclosed and is of sufficient weight to permit
transfer of equipment by means of indoor crane.

• SEMIOUTDOOR: Generator room with relatively low roof and gantry crane
characterized by outdoor station and transfers equipment.

• OUTDOOR: no generator room is provided and the generators are housed in

individual cubicles or are recessed inside the roof deck.

• UNDERGROUND: Power station is inside hall underground.

ADVANTAGES OF UNDERGROUND STATIONS

• Can be relocated if canyon is very steep.

• Construction of tunnels, shafts, vaults, erection work can go on unimpeded.
• It can be located where valleys are narrow and are subjected to land slides
and rockfalls.

14
 • Less effect of seismic forces.
• Better protection against aerial attacks.

LIMITATIONS

• It is a very costly approach of power generation.

• Ventilation problem.
• Artificial lightning has to be used.
• Depressing effect on workers inside.
• Dewatering problem is the main concern for underground plants .

LAYOUT OF POWER HOUSE

• UNIT BAY : this is the space occupied by the main machine and is known
as machine hall
.
• ERECTION BAY: this is in continuation to the unit bay for handling of
equipment during erection and maintenance.

• CONTROL BAY: this is the space for locating electrical control equipment.

• SWITCHYARD: here outdoor switching equipments are installed.

15
CHAPTER 2: COMPONENTS OF HYDRO POWER PLANT

16
 BUS
GOVERNOR GENERATOR DUCT GSU

SPIRAL
CASING &
PENSTOCK WICKET TURBINE DRAFT TUBE TAIL RACE
GATE

Fig.7. COMPONENTS OF POWER PLANT

MAIN COMPONENTS

1. DAM OR BARRAGE
2. HYDRO MACHANICAL EQUIPMENT
3. INTAKE STRUCTURE
4. HEAD RACE TUNNEL OR OPEN CHANNEL
5. PENSTOCKS
6. MAIN INLET VALVES
7. POWER HOUSE INCLUDING TURBINES,
GENERATORS
8. TAILRACE TUNNEL

17
 DAM OR BARRAGE
The function of dam in a hydro electric project is to create an artificial head and
storage. It diverts the flow of water so that the same could be used for
generation of power. The selection of dam type for a particular location depends
upon the topography of the site.
A classification of the various types of dam is given below. Of these, the
“solid gravity concrete dam” is most commonly used.
Solid Gravity Concrete Dam: The height of dam depends on the strength
subsoil strata. It relies on its weight for the stability of the dam. The volume of
concrete used in the construction of such a dam is very huge.

DAM

SOLID GRAVITY
ARCH DAM EARTH DAM
CONCRETE DAM

18
Fig 3. URI BARRAGE

Fig.4.SALAL DAM

19
 FOREBAY
It is an enlarged body of water at the intake to store water temporarily to meet
the hourly load fluctuations. It may be the enlarged section of the canal or a
pond.

 INTAKE
The function of intake is to provide a passage to flow into the water channel or
penstock.

 TRASH RACK
Used to block the passage of wood logs or aquatic species through the forebay.

 PENSTOCK
It is a channel used to transfer the water to the power house from the forebay. It
may be of low pressure type or high pressure type. Each turbine has a separate
penstock. It may be buried below the earth or exposed.

 SURGE TANK
The function of surge tank is to absorb the sudden changes in water
requirements so as to prevent water hammer & vacuum. It should be located as
near the power house as possible.
 SPILLWAY
The spillway is designed to discharge the major floods without damage to the
dam but at the same time maintain a permitted head.
Types of spillway –

SPILLWAY

OVERFLOW CHUTE SIDE CHANNEL SHAFT SIPHON

SPILLWAY SPILLWAY SPILLWAY SPILLWAY SPILLWAY

20
TAIL RACE
Channel provided were water which left out after striking the turbine
blades travel to a medium were water could be collected and could be used in
non peak hours .

 VALVES
Valves are mechanical devices that are used to isolate, or release fluid, flowing
through pipelines.

TYPES OF VALVES:
1) Butterfly valve (for heads only up to 200m)
2) Spherical valve (for heads above 200m)

APPLICATION OF VALVE:
1) Penstock
2) Turbine inlet valve

NEED:
1. At lower heads, for inspection or maintenance of turbine without involving
the time necessary to drain and refill the penstock.

2. For higher heads, they perform the same function but are also used to
relieve pressure of the wicket gates or needles when the turbine is under
shutdown for an extended time.

DESIGN ASPECT:

 Avoid abrupt changes in velocity.

 Minimum loss of head should be kept in view.
 Should sustain maximum static head including pressure rise.
 Trunnions should safely sustain maximum differential pressure
across the closed valve.

ADVANTAGES OF SPHERICAL VALVE:

1. Shape is well suited to resist even the highest pressure.

21
2. Hydraulic losses are negligible.
3. Closure is good
4. Space requirement are large.

MATERIAL USED FOR BUTTERFLY/SPHERICAL VALVES:

COMPONENT MATERIAL
Valve Body Mild
Steel,Manganese
Steel,Cast Steel
Valve Disc -do-
Trunnion Carbon Steel, High
tensile Steel, Mild
Steel, Cast Steel
Bushes Gun Metal, Bronze
Seal Fibre reinforced
solid rubber
Seal Seat Stainless Steel

22
For very high heads it is usually found desirable to provide spherical valves
upstream of the turbine, for normal unit shut down, as well as butterfly valves at
or near the start of the penstock as a further security measure.

AIR VALVE:

The size of the air valve should be sufficient to release / admission of air
according to rate of filling or draining of water in the spiral casing/ distributor.

23
Fig.5. BUTTERFLY VALVE

24
Fig.6. SPHERICAL VALVE

25
 CHAPTER 3: HYDRO TURBINES

Hydraulic turbines convert the energy of water into mechanical energy

which drives the alternator. They are highly efficient(efficiency exceeding 95% at
full load) ,simple in construction, can be controlled easily and pick up load in a
short time.

3.1. Types of turbine-

T Y P E S O F H Y D R O - T U R B

R E A C T I O N I M P U L

F R A N C IS K A P L A N P R O P E L L E BR U L B P E L T O N

( B A S E D O N F L O W )

A X I A L M I X E D T A N G E N T I A L
( R A D I A L + A X I A L F L O W

K A P L A N F R A N C I S P E L T O N

26
 3.2. BRIEF INTRODUCTION OF HYDRO-TURBINES

 PELTON TURBINES
A Pelton turbine works under large head and low quantity of water. The
potential energy of water in penstock is converted into kinetic energy in a jet of
water issuing from a nozzle. The pressure inside is atmospheric pressure. The
water jet impinges on buckets fixed on the periphery of rotor and causes motion
of the rotor. After doing the work, water discharges into the tail race. Most of
the Pelton turbines have just one jet though machines with two or four jets are
also used. The rotor or runner is made of cast steel. Buckets are made of cast
iron, bronze or stainless steel. Pelton turbines have usually horizontal
alignment.

 FRANCIS TURBINE
A reaction turbine develops power partly due to the velocity of water and partly
due to the difference in pressure acting on the front and back of the runner
buckets. The Francis turbines are built in large sizes and are generally of
vertical type to effect economy in space. The alternator is mounted above the
turbine & thus is free from flooding. A modern Francis turbine is an inward
mixed flow reaction turbine. The motion of water is controlled by movable inlet
wicket gates, fixed around the runner, through which the water passes on its
way from SPIRAL CASING to the runner. After doing the work, water is
discharged to the tailrace through a closed tube known as draft tube which has a
gradually enlarging section. The free end of the draft tube is submerged deep in
tailrace water level.

 PROPELLER AND KAPLAN TURBINE

Propeller turbine is a reaction turbine suitable for low head and large quantity of
water. A Kaplan turbine is a Propeller turbine with adjustable blades, the
advantage of adjustable blades being that a Kaplan turbine operates at high
efficiency even at part load conditions. All parts of Kaplan turbine such as
spiral casing, guide mechanism and draft tube are similar to those of a Francis
turbine. A Kaplan runner has only 3 to 6 blades as compared to 16 to 24 for a
Francis runner. A Kaplan turbine has vertical configuration. A Kaplan runner is

27
also capable of reverse operation as a pump and is ideally suited for a pumped
storage scheme.

28
Fig.8. PELTON TURBINE

29
Fig.9. FRANCIS TURBINE

30
Fig.10. KAPLAN TURBINE

31
 Fig.11. DISTRIBUTOR AND NOZZLES

3.3. OPERATING RANGE OF TURBINES-

32
 TURBINE SPECIFIC HEAD
TYPE SPEED (m)
(m-kW)

PELTON 10-60 2000-400

FRANCIS 60-400 650-30

KAPLAN 220-1000 75-3

BULB Less than

15m

3.4. CHARACTERISTICS OF TURBINE-

 HEAD

 SPECIFIC SPEED

 EFFICIENCY

 OUTPUT

EFFECTIVE HEAD OR NET HEAD

• FOR PELTON
H = MDDL+ 2/3(FRL -MDDL) - TCL - Head loss

• FOR FRANCIS AND KAPLAN

H = MDDL+ 2/3(FRL -MDDL) - TWL - Head loss
SPECIFIC SPEED

33
Specific speed is defined as the speed in revolutions per minute at which a
turbine would run at the best efficiency for full guide-vane/nozzle opening
under a head of one unit and its dimensions having been adjusted to produce
unit power output.
Mathematical expression,
NS= N * (P1/2/H5/4)
Where, N= Shaft speed in rpm, H= Rated head in m, P= Rated output on Kw.

EFFICIENCY OF TURBINE-
KAPLAN – 93%
FRANCIS – 94%
PELTON – 92%

WATER POWER FORMULA-

 P MW =(9.81 x Q x H x η txg )/1000

Where,
Q = Discharge in m3/s
H = Head in meter
η t x g =Overall efficiency

SPECIFIC SPEED AND SYNCHRONOUS SPEED-

The trial specific speed is selected on the basis of empirical formula
involving design head.

Rotational speed of turbine is calculated from this specific speed.

The calculated rotational speed is rounded to the nearest synchronous speed

and the specific speed is again calculated. Rated speed resulting in even
number of pair of poles is preferred normally.

34
Fig.12. OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF TURBINES

35
OVERLAP ZONES

Where the head and specific speed fall in the overlap zones, selection is
governed by many other factors. They are:

1) Part load operation

2) Hydraulic conditions (Head variation)
3) Excavation (turbine setting)
4) Efficiency

3.5. CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF HYDRAULIC TURBINE

Type of Head Load Specific Peak

Machine variation variation speed efficiency
% of % of (m-mhp) in %
rated rated
head output
PELTON 110 to 90 50 to 100 15 to 65 92

FRANCIS 125 to 65 50 to 100 60 to 400 94

KAPLAN 125 to 65 40 to 100 300 to 800 93

PROPELLER 110 to 90 90 to 100 300 to 800 92

BULB 125 to 65 40 to 100 600 to 92

1200

Head variation affects the performance of machine, while Kaplan machine

is least affected one.

TYPE MAX. HEAD MIN. HEAD

KAPLAN 150% 50%
FRANCIS 125% 65%
PELTON _ _

36
3.6. COMPARISON BETWEEN DIFFERENT TYPES OF HYDRAULIC
TURBINES-

IMPULSE TURBINE REACTION TURBINE

• HIGH HEAD • MEDIUM AND LOW
• LOW DISCHARGE HEAD
• TCL ABOUT TAILRACE • -MEDIUM & HIGH
• WORKS AT ATM DISCHARGE
PRESSURE • TCL IS SUBMERGED
• DT – NOT REQUIRED • WORKS BELOW ATM PR
• WATER STRIKES AT • DT IS REQUIRED
FEW BUCKETS AT A • ALL BLADES WORKS
TIME SIMULTANEOUSLY
• NEEDS LARGER SPACE • SMALLER SPACE
FOR EQUAL P & H • BEP NEAR FULL LOAD
• BEP NEAR ½ LOAD

FICTITIVE COMPARISON
Assuming a net head of 100m and power required equal to 100 MW, we find
out the most suitable turbine type as follows-
 First, the various turbine parameters, such as suction head, shaft speed,
etc., are calculated.
TURBINE Shaft Runne Suctio Total
TYPE speed r n head turbin
(rpm) diamete (m) e
r width
(m) (m)
PELTON 62.5 6.5 +5 30

FRANCIS 200 3.3 -4 12

KAPLAN 333 3.4 -25 13

BULB 600 2.5 -90 6

37
  Then, the turbine with the most reasonable and suitable parameters is
selected. In this case, it turns out to be the Francis turbine. The Francis
turbine is selected due to the following reasons-
1. Pelton:Large size, low speed generator.
2. Bulb: Extreme turbine setting.
3. Kaplan: Turbine setting is too high, Size
equivalent to Francis, higher speed and probably
a cheaper generator.
5. Francis: Therefore, OPTIMUM selection.

The choice of turbine also depends upon various techno-economic

considerations. They are-

ECONOMIC
1. SETTING OF TURBINE
2. UNIT SIZE
3. COST OF GENERATOR

TECHNICAL
1. DIFFERENT SHAPE OF EFFICIENCY CURVES
2. NET HEAD VARIATIONS
MAINTENANCE CONSIDERATIONS
3. PART LOAD OPERATION

3.7. COMPONENTS OF TURBINE

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF TURBINE-
1. SPIRAL CASE/ DISTRIBUTOR
2. STAY VANES
3. GUIDE VANES/ NOZZLES (DEFLECTORS)
4. RUNNER
5. DRAFT TUBE

MINOR COMPONENTS OF TURBINE-

1. Turbine shaft
2. Labyrinth
3. Turbine pit
4. Turbine pit liner
5. Turbine housing
6. Servomotor

38
 7. Regulating ring
8. Turbine guide bearing
9. Shaft seal

MATERIAL COMPOSITION-

ITEM MATERIAL CONFORMING

STANDARD
RUNNER GX5 Cr-Ni DIN 17445,
13-4 ASTM A743CA
Stainless 6NM
Steel
SPIRAL CASE Carbon steel ASTM A537
Plate

GUIDE VANES Cr-Ni 13-4 ASTM A743CA

Stainless 6NM
Steel
TURBINE CK35 DIN17200,
SHAFT Forged steel ASTM A668

PRESSURE RISE AND SPEED RISE-

TYPE OFPRESSURE SPEED RISE

TURBINE RISE (%)
(%)

PELTON 15 to 30 20 to 45

FRANCIS 30 to 35 35 to 55

KAPLAN/BULB 30 to 50 30 to 65
/PROPELLER

39
Fig.13. LOW SPEED AND HIGH SPEED FRANCIS RUNNERS

40
CAVITATION IN TURBINES-
When the absolute pressure at any point in the space occupied by flow reaches
the vapour pressure pertaining to the prevailing temperature, vapour bubbles
develop and voids filled with vapour are formed in the fluid. Bubbles formed on
the back surface of the runner vanes and adhering to them may, because of the
high-speed whirl, eventually reach points of relatively very high pressure where
an explosion like collapse ensues exerting a violent impact upon the surface
adjacent to the void.

Fig.14. CAVITATION PHENOMENON

41
Fig.15. DAMAGED BLADES OF A KAPLAN TURBINE DUE TO
CAVITATION

42
3.9 .GOVERNOR AND SPEED REGULATION
The function of governor is to keep the speed constant when the load on the
turbine increases or decreases. To maintain the frequency of electric supply
constant, the speed of alternator, driven by the hydraulic turbine, must remain
constant. As the load changes, the governor changes the rate of flow of water to
bring the speed back to the normal speed and maintains a balance between the
power output and input..

A good speed regulating governor should be quite sensitive to the

changes in shaft speed and should be rapid in action. However, it must not close
the water pipe so quickly as to cause water hammer in the penstock. The
principal elements of a speed regulating system for hydraulic turbines are-
 Speed responsive element-generally flyball mechanism
 Relay valve to supply oil pressure to either side of servo-motor piston
 Servo-motor along with oil pressure operated piston to move turbine
control mechanism
 Restoring mechanism to hold servo-motor in fixed position when input
and output are equalized
 Oil pressure supply required for the action of servo motor

43
 CHAPTER 4: HYDRO GENERATORS

4.1 INTRODUCTION: These are low speed machine of the salient Pole
type. They have large no. of poles. Rotor is characterized by large
diameter and short axial length. Capacity of such generator varies
from 500 KW to 300 MW. Power factor are usually 0.90 to 0.95
lagging. Available head is a limitation in the choice of speed of hydro
generator. Standard generation voltage in our country is 3.3KV,
6.6KV, 11 KV, 13.8 KV, & 16KV at 50 Hz.

DIFFERENCES FROM TURBO- GENERATOR

 TURBO GENERATOR
 DRIVEN BY STEAM TURBINE
 RUN AT HIGH SPEED
 CYLLINDRICAL ROTOR
 UNIFORM AIR GAP
 LOWER AIR GAP
 LOWER SCR (0.5 TO 0.8)
 SINUSOIDAL P- δ CURVE
 MAXIMUM POWER AT δ =90
 HYDRO- GENERATOR
 WATER TURBINE
 LOW SPEED
 SALIENT POLE
 NON UNIFORM AIR GAP
 HIGHER AIR GAP
 HIGHER SCR (1 TO 1.4)
 DISTORTED SINUSOIDAL P- δ CURVE
 FOR δ < 90

4.2 CLASSISIFICATION OF HYDRO-GENERATORS

With respect to the position of the rotor, hydro generators are classified as-
(i) HORIZONTAL
(ii) VERTICAL
The vertical type is again classified as-

44
 1) SUSPENSION TYPE:
 In this type, the thrust bearing is located in upper bracket above rotor.

2) UMBRELLA TYPE
 In this type, the thrust bearing is located in lower bracket below rotor.

3) SEMI UMBRELLA TYPE

The vast majority of large machines is constructed with the combined
thrust and guide bearing installed on a lower bearing bracket below the
rotor. An upper guide bearing is customarily installed above the rotor
and installed on a separate, light-weight guide bearing bracket mounted
on the top of the stator frame. This type of arrangement is termed as
semi-umbrella arrangement.

45
Fig.25. SUSPENDED TYPE

46
Fig. 26. UMBRELLA TYPE

47
 Fig. 27. SEMI UMBRELLA TYPE

4.3 DESIGNATION OF HYDRO GENERATOR

TYPE OF HYDROGENRATOR IS DESIGNATED AS FOLLOWS, FOR AN
EXAMPLE
SV 505 - 16
190
Where,
 SV ⇒ SYNCHRONOUS VERTICAL
 505 ⇒ OUTER DIAMETER OF STATOR CORE IN cm
 190 ⇒ ACTIVE LENGTH AT STATOR CORE IN cm
 16 ⇒ NO. OF POLES

4.4 COMPONENTS OF HYDRO GENERATOR

The following are the components of the hydro generator-
 STATOR
 ROTOR
 BRACKETS
 GENERATOR AUXILIARIES

STATOR
The main components of stator are-
 STATOR SOLE PLATES
 STATOR FRAME
 STATOR MAGNETIC CORE
 STATOR WINDINGS

1) STATOR SOLE PLATES-

Stator Sole plates are embedded in the secondary concrete and are designed to
support generator frame. The sole plates are designed to transmit the tangential
stresses of the generator to the concrete under most severe conditions. The
design should accommodate for free radial movement of frame on account of
radial expansion caused by temperature rise.
2) STATOR FRAME-
The stator frame has to ensure following functions:
 Support weight of magnetic core, winding and upper bracket.
 Transmit vertical loads, normal and accidental torques to the foundations.

48
 Withstand centripetal and unidirectional magnetic forces which may result
on account of eccentricity of rotor
 Guide the cooling air towards heat exchangers
 Allow a good positioning of magnetic core punchings.
 Allow stator handling.
 Support the connections and terminals

The stator frame is made up of rolled steel sheets supported by vertical beams
of high inertia. The frame is shipped to site in single or several parts depending
upon the handling and transportation limitations of the site.
3) STATOR MAGNETIC CORE –
The punchings are stacked into elementary layers which are separated by
spacers to cater for radial ventilation which enables air circulation for cooling
active parts. The punchings are axially clamped to reach a strong cohesion to
form rigid system and the stacking process is done at different stages
4) STATOR WINDING-
 Stator Windings can be of Double Layer Bar Type Wave connected or Coil
type Lap connected. For Hydro generators normally bar type wave
connected windings are used. Each bar is composed of an assembly of
strands of small radial section in order to reduce copper losses. Each strand
is in turn insulated by glass lapped tape with epoxy resin.
 Each bar is insulated over its whole length by continuous taping according to
class ‘F’ insulation.
 The connection between bars is achieved by means of copper plates brazed
to the individual strands and are insulated by having gaps filled with post
polymerized resin.
 The whole winding is totally insulated without any bare point to avoid fault
on account of moisture/polluting agent.
 The windings are fastened to the supporting rings to form a homogeneous
and solid assembly.

49
Fig. 27. STATOR SEGMENT

50
51
 Fig. 28. STATOR WINDING

ROTOR

ROTOR COMPONENTS
 ROTOR SHAFT
 ROTOR SPIDER
 ROTOR RIM
 ROTOR POLES
 RING COLLECTORS

1) ROTOR SHAFT-
Rotor shaft has to achieve the following functions:
 Provide coupling face for turbine shaft
 To transmit the motor or braking torques between the turbine shaft and the
rim through rotor spider.
 Provide surface for thrust, upper and lower bearings
 To provide for lifting of rotor.
The shaft is made either as a single part or in case of shaft less rotor, then two
stub shafts are connected to the rim at the upper and lower parts for
accommodating thrust bearing surface and coupling flanges.

Fig.30. ROTOR SHAFT

2) ROTOR SPIDER-
Rotor spider has to ensure following functions:

52
 To transmit the motor or braking torques between the turbine shaft and the
rim.
 To ensure the centering of the rim and the poles.
 To support the braking track and withstand its centrifugal forces.
 To ensure the passage of the cooling air flow to the rim.
The spider is composed of discs and ribs welded longitudinally to the shaft.
The ribs are designed to accommodate machined bars for guiding the rim plates

53
Fig. 29. ROTOR SPIDER

54
3) ROTOR RIM-
The rotor rim ensures the following functions:
 To accommodate the field poles.
 To ensure the magnetic flux path from one pole to the other.
 To take part in the fan effect of the radial cooling of the synchronous
machine.
 To contribute in providing the required inertia.
The rim constituted by stacking of 3 to 5 mm thick segments made of rolled
sheet. Segments are clamped axially by means of high resistance steel bolts
The stacking is so designed in to numerous overlapped layers so as to permit
provision of radial ducts in the inter-pole axis without reckoning mechanical
resistance. Thus, rim acts as centrifugal fan uniformly distributing air flow over
the whole generator length.

Fig.30. ROTOR RIM

55
5) ROTOR POLES-
The rotor poles ensure the following functions:
 Create the induction flux and distribute it properly in the air gap
 Suppress the asynchronous flux waves and damp the oscillations (damper
winding)
 Transmit the torque from rim to the air gap
The pole cores are constituted of a stack of punched laminations which are
clamped between two end plates traversing the entire length of the pole. The
field coils are made of flat copper strips brazed at each coil edge. The inter-turn
insulation is achieved by strips of epoxy insulation. The coil assembly is hot
polymerized under pressure to achieve required electrical and mechanical
properties. Coil insulation w.r.t. ground is made by wrapping the pole core with
an insulating complex .The poles are weighed and distributed around the rim
during the assembly so as to have same weight diametrically opposite to each
other.

Fig.31. ROTOR POLES

6) RING COLLECTORS-
The field current is supplied to the field winding from the excitation system,
through a system composed of slip rings and brushes. The sliprings, which are
made of forged steel, are installed in the upper part of the rotor. The connection
between the sliprings and field windings is achieved through copper bars fitted
inside or along the shaft on the upper part of the rotor. The sliprings are
designed to fit properly with the brushes and are grooved spirally to reduce
brush wear. The brushes are carefully designed so as to carry required field
current .Brushes are held by insulated brush holders

56
BRACKETS-
These are provided for housing of Thrust and Guide bearings. Two types of
brackets are provided for a generator:
 Upper bracket
 Lower bracket
UPPER BRACKET:
The upper bracket has to ensure the following functions:
 Support vertical loads of generator upper floor and the superstructure
 To take upper guiding radial forces tangentially to the concrete walls of the
generator pit
 To accommodate and transfer the vertical load of the rotor and turbine
assembly in case of suspended type of machine.
 To provide path for circulation of air.
 The upper bracket is composed of central hub supporting the guide and/or
thrust bearing
 The structure is formed by lattice of laminated steel beams resting on upper
part of the stator frame which are anchored to the generator pit either
directly or through radial jacks.
 Air baffles fitted on the bottom side of the upper bracket allow proper
circulation of air flow
 The upper bracket is shipped in single or several parts and are assembled at
site as per the requirements

LOWER BRACKET:
The lower bracket has to ensure the following functions:
 Supports the lower guide bearing and it combines braking and lifting jacks
 In case of umbrella / semi-umbrella it may also house the thrust bearing and
therefore need to transfer load of rotor and turbine to the foundations
 It is composed of central hub with steel arms welded to it.
 The bottom side of the arms are provided with fixing arrangement for fixing
them upon anchoring plates which are embedded in the concrete
 The upper side of the arms accommodate for braking and lifting jacks along
with necessary pipeline i.e., oil and air pipelines.
 The hub will accommodate for guide bearing and / or thrust bearing as per
the requirement.

57
 GENERATOR AUXILIARIES
 EXCITATION SYSTEM
 AIR COOLING SYSTEM
 BRAKING AND JACKING SYSTEM
 BEARINGS
 FIRE PROTECTION
 HEATERS

 EXCITATION SYSTEM
Excitation systems supply and regulate the amount of dc current sent to the
generator field winding.

EXCITATION SYSTEM –OBJECTIVES:

 Good response in voltage and reactive power control.
 Satisfactory steady state stability i.e. sufficient clamping of electro -
magnetic & electro - mechanical transient.
 Transient stability for all stated conditions.
 Quick voltage recovery after fault clearance.

TYPES OF EXCITATION SYSTEM:

Modern excitation system consists of following two major types of systems:
 Static excitation system
 Brushless excitation system
They utilize microprocessor based digital controllers as AVR’s.

FEATURES OF EXCITATION SYSTEM:

 WITH large alternators in power system, excitation control plays a vital role.
 System performance is taken care of by excitation system.
 In order to maintain system stability it is necessary to have very fast
response excitation system for large synchronous machine operating with the
grid.
 High control speed is achieved by using inertial free control and power
electronics.

58
EXCITATION SYSTEM – COMPONENTS:
1. EXCITATION TRANSFORMER (DRY TYPE )
2. RECTIFIER SYSTEM
3. AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR
4. FIELD FLASHING UNITS
5. FIELD CIRCUIT BREAKER
6. DISCHARGE RESISTOR

EXCITATION SYSTEM – BLOCK DIAGRAM:

CB BUS-1

BUS-2
GCB

GENERATOR TRANSFORMER

UAT
EXC.TR.
A.C REF. VOL.
PT
G
AVR
GATE CT
F.F CONTROL
FB G
D.C GENERATOR

DR NGT

59
 AIR COOLING SYSTEM
 Generator is provided with a closed, recirculating air cooling system
 The cooling pressure is created by fanning action of rotor spider
 The air circulates through radial ducts provided in the rotor rim which
allows a cooling air flow to be distributed radially and uniformly all along
the machine axis
 The air circulation path is spider-> rim -> inter-pole areas-> stator winding-
> stator core radial duct-> air coolers-> lower and upper floors-> lower and
upper air baffles-> spider.
STATOR AIR COOLERS-
 The heat generated in the generator is cooled in a closed circuit through air
to water heat exchangers (air coolers)
 The coolers are equally spaced around the outer periphery of the frame.
 Each cooler is composed of finned Cupro-Nickel tubes the extremities of
which are fixed to two drilled end plates connected to water boxes.
 Distribution of cooling water through water inlet and outlet pipes is
connected to water boxes.
 The number of the air coolers of a generator is designed to allow the
operation of generator with one cooler in out of service.

 BRAKING AND JACKING SYSTEM

The hydro generators are provided with mechanical friction braking system
which helps to stop the generator’s rotation after unit is stopped / tripped off-
line. The brakes are normally applied when the unit speed is slowed down to
less than 25% of the rated speed to avoid wearing of thrust bearing pads.
Brake shoes situated on the lower bracket are pressed against the brake tracks
on the rotor to bring the machine to the rest .Brake shoes are also used as jacks
for lifting of the rotor for which the oil under pressure (about 100 kg/cm2) is
fed from high pressure pump unit. After jacking the rotor can be maintained in
lifted position by turning the locking nut and releasing oil pressure.

 BEARINGS

60
 Vertical hydro generators are normally provided with thrust bearings and
guide bearings
 The number of guide bearings depends on the size of the machine

THRUST BEARINGS:
The hydro generators have thrust bearings located either at the top (Suspended)
or at bottom (Umbrella / Semi-umbrella) of the generator to support the rotating
weight of the machine.
Types of thrust bearings:
 Tilting pad bearings
 Leveling plates self equalizing bearings
 Spring bed mattress type bearings
 Self compensated diaphragm bearings
GUIDE BEARINGS:
Hydro generators are provided with lower and / or upper Guide bearings for
maintaining the shaft in alignment.
 The guide bearing essentially consists of
 A set of tilting pads distributed radially.
 Support ring for pads.
 Wedges for holding the pads.
 Oil filled tank for housing the above components with arrangement
for cooling the heated oil by means of oil to water exchanger.

 FIRE EXTINGUISHING SYSTEM

 Large generators above 25 MVA are provided with fire protection system.
 Water deluge or carbon dioxide extinguishing are being used.
 System consists of
o Heat detectors
o Carbon dioxide or water tank along with distribution network
o Control and alarm instruments

CONTROL AND PROTECTION DEVICES:

The system consists of
 Installation of RTDs and DTTs for measurement of temperatures at stator
core , winding, bearings (pads and oil) and at coolers

61
 Installation of flow meters at cooling water pipe lines
 Oil level gauges in bearings
 Limit switches for brake and jack operation
 Vibration detectors
 Speed detectors
 CT’s for measurement of fault currents.

 SPACE HEATERS
Air heating resistors are provided at the lower part of the generator enclosure to
prevent condensation of moisture near the windings. The space heaters are
equally located along the periphery of the enclosure. The heaters can be
actuated manually or automatically by means of thermostat when the generator
is under stand-still condition.

62
CHAPTER 5: TRANSFORMERS

DEFINITION- Transformer is a static device which transforms the electric power

in one circuit to another circuit at same frequency by raising / lowering of voltage
with corresponding decrease / increase in current. The physical basis of a
transformer is mutual induction two circuits linked by a common magnetic flux.

5.1.TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION-
The simple elements of a transformer consist of two coils having mutual
inductance and a laminated steel core. The two coils are insulated from each
other and also from the core. Other necessary parts are: some suitable container
for assembled core and windings, a suitable medium for insulating the core and
its windings from the container, suitable bushings (either of porcelain, oil-filled
or capacitor type) for insulating and bringing out the terminals of windings
from tank.
Constructionally, transformers are of two general types, distinguished merely
by the manner in which the HV and LV windings are placed around the
laminated core. The two types are-
 Core type
 Shell type

Shell type Vs core type-

63
Core Type Shell Type
Winding surround aCore surround a considerable
considerable part of core part of winding

Poorer mechanical strengthHigh short circuit withstand

hence more susceptible tocapacity as winding are
damage under short circuitsurrounded and braced by the
condition core over a large portion of
length

Simpler in Design Complex design

Reduction of leakageLeakage reactance can be
reactance is difficult reduced to any desire value

Easy to dismantle for repair Difficulty in repair work

Winding are exposed thusCore are exposed thus

cooling of winding is bettercooling of core is better than
than core winding

Windings are usually made out of copper conductor in power

transformers although aluminum conductor is used for distribution
transformers and also sometimes in higher ratings. The windings in the
power transformers are of the following types:
SPIRAL TYPE: Continuously wound layer, normally used for low
voltage and low power rating such as tertiary winding.
HELICAL TYPE: Continuously wound layer with oil duct between the
turns, used for low voltage windings carrying comparatively high
current, of generator transformers.
CONTINUOUS DISC WINDING: This is a continuous disc type
winding with number of turns forming one disc. There is an oil duct in
between the discs. This may be either a plain disc winding for voltages
say up to 132 kV or interleaved disc winding for voltages usually 220
kV and above.

64
5.2.CLASSIFICATION-

 Based on
 Construction – Shell type , Core type
 Type of Cooling- Air cooled , Oil cooled
 Type of Supply- 1- φ , 3- φ
 Type of application – Step up & Step down
 Purpose of uses – GSU , UAT , SST,Excitation &Distribution
transformer

65
 FIGURE 4 - THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER CORE
W ITH W INDINGS ON THE THREE LIMBS

5.3.COOLING OF TRANSFORMERS-

 COOLING OF DRY TYPE TRANSFORMER

Air natural – Ambient air is used as cooling medium. Used for small low voltage
transformer.

Air blast- Transformer is cooled by continuous blast of cool air forced through
cores and winding. External fans are used for this purpose.

 COOLING OF OIL IMMERSED TRANSFORMER

A) Oil Natural
 Oil as coolant has two distinct advantages over air
1. It is better conductor of heat
2. It has high coefficient of volume expansion
 The transformer is immersed in oil and heat generated in cores and winding
is passed on to oil by conduction. The oil takes away the heat from inside the
transformer to outside.

66
 B) ONAN (Oil Natural Air Natural) - The oil is cooled in tubes or
external radiator by natural circulation of air

C) ONAF (Oil Natural Air Forced) - The transformer tank is made

hollow and air is blown through the hollow space.

D) ONWF (Oil Natural Water Forced) -Copper cooling coils are

mounted above the transformer core but below the surface of oil .Water is
circulated through the cooling coils.

E) Forced circulation of oil (OF) - Oil is circulated by motor driven

pump from the top of a transformer tank to an external cooling plant (Heat
exchanger or Radiator) where oil is cooled. The cold oil enters the tank from the
bottom. Types of OF cooling-
 OFAN
 Oil Forced Air Natural
 OFAF
 Oil Forced Air Forced
 OFWF
 Oil Forced Water Forced: Transformers in the hydro-Stations have
usually water coolers wherein water acts as the cooling medium. Oil
and water both have forced flow and thus this is known as Oil Forced
Water Forced (OFWF) cooling.
5.4.SELECTION CRITERIA OF TRANSFORMERS

Although virtually any transformer can be used in any application, some

transformers are simply better because they are designed specifically for the
application. The transformer’s application, how and where the transformer will
be used significantly influences the selection. Yet even when the application is
known, there is no easy selection formula. Knowing all of the selection criteria
can lead to the optimum transformer for the job.
Selection criteria can be broken into four main parts:
 Installation site
 Transformer use
 Transformer capabilities
 Costs

A) Installation Site-

67
The location and environment where the transformer will be installed is a major
concern and may limit the type of the transformer that can be used. Focus is
given towards following:-
 Installation flexibility
 Ambient conditions
 Environmental Safety
 Flammability
 Public access restriction

B) Transformer Use
To specify the correct transformer following points are analyzed:
 Where the Transformer is 1 - φ or 3 - φ
 How will the Transformer be Connected
 What is the configuration of the system

C) Transformer Capabilities
The capabilities of a transformer includes
 Ratings
 Electrical Capability
 Mechanical Capability

ELECTRICAL & MECHANICAL CAPABILITY

Major electrical capability-
 Short term thermal overload
 Short circuit strength
 Partial discharge
Major mechanical capability-
 Immediate start up
 Impact loading
 Impulse and transient voltage strength
 Size

C) Cost
Cost issue should focus on total cost of the transformer during lifetime which
includes
 Initial cost
 Hidden cost

68
 If cost is the only issue oil filled transformers are most logical solution
having lowest initial cost. However other issue (i.e, Hidden cost which
includes site preparation, maintenance, cleanup, design life, efficiency,
reliability etc.) affecting cost during the transformer lifetime should not be
overlooked.

5.6. FITTINGS & ACCESSORIES

The fittings and accessories of a transformer along with their function and
maintenance procedures are as follows-

 GAS OPERATED (BUCHHOLZ) RELAY:

Buchholz relay is placed in a pipe connecting the top of the tank cover
to the conservator (Refer figure - 16). The pipe has an inclination of 3
to 7 degrees as shown, for the smooth rise of gases. It has mainly 3
functions to perform:

a) Any internal fault in a transformer is indicated by the emission of

gas arising from the decomposition of solid and liquid insulation
caused by heating or electric breakdown. The first function of the
Buchholz relay is to reveal this condition.

b) There may be air drawn by the oil pump or coming from an air
pocket which did not get evacuated at the time of commissioning.
It is possible to detect this condition also from Buchholz relay.

c) It also indicates a drop in the oil level below a limit necessary for
the correct operation of the transformer.

69
The principle of operation of the Buchholz relay will be clear, if we
refer to a cross-section of a typical Buchholz relay (Figure - 17).

Fig. 17

The body of the relay contains 2 metal floats b1 and b2, which may pivot
around their respective shafts 01 and 02 and thus control the mercury
contacts c1 and c2. Each of these 2 contacts closes an alarm or a trip
circuit.

OPERATION OF RELAY UNDER MINOR FAULTS

When a minor fault occurs inside a transformer, the gas bubbles

produced due to this fault travel upwards and get collected in the
Buchholz, dropping the oil level in the body of the relay. This causes
the upper float b1 to revolve around its shaft and close the contact c1
for a given quantity of gas. This operates the alarm signal d in a lapse of
time which decreases proportionately with the speed of the gas
emission and consequently with the seriousness of fault.

The float b2 remaining immersed in oil is not called upon to operate in

this condition.

70
 OPERATION OF RELAY UNDER SERIOUS FAULTS
A violent emission of gas due to serious fault causes the displaced oil to
surge through the relay, causing the bottom float b2 to operate and thus
closing the contact c2. This operates the trip circuit, which controls the
operation of the circuit breaker.

OIL LEVEL TOO LOW

If due to any leak in the transformer the oil level drops to the Buchholz
level, the float b1 will first operate if the drop of the oil level is gradual,
giving the alarm followed by operation of float b2, making the circuit
breaker to trip.

 OIL & WINDING TEMPERATURE INDICATORS (OTI & WTI)

Oil and winding temperature indicators (OTI and WTI) are usually
mounted in the marshalling box when the transformers are installed
outdoor. When the transformers are installed indoor, OTI and WTI can
be mounted directly on the tank wall also. They work on the principle of
liquid expansion and provide local indication of top oil.

 EXPLOSION VENT OR RELIEF VENT/PRESSURE RELEASE VALVE

In the case of severe fault inside the transformer, although Buchholz
relay is provided to trip the circuit breaker, yet the pressure build up
due to sudden gas formation may exceed the tank withstand limit unless
steps are taken to release this pressure. The explosive vent (it is also
called Relief vent) is provided to release this pressure.

71
 Fig.8. EXPLOSION VENT

Fig.17. EXPLOSION VENT

The explosion vent (See figure -17 ) is provided with 2 diaphragms -

one at the bottom which acts as deflector plate to ensure that any gases
produced in the transformer will pass through the Buchholz relay and
do not collect in the vent. A hole in the side permits the oil to enter the
vent and equalize the pressure on either side of the deflector diaphragm.
A pipe from the top of the vent is usually connected to the conservator
to equalize pressure on both sides of the bottom diaphragm. Where
equalizing pipe is not used, a petcock is provided at the top of the vent
which should be kept open at the time of filling oil in the tank and then
closed again.

72
  CONSERVATOR
As the temperature of the transformer oil increases or decreases, there is a
corresponding rise or fall in the oil volume. To account for this, an expansion
vessel commonly known as ‘conservator’ is connected to the transformer tank. The
oil level in the conservator is indicated by a float type gauge or prismatic level
indicator or both provided on its end covers.
During breathing of transformer the outside air comes in contact with the oil in the
conservator. This tends to add moisture and also dust particles in the oil in
conservator. The connecting pipe work to the tank is so designed that the lower
part of the conservator acts as a sump in which any impurities entering conservator
will collect.

 OIL PRESERVATION SYSTEM

Methods which are adopted to reduce oil contamination from moisture or dust in
the conservator are:
1. Silica gel breather (Conventional system)
2. Oil rubber bag sealing arrangement
3. Air rubber bag sealing system arrangement

1. SILICA GEL BREATHER

A silica gel breather is most commonly employed as a means of preventing
moisture ingress in the conservator. As the temperature of oil falls due to load or
ambient variation, air is drawn into the conservator through a container packed
with silica gel desiccant, which effectively dries the air (See figure -18).
There is an oil seal provided at the bottom of the breather. It consists of a cup
containing oil up to the marked level. During contraction of oil air breathes in
through the oil cup first which removes dust particles and then air passes through
silica gel which removes moisture before it gets into the conservator. When silica
gel crystals get saturated with the moisture, the original blue colour turns pink. The
silica gel crystals should not be less than 6 mm size as smaller crystals will offer
resistance to the flow of air.

When more than half of the silica gel turns pink from blue, silica gel should be
reactivated/replaced.

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 Fig.

Fig.18. SILICA GEL BREATHER

REACTIVATION OF SILICA GEL

Silica gel when it becomes pink can be reactivated by heating it in a shallow
pan at a temperature of 150 – 200 0C. When the crystals become dry (the condition
which can also be checked by breaking a few crystals), their original blue colour
will be restored. This reactivated silica gel is then ready for reuse.

2. OIL RUBBER BAG SEALING ARRANGEMENT

74
 A better system of keeping the conservator oil free from contamination will
be to prevent its contact from atmospheric air. This is achieved by using
synthetic rubber bellow or bag in the conservator. Any expansion or
contraction of oil due to temperature variation takes place by the
corresponding inflation or deflation of rubber bag. The conservator is
connected to a silica gel breather in a normal way to take care of the change
in volume of air surrounding the rubber b

EXPANSION AREA

OIL BAG

FIGURE 11 - OIL BAG SEALING ARRANGEMENT

bag in the conservator (See figure -19).

Fig.19

3. AIR RUBBER BAG SEALING ARRANGEMENT

In this arrangement atmospheric air is connected with air bag in the
conservator through a breather. During breathing in and out, the
inflation and deflation of air bag takes place. This way, out side air
does not come in contact with the conservator oil (See figure -20).

75
 PRESSURE VACCUM VALVE AIR BAG

HAND HOLE

DRAIN VALVE

BREATHER

FIGURE 12 - AIR RUBBER BAG SEALING ARRANGEMENT

Fig.20

OIL LEVEL INDICATOR/OIL GAUGE

The oil level in the conservator in smaller ratings of transformers is
indicated by prismatic level indicator fitted on one end of the
conservator either in one height or divided into two, covering the total
oil from minimum to maximum level in the indicator

 OFWF COOLERS
A pre-requisite for using water coolers is the availability of a source of
sufficient quantity of water. In most of the transformers for hydro
power stations, OFWF cooling (oil forced- water forced) is used. The
heat from oil is taken out by water passing through a nest of tubes. The
hot oil from the transformer tank is distributed over the cooling surfaces
of the tubes by baffles, which are arranged at regulator intervals along
the tube stack as shown in figure - 21.

76
 Figure 14
Fig. 21 OFWF COOLER

It is ensured while designing the cooler and its pipe work that the oil in
the cooler is maintained at a pressure higher than that of the water. This
prevents any leakage of water into the oil system in the event of a fault
developing in the cooler.

The coolers are available for horizontal or vertical mounting. This can
be either floor mounted or directly on the transformer tank wall.

The material used for the cooler tubes stack is stainless steel, copper or
admiralty brass depending upon the impurities present in cooling water.
Generally 2-100% coolers are used, one cooler acting as standby. For
better flexibility, by regulating the various interposing valves, it is
possible to use either cooler with either of the pumps.
To avoid the building up of back pressure in the water circuit, the water
outlet from the cooler should be perfectly free and not obstructed by
valves etc. The preferred form is a pipe emptying into a drain open to
the atmosphere.

OIL PUMP
The oil pump is provided at the oil inlet side of the cooler, taking out
hot oil from the top of the transformer tank and delivering it through the
cooler to the bottom of the tank. This is a closed circuit operation as
shown in the figure - 22.

77
 Fig.22. OIL PUMP
The pump is required to develop enough pressure, to overcome the
frictional head loss during the flow of oil in pipe work, cooling
equipment and windings etc.Transformer oil pumps employ special
feature of construction in which the pump and motor is an integral unit.
The pump impeller is screwed and locked on the driving motor shaft.
The motor unit is embodied inside the pump casing completely
immersed in transformer oil and is cooled by the surrounding oil.

OIL AND WATER FLOW INDICATORS

It is essential to monitor continuous flow of oil and water in the cooling

circuit of transformers for its safe working. Flow indicators employed
for this purpose perform the following two functions:
- Indicate the flow in proper direction.
- Provide signal by operation of a switch when flow drops below a pre-
set limit.
A suspended vane is used as a sensor. Its surface is kept at right angle
to the direction of flow in the pipe. Figure – 23 shows a schematic
diagram of a typical flow indicator.

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 Fig. 23. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A FLOW INDICATOR
When liquid starts flowing through the pipe, the vane gets deflected
along with the vane shaft. This deflection is transmitted through a
magnetic coupling to an indicating needle on the dial. The needle
indicates the flow of liquid corresponding to vane deflection. When the
flow in the circuit drops to 70-80% of full flow, a switch provided in
the instrument closes with the help of a cam and initiates the alarm.

GAUGES: OIL PRESSURE GAUGE,

DIFFRENTIAL .
PRESSURE GAUGE ETC
There are accessories such as oil pressure gauge, differential pressure
gauge (DPG), oil level indicating gauge etc. in a transformer. Other
gauges are used in the water cooling circuit.
Oil pressure gauge is provided in some cooling schemes to indicate the
oil pressure at the inlet of the cooler. This pressure is always designed
to be higher than the water pressure in the cooling tubes. There is a
switch provided in the gauge which initiates the alarm, if oil pressure
drops due to any reason.
In order to give direct measurement of difference of oil pressure and
water pressure in the cooler, a differential pressure gauge is provided in
the cooler circuit. In case the differential reduces to a preset value of
positive pressure, a switch provided in the DPG will initiate an alarm in
the control room.

Differential pressure gauge should always show a positive

pressure. It shall be an alarming situation, if the DPG reading becomes
zero or negative. In such a case either the DPG reading is faulty or there
is a leakage in the oil circuit. Steps should be taken to rectify the same.

79
 MARSHALLING BOX

A weather proof marshalling box is fitted on the side of

transformer tank or it may be separately mounted. This
accommodates the oil and winding temperature indicators (mainly
for outdoor type transformers), starters and controls for fans (for
ONAF cooling), pump motors (for OFWF cooling), and terminal
Connections from various alarm and trip circuits provided on the
transformer. A heater is provided inside the marshalling box to
avoid any condensation.

 BUSHINGS
The bushings are used for receiving terminals from windings on the oil
side and connecting them to bus duct, transmission lines, feeders etc. on
the air side. Normally, oil filled porcelain bushings are used for
voltages up to 33 KV, though in some cases condenser type bushings
have also been employed . In porcelain type, bushing consists of a
conducting bolt or tube within a porcelain jacket and is filled with oil
having communication with oil in the transformer tank.
The condenser type bushings generally consist of a central metallic
conductor tube enclosed by wound paper condenser layers for field
control. A porcelain jacket is provided on the bushing condenser core
and the space between the porcelain and the core is filled with oil. Air
space is left in the bushing top cap for the expansion of oil. A sight
glass is provided to indicate the top oil level.

 VALVES
Each transformer has number of valves fitted on it for meeting different
functions such as oil draining, filtering, sampling, isolating valves in
cooling circuit and other pipe work, radiator opening/closing valves, air
release valves/plugs etc. The valves may be double flanged gate valves,
single end screwed or double end screwed globe type,

built in valves with flat surfaces on both sides. They may be provided
with open-shut indication with or without facility for pad locking.

80
TRANSFORMER DRYNESS PARAMETERS

The following parameters are used to measure the dryness of

transformer windings and oil.
(i) Moisture content
(ii) Break down value of oil.
(iii) Insulation resistance.
(iv) Polarization index.
(v) Dew point.

MOISTURE CONTENT
Degradation of oil and insulation inside a transformer results into
formation of water and gas, which if not tackled at a proper time may
result into failure of a transformer.
Moisture is very important parameter which affects the dielectric
strength of oil particularly when the impurities are also present.
Therefore, it is essential that it is kept within limits. Transformer will
have to be dried using filter machine when the moisture content
becomes high, thus it is one of the parameters, which indicates the
dryness of transformer. Moisture content is measured using Karl
Fischer apparatus. Its measurements are taken at regular intervals
during dry out till the value reaches within acceptable limit.
When the filtration is carried out, first the moisture comes out of oil.
When oil gets starved, the moisture is released from the windings and
this way it goes on till equilibrium is established between the oil and
windings. More the moisture is removed from the oil, the more it will
come out of the windings.
The following table gives the desirable limits of moisture content inside
a transformer and the values at which the filtration should be carried
out.

81
Transformer Desirable limit of Value of moisture content at
Voltage Class moisture content which filtration should be
carried out
145 kV & above 10 ppm max. 20 ppm

72.5 kV & less 20 ppm max. 30 ppm

than 145 kV

Below 72.5 kV 25 ppm max. 35 ppm

BREAKDOWN VALUE OF OIL

The dielectric strength of oil is another indication for the quality of oil.
It gets reduced with the presence of moisture and other impurities. This
also gives fair assessment of dryness of transformer but we should not
solely depend upon this as moisture present in pure form may not be
able to affect the BDV much. The following table gives the guidelines
Transformer voltage Acceptable BDV BDV at which filtration
class (with a gap of 2.5mm) to be carried out
145 KV & above 60 KV min 50 KV

72.5 KV & less than 145 50 KV min. 40 KV

KV
Below 72.5 KV 40 KV min 30 KV

INSULATION RESISTANCE VALUE

Insulation resistance values between the windings or winding to earth
are also considered as a guideline for the dryness of transformer. This

82
along with moisture content and BDV of oil gives good indication
about the dryness of transformer. While carrying out the drying out
cycle using streamline filter machine, oil temperature as indicated by
oil temperature indicator should be recorded along with IR values taken
between HV winding and earth, LV winding and earth, and HV and LV
windings. When IR value is taken between one winding and earth, the
other windings should be earthed at that time. Usually these values
may be taken at an interval of 2 hours.
The insulation resistance in mega-ohms varies inversely with the
temperature. Though it cannot be taken as an absolute value but based
on experience it has been found that for every 10oC rise or fall in
temperature, the IR value changes by a factor K which is of the order of
1.6. This can serve as a good guide for conversion of IR values at
different temperatures. The factors thus worked out are tabulated
below:

Difference in temperature OC 10 20 30 40 50 60
Factor K 1.6 2.6 4.1 6.6 10.5 16.8

IR values should be measured by at least 1000 Volts megger, by

applying voltage for 1 minute.

POLARISATION INDEX.
When the transformer is dry the IR value increases at a faster rate with
the time of voltage application. This property is used as guideline to
judge the dryness. The IR values are measured at 15 seconds and 60
seconds of application of voltage in one go and a ratio of 60 seconds
and 15 seconds values is known as polarization index.

IR Value at 60 seconds
Polarization Index
IR Value at 15 seconds

This index is generally of the order of 1.5 or more but it has been seen
that the winding having tap changer connected to it may have a
polarisation index of the order of only 1.3.

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 DEW POINT
The dew point measurement determines the amount of moisture in the
gas and is stated as the temperature at which it will begin to condense
out. A lower dew point temperature means a dryer gas. The gas to be
tested may be the gas above the oil or it may be the gas in a transformer
which is being transported or being stored. It may also be the gas used
to fill the main tank during drying out process.
Normally the moisture level of the insulation is less than or equal to 0.5
% for a transformer installed in the field.

UNIT AUXILIARY TRANSFORMER (UAT)

It is a step-down transformer whose primary winding is energized
through tap off bus duct. Used for supplying 415 v, 3-phase supply to
unit auxiliary board (UAB) which in turn supply power to various unit
auxiliaries in the power house.

STATION AUXILIARY TRANSFORMER (SST)

It is a step-down transformer (11 KV / 415V) whose primary winding is
energized from the 11 KV bus. For supplying 415 V, 3- phase supply to
station auxiliary board (SSB) which in turn supply power to various
station auxiliaries of the power house.

84
Fig. 24. TRANSFORMER

85
86
CHAPTER 6: DESIGN AND ENGINEERING ASPECTS FOR HYDRO
POWER PLANT
6. GENERATING UNIT – SIZE SELECTION
Selection of unit-size is dictated by the techno-economic considerations
(hydraulic data, effective heat, flow rate, type of purchase, especially
pumped storage schemes, availability for peaking etc.) and transport
limitations. Space constraints for underground power house cavity also limit
the maximum unit-size to be selected for the prevalent hydrological
condition. However, within these constraints, attempts shall be made to
choose the layout & unit size so as to get benefits of economy due to size.

87
 Hydro generators of more than 700 MW unit capacity are already in
operation in the world. In India the highest capacity so far is 250 MW in
Tehri & Nathpa Jakhari HEPs. Although, the increased unit sizes reduce the
cost per kW, floor space / kW & weight of the machine, the size of the
Hydro generating units is dictated by various considerations, which are taken
into view while deciding the unit size. The various aspects are:

6.1.1 Design considerations

With the use of improved cooling & improvement in insulation & magnetic
steel technology for Hydro generators, higher rating machine with lower
weight ratio have been developed. Other design aspects are to withstand
high run away speed.
6.1.2 Transport Limitations
Site location imposes a limit on weight, height, length & width of any
package. In terms of weight limitation, strength of bridges etc. on the way
has to be critically examined before taking up the decision regarding Unit
size.
With the developments in metallurgy, superior insulation materials & new
methods of cooling, fast response digital governing & excitation systems,
improvement in manufacturing techniques & methods of erection, assembly
at site is gradually over coming the limitations imposed by Transport
conditions.

6.1.3 Manufacturing considerations

Hydro generators are generally tailor made to site conditions & the
manufacturer has to examine the availability of sizes, variety & complexity
of various machine tools, implements & facilities.

6.1.4 Effect of Weight & Dimensions on civil works

88
 The internal dimensions of the machine hall, width & height are determined
in accordance with the weight & size of the largest assembly. Foundation
construction depends upon the weight & size of the machine.

6.1.5 Effect of size on system operation

- Load dispatching & economic loading angle

- Stability consideration

Site location imposes a limit on weight, height, length & width of any
package. In terms of weight limitation, strength of bridges etc. on the way
has to be critically examined before taking up the decision regarding Unit
size.
With the developments in metallurgy, superior insulation materials & new
methods of cooling, fast response digital governing & excitation systems,
improvement in manufacturing techniques & methods of erection, assembly
at site is gradually over coming the limitations imposed by Transport
conditions. Split type large capacity power transformers, split runners &
forged welded shafts are some of the latest developments which could help
in overcoming the logistical limitations due to transport.

6.2 TURBINE & MAIN INLET VALVE

6.2.1 Selection of Turbine

The selection of turbine is of prime importance to get best operating
efficiencies and optimum civil works cost. The operation and maintenance
cost are also important considerations.

The possible combination of head and capacity, even when speeds are
restricted by synchronous speed are so numerous that identical units can
hardly be used at more than one site.

The hydro projects being site specific, as such the use of standard or off the
shelf units may not be possible. Thus for the selection of turbine, a detailed
case study is carried out considering the various parameters/conditions. The

89
 selection of type of turbine is made based on the “Head” and output. The
broad classification is given below:-

- Low head (up to 60 mtrs.) – Kaplan Turbine.

- Medium head (30 to 600 mtrs) – Francis Turbine.
- High head (more than 300 mtrs) – Pelton Turbine.

The above classification based on head is only a broad guide line and there
is a large overlapping zone, for which the following considerations are
taken:-

- Head variation
- Civil costs
- In flow variation i.e. part load operation
- Maintenance
- Efficiently

6.2.2 Development of Turbine with Improved Efficiency

New design of turbine runners can increase the efficiency of older plants by
about 2%. Computer programmes help in accurately analyzing deformation and
stresses of structural components. Computer studies provide more reliable and
faster identification and quantification of losses to improve efficiency.

6.2.3 Turbine Efficiency

The hydro turbines are expected to operate over a wide range of output, it is
advisable to specify weighted average efficiency calculated from the
corresponding efficiencies at various outputs. The weighting factors should be
selected corresponding to the average annual time (in percent) that the units are
expected to be operated at a particular output. Due to improved design of
turbine, the weighted average efficiency obtainable for Reaction turbine is more
than 95% and for Impulse turbine more than 92%.

6.2.4 Design Head

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 Design head (hd) is the net head at which peak efficiency of turbine is desired.
This head must be so selected that the maximum and minimum heads are not
beyond the permissible operating range of the turbine. Design head determines
the basic dimensions of the turbine. Design head (hd) is calculated
approximately by the following equation: -

(hd) : Minimum net head +2/3 (Maximum net head - Minimum net head)

6.2.5 Specific Speed and Synchronous Speed

The trial specific speed is selected on the basis of empirical formula

involving design head.

Rotational speed of turbine is calculated from this specific speed.

The calculated rotational speed is rounded to the nearest synchronous speed

and the specific speed is again calculated. Rated speed resulting in even
number of pair of poles is preferred normally.

In case of high silt content, a lower step synchronous speed should be

selected.

6.2.6 Turbine Setting

Turbine setting depends on maximum net head, water vapour pressure and
barometric pressure corresponding to the site altitude. Usually, the center
line of the runner is placed lower than the minimum tail water level in case
of reaction turbines to minimize the cavitation effect.

Deeper setting gives better performance of the machine at the expense of

higher civil costs (in case of surface power station) as it reduces cavitation.

6.2.7 Runner Removal

Provision of runner removal for maintenance is made. There are two

methods of removing the runner, one from the top and other from the
bottom.

91
 Removal of runner from bottom
Normally adopted for high speed turbines with due consideration for runner
diameter.

Removal of runner from top

Normally adopted for low speed turbines. The generator rotor & shaft are
removed first and then the runner is removed through the stator bore. This
takes longer down time.

6.2.8 Main Inlet Valve

The inlet valve is placed (connecting penstock to the turbine) just before the

scroll case in the water conductor system. MIV is used for normal operations &

for shut down in case of emergency/maintenance. These are of the following

types: -

- Butterfly Valve (up to 200 m head)

- Spherical Valve (More than 200 m head)
6.2.9 Pressure Rise and Speed Rise

Pressure rise and speed rise are function of water conductor system, inertia
of generating unit and the governor design parameters.

The permitted speed rise for reaction turbines should not be more than 60%
& for pelton turbine not more than 20%. However, a speed rise of about
50% is normally specified for reaction turbines to minimize vibrations.

Pressure rise shall not be more than 30 to 35% for Francis turbines 30 to 50
% for Kaplan turbines & for Pelton turbines not more than 15%.

Turbine shall be designed to withstand runaway speed (normally around 1.8

times the rated speed) for 30 minutes. However, it should be around 25
percent less than the critical speed.

92
6.2.10Governing System

Application of microprocessor technology has enabled the use of digital

systems for process control where high-speed control is required. These
governors are mainly used for:

- Speed/frequency control
- Load control
- Speed/load control.

Performance requirements of the governor are given below:-

- Stability: Speed oscillation does not exceed + 0.15% of rated speed.

- Dead time: 0.2 seconds
- Speed Dead Band : 0.02%
- Speed regulation : 0-10%

6.2.11Pressure Oil System Equipments

Pressure oil system shall be provided for each turbine for operation of
turbine wicket gates/Nozzle/deflector servomotors through governors and
for control of MIV. For major H.E. projects, separate pressure oil system
should be used for turbines & MIVs for reliability consideration.

The trend is towards using higher oil pressure. The pressure of 60 Kg./cm2
often specified allows smaller valves, pressure tanks, pipings and
servomotors.

For higher oil pressure, piston type accumulator with nitrogen bottles shall
be used.

6.2.12Materials

Special care should be taken to choose the material of the under water parts.
The material for runner and guide vane is 13:4 Cr-Ni stainless steel and for
turbine shaft forged carbon steel. The material 16:5 Cr-Ni stainless steel is
also used for manufacture of runner. The other parts like stay ring, spiral
case, top cover, and bottom ring, regulating ring, draft tube liner and pit liner
are made of steel.

93
As most of the rivers in the northern belt of the country are heavily loaded
with silt, it erodes the turbine under water parts. Material Technologists and
the manufacturers are busy world over to develop various types of metallic
and non-metallic coatings to check the problem of silt erosion in parts like
Runner, Guide Vanes, MIV etc. The application of plasma nitriding,
ceramics and polyurethane polymers coatings by Guns, High Velocity Oxy
Fuel system (HVOF), etc. are being tried on parts like runner and guide
vanes. Development of better material and alloys to withstand silt
conditions in Himalayan region have also been identified for Research &
Development.

6.3. GENERATOR
The main important parameters to be specified/ finalized for the design of
the hydro generator are:

i) Rated & maximum MVA output at P.F, Voltage, Frequency

ii) Synchronous speed
iii) Moment of Inertia required for generator rotor
iv) Over-loading capacity, if any
v) Bearing arrangement (Umbrella, semi umbrella or suspended
Type)
vi) Reactive power capability
vii) Rated voltage, reactances, efficiency, temperature-rise of stator,
rotor & bearings, damper windings etc.

6.3.1 Generator Output Capacity

The rated capacity of a generator/motor-generator is defined in IEC-34-1 as
the continuous output expressed in KVA available at the terminals at rated
speed, frequency, voltage and power factor. In addition, motor-generators
have a continuous output rating expressed in Kilowatts available at the shaft
at a specified speed, frequency, voltage and power factor. Generator
output/capacity is specified corresponding to the turbine rated output at rated
net head, frequency, voltage and power factor. Motor – generators are
specified with an additional motor shaft output corresponding to the pump
input at minimum rated head and the pump overload capacity at minimum
head shall be taken as 5%.

94
 6.3.2 Rated Speed
The generator rated speed shall be matching the turbine or pump-turbine
rated speed. Speed selection has an extremely significant impact on the
generator/motor-generator design. Rated speed resulting in even number of
pair of poles is normally preferred.

6.3.3 Rated Voltage

Generator Voltage is governed by the rated speed, number of parallel paths
and the slot current. Higher Voltage means higher insulation cost but
reduced current and copper cross-section/cost. To optimize the generator
cost, the current flowing in stator slot should be limited to 3000-5000
Amperes with current through individual coil being limited to approximately
3000 Amperes.

6.3.4 Power Factor

The power factor is specified on the basis of the power system requirements.
Most common value of power factor specified for hydro electric machines is
0.90.

6.3.5 Reactive Power Capability

Reactive power capability requirements dictated by power system and
transmission line lengths should be appropriately specified.
The machine over and under excited reactive capacity along with the rated
capacity and power factor, broadly define the machine characteristic.
The over excited rating of the machine is referred to as the “ Synchronous
condenser capability”. It is the maximum amount of reactive KVA that the
machine can generate when operating over excited, at rated frequency and
voltage, without exceeding the rated temperature rise.
6.3.6 Machine Reactances

The convention has been to define two sets of reactances with the following
designations:-

- Rated voltage reactance (Saturated value of reactance)

- Rated current reactance (unsaturated value of reactance)

Another value which is specified is the minimum Short Circuit Ratio

(SCR). This value is used to give a measure of the relative strengths of the

95
field and armature ampere turns. It is defined as the ratio of the field current
required to produce rated armature voltage at no-load to the field current
required to circulate rated armature current with the armature short circuited.
Typical values of SCR for large hydro-generators are as follows:-

Power factor SCR

1.00 1.250
0.95 1.175
0.90 1.100
0.85 1.050
0.80 1.000

6.3.7 Temperature Rise

The following temperature limits (above a 40 degree Celsius ambient) are

specified for class-F insulation system for both stator and rotor windings:-

- Stator winding (measured by embedded temperature detectors) –

80° C

- Field winding (measured by resistance method) – 90°

C

The limit of temperature of the thrust bearing metal on large hydro-electric

machines is generally 80° C. The guide bearing temperature limit is
specified as 70° C.
6.3.8 Damper Windings

When generating machines run in parallel, particularly on fractional load,

the generator may oscillate resulting in loss of synchronism. To prevent
such oscillations in generators, damper winding and damper grids are
provided in the laminated pole face of rotor. It is common practice to
specify all hydro electric machines to have low-resistance damper windings.

96
 6.3.9 Fly Wheel Effect
The fly wheel effect is defined by the equation
Fly wheel effect = GD² where
G = mass of the rotating parts (Kg)
D = 2x radius of gyration of the rotor (meters)
The fly wheel effect is expressed in terms of the machine H constant by
the equation:
H = 1.37xGD2xn2 x10–6/rated KVA

The inertia of the machine is an important factor in determining stability of

the machine:
- It must be adequate to meet the transient stability requirements
imposed by the interconnected electrical power system.
- It must be adequate to limit speed rise.
- It must have such a value which will not cause the machine natural
frequency to be in resonance with the expected frequency of draft-tube
hydraulic surges.

6.3.10 Generator Efficiency

Generally, only the value of efficiency at the rated machine conditions is
specified. However, in those cases where the machine is expected to operate
over a wide range of output, it is advisable to specify a weighted average
efficiency calculated from the corresponding efficiencies at various outputs.
The weighting factors should be selected to correspond to the average annual
time ( in percent) that the units are expected to be operated at a particular
output. With the improved design of generator the weighted average
efficiency obtainable is more than 98.65%.
6.3.11 Bearing Arrangements

There are three possible bearing arrangements for large vertical hydro
electric machines, as follows:-
- Combined thrust and guide bearing mounted on a top bearing bracket
above the rotor. This conventional bearing arrangement (suspended type

97
 with the thrust bearing located above the rotor is generally used for small
diameter, long core, high speed machines,
- Combined thrust and guide bearing mounted on a separate bearing
bracket located below the rotor (umbrella type arrangement).

The vast majority of large machines are constructed with the combined
thrust and guide bearing installed on a lower bearing bracket below the
rotor. An upper guide bearing is customarily installed above the rotor
and installed on a separate, light-weight guide bearing bracket mounted
on the top of the stator frame. This type of arrangement is termed as
semi-umbrella arrangement.

- Combined thrust and guide bearing mounted on the turbine head

cover. This design is often referred to as a “Close-coupled” machine.

6.3.12Cooling System
Cooling of the machine should be as uniform as possible. Two basic
methods for cooling the stator windings of high capacity hydro-electric
machines are commonly employed, as follows:-
- Forced air cooling of the windings using either the natural fan action
of the rotor or with supplementary motor-operated cooling fans.
- Direct water cooling of the windings using de-ionized water passing
through the hollow strands of the windings to remove the heat.

6.3.13Fire Protection System for Generator

Two types of fire suppression systems are generally specified: Water spray
and CO2. The water spray system has the advantage of being relatively
inexpensive. The water acts both as a fire suppressant as well as an effective
coolant. Its principal disadvantage is the danger of an accidental discharge
inside the machine housing and the need to clean the windings afterwards.
This system is normally put in manual mode. On the other hand, CO2 is a
clean suppression agent requiring no clean up after a discharge. However, it
is more expensive and requires ducting to vent the CO2 from the housing
after a discharge.

6.3.14 Generator Terminal Equipment

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 Isolated phase bus-ducts is the acceptable method of connecting generators
to the step-up transformers for large sized units in modern power houses.
The isolated phase bus duct is available in both continuous and non-
continuous housing designs.
- The non-continuous design may be used for low-amperage circuit up
to 6000 A.
- The continuous enclosure design is used for higher current ratings.
The continuous housing design has higher losses than the non-continuous
housing design because of the higher enclosure currents circulated in the
continuous housing design. However, the continuous housing design is
always preferred.
- The starting bus for pumped storage plants shall be rated to carry the motor
starting current during start up from VFC or back to back from another unit.
For pumped-storage plants starting on back-to-back synchronous starting the
starting bus duct need be designed for currents as much as 3 times the
starting current required for motor starting by VFC (Variable Frequency
Converter).

6.3.15 Neutral Grounding Terminal Equipment

All large hydro electric machines are having a wye-connected stator winding
with the neutral brought out of the machine housing and grounded via a
high-resistance circuit consisting of the following components:-
-A single-phase distribution type transformer connected between the
generator neutral and ground. This transformer should preferably be either a
dry-type or epoxy resin, cast coil type having a standard, high-voltage rating
approximately equal to 1.5 times the maximum machine phase-to-ground
terminal voltage rating. This higher voltage rating is recommended in order
to avoid excessive magnetizing inrush current when a ground fault occurs.
The secondary is normally rated 240/120 V.

- A resistor is connected across the secondary terminals of the

distribution transformer. This arrangement makes the machine
grounding effectively a high-resistance type.

6.3.16 Surge Protection

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 On large, unit connected machines, the windings are connected to the power
system network via step-up power transformers. Voltage surges can only
enter the machine winding via the power transformers which are protected
by surge arresters connected to the high-voltage side of the transformers.
Surge protection comprising surge arresters and surge capacitors shall be
provided on the machine terminals.

6.3.17 Instrument Transformers

Current transformers should preferably be of single phase window type
fitted around the bus conductors for meeting the protection & measuring /
mounting requirements.
Voltage Transformers shall be located in separate cubicle for each of the
three phases & mounted in withdrawable drawers.
Where surge protection is provided, it is customary to install the surge
arrestors and/or the surge capacitors in the same cubicle as the Voltage
Transformers with suitable barriers.

6.4 GENERATOR STEP-UP TRANSFORMERS

6.4.1 Type and Ratings

- Water Cooled transformers, wherever feasible, are preferred for hydro
power plants on account of their having lower weight and transport
dimensions. As such, the type of cooling is generally OFWF/ODWF.
- In case, provision of water cooling being not feasible, OFAF type
generator transformers are provided.
- The transformer MVA rating, percentage impedance and secondary
voltage are selected so as to optimise the use of the generator real (MW)
and reactive (MVAR) capabilities in the system to which the transformer
is to be connected. The primary voltage is selected based on the
generation voltage and the secondary voltage based on transmission
system considering the flow of power from the power stations to the grid.
MVA rating is selected based upon:

- Generator maximum output

- Power factor

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 - Correction for altitude and ambient temperatures

Secondary voltage should be specified after duly taking into

consideration the impedance voltage drop so that the voltage at the high
voltage bushings matches the system voltage. Voltage variations
especially for 400 KV systems should be specified based on the power
system studies.

6.4.2 Selection of Single Phase/Three Phase Transformers

Selection of single phase or three phase transformers for hydro power plants
is dictated by the transportation limitations and should be finalized
considering the status of load carrying capabilities of bridges, etc.

6.4.3 Oil-Water Coolers

Transformers are provided with two complete independent sets of cooling
equipment each with 100% capacity. The oil-water cooler shall be designed
to facilitate easy cleaning. The cooler tube bundle shall be formed by
double concentric tubes with an air space between oil and water path to
prevent water mixing with oil. Water leakages shall be collected between
the tubes.

6.4.4 Efficiency
With the improvement in designs, the efficiency obtainable at rated load for
large power transformers is more than 99.7%.

6.4.5 Fire Protection System for Transformer

Mulsifyre fire protection system for generator-transformer is provided. This
system is normally put in auto mode. If the space between the transformers
is less than 15m, a fire wall is to be provided between them. The rating of
the fire wall is to be for 3 hours and capable of withstanding exploding
bushings and surge arrestors. The wall shall extend 0.31 m above top of
tank/oil conservator and 0.61 m beyond cooling radiators.

6.4.6 Conservator

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 Diaphragm type oil sealing in conservator to prevent oxidation and
contamination of oil due to contact with moisture is provided. Diaphragm of
conservator shall be able to withstand the vacuum during
installation/maintenance periods. The connection of the air cell to the top
reservoir is by an air-proof seal preventing entrance of air into the
conservator.

6.6 ELECTRICAL AUXILIARIES

6.6.1 D.C. Supply System
The main objective of the design of DC supply system is to ensure
uninterrupted DC power supply availability in a power station. This is
achieved by proper selection of scheme & equipment. The requirement in
this direction is the type of cell, Amp- hour capacity, maintenance, life
expectancy, market innovation etc.
D.C. Supply distribution systems typically contains:-
- Batteries
- Battery Chargers
- Distribution Boards

6.6.2 Grounding System

All electrical installations/ equipment have to be earthed / grounded to ensure
-Dangerous potentials during normal as well as fault conditions are kept
within the limits.
- Provide least resistance path for grounded neutral circuits.
- Facilitate relaying to clear ground faults.
- Provide a means of discharging current carrying parts which are to be
handled by personnel.

For most of hydro-electric projects, separate, distinct grounding system

should be provided for power house, switchyard, & other civil/ hydraulic
structures & inter-connected, if system design so dictates.

Criteria

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 Power house - to be designed to provide a max. 1.0 ohm
resistance to ground.

Switchyard - not more than 1.0 ohm resistance to ground.

Special attention - VFC drives, HV-GIS equipment Computer Networks,

High frequency Cameras/ equipment.

- Separate ground mat, if feasible, be provided for power house,

switchyard, remote structures such as control buildings, communication
buildings, spillway gate structures, storage buildings, etc.
- If the control, computer and communication rooms are located in
electrically noisy areas (e.g. VFC drives, high voltage GIS equipment etc),
a “High-frequency signal reference ground grid beneath a false floor shall
be considered, to provide a noise-free, low impedance ground to the
equipment.
- The switchyard mat should extend 1.5 - 2.0 mts. outside the
switchyard fencing. Grounding platforms should be installed at all switch
operators inside the switchyard.
- Touch and Step potentials limit be maintained to an acceptable value.

6.6.3 Illumination

Lighting for each area of the Project is required in order to have illumination
needed to perform tasks normally associated with the area.
Illumination levels are based on BIS/ manufacturers catalog. Type of
luminaries is selected as per the requirement of the area plus aesthetic
factors. System is designed to ensure energy saving/ conservation by
providing suitable sensors etc.
General indoor and outdoor lighting and receptacle are served by 3-Ø, 4
wire A.C. system. Transformers and panels are located so as to optimise
wiring and to limit voltage drops to acceptable values. Fluorescent,
incandescent and high intensity discharge lamps shall be used to obtain
required intensities consistent with lamp life economy and functional
appearance.

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 - Fluorescent lamps are mostly used in interior spaces
- High-intensity Discharge (HD) Lamps:

Sodium vapour lighting fixtures are preferred for outdoor lighting such as
switchyards, spillways and dams, parking areas etc. Automatic switching
via photo electric cells can be adopted for outdoor lighting to optimise
power consumption.
Metal-halide fixtures are used for certain indoor areas such as erection bay,
generator hall, machine shop, turbine pit and other “high-bay” areas where
proper colour rendition is needed and long-life is essential.
Incandescent lamps should be used only for battery powered emergency
lights and for certain places where lights should not be turned on
continuously or where fluorescent fixtures are impractical.
Emergency lighting is deployed in the event that normal A.C. power
distribution system fails. The emergency requirement are at first met from
the diesel generator sets and when all alternatives of A.C. supply fail,
battery powered emergency fixtures provide the minimum requirement of
lighting. The battery should have sufficient capacity to provide 4 hours
uninterrupted illumination independently.

6.6.4 Power and Control Cables

Power cables for 11 kV systems are XLPE insulated with conductor and
insulation screen. FRLS PVC outer sheathed cables are used for
underground power stations. The 415 V system cables are of 1.1. KV grade,
PVC insulated. The sizing of all power cables is being done on the basis of
current rating taking into account proper derating factors for temperature,
group deration, laying conditions, fault current and fault clearing time.

5.6.5 Cable Trench/ Rack System

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 For laying of cables in a power house, a broad based system involving cable
gallery, trenches, racks, shafts etc. are provided.
In outdoor switchyards, a cable trench system is provided.
The main considerations/ practices are :
- High frequency cables/ control cables shall preferably be routed in
separate fire resistant conduits.
- Segregation & proper spacing is maintained.
- Proper attention should be given to Ventilation/ heat dissipation aspects
particularly in case of HV cables.

6.6.6 Unit auxiliary A.C. Supply System & Station Auxiliary A.C. Supply
System
To feed the unit essential auxiliaries and the station auxiliaries, unit
auxiliary/station auxiliary supply systems are provided.

6.6.6.1 Unit Auxiliary A.C. Supply System

As per the auxiliary supply scheme normally adopted each generating unit
will be provided with unit auxiliary transformer to feed the unit essential
loads. The unit auxiliary transformers, one for each unit, are fed from the
unit’s own generation. The unit essential load constitute, cooling water
pump motor load, excitation and AVR cooling fans, space heaters and
OPU . The capacity of UATs is selected to continuously cater to all
auxiliary load for respective unit. During starting and stopping of units
these loads are fed from SSB.

6.6.6.2 Station Auxiliary A.C. supply system

Basic Criteria - designed to provide a high degree of reliability &

continuity of service
Primary function - to supply uninterrupted AC supply to Auxiliaries etc.
Various station supply loads such as fire-fighting equipment, illumination,
drainage & dewatering pumps, oil purifier units, D.C. battery charger loads,
ventilation & air conditioning loads, EOT crane loads, L.P. & H.P. air

105
 compressor loads, lift load etc. are determined and maximum demand is
calculated at a diversity factor of 0.75. The availability of input supply is
ensured from sources independent of station generation. In addition,
adequate provision for meeting one unit auxiliaries load during
starting/stopping of unit is also kept and for this purpose the UAB’s are
connected to SSB through tie breakers.
- It is customary to provide 2 Nos. SSTs of equal capacity; one SST
being provided as a stand -by arrangement.
- In the event of A.C. supply failure, the station loads are supplied by a
D.G. Set of suitable capacity.

5.6.7Protection
- Protective relays are used to detect electrical faults and to alarm,
disconnect or shut down the faulted apparatus to provide for personal
safety and equipment protection.
- All relays used are suitable for operation with CTs secondaries rated
for 1 Amp or 5 Amps as per IEC/IEEE standards.
- Electrical faults are detected by protective relays arranged in
overlapping zones of protection so that each fault condition is detected by
at least two systems of protective relays. The relays are connected in two
groups viz Group A & Group B. Group A & Group B protective relays
should operate quickly to detect the fault and trip the appropriate circuit
breakers to interrupt the flow of current to faulty apparatus. Even one
group of relays malfunction, the other group of relays will operate and
clear the fault.
-Group A & Group B relaying systems should be completely separated by
using separate set of instrument transformers, segregated wiring and dual
redundant C.B. trip coils.
- Basic Types of Relays Used in Protection Scheme are: -
a) Over current
b) Over current with voltage restraint
c) Directional over current
d) Directional power
e) Differential relays

6.4 MECHANICAL AUXILIARIES

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6.4.1 EOT Crane

EOT Cranes installed in the power station are not used so frequently after
completion of construction work. Therefore, slow-speed cranes which are
slow in hoist and travel are employed.
The span of the crane is determined by power house width in such way that
working range of the crane hooks is sufficient for the assembly and
disassembly of the main equipment in the power house. This working range
is expressed by the range of the travel and lift of the main and auxiliary
crane hook. The top of the lift (upper limit) is decided so that it is possible
to hoist and carry the rotor of the generator and to assemble the transformer
in some cases, without any trouble. The bottom of the lift (lower limit) is
decided to such a height as necessary for assembly and disassembly of the
water turbine.

6.4.2 Cooling Water System

Cooling water systems caters for the following cooling water requirement of
the unit: -
- Generator Air Coolers
- Shaft Seal
- Turbine and Generator Bearings
- Generator transformer cooling

In addition to the above, very often cooling water requirement of the

following system/equipment is also clubbed with the above: -
- Ventilation and Air-conditioning system
- Fire Protection System
The cooling water requirement is met through either of the following to
ways: -
- Penstock tapping
- Tail pool / draft tube water pumping

 Penstock Tapping
Penstocks are tapped and a common header is formed to meet the above
cooling water requirement.
- Suitable for pressure around 10 Kg/cm2 in the penstock as most of the
requirement is in the range of net pressure 3 to 5 Kg./cm2. Thus a higher

107
 pressure in the penstock prevents the use beyond 10 Kg./cm2. For high
head installation, penstock tapping is not recommended.
- Normally no pumping is required. However, sometimes booster pumps
may be required/provided.

 Tail Pool Water Pumping

-Water is taken out from the tail pool / draft tube by means of pumps.
- Water can be directly fed into the cooling water header from which the
tappings as required are taken out.
In silt laden projects, it is preferable to adopt closed circuit cooling water
system.

6.4.3 Dewatering & Drainage System.

The unit is required to be dewatered during maintenance of the reaction
turbines. Water trapped between penstock gate/main inlet valve and draft
tube gate is drained out to the dewatering sump.
- The water is drained out from the lowest part that is draft tube knee/bend.
- The bottom level of the sump is the lowest elevation level in the power
house defining the lowest excavation level.
- The water collected in the dewatering sump is pumped out to the tail
race.
- The capacity of the pump is chosen so that a single unit can be dewatered
within a single shift operation without raising the level in the sump.
- All the drainage within the power house are guided inside the drainage
sump constructed aside the dewatering sump.
- The drainage water is pumped out to the tail race.
- The drainage and dewatering sumps are inter connected by means of gate
valve and non return valve which allows the flow of water from drainage
sump to dewatering sump.
- At the top of the dewatering sump pressure hatch is provided to arrest
any flow from the bottom. Drainage sump has no pressure hatch.

6.4.4 Fire Protection System

Provision of overhead/pressurized water tank of appropriate capacity to meet

the following requirement is made: -

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 - Mulsifyre water requirement for one generator transformer for 40
minutes, plus
- Operation of one hydrant for 60 minutes
Provision of mulsifyre protection for oil filled transformers, water sprinkler
system for oil plant rooms, especially in underground power house & fire
hose cabinets/hydrants for power house indoor as well as transformer floor
shall be made.
Provision of 2 No. of fire pumps each capable of pumping water to meet the
water requirement of mulsifyre system of a generator transformer plus one
hydrant operation shall be made.
The following fire protection measures shall also be provided:
- Portable Fire extinguishers
- Foam Type
- Carbon dioxide Type

-To initiate alarm and give signal for operation for fire control in the affected
area, the following types of detectors are provided:-
- Smoke detectors.
- Heat detectors
- Fusible optical fiber linear heat sensing cable.
- Water based fire detections line with Quartzoid bulbs.

6.4.5 Ventilation & Air-Conditioning System

To achieve proper working conditions inside the power house complex,
ventilation and air-conditioning system is required to serve the following
purposes:-
- To prevent temperature stratification.
- To remove contaminated air.
- To remove waste heat from equipment.
- To furnish outside air necessary for human comfort as regard to
temperature, humidity & oxygen content.
- To extract/force out smoke and other toxic gases during fire.

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 6.4.6Power House Lift
Minimum one lift is provided in the power house along with two sets of
staircase for the movement of passengers/goods. The lift can be designed as
goods lift or passenger lift. Generally 10-16 passenger lift is provided in the
power house. The factor of safety for any part of the lift should not be less
than 5.

6.5 SWITCHYARD EQUIPMENT

6.5.1 High Voltage Switchgear / Switchyard
- Air insulated outdoor switchgear is generally preferred owing to its
low cost compared to GIS. GIS is preferred at location having space
constraints and underground switchgear rooms. A hybrid switchyard
having GIS & conventional air-insulated switchgear is also a possibility
in some cases. Advantages/merits of each type have to be considered
before deciding upon the type of switchgear to be employed. However,
cost, space & security aspects are the main factors to be evaluated.
- The following items to be evaluated to determine the site of a
switchyard.
a) General topographical features of the area
b) Accessibility to heavy equipment transportation (assembly as well as
removal)
c) Public safety, audible noise, electric and magnetic fields effects on
human health
d) Soil resistivity & switchyard grounding
e) Impact of weather and environmental pollution
f) Convenience of tower locations/ installations

6.5.2 Switching Schemes

Various switching schemes in vogue are Single Bus, Sectionalized Single
Bus, Double Bus (Main & Transfer), Ring Bus, Double Bus plus Transfer
Bus, 1 ½ Breaker Scheme etc.
The Switching scheme selected must ensure : -
- Short circuit capacity
- Flexible operation
- High reliability
- Isolation of bus for maintenance

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 - Isolation of circuit breakers for maintenance
- Isolation of Bus-faults
- All switching should preferably be performed with circuit breakers
- Techno-economics of each alternative considered

6.5.3Circuit Breakers
- Air blast circuit breaker or SF6 gas circuit breakers with standard
voltage and current ratings are generally preferred.
- For voltages below 245 KV, breakers with a common 3 pole operating
mechanism are adopted. System requirements may deem it necessary to
use single pole tripping and at voltages higher than 245 V to improve
system stability.
- Breakers with surge suppression resistors for limiting magnitude of
surges generated during breaker closing are preferred for voltage rating
of 400 kV and above, if system requirement so dictates.

.6.5.4 Isolating Switches

Selection of a isolating switch (disconnector) is largely determined by the
station layout and circuit breaker voltage & current ratings. Some common
types preferred are:-
- Dual blade, horizontal center break
- Single blade, vertical break
- Double blade, vertical center break
- Single blade earthing switches (where not provided integrally with
isolator).

6.5.5 Surge Arrestors

- Metal oxide/Zinc Oxide type arrestors are preferred owing to their:-
a) improved over voltage withstand
b) lower discharge voltage
c) higher reliability
d) lower height
e) improved protective margins
- Station class arrestors are used for heavy duty (10-20 KA) and for
voltage ratings from 2.4 KV to 800 KV. They are typically used for

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 protection of sub-station equipment, rotating machinery and other
applications where premium protection is required.

- Surge arrestors are located near the equipment being protected, as per
the requirement of insulation co-ordination studies.

6.5.6 Grounding
Switchyard grounding should be designed to conform to the requirements of
IEEE-80 –‘Guide for safety in substation grounding’.

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CHAPTER 7: POWER POTENTIAL STUDIES-ROR SCHEME
The input data necessary for optimization study of a ROR plant are-
 Reliable and faithful 10-daily river discharge for as many years as available
or at least for the past 10 to 15 years.
 Full Reservoir Level (FRL)
 Minimum Draw Down Level (MDDL) in case of dam
 Tail Water rating curve,
 Head Losses in Water Conductor System
 Evaporation losses in case of storage plant
 Downstream release commitments if any
 Reservoir Elevation-Area-Capacity curve

Based on the above data, we work out the installed capacity of the plant. The
study is also known as power potential study through which the hydro power
generation and capacity of the project is estimated. Procedure for determining
the optimum Hydro power plant capacity depends on the type of Scheme
selected i.e., R-O-R scheme or storage scheme.

STEPS OF POWER POTENTIAL STUDIES

1. The 10-daily inflow data is arranged into hydrological years

2. Rated Head is calculated as per the formula depending on the type of
turbine.

FOR PELTON:
H = MDDL+ 2/3(FRL -MDDL) - TCL - Head loss
FOR FRANCIS AND KAPLAN:
H = MDDL+ 2/3(FRL -MDDL) - TWL - Head loss
Rated Net Head
• Rated Net Head (Hrated)
Hrated = Hgross– Hloss

where
Hgross : Gross Head (In Meter)
Hloss : Head Loss (In Meter) at Hgross

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3. Overall Efficiency
Overall Efficiency (η)

η = (ηtur / 100) X (ηgen / 100)

where
ηtur : Turbine Efficiency (in %)
ηgen : Generator Efficiency (in %)

4. Water power formula

P MW = (9.81 x Q x H x η t x g )/1000
Where,
Q = Discharge in m3/s
H = Head in metre
η t x g =Overall efficiency
5. For each 10-daily period, based on the calculated rated head, :
a. Power potential (in MW) of the inflows in each 10-daily is calculated.
b. Unrestricted energy (in MU) that could be generated is calculated
based on the calculated power potential
6. Annual Unrestricted energy (in MU) for each Hydrological year is
calculated and arranged in descending order of energy.
7. From this series, 90% dependable year is determined by the formula:
(N+1) x 0.9
where ‘N’ is the number of years for which hydrological data is available.
Estimation of project installed capacity based on the 90% dependable year
ensures availability of required inflows to support the installed capacity 90% of
the time.
7. In 90% dependable year, restricted energy generation corresponding to
different installed capacities at equal intervals in ascending order would be
calculated.
8. Incremental Power Array
Steps for Calculation of Incremental Power Array:
1) Calculate Unrestricted Power in each Period of 90% Dependable
year.
2) Find the “Minimum Unrestricted Power PMin” in 90% Dependable year.

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9. Restricted Energy
( In a particular 10 Daily / Month )
Unrestricted Energy Ures (in MU)

Ures = ( Pres x 24 x D ) / 1000

Where
Pres : Restricted Power (in MW) in particular period (10 Daily/
Month)
D : No. of Days in corresponding period (10 Daily / Month)

10. Total Annual Restricted Energy

Total Annual Restricted Energy (in MU) = ∑ Ures (for one year)

Where
Ures: Restricted Energy (in MU) in one period (10 Daily /
Month)
11. Load Factor
(for a given installed capacity)
Load Factor LF (in %)

LF = ((∑ Ures ) x1000 x 100 ) / ( PInstalled x 365 x24 )

Where
∑ Ures : Total restricted energy in given year (in MU)
PInstalled : Installed Capacity (in MW)

Finalisation of project parameters

The installed capacity would be selected from the table with the following
considerations:
 Load factor should be in the range of 40 to 60%
 Load factor for additional installed capacity should be in the range of 9 to
16%
 Energy of 90% Dependable year for the selected installed capacity
considering 95% machine availability is considered as Design Energy.

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 CONCLUSION
Though we have achieved considerable heights in power technology but the apex
is still hazy. Power generation is full of unfathomable riddles and so we must keep
striving to decipher the unsolved mysteries as we have been doing in past. William
Burroughs has aptly said,” Man is an artifact designed for power”. He is not
designed to remain in his present biologic state any more than a tadpole is designed
to remain a tadpole”. Our ultimate aim should be attainment of knowledge and we
should be determined to cross any hurdle in the way.
Though there is controversy over the issue of heavy funding of power
generation all over the world and systems policies involved. But then the question
to those who make hue and cry would be: when we can spend millions of dollars in
just setting up our army why can’t we spend money on something which could
pave a new era of human development? There are innumerous reasons and
advantages for so much interest in exploring and knowing about power generation
that everything is very justified if seen from a positive point of view. There can be
a possibility of some flaws which can make humans extinct in future and a
possible attack of power drought though seems hypothetical can never be
neglected. We have developed new technologies to sense any coming havocs and
we are on way to construct nature proof and flawless power plants. There is always
possibility of countries cooperating with each other over power generation, So a
future lies in for us to go ahead and research more and more in this infinite
field .We have advanced substantially in field of generators with help of our
invaluable, and our prolonged determination to look for the perfection makes us
feel we will always continue the same.

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