Chapter

Electronics I -
Diode models
p n

A K

Fall 2017

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Effect of Temperature on I/V curves
Source: Hu

Figure 4.21 The IV curves of the silicon PN diode shift to lower voltages with increasing temperature

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Effect of Temperature on I/V curves
• For a given ID we want to understand how the diode voltage VD
varies with temperature
• The diode’s I/V equation contains temperature in two places: VT =
KT/q and IS
⎛ VD ⎞ ⎛ D Dn ⎞ ⎛µV µ nVT ⎞
I D = I S ⎜⎜ e VT −1⎟⎟ where: I S = qAni ⎜⎜2 p
+ 2
⎟⎟ = qAni ⎜⎜ p T
+ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠ L N
⎝ p d L N
n a⎠ L
⎝ p dN L N
n a⎠

• Inside the expression of IS the terms ni and μ also depends on

temperature:
−EG −EG
−3/2 2 3
µ∝ T n = N C NV e
i
KT
= AC AV T e KT

• Nv and Nc are respectively the effective density of energy states in

valence band and conduction band
N C = ACT 3/2 and NV = AV T 3/2

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Effect of Temperature on I/V curves
• If for simplicity we ignore the weak temperature dependence of the effective
mass density of the conduction band electrons (mn*) and the valence band
holes (mp*) the values of AC and AV are about constant (sources: Pierret p. 51):

−EG
2 3
n = AC AV T e
i
KT
with : −EG
2 3
⎡ mn*k ⎤
3/2 n = AC AV × T e
i
KT
15 −3 −3/2
AC = 2 ⎢ 2⎥
≈ 6.2 ×10 cm K !
⎣ 2 π ! ⎦
−EG −EG
3/2
⎡mk⎤ *
p ni = AC AV × T e 3/2 2 KT 3/2 2 KT
= B×T e
AV = 2 ⎢ 2⎥
≈ 3.52 ×1015 cm −3K −3/2
⎣ 2 π ! ⎦
• k = Boltzmann’s constant = 8.62×10−5 eV/K = 1.38×10−23 Joule/K
• ħ= Reduced Planck’s constant = 1.055×10−34 Joule-sec
• mn* = 1.18 × m0
• mp* = 0.81 × m0
• m0 = electron rest mass = 9.11×10−31 Kg
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Effect of Temperature on I/V curves
−EG
• Therefore≈: 3/2 2 KT
ni = B × T e with B ≅ 5 ×1015 cm −3K −3/2

• If for simplicity we ignore the weak temperature dependence of the band

gap energy:
4.73×10 −4 × T 2 −3 ()
source: Plummer EG = EG 0 − ≈ EG1.16 − 3×10
0 − 3×10 × T
× 𝑇
T + 636
where EG0 is the band gap energy at 0K (EG0≈1.17 eV) and the
temperature T is expressed in K

• We can finally write IS as follows:

−EG ⎛ κ T −1.5kT / q κ T −1.5kT / q ⎞ −EG
µ, p µ ,n
I S = qAB 2T e
3 kT
⎜⎜ + 2.5
⎟⎟ ≡ ς ⋅ T ⋅ e kT
⎝ Lp N d Ln N a ⎠

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Effect of Temperature on I/V curves
• First pass:
−EG ⎛ κ T −1.5kT / q κ T −1.5kT / q ⎞ −EG
µ, p µ ,n
I S = qAB 2T e 3 kT
⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟ ≡ ς ⋅ T 2.5 ⋅ e kT
⎝ Lp N d Ln N a ⎠

• the temperature dependence caused by the polynomial term is weak

compared to the one caused by the exponential term, so we will ignore it
−EG −EG
2.5
IS = ς ⋅ T ⋅e kT
≡ζ ⋅e kT

= ζ
• Let’s get back to our objective:
given a fixed value of current ID we want to find out the voltage variation
occurring ΔVD when there is a temperature variation ΔT occurring
dVD
TC ≡
dT @I D =const
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Effect of Temperature on I/V curves
And let’s keep in
• Let’s assume forward bias and flip the I/V eq.: mind a couple of
⎛ VD ⎞ VD useful math rules:
VT I VT I D kT ⎛ I D ⎞ d (uv)
I D ≈ I S ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟ ⇒ D
= e ⇒ VD ≈ VT ln = ln ⎜ ⎟ du du
⎝ ⎠ IS IS q ⎝ IS ⎠ = v +u
dx dx dx
d 1 du
( )
ln u =
dx u dx
d N
dVD d ⎡ kT ⎛ I D ⎞⎤ k ⎛ I D ⎞ kT d ( x ) = N ⋅ x N−1
= ⎢ ln ⎜ ⎟⎥ = ln ⎜ ⎟ + ( ln I D − ln I S ) ≅ dx
dT dT ⎣ q ⎝ I S ⎠⎦ q ⎝ I S ⎠ q dT
k V kT d ⎛ E ⎞ V kT d ⎛ EG ⎞
≅ ⋅ D + ⎜ ln I D − ln ζ + G ⎟ ≅ D + ⎜ ⎟≅
q kT q dT ⎝ kT ⎠ T q dT ⎝ kT ⎠
q
V E
≅ D− G constant EG and k are constants
T qT take them out of the
derivative
constant
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 Effect of Temperature on I/V curves
dVD VD EG / q
TC ≡ ≅ −
dT T T
0.5-1.12
• Assuming VD=0.5V and T=300K: TC = 0.5 −1.1 ==−2mV
-2.1 mV/K
/ K = -2.1 mV/degree
300

• At room temperature, a diode’s forward voltage-drop has a thermal

coefficient of about −2mV per degree
Idiode T1 > T0
ΔV/ΔT = (VD1−VD0)/(T1−T0)≅ −2mV/degree
ID

Vdiode

• If we know the diode voltage at some reference temperature T0 we can

estimate the diode voltage at any other temperature T as follows:
VD (T ) ≅ VD (T0 ) − 2mV/degree × (T − T0 ) = VD (T0 ) + TC × (T − T0 )
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 Aside: second pass
• If we want to consider also the temperature dependence caused by the
polynomial term, all we have to do is a little more work taking the derivative:
dVD d ⎡ kT ⎛ I D ⎞⎤ k ⎛ I D ⎞ kT d
= ⎢ ln ⎜ ⎟⎥ = ln ⎜ ⎟ + ( ln I D − ln I S ) ≅
dT dT ⎣ q ⎝ I S ⎠⎦ q ⎝ I S ⎠ q dT −E G
2.5
I = ς ⋅ T ⋅ e kT
VD kT d ⎛ 2.5 E ⎞ S
≅ + ⎜ ln I D − ln ζ − lnT + G ⎟ ≅
T q dT ⎝ kT ⎠
d 1 d m m
VD 2.5VT EG / q dT
( lnT ) = m

T dT
( T )=
m
T
m
T = m
m−1

T
≅ − −
T T T
• The term VD/T results from the temperature dependence on VT. The negative
terms results from the temperature dependence of IS, and does not depend
on the voltage across the diode
-1.12
0.5 − 2.5 × 26 ×10 −3 −1.1
• Assuming VD=0.5V and T=300K: TC = -2.3 mV/degree
≅ −2.2mV /degree
300
dVD
• So for conservative design it is common to assume: TC = -2.5
≅ −2. mV/degree
5 mV /degree
dT

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Effect of Temperature on I/V curves
• In reverse bias we find out that the variation of IS with T is about 14.6%
percent/degree:
Recalling:
d 1 du d 1 dI S dI d ( ln I S )
( ln u) = ( ln I S ) = ⇒ S = IS ⋅
dx u dx dT I S dT dT dT

d ⎡ ⎛
−EG ⎞⎤
2.5 d ⎛ 2.5 E ⎞ 2.5 EG 2.5 EG q 2.5 EG / q
⎢ln ⎜ς ⋅ T ⋅ e kT ⎟⎥ = ⎜ ln ς + lnT − G ⎟ = + 2= + 2 = +
dT ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎥
⎠⎦ dT ⎝ kT ⎠ T kT T kT q T T ⋅VT

=IS

dI S ⎛ 2.5 EG / q ⎞
= IS ⎜ + ⎟
dT ⎝ T T ⋅VT ⎠

• At room temperature: dI S ⎛ 2.5 1.12

1.1 ⎞ 15.2
14.6
= IS ⎜ + =
⎟ S I × [A/degree]
dT ⎝ 300 300 ⋅ 26 ⋅10 −3 ⎠ 100

• Since (1.152)5≈2 we conclude that the saturation current approximately

doubles for every 5 degrees rise in temperature
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Effect of Temperature on I/V curves
• In reverse bias:
Idiode
(T −T0 )/5
I S (T ) = I S (T0 ) × 2
T1 > T0

Vdiode

• Although still quite small, real diodes exhibit reverse currents that are
much larger than IS. A large part of the reverse current is due to leakage
effects. These leakage effects are proportional to the junction area A just
as IS is.

• As a rule of thumb IR doubles for every 10 degree rise in temperature

I R (T ) = I R (T0 ) × 2 (T −T0 )/10
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 Different Models
ID ID ID
dI D
= gD
dVD

VD VD VD
V
Vγ= 0.7V Vγ0
V γ
γ

ID ID ID
Vγ Vγ0 rD=1/gD

VD VD
VD

Figure 5–23 Streetman

approximations of junction diode characteristics: (a) the ideal diode; (b) ideal diode with an offset voltage; (c)
ideal diode with an offset voltage and a resistance to account for slope in the forward characteristic.
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 Ideal diode with voltage offset
source: Razavi
• Constant voltage model:
– the constant voltage is called cut-in
voltage, turn-on voltage, or threshold
voltage and is usually denoted as VD,on
or Vγ

• This model is based on the observation

that a forward-conducting diode has a
voltage drop that varies in a relatively
narrow range (e.g. 0.6 to 0.8). We’ll
1N4148 assume Vγ ≈ 0.7V
Forward
continuous
current: • Below VΥ the current is very small (less
IF = 300 mA
than 1% of the maximum rated value).
TA = 25°C for VF=0.7V, IF≈3 mA for T > 25 !C ⇒ PD,max = 500 −1.68 × (T − 25) [ mW ]
TJ = TA + RΘJA × PD

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 Ideal diode with voltage offset
source: Neamen

The diode current increases

a factor of 10 every 60 mV
increase in voltage

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

• I/V characteristic of a theoretical diode • Forward-bias part of the characteristics

with IS=10−14A = 10 fA with current plotted on a log scale

NOTE: real diodes exhibit reverse currents that are considerably larger than IS (this is mainly due to
holes and electrons being generated within the space charge region). A typical value of reverse-bias
current maybe 1nA (still small and negligible in most cases)
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 Is the model good enough ?
• Should we worry about the fact that the diode has resistance ?
−1
−1 −1 ⎛ VD ⎞
d ⎡⎢ ⎛ ⎞⎤
−1
⎛ dI D ⎞ VD ⎛I ⎞ VD
⎜ I S e VT − I S + I S ⎟ VT
VT VT
rdiode = ⎜ ⎟ = IS ⎜e −1⎟⎟⎥ = ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟
S
=⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ dVD ⎠ dVD ⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ ⎠⎥⎦ ⎝ VT ⎠ ⎜ VT ⎟ ID + IS
⎝ ⎠

VT V
• Forward Region: rdiode = ≅ T VT/ID is only a few Ω
ID + IS ID

I D >> I S

Example:
IS ≈ 10 fA => ID≈ ISexp(VD/VT) = 10−14exp(0.7/26m) ≈ 4.9 mA => VT/ID = 26/4.9 ≈ 5.3 Ω

VT
• Reverse Region: rdiode = ≅ ∞ [Ω]
ID + IS

I D ≅ −I S

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 Ideal Diode
source: Razavi

ID > 0 VD=0
“a short” (R=0) in forward bias

VD< 0 ID = 0,
“an open” (R=∞) in reverse bias

• In applications that involve voltages much greater than the diode voltage
drop (0.6V-0.8V) we may neglect the diode voltage drop altogether.

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 Piecewise linear model
• This model is useful when there is a small varying signal superimposed to
the biasing voltage

• Let’s say we want to forward bias a diode so that it operates at a given

value of ID, we need to find the corresponding VD (Q = operating point =
(ID,VD)
VDD −VD V V
ID = ⇔ I D = DD − D KVL = topological eq.
R R R
VD

ID ≈ ISe VT
constitutive eq. of device

This is the eq, of a line

(ID vs. VD) with slope −1/R

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𝑁𝑂𝑇𝐸: ln x = 𝛼 5 𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑥 → ln e = 1 = 𝛼 5 𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝑒 = 𝛼 5 0.43 → 𝛼 ≈ 2.3

Piecewise linear model

Example
We have VDD=5V and the diode at VD0=0.7V has a current of ID0=1mA. We want ID ≅ 4.3mA.

Let’s assume VD ≅ 0.7V (and iterate until we find the right value corresponding to ID)

VDD −VD 5 − 0.7

R= = = 1KΩ
ID 4.3m

A voltage increase of 60 mV corresponds to a 10 x current increase

⎛I ⎞ ⎛I ⎞ ⎛ 4.3m ⎞
VD1 −VD0 = 2.3VT × Log ⎜ D1 ⎟ ⇒ VD1 = VD0 + 60mV × Log ⎜ D1 ⎟ = 0.7 + 60mV × Log ⎜ ⎟ ≈ 0.738V (iteration 1)
⎝ I D0 ⎠ ⎝ I D0 ⎠ ⎝ 1m ⎠

VDD −VD1 5 − 0.738 ⎛I ⎞ 4.262m

I D2 = = = 4.262mA VD2 = VD1 + 60mV × Log ⎜ D2 ⎟ ≈ 0.738 + 60mV × Log ≅ 0.738V (iteration 2)
R 1K ⎝ I D1 ⎠ 4.3m

No further iterations are necessary. The circuit used gives ID≅4.262mA and VD≅0.738V

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Piecewise linear model
We have a signal superimposed to the bias voltage VD:

• aa vD = VD + vd ⇒ vd = vD −VD ≡ ΔVD ⇒ vD = VD + ΔVD

vD VD +ΔVD VD ΔVD ΔVD

VT VT VT VT VT
iD ≅ I S e = ISe = ISe e = I De

If the max excursion of the signal is small (that is ΔVD/VT<<1):

ΔVD
⎛ ΔV ⎞ * x x2 x3
VT
iD = I D e ≈ I D ⎜1+ D ⎟ e = 1+ x + + +...
⎝ VT ⎠ 2! 3!
ΔVD
VD <<1 for x<<1: e x ≅ 1+ x
VT
Vγ0 = ΔID
= gd = id
ID
iD ≈ I D + ΔVD = I D + gd ΔVD = I D + ΔI D
VT
we find out that the response of the diode is about linear and
it make sense to approximate the diode characteristic with
the tangent line at Q:
1 ΔI i di
= gd = D = d = D
rd ΔVD vd dvD @VD
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 Piecewise linear model
Equation of line
given two points: iD slope: gd
y − y0 = m ( x − x0 ) slope=ΔI/ΔV
y1 − y0 Δy ID Q=(ID,VD)
m= = ⎛ VD ⎞
x1 − x0 Δx ID
iD = I S ⎜⎜ e VT −1⎟⎟ ≈ I D + gd ( vD −VD ) = I D + (vD −VD )
⎝ ⎠ VD −V γ0

ID
VD
gd = ⇒ VT = VD −Vγ 0 ⇒ Vγ 0 = VD −VT
vD VT
Vγ0Vγ
* How small is a small signal ?
e x ≅ 1+ x
alternatively:
The error of the approx. should
v V
y = mx + n ⇒ iD ≈ D − γ 0 be ≤ 10%
rd rd
Error = e x −1− x ≤ 0.1
y(x ) ≡ 0 = mx + n ⇒ n = −mx Solving numerically we se that for
x ≤ 0.4 the error is ≤ 0.09
ΔVD
≤ 0.4 ⇒ ΔVD ≤ 26mV × 0.4 ≈ 10.4 mV
VT

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 Diode Circuits
• … Finally let’s start building some circuit
• Applications:
– Rectifiers
– Limiting Circuits (a.k.a. Clippers)
– Level Shifters (a.k.a. Clampers)
– Detectors
– Voltage doublers
– Regulators
– Switches

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