HYBRID ELERIC PROPULSION SYSTEM

A SEMINAR REPORT

Submitted by

RAHUL DEVADASAN (JCE16AN066)

to

the APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University in partial

fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the

Degree of

Bachelor of Technology
In
Aeronautical Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

JAWAHARLAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
LAKKIDI, OTTAPALAM, PALAKKAD, KERALA
 NOVEMBER 2019
DECLARATION

I undersigned hereby declare that the seminar report (“Hybrid Electric Propulsion
System”), submitted for partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of
Bachelor of Technology of the APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University, Kerala is a
bonafide work done by me under supervision of Assistant Professor Mr. Kailash K Nair.
This submission represents my ideas in my own words and where ideas or words of others
have been included, I have adequately and accurately cited and referenced the original
sources. I also declare that I have adhered to ethics of academic honesty and integrity and
have not misrepresented or fabricated any data or idea or fact or source in my submission.
I understand that any violation of the above will be a cause for disciplinary action by the
institute and/or the University and can also evoke penal action from the sources which
have thus not been properly cited or from whom proper permission has not been obtained.
This report has not been previously formed the basis for the award of any degree, diploma
or similar title of any other University.

Lakkidi

11 November 2019 RAHUL DEVADASAN

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
JAWAHARLAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND
TECHNOLOGY LAKKIDI, OTTAPALAM, PALAKKAD,
KERALA

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the report entitled ‘Hybrid Electric Propulsion system’ submitted
by „Rahul Devadasan‟ to the APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in
Aeronautical Engineering is a bonafide record of the seminar work carried out by him
under my guidance and supervision.. This report in any form has not been submitted to
any other University or Institute for any purpose.

SUPERVISOR HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost I place this seminar work at the feet of God almighty who is the power and
strength in each step of progress towards the successful completion of this seminar.

I am thankful to Adv.Dr.P Krishnadas, Chairman and Managing Trustee, NGI for

inspiring me by granting such an opportunity to work on this seminar. I thank Dr.V.P Sukumaran
Nair, Principal, Jawaharlal College of Engineering and Technology for continuous his support and
confidence.

I would hereby sincerely like to thank Mr. Mohamed Sameer T K, H.O.D Incharge,
Aeronautical Department, for the encouragement and support he has given to take up this seminar.

I am highly indebted to Mr. Kailash K Nair, Asst. Professor, Aeronautical Department,

my seminar guide for providing invaluable guidance and insights into the subject and helping me
wherever possible for the successful completion of the seminar.

I am also thankful to all the Staff members of Aeronautical department who have rendered
their valuable help in making this seminar successful. I extend my heartfelt thanks to all my
classmates and friends for their continuous support throughout the progress of this seminar.

ABSTRACT

i
The analysis of Hybrid-Electric Propulsion Systems (HEPS) for small fixed-wing Unmanned
Aerial Vehicles (UAV). In recent years, development of UAV has become a significant growing
segment of the global aviation industry. These vehicles are developed with the intention of
operating in regions where the presence of on board human pilots is either too risky or unnecessary.
Their popularity with both the military and civilian sectors has seen the use of UAVs in a diverse
range of applications, from reconnaissance and surveillance tasks for the military, to civilian uses
such as aid relief and monitoring tasks. Efficient energy utilisation on an UAV is essential to its
functioning, often to achieve the operational goals of range, endurance and other specific mission
requirements. Due to the limitations of the space available and the mass budget on the UAV, it is
often a delicate balance between the on board energy available (i.e. fuel) and achieving the
operational goals. One technology with potential in this area is with the use of HEPS.
Against a background of increasing energy demand and rising fuel prices, hybrid-electric
propulsion systems have the potential to significantly reduce fuel consumption in the aviation
industry, particularly in the lighter sectors. By taking advantage of both electric motor and
internal combustion engine, hybrid-electric propulsion systems provide not only a benefit in fuel
saving but also a reduction in take off noise and the emission levels.

CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i
ABSTRACT ii
CONTENTS iii
LIST OF FIGURES v
ABBREVIATIONS vi

ii
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 LITERATURE SURVEY 2
3 HYBRID-ELECTRIC PROPULSION SYSTEM 6
3.1 Design Parameters 6
3.2 1-D Model of the Hybrid-Electric Propulsion 7
3.3 Hybrid-Electric Propulsion System Configuration 7
3.3.1 Series Configuration 7
3.3.2 Parallel Configuration 8
3.3.3 Power-Split Configuration 10
3.4 Energy storage technology 10
3.5 Inverter and Controller Technology 12
3.6 Rechargeable Batteries 12
3.7 Future Energy Storage Technology for Aircraft 13
3.8 Fuel Cell Technology 14
4 WORKING PRINICIPLE 15

4.1 Electric Fan-Model 15

4.2 Minimalistic Gas Turbine 16

5 PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS 19

CONCLUSION 22

REFERENCES 23

iii
 LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

3.1 Gas turbine Architecture 6

3.2 Parallel hybrid electric configuration 9

3.3 Series hybrid electric configuration 10

4.1 Hybrid Distributed Propulsion Configuration 17

4.2 Working Principle 18

5.1 Adopted lift coefficient model 20

5.2 Aerodynamic efficiency as a function of angle of attack 20

5.3 Drag polar as retrieved from the available aircraft 20

Dynamics model

5.4 Range of Hybrid model 21

5.5 Endurance of Hybrid model 21

iv
 ABBREVIATIONS

ATF Aviation Turbine Fuel

EM Electric Motor

FC Fuel Cells

HELIOS Hybrid Electric Integrated Optimized System

HEPS Hybrid-Electric Propulsion system

ICE International Combustion Engine

IOL Ideal Operating Line

MAV Micro Air Vehicle

MICADO Multidisciplinary Integrated Conceptual Aircraft Design and

Optimization Environment

MRFC Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell

PAFC Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell

RPAS Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems

SOFC Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

UHC Unburnt Hydrocarbons

v
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Production of propulsive efficiency with the help of mechanical and electrical power is
the basic principle of Hybrid-Electric propulsion. Here the heat energy from the burning of fuels
is converted to electrical and mechanical energy. HEPS is a combined technology of integrating
internal combustion engine with an electric motor for generating thrust.
Aviation is generating emission not only CO2 and Nitrogen compounds but also produce
large noises. With hybrid electric propulsion, we will be able to reduce emissions, to reduce
fuel burns but also to build aircraft that produce very low noise. Modern aircraft propulsion
technology revolves around the use of petroleum-based Internal Combustion Engines (ICE), in
the form of either Aviation Turbine Fuel (ATF) or Aviation Gasoline (AvGas).Despite their
widespread adoption, these fossil fuels have a significant impact on the environment, both in
terms of pollutants such as Carbon Monoxide (CO), Nitrogen Oxides (NOX) and Unburnt
Hydrocarbons (UHC) and in terms of greenhouse emissions, the principal of which is Carbon
Dioxide (CO2). Improvements are therefore currently pursued in alternative fuels and hybrid-
electric technologies.
Some non-mainstream propulsion technologies are expected to mitigate considerably
the environmental impacts in aviation. One of the most promising concepts for aircraft
integration of hybrid-electric technologies exploits the synergy with distributed propulsion
configurations. Distributed propulsion is based on subdividing the desired thrust across a
number of smaller engines with benefits in terms of noise reduction, higher reliability, shorter
take-off and landing distances, better specific fuel consumption and improved stability. From a
research and development perspective, small size Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems (RPAS)
are seen as a stepping-stone, enabling experimental scaling studies for larger aircraft
applications.

CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE SURVEY

B.Aigner[1]The paper discusses thatthe ambitious climate objectives set by the European
Commission within the scope of ACARE Flight Path 2050 call for significant improvements in
terms of efficiency for future aircraft configurations. One of the main drivers for these
improvements is the development of novel propulsion systems. Therefore, stakeholders in the

1
aviation sector are increasingly interested in electric propulsion concepts, due to higher
efficiency and reduction of local emissions. While in small aircraft for general aviation
applications (CS-23) full electric propulsion concepts seem realistic for medium-term
applications, in the field of large aircraft (CS-25) these concepts are not feasible in a 20302050
timeframe. By contrast, hybrid electric propulsion concepts are scalable with regard to flight
range and payload and are considered to achieve similar operational flexibility as present-day
conventional technologies. Thus, a variety of hybrid electric propulsion technologies has been
investigated within preliminary aircraft design research projects in recent years. Within the
scope of the presented research, a design methodology has been implemented into the aircraft
design suite MICADO (Multidisciplinary Integrated Conceptual Aircraft Design and
Optimization Environment) to evaluate electric propulsion concepts on a preliminary level in a
short time and with the necessary flexibility to investigate a broad design space. As a first
approach, the concept of an uncoupled parallel hybrid electric propulsion system, consisting of
two gas turbine engines and two electrically driven ducted fans powered by batteries, has been
chosen and integrated into an Airbus A320-200 aircraft. Preliminary results have shown a block
fuel reduction only for design ranges below 900 NM depending on the conducting material. In
consideration of realistic assumptions for specific battery weights, a mission energy (or even
cost) reduction cannot be achieved yet, which is in line with research findings from other
organizations. Therefore, further studies considering improvements such as a more feasible
aircraft configuration, different propulsion system architectures and variable degrees of
hybridization throughout the flight mission are planned for future research work.
Clement Pornet[2]This papers discuss about disruptive technologies need consequently
to be envisioned to reach the set of future goals. In order to deliver ultra-low or even zero in-
flight emissions levels, there exists an increasing amount of international research and
development focusing on the electrification of aircraft propulsion and power systems. While
aiming for the ultimate goal of universally electric transport aircraft, a hybridelectric approach
will be first necessary to match the requirements of aircraft propulsion systems and the
development pace of electrical components technology. The introduction of hybrid-electric
technology expands dramatically the design space and the full-potential of these technologies
will be drawn through synergistic morphological and systems integration. Perturbing the
conventional design paradigms, the design of hybrid-electric aircraft poses a genuine challenge
to traditional sizing and performance methods. Conceptual design methods for sizing,
performance analysis and identification of flight techniques for hybrid-electric transport aircraft
are proposed in this thesis. Considering the available legacy industry programs, the methods are

2
developed with the capability of being integrated in traditional sizing and performance
environment. The models of the standalone engineering components which constitute hybrid-
electric propulsion systems are first described. By establishing the interfaces between the
engineering component modules, the layout of the hybrid-electric propulsion architecture and
the system integration at aircraft level are then comprehensively detailed. The conventional
methods are extended to map the intrinsic characteristics of hybrid-electric propulsion system
within the aircraft design and performance environment. The tracking of the electric energy
consumed and the calculation of the maximum thrust available are in the focus of the methods
development. New degrees-of-freedom such as the degrees-of-hybridization and new
constraints associated with the sizing of hybrid-electric propulsion system are introduced. The
specificities related to the sizing of hybrid-electric propulsion system are explained by
describing the sizing criterion of the components. The overall aircraft sizing process and the
evaluation of the aircraft integrated performance are finally highlighted.
Hendrik Gesell[3] This journal discuss the scarcity of oil and the increasing
environmental requirements in the air transport sector pose great challenges for the aviation
industry and are a key driver for innovation. Besides various approaches for increasing the
efficiency of conventional gas turbine engines, electric propulsion systems have moved into the
focus of aviation research. While electric concepts are already in service in general aviation,
this study analyses the potentials of electric and turbo hybrid propulsion systems for commercial
aviation. The purpose is to compare various architectures of electrical power trains with a
conventional turboprop on a regional aircraft, similar to the ATR 72 on engine and flight
mission levels. The considered architectures include turbo electric (power controlled and direct
driven), hybrid electric (serial and parallel) and a pure electric concept.
Their system weights are determined using today’s technology assumptions. With the help of
performance models and flight mission calculation the impact on fuel consumption, CO2
emissions and aircraft performance. Against a background of increasing energy demand and
rising fuel prices, hybrid-electric propulsion systems havethe potential to significantly reduce
fuel consumption in the aviation industry, particularly in the lighter sectors. By taking
advantage of both electric motor and internal combustion engine, hybrid-electric propulsion
systems provide not only a benefit in fuel saving but also a reduction in takeoff noise and the
emission levels. This research considers the design and sizing process of a hybrid-electric
propulsion system for a single-seat demonstrator aircraft, theexperimental derivation of the
internal combustion engine map, and the electric motor parameters. In addition to
theexperimental data, a novel modeling approach including several linked desktop PC software

3
packages is presented toanalyze and optimize hybrid-electric technology for aircraft. Further to
the analysis of a parallel hybrid-electric, midscale aircraft, this paper also presents a scaling
approach for a 20 kg unmanned aerial vehicle and a 50 tonintercity airliner. At the smaller scale,
two different mission profiles are analyzed: an intelligence, surveillance, andreconnaissance
mission profile and a maximum-duration profile. At the larger scale, the performance of a 50
tonintercity airliner is modeled, based on a hybrid-electric gas turbine, assuming a range of
electric boost powers and battery masses.
Jacob Sliwinski[4]This paper discusses that hybrid-electric propulsion systems (HEPS)
have emerged as a promising area of research in aerospaceengineering as they combine the
complementaryadvantages of internal combustion and electric propulsion technologies while
limiting the environmental emissions. Despite the promising benefits, theinsufficient energy
densities and specific energies of electrical storage devices are major challenges asthey induce
severe weight and volume penalties. Significant opportunities are nonetheless emergingthanks
to optimised propulsive profiles, energy harvesting techniques and more electric aircraft
technologies. To support further research on hybrid electric aircraft, the aim of this study is to
develop a HEPSretrofit design methodology for existing Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems
(RPAS). The implementedHEPS models use power state variables, allowing more accurate
predictions of energy converter efficiency than with power-based approaches. Data from
commercially available products is introduced anda case study is presented assuming a
reference RPASplatform and performing parametric studies fortraditional, electric and hybrid
configurations. Range andendurance performances are investigated indepth and the most
significant dependencies on designparameters are analysed. The results suggest thatHEPS
technology represents a viable trade-off solution insmall-tomedium size RPAS, promoting
themitigation of noxious and greenhouse emissions whileproviding adequate range and
enduranceperformances.
Jane Yu-Chun Hung[5] This paper presents a review of existing and current
developments and the analysis of Hybrid-Electric Propulsion System(HEPS) for small
fixedwing Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV). In recent years, development of UAV has
become a significantgrowing segment of the global aviation industry. These vehicles are
developed with the intention of operating in regions where thepresence of onboard human pilots
is either too risky or unnecessary. Their popularity with both the military and civilian sectorshas
seen the use of UAVs in a diverse range of applications, from reconnaissance and surveillance
tasks for the military, to civilianuses such as aid relief and monitoring tasks. Efficient energy
utilisation on an UAV is essentialto its functioning, often to achievethe operational goals of

4
range, endurance and other specific mission requirements. Due to the limitations of the space
availableand the mass budget on the UAV, it is often a delicate balance between the onboard
energy available (i.e. fuel) and achieving theoperational goals. One technology with potential
in this area is with the use of HEPS.In this paper, information on the state-of-art technology in
this field of research is provided. A description and simulationof a parallel HEPS for a small
fixed-wing UAV by incorporating an Ideal Operating Line (IOL) control strategy is
described.Simulation models of the components in a HEPS were designed in the MATLAB
Simulink environment. An IOL analysis of anUAV piston engine was used to determine the
most efficient points of operation for this engine. The results show that an UAVequipped with
this HEPS configuration described in this paper is capable of achieving a fuel saving of 6.5%,
compared to theengine-only configuration.

CHAPTER-3
HYBRID-ELECTRIC PROPULSION SYSTEM

Traditionally, small civilian UAVs are mostly powered by ICE, but as they have a
thermal efficiency of at most 40% and, despite the high energy density of the liquid hydrocarbon
fuels used by ICEs, with energy preservation issues on the rise.A popular alternative power
plant is the Electric Motor (EM), which are capable of operating with an efficiency of close
to100% . However, EM’s high efficiency is negated by the necessary use of a power storage
system which drives the Min order to power the UAV. This power storage system, in most cases
a battery, is often the largest component by weightin an UAV, representing a large weight
5
penalty, as well as having a limited operating duration and relatively long period oftime required
to replenish its charge, resulting in a relatively short operating range and the need to charge
frequently. Despiterecent advances in power storage technology which have reduced the impact
these drawbacks have had on the use of EM incivilian UAVs in the past, the sizes and relative
inefficiencies of power storage systems still hold back the development ofpurely electrically
powered UAV.A way of overcoming the shortcomings of both power plants is to integrate an
ICE with an EM to form a HybridElectric Propulsion System (HEPS). Hybrid propulsion
technology has been an area of intense research, particularly by the automotive industry, and
results have shown significant increases in fuel efficiency. On the other hand, the study of
utilising hybrid propulsion in aircraft had only begun in recent years, and there has been little
investigation on the various control methodsfor HE systems and their effects on aircraft, with
previous efforts in this area being focused on the automotive industry.

3.1 DESIGN PARAMETERS

Fig 3.1 Gas turbine Architecture

An HEPS consist of a power generation unit, power distribution unit and an electric
propulsion unit.The turbofan model consists of generators, batteries, cables, electric fan and
power sources.In this propulsion system layout: instead of having two gas turbines under the
wing, the hybrid aircraft has a third engine. An electric fan, located at the rear side of the
fuselage. Power is provided to the electric fan from a battery pack and from generators linked
to the two turbofans under the wing.
The hybrid aircraft configuration studied here is derived from a typical single aisle short range
aircraft.The main difference is in the propulsion system layout: instead of having two gas
turbines under the wing, the hybrid aircraft has a third engine, an electric fan, located at the rear
of the fuselage. Power is provided to the electric fan from a battery pack and from generators
linked to the two turbofans under the wing. Thermodynamically speaking, the electric fan
operation increases the by-pass ratio of the propulsion system as a whole. In cases where the
diameter of the underwing engines is limited, this gives the opportunity to increase the
propulsion system efficiency beyond what could be feasible using today’s thermal-only

6
technology. The hybrid system, consisting of generators, batteries, cables, power management
electronics, and electric fan, adds a considerable weight to the aircraft. On top of that, aircraft
engines operations are very smooth and stable: there is no such thing as highly variable load
which is favourable to the hybrid car, for instance. Hence, the use of the hybrid system shall be
maximized to get the full benefit of its presence onboard.

3.2 1-D MODEL OF THE HYBRID-ELECTRIC PROPULSION

The described Electric-Hybrid propulsion has been modelled using the commercial code GT-
SUITE developed by Gamma Technologies. A first model of the only ICE has been built up
and validated using data of CMD (the engine manufacturer) and then it has been coupled with
the EM.

3.3 HYBRID-ELECTRIC PROPULSION SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

In a hybrid propulsion system, two or more power sources are combined together to
increase the efficiency of the vehicle. There are various hybrid power train configurations
currently in use, the most common being the following three configurations: series, parallel, and
power-split. In the following descriptions, the focus is on system configurations that incorporate
the gasoline ICE as the prime power plant. However other engines - such as diesel, gas turbine,
or fuel cells - are also being used on UAVs.
3.3.1 Series Configuration
In the series power train configuration, shown in Figure 1(a), the EM is the only means
of providing power to the mechanical drive train. This means the ICE is able to operate in an
optimum torque and speed range, regardless of the driving conditions, in the execution of its
role as an auxiliary power unit to drive the EM to propel the aircraft, or the Generator to provide
power to the energy storage system, or the Battery. The series configuration performs best for
low-speed, high-torque applications such as in buses and other urban work vehicles. However,
because the mechanical energy from the ICE is firstly converted to electrical energy in the
Battery, then passed on to the EM, and lastly converted once again into mechanical energy to
power the propeller, there exist large energy conversion losses between the mechanical and
electrical systems. Thus the overall system efficiency is reduced. Also, in the series
configuration, although the ICE is typically smaller because it only has to meet average power
demands, the EM and the Battery generally need to be sized larger to accommodate the peak
power demands. This, combined with the Generator required in this configuration, results in a
significant weight penalty, which is expensive onboard a UAV. Harmon [9] estimated that a
series configuration for a small UAV can result in a 8%, or 2.5 lb (1.13kg), weight penalty for
a 30-lb (13.61kg) UAV.HEPS for UAVs have been considered by the Defence Advanced
7
Research Project Agency (DARPA) in its Micro Air Vehicle (MAV) project in the form of a
series HEPS that includes a diesel engine, generator, EM and battery pack. Some details were
provided in the report, however on smaller systems such as MAVs or Nano Air Vehicles
(NAVs), in which both weight and size represent very strict constraints, a series HEPS is not
suitable, due to the consequent weight penalty that usually results from its utilisation. Research
by Harmats and Weihs also concluded that series HEPS were not effective for useon UAVs due
to large power losses. The DA36 E-Star motor glider - developed by Siemens AG, Diamond
Aircraft and EADS - is the world’s first aircraft with a serial HEPS. Recently made its debut at
the Paris Air Show Le Bourget 2011, the two-seater motor glider is based on Diamond Aircraft’s
HK36 Super Dimona. Its propeller is powered by a 70kW EM, which is in turn powered by an
ICE-generator combination. A battery system provides the power boost required during take-
off and climb to the constant low output of 30kW from the ICE. According to the manufacturers,
the DA-36 E-Star decreases fuel consumption and carbon emissions by 25% when compared to
conventional aircraft.
3.3.2 Parallel Configuration
The parallel configuration, shown in Figure 1(b), enables the powering of the UAV
using the ICE alone, the EM alone, or both depending on the operating conditions, as well as
benefitting from redundancy, which is important in both civilian and military applications.
Realisation of this configuration can be seen in various commercially available ground vehicles
such as the Honda Insight, Civic and Accord hybrids [14]. Although this configuration can
potentially suffer from an inability to operate the ICE in its most efficient region (it is directly
coupled to the wheels in ground vehicles or the propeller shaft in aerialvehicles through a
transmission, thus limiting the energy efficiency), integrating a Continuously Variable
Transmission (CVT) in lieu of a conventional transmission will help to mitigate this potential
problem. However, this introduces additional difficulty into the control strategy to schedule the
torque from the individual or combined power sources for maximum efficiency. Work was
carried out by Harmon et al. in the conceptual design and simulation of a small UAV with a
parallel HEPS. The design consists of an ICE sized for cruise speed and an EM and lithion-ion
battery pack sized for endurance speed. A rule-based controller based on the IOL concept was
applied to this HEPS design to obtain simulation results, which showed significant energy
savings when compared to a four-stroke gasoline-powered UAV (54% and 22% less energy use
for a one-hour and three-hour intelligence, surveillance or reconnaissance mission respectively).
An example of a parallel HEPS implementation was developed for the Hyperion aircraft
at the University of Colorado (CU). This gasoline-electric power plant was originally developed

8
as part of the Hybrid Electric Integrated Optimized System (HELIOS) project at CU and is now
licensed by TIGON EnerTec, Inc, and was further expanded upon for the Hyperionas part of
the Standalone-electric Optimized Lifting System, Transitional Internal Combustion Engine
(SOLSTICE) project, also conducted at CU. This hybrid system combines power from an ICE
and an EM to a single propeller shaft with atotal power output of 4-hp (2.98kW), providing a
combination of endurance and acoustic quietness, including high reliability, which cannot be
provided by current purely electric UAVs. The electric-only mode enables UAV operations
with a greatly reduced acoustic and infrared signature, which is advantageous when flying
covert missions or around populated areas. A German aircraft manufacturer, Flight Design,
coupled a 40-hp (29.8kW) EM with a 115-hp (85.8kW) Rotax 914 aircraft ICE in a parallel
HEPS configuration for a light-sport aircraft [21]. The EM provides approximately five minutes
of boos tpower during take-off and climbing, which enables the down-sizing of the ICE from a
160-hp model to the more efficient115-hp model. Additionally, the parallel configuration allows
the pilot to prolong a glide with electric power in the event ofengine failure, as well as utilising
a form of regenerative braking by charging its battery packs through propeller wind millingas
the aircraft descends.

Fig. 3.2 Parallel hybrid electric configuration

Fig. 3.3 Series hybrid electric configuration

3.3.3 Power-Split Configuration
The power-split configuration, shown in Figure 1(c), has no direct connection between
the various powerplants and them echanical drive train. Instead, a planetary gear set is used to
transfer the power generated by the ICE and/or EM to propel the UAV. This configuration is
currently used on a number of vehicles today, including the Toyota Prius [22] and the Ford
Hybrid Escape, but, to the knowledge of the authors, there is no implementation of a powersplit
HEPS on UAVs. The advantage of a power-split configuration over the other configurations is
9
its comparative efficiency at reducing fuel usage and emissions, because it is able to combine
the various power sources more efficiently. However, it’s very design introduces complexities
in the cost and control strategies that are required for its operation.

3.4 ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGY

Energy storage remains as one of the fundamental technologies that are essential to
support hybrid propulsion for larger aircraft. Fossil fuels are capable of storing energy in liquid
form with favourable specific energy to volume ratios. Liquid fuel also has the advantage of
being stored in complex and sealed geometries such as the aircraft wings. Alternative energy
storage solutions are being actively investigated in search of innovative ways to increase
potential energy by unit mass and unit volume. Research into energy harvesting in flight is also
showing promise to increase overall lenergy capacity. Various sources of energy have been
explored for hybrid aircraft including active generators, solar panels, fuel cells and batteries.
Generator systems rely on the fossil fuels to generate kinetic energyto turn a generator for
electricity production. While this concept tdoes not mitigate the dependency on fossil fuels, it
supports greater flexibility with respect to the propulsion configuration. Similar concepts can
be applied to aircraft and can be designed in various configurations discussed in subsequent
sections.
High Altitude Long Endurance (HALE) Global Observer is fuelled on liquid hydrogen
and is utilised for the fuel cell providing power to its eight electric engines. The airframe of the
Global Observer achieved maiden flight in August 2010, with the first hydrogen powered flight
taking place in January 2011. Engine and automobile manufacturer Rolls Royce has also taken
in an interest with matching its turbine engines to electric generators for a variety of RPAS
applications. Photovoltaic solar panels are another popular and considered option. Photovoltaic
electricity generation is applicable to large wing aircraft such as HALE vehicles as large wing
surfaces areas provide space for solar panels. High altitude flight maximizes solar exposure due
to the lack of tropospheric weather and increased levels of solar radiation. Two prime examples
considered are the Pathfinder and Helios aircraft, propelled by 14 engines using solar energy
stored in lithium ion batteries. The Helios prototype is one successful example achieving flight
at design cruise speeds for 40 min reaching maximum altitude of 96,863 feet, which set the
record for sustained flight by winged aircraft. Hydrogen fuel cells are another possibility for
hybridization, with many current trends utilizing a full fuel cell system rather than a hybrid
configuration. Fuel cells are thermodynamically efficient, however, requires pressurized
hydrogen as the main fuel source before reacting with oxygen to created electricity. Hydrogen
is stored in a pressurized vessel in which allows significantly high energy per unit mass

10
properties however relatively energy per unit volume low. This results in large storage systems
requiring significant aircraft design modifications. Aircraft with a hydrogen based system have
been explored with some entities adapting fuel cell technology by modifying the existing
electric aircraft to carry fuel cells. The AeroVironment Puma AE aircraft was a successful
platform that incorporated fuel cell technology and resulted in a300% increase in aircraft
endurance from 3 to 9 h. Batteries, on the other hand, are the mainstream electrical energy
storage technology. The rapid evolution in battery technology has been prompted by both
traditional and emerging consumer electronics applications, spanning from smart phones to
electric cars. Table 1 lists the representative specific energies achieved by various state-of-the-
art battery technologies. Innovative battery technologies that show promising potential to
advance the maximum specific energies include Lithium-Air, Lithium-Sulphate, Zinc-Air,
Aluminium-Air, Magnesium Ions and Graphene. Due to the low specific energy of batteries,
remote controlled aircraft suffer from poor endurance and range when compared to ICE driven
counterparts. Nonetheless, despite the poor energy densities and specific energies, in recent
years there have been several attempts in development of battery based hybrid designs with
different sizes. In 2009, German aircraft builder Flight Design demonstrated a light, manned,
sport aircraft where a 40hp electric motor provided approximately 5 min of boost power to an
115hpICE. Since electric motors can deliver the additional thrust required during take-off
operations, the ICE could be reduced in size, overall reducing the entire aircraft weight. In 2011,
SiemensAG, Diamond aircraft and EADS took flight in the World's first manned hybrid-electric
series configuration. The aircraft propeller was driven by a 70 kW electric motor running on
batteries with the primary source being a 30 kW combustion engine generator. This
configuration is conceptually similar to submarine hybrid-propulsion technology where the ICE
engine runs at its most efficient RPM to charge the batteries when needed. The flight test
campaign demonstrated that the series configuration achieved significant fuel savings, since the
series arrangement allowed the engines to run at its ideal speed. It also demonstrated lesser noise
on take-off operation when in electrical phase.

3.5 INVERTER AND CONTROLLER TECHNOLOGY

An inverter is required to change direct current (DC) electricity to alternating Current (AC)
electricity at a certain frequency and phase. This conversion is necessary when AC electric
motors are used for electric propulsion. An ideal process would convert power without any
losses however the conversion efficiency from DC to AC is commonly above 95%.The HEPS
controller, on the other hand, is an integral component of a Hybrid-electric RPAS (HERPAS).
It carries out the required control functions for all components featured in a HEPS such as the

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ICE, EM, generator, battery, current inversion and transmission (CVT). The controller must
integrate individual components to achieve maximum efficiency. Different control strategies
can be implemented for a system via different control methods.
Two main categories specified are intelligent controllers and rule-based controllers.

3.6 RECHARGEABLE BATTERIES

Energy density (energy stored per unit volume) and specific energy (energy stored per
unit mass) are the key figures to evaluate the performance of various alternative energy sources
for aviation, and are particularly important in assessing battery technology. A comparison
between energy densities and specific energy of various energy storage technologies is well
researched. State-of-the-art rechargeable batteries can be geometrically designed and scaled in
accordance to their design requirements. The comparison between button cells to large lead acid
automotive batteries highlights their impressive scalability. Current energy storage technologies
include alkaline, lead acid, nickel cadmium(Ni-Cd), nickel metal hydride (Ni-MH), lithium-ion
(Li-ion),lithium-ion polymer (li-ion polymer) and lithium sulphur (Li-S).The best candidates
for RPAS in terms of specific energy are Li-ion,Liion polymer and Li-S based on their relatively
higher energy densities. Li-ion polymer share similar properties as Li-ion batteries, with the
additional benefits of lighter weights and custom geometries. Based on these attributes, these
kinds of batteries are widely used in consumer technology. Although the technology behind Li-
ion and Li-ion polymer battery types have not yet reached full maturity when compared to other
energy storage technologies available today, they are the most frequently used and selected, as
seen in Solar-Powered Electric RPAS listed in Table 2.The energy densities of Li-ion and Li-
ion polymer batteries for solar RPAS vary between 522 and 864 kJ/kg. Even though Li-ion and
polymer have the highest energy densities and a low loss of charge when not in use, their figures
are still two orders of magnitude over than hydrocarbon fuels (~43 MJ/kg). The demand for
advanced rechargeable batteries has nevertheless increased significantly. Under these
circumstances, Lithium Sulphur (Li-S) battery has been developed by Sion Power since 1994.
Li-S battery has a theoretical specific capacity of 1600 mA h/g, and a specific energy value of
9360 kJ/kg (2600 W h/kg) assuming a complete reaction is made between Lithium and Sulphur
formulatingLi2S. These attributes suggest a promising battery technology for aircraft use. The
first use of Li-S battery was demonstrated on the Zephyr 7, which flew over 336 h in Yuma,
Arizona on July 2010,reaching altitude of 21.6 km. Table 3 gives an overview of aircraft using
Li-S battery technology as their main source of energy for propulsion. Battery type and energy
density is also given. An important advantage of Li-S battery is its suitability to operate atvery

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low temperatures. In order to achieve this measure, introducing an advanced electronic control
system will help assist and maintain battery temperature during flight.

3.7 FUTURE ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGY FOR AIRCRAFT

Energy storage solutions for transport vehicles are a subject of very active research.
Some emerging energy storage technologies for aircraft propulsion applications. Metal air,
Sodium sulphur and Zinc Bromine development have shown promising advantages, however
the specific energy density has not exceeded Lithium based batteries so far. Advanced flywheels
technology uses a mechanical concept of storing power in rotation kinetic energy. This kinetic
energy can be transferred to a shaft and propeller using a gearbox. The mechanical energy losses
will be significant using this approach and a clutch and gearing system is required. There are
also issues with the gyroscopic and procession effects of highenergy rotating objects on-board
an aircraft. One promising technology emerging from research is the Lithium air battery in
which Lithium Metal is used as the oxidating element, yielding a theoretical energy density of
11680Wh/kg. Realistic expectations are 14.5% of the theoretical maximum, which has been
deemed achievable through further research and development. The high energy density is only
made possible by using air and the anode and electrolyte reducing the overall weight of the cell
significantly. Research and development into Lithium-Air battery technology is ongoing with
identifying the most optimum battery composition using carbon or graphene based cathodes.
Material experimentation of catalyst composition is also another area of research to improve
relative electrical efficiency and cycle life.
3.8 FUEL CELL TECHNOLOGY
Fuel cells (FC) technology is based on the production of electrical energy through a controlled
chemical reaction of hydrogen fuel and oxygen. Fuel cells have many advantageous properties
compared to rechargeable batteries such as higher efficiency and reduced carbon footprint.
There are several types of fuel cells, each depending on its different electrolyte type used.
Examples include phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC), molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) and
solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC). The oxidizing agent can be sourced from air intakes much like
ICE engines. Hydrogen exists as the stored fuel on-board the aircraft. Fuel cell technology has
potential usage in the aerospace industry. Invested interest in fuel cell technology is evident
with the 2014 reported investment approximated at $850 million USD per year due to its
multipurpose usage across the transportation industry. Fuel cells for aircraft application are
commonly coupled with energy harvesting technology. An example of this is detailed in Table
5 where solar panels on the external surfaces harvest energy from the sun to increase endurance.
In particular, regenerative fuel cell energy based storage systems hold key in achieving energy

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densities above 400Wh/kg, however the efficiency of a hydrogen fuel cell system remains
between 25 and58%. The Helios was the first successful flight-test-solar powered aircraft
equipped with fuel cell. A significant disadvantage of fuel cell aircraft application is the inability
to distribute the system across the aircraft as one could do with batteries or liquid fuels. The
approach of Helios involves the installation of few heavy fuel cell pods located at the centreline
of the wing with 2 high-pressure hydrogen tanks located near the wing tips. This restricts
structural flexibility associated with the large masses of the fuel cell system. The 3-point mass
effects and introducing substantial complexity in aircraft flight dynamics, contributing to
persistent high dihedral wing flex during operation.

CHAPTER-4 WORKING PRINCIPLE

4.1. ELECTRIC FAN-MODEL

One of the main components of a future hybrid-electric aircraft will be an electric fan.
The efficiency of the electric propulsor can be defined as

Where Fn is the net thrust, V0 the flight speed and Pw the power input. This definition
of the efficiency is different from the propulsive one, as it takes into account the thermal losses
in the propulsor. For comparison, if the propulsor is fan of efficiency η pol and pressure ratio π
f, then the usual propulsive efficiency is :

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influencing the efficiency, beside the flight conditions τr, are as expected the fan pressure ratio
πf and the fan efficiency η pol. These two parameters cannot be imposed arbitrarily. There are
limits, imposed by the state of the art, on the possible pressure ratio and associated efficiency.
To capture these, a study of several existing fans of various sizes was performed. It allowed
drawing the following correlation

It is important to note that the fan pressure ratio, which plays an important role in the propulsive
efficiency, is replaced here by the power loading Pw/D², which is much easier to handle in the
propulsion system sizing. The statistic shows that, according to the current state of the art in
inlet, fan and nozzle design, there is an optimum power loading.
4.2. MINIMALISTIC GAS TURBINE
The other component of the hybrid electric propulsion system is a turbofan, which can provide
thrust and high power at the same time. The requirement for the gas turbine model is to have
the least number of parameters while still having a physical behaviour. In particular, the SFC
curve shall have a minimum. To achieve the goal of minimum number of parameters, the chosen
architecture is a dual-flow, single spool turbofan. The engine features a fan, a single compressor,
a combustion chamber and a turbine. Power can be extracted from or injected in the engine
shaft. Components efficiencies are fixed at state-of-the-art levels. The only remaining
parameters are the
(i) The design fan pressure ratio
(ii) The design overall pressure ratio
(iii) The by-pass ratio
(iv) The primary and secondary exhaust areas, which are deduced from the required
thrust for a given flight conditions.

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 The gas considered is perfect, with γ=1.4. Off-design operation is obtained by solving the
system of 3 equations where the computed section area of turbine vane, primary exhaust and
secondary exhaust shall be equal to their on-design value. The three unknowns are the ratio of
total flow to design total flow, the ratio of by-pass ratio to design by-pass ratio and the ratio of
shaft speed to the design shaft speed. Component efficiencies are assumed fixed. The pressure
ratios of the fan and the compressor follow a law linear with shaft speed
As for the electric fan, the design parameters of the turbofan shall be chosen taking into account
the state of the art or its foreseeable evolution. It is proposed to take into account the following
limits when choosing the turbofan design parameter:
(i) Corrected flow at compressor exit shall be higher than 2 kg/s. This is a feasibility
limit for full axial compressor
(ii) The fan pressure ratio and by-pass ratio can be chosen for optimal power loading,
as for the electric fan, and balanced pressure ratio between the two flows. This
corresponds to an optimal engine
Thermodynamically speaking, the electric fan operation increases the by-pass ratio of
the propulsion system as a whole. In cases where the diameter of the underwing engines is
limited, this gives the opportunity to increase the propulsion system efficiency beyond what
could be feasible using today’s thermal-only technology. The hybrid system, consisting of
generators, batteries, cables, power management electronics, and electric fan, adds a
considerable weight to the aircraft. On top of that, aircraft engines operations are very smooth
and stable: there is no such thing as highly variable load which is favourable to the hybrid car,
for instance. Hence, the use of the hybrid system shall be maximized to get the full benefit of
its presence on board. The picture below shows how the power is used on board. Blue arrows
are energy streams. Dotted lines are for small streams, plain lines are for large
(i) At take-off, energy is taken from both thermal engines and from the batteries to
provide maximum power to the electric fan.
(ii) During climb, less power is taken for the batteries, in an attempt to minimize the
required battery size and weight.
(iii) During cruise, the batteries are being recharged.
(iv) In descent, some energy may be recovered from the electric fan in windmill mode.
(v) In taxi in, the thermal engines are shut down and the aircraft moves on the electric
fan only, thus reducing the airport pollution.

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Fig. 4.1 Hybrid Distributed Propulsion Configuration

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 Fig. 4.2 Working Principle
The batteries are recharged or exchanged during turn-around time, so that the mission
start is always performed with fully charged batteries. A sizing of this aircraft, using the above
described engine models, has been performed and compared to a conventional aircraft on the
same payload/range requirements. The hybrid aircraft proved to be competitive (i.e. same
maximum take-off weight) if the energy density of the batteries is higher than 540 Wh/kg, and
the power density of the motor and generators is higher than 8 kW/kg.

CHAPTER-5
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

The estimation of an aircraft's performance and the determination of its stability and
control properties crucially rely on the knowledge of its flight dynamics characteristics. Key
data including drag polar and power available for levelled flight were therefore determined
based on the available dynamics models to estimate the range and endurance performance
characteristics. An earlier variant of the Aerosonde RPAS was adopted as a reference platform
in our numerical evaluation. For this aircraft, the lift coefficient (cL) was available as a cubic
polynomial fit of the angle of attack

where cL0 ¼ 0:23 is the lift coefficient at zero angle of attack, cLmax ¼ 1:3 is the lift
coefficient at aerodynamic stall, cL;a ¼ 5:61 is the first derivative with respect to the angle of
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attack and a max ¼ 15is the stall angle of attack. This curve is plotted in Fig. 1. The drag
coefficient (cD), on the other hand, was available as a full quadratic fit of the angle of attack as

Where cDa0 ¼ 0:0434 is the drag coefficient at null angle of attack, while cD ;a and
cD;a2 are respectively the first and second order fit coefficients with respect to the angle of
attack. Fig. 2 shows the resulting drag polar of the adopted aircraft model. The graph depicts
the lift coefficient CL against the drag coefficient CD. Although the data plotted in Figs. 1 and
2 is based on higher order models and allow to infer an approximate behaviour beyond the stall,
in most calculations it is sufficient to approximate the drag coefficient with a conventional
parabolic fit of the lift coefficient is

where e is the Oswald efficiency number, AR is the aircraft's aspect ratio, and CD0 as
the parasite drag coefficient. From Fig. 3, it can be inferred that the maximum aerodynamic
efficiency E, which corresponds to the maximum ratio of Lift (L) over Drag (D), equates to
16.76 and is achieved at approximately 8.2of angle of attack (a). The relatively gentle slope of
the graph ensures good manoeuvrability at a variety of angles of attack. Assuming the aircraft
is travelling in steady level flight conditions at a given altitude and given velocity, the power
plant must produce a net thrust equal to the drag, while the lift must balance the weight.

Fig. 5.1Adopted lift coefficient model

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 Fig. 5.2 Aerodynamic efficiency as a function of angle of attack

Fig 5.3 Drag polar as retrieved from the available aircraft dynamics model

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 Fig. 5.4 Range of Hybrid model

Fig. 5.5 Endurance of Hybrid model

CONCLUSION

This paper investigated the integration of hybrid-electric propulsion technology in a

small Remotely Piloted Aircraft System (RPAS). The overall aim was to develop a design
retrofit methodology with potential scale-up to medium and large transport aircraft. A currently
operated RPAS model was considered and different parameters of range, endurance and fuel
performances were evaluated in representative conditions for an internal combustion Engine
(ICE) only, electric-only and hybrid propulsion cases. Consistently with the energybased
estimations, range was higher for the ICE case when compared to the electric and hybrid cases,
with the specific energy of the batteries being the main limitation. Hybridelectric configurations
can nonetheless contribute in minimizing exhaust emissions and show promising
complementarities to ICE-only propulsive configurations.

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 For instance, energy harvesting, whose research is well underway, is a major
advancement that crucially relies on hybrid-electric technologies for practical deployment. On
the other hand, advances in fuel cell technology will potentially meet more- and all-electric
aerospace vehicle needs. Future research will address design optimisations aiming to overcome
the challenges in battery energy densities, weight penalties and power-plant integration issues
by focusing on battery charge-depleting profiles, distributed propulsion and unconventional
aircraft configurations. In particular, by considering carefully designed battery charge cycles
and allowing for ICE downsizing, optimal battery recharge-depletion profiles could be
implemented, yielding further enhancements in range and endurance performances. Finally,
RPAS hybridization offers a valuable stepping-stone in pursuing design scale-ups, supporting
research in unconventional transport aircraft design configurations and distributed hybrid
propulsion systems.

REFERENCES

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Propulsion System within a preliminary aircraft design software environment’,
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2. Clement Pornet, (2018), ‘Conceptual Design Methods for Sizing and Performance of
Hybrid-Electric Transport Aircraft’, Technische Universitat Munchen
3. Hendrik Gesell, Florian Wolters and Martin Plohr, (2018), ‘System Analysis of
Turbo Electric and Hybrid Electric Propulsion Systems on Regional Aircraft’,
Propulsion Technology
4. Jacob Sliwinski, Alessandro Gardi, Matthew Marino, Roberto Sabatini, (2017),

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 ‘Hybrid-electric propulsion integration in unmanned aircraft’, Energy, 1-10
5. Jane Yu-Chun and Luis Felipe Gonzalez, (2012), ‘On Parallel Hybrid-Electric
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