NATIONAL FUNERAL DIRECTORS ASSOCIATION OF SOUTH

AFRICA: A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF THE WEBSITES

CORNELIS A. COETZEE

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

MAGISTER TECHNOLOGIAE: MARKETING

in the

Department of Marketing, Logistics and Sport Management

FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES

TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

Supervisor: Dr T. Maree

Co-Supervisor: Prof C.H. van Heerden

October 2013

Open Rubric
DECLARATION OF OWN WORK AND COPYRIGHT

I hereby declare that the dissertation, submitted for the degree Magister

Technologiae: Marketing, at Tshwane University of Technology, is my own original

work, and has not previously been submitted to any other institution of higher

education. I further declare that all sources cited or quoted are indicated and

acknowledged by means of a comprehensive list of references.

________________

Cornelis A. Coetzee

Copyright© Tshwane University of Technology

i
DEDICATION

This study is dedicated to the memory of my parents: Psalm 16:6: “The lines have

fallen for me in pleasant places; indeed, I have a beautiful inheritance”.

ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to convey my sincerest gratitude to the following persons involved in

the process of completing this dissertation:

• The supervisors of this study:

o Dr Tania Maree, who created that “safety net” within which I knew I

could safely operate: Your constructive guidance throughout the

process and your dedication to the project is commendable;

o Prof C.H. van Heerden, who brought a wealth of academic

experience to the table.

• Dr E.A. Nesamvuni, Executive Dean, Faculty of Management Sciences,

Tshwane University of Technology: Your consistent motivation and support

to staff and students alike to succeed, does not go unnoticed. You are a

true leader in every sense of the word.

• Dr Patrick Goldstone, for the professional language editing of this

document.

• Mrs Rina Owen for the statistical analysis.

• The co-coders: Mr Jackson Rangongo and Mrs Tammy Marx. Your

patience, participation, and ethical conduct are much appreciated.

• The staff at the Tshwane University of Technology Goldfields Library,

especially Mr Elias Makgalo at the Inter-library loan division: For his tireless

efforts to find literature sources on my behalf.

• Members of the National Funeral Directors Association of South Africa, who

so patiently assisted me with any enquiries I had regarding the industry,

especially:

iii
 o Mrs Jenny le Roux, who introduced me to the interesting and un-

researched world of the funeral industry.

o Mrs Elsabe Basilio: Chairperson of the NFDA Gauteng Division;

o Dr Chris Molenyeux, for his constructive inputs regarding the funeral

industry;

o The following funeral directors who kindly, and without objection,

shared all the information they had at their disposal regarding the

funeral industry in South Africa:

 Mr Jeremy Bruce Riley (formerly from Doves Funeral

Group);

 Mrs Alta Rossouw from Emmanuel’s Funerals;

 Mrs Sonja Smith from Sonja Smith Funeral Group;

 Mr Alan Lindhorst from Constantia Funerals.

• Mr Pieter Rademan, for his assistance with the legal aspects pertaining to

the funeral industry.

• My dogs: Krisjan and Katryn, the two Fox terriers who patiently kept watch,

while I burnt the midnight oil.

iv
ABSTRACT

The marketing of intangible services, and particularly unsought services, such as a

funeral service, poses inherently unique challenges to marketers. This issue

posits the fundamental research question: How do marketers market the services

of a funeral home? Due to the unsought nature of funeral services consumers,

and marketers alike, generally avoid the industry – primarily because the services

the funeral industry offers are perceived to be a dismal trade. Taking the

components of the Integrated Marketing Communications (IMC) construct into

account, digital marketing is considered the most suitable component for the

marketing communication of funeral homes. Websites are considered to be an

unobtrusive form of communication media, suitable for communicating the

services offered by the funeral homes.

The study focuses on the ease of use of the websites evaluated, based on the

ease-of-use component of the Technology-Acceptance Model (TAM). A

quantitative content analysis of the websites was conducted, in order to collect the

relevant data for this study. The data collected for the study were analysed, using

the descriptive-analysis technique.

The findings of the study indicate that the majority (75%) of the websites can be

considered satisfactory in terms of their overall ease of use.

Key words: Digital marketing, Unsought/unwanted services marketing, Funeral

industry, Funeral homes, Technology-Acceptance Model, Quantitative content

analysis, Descriptive analysis.

v
CONTENTS

PAGE

DECLARATION OF OWN WORK AND COPYRIGHT ............................................ i

DEDICATION ..........................................................................................................ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS....................................................................................... iii

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................ v

LIST OF ANNEXURES ......................................................................................... xii

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................ xii

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................. xiv

CHAPTER 1 ........................................................................................................... 1

INTRODUCTION, BACKGROUND, AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ............ 1

1.1 Introduction....................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Objectives of the study ..................................................................................... 3

1.3 Research Methodology..................................................................................... 7

1.3.1 Theoretical overview...................................................................................... 9

1.3.2 Empirical research design and methodology of the study ........................... 10

1.3.2.1 Research design and methodology .......................................................... 10

1.3.2.2 Sampling .................................................................................................. 11

1.3.2.3 Data collection: coding, pilot testing and final coding .............................. 12

1.3.2.4 Data analysis and reporting ...................................................................... 13

1.3.2.4.1 Descriptive analysis ............................................................................... 14

1.4 Key terminology.............................................................................................. 14

vi
1.4.1 Methodological terminology ......................................................................... 15

1.4.2 Marketing terminology ................................................................................. 16

1.4.3 Digital terminology ....................................................................................... 17

1.4.4 Funeral-industry terminology ....................................................................... 18

1.5 Structure of the dissertation............................................................................ 19

1.6 Chapter summary ........................................................................................... 21

CHAPTER 2 ......................................................................................................... 22

AN OVERVIEW OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN FUNERAL INDUSTRY IN RELATION

TO SERVICES MARKETING ............................................................................... 22

2.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 22

2.2. The South African funeral industry ................................................................ 24

2.2.1 The South African funeral industry associations.......................................... 28

2.2.1.1 The National Funeral Directors’ Association (NFDA) ............................... 30

2.2.1.2 The tasks of a funeral director .................................................................. 33

2.3 The services-marketing mix (SMM) ................................................................ 34

2.3.1 The seven Ps of services marketing ............................................................ 36

2.4 The products-versus-services continuum: Towards a definition ..................... 40

2.4.1 Product categories ...................................................................................... 41

2.4.2 Service categories ....................................................................................... 43

2.4.2.1 The frameworks of Lovelock..................................................................... 45

2.4.2.2 Edvardsson, Gustafsson and Roos’ evaluations of service definitions ..... 49

2.4.2.3 The IHIP-method of classifying services................................................... 51

vii
2.4.2.4 The service-dominant logic of marketing .................................................. 57

2.4.3 Defining service marketing for the purpose of this study ............................. 62

2.4.4 Unsought services ....................................................................................... 64

2.4.4.1 Unsought services in relation to the funeral industry ................................ 66

2.4.4.2 The expanded services marketing mix in relation to the funeral industry . 69

2.4.4.3 The digital perspective of the expanded services-marketing mix ............. 75

2.5 Chapter Summary .......................................................................................... 78

CHAPTER 3 ......................................................................................................... 80

INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATION: A DIGITAL PERSPECTIVE .. 80

3.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 80

3.2 The IMC Construct: A brief overview .............................................................. 81

3.2.1 The components of an IMC program ........................................................... 82

3.3 Digital-marketing communication ................................................................... 87

3.3.1 The advancement of the Internet and the World Wide Web ...................... 88

3.3.1.1 The origins of the Internet....................................................................... 89

3.3.1.2 The development of new media technologies ........................................ 91

3.3.2 Digital marketing: a new approach ............................................................ 96

3.3.2.1 Websites as a digital-marketing communication vehicle....................... 106

3.3.2.1.1 Types, purposes and objectives of websites ....................................... 107

3.3.2.1.2 Website design .................................................................................... 116

3.3 Integrated new media communications ...................................................... 118

viii
3.5 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................ 120

CHAPTER 4 ....................................................................................................... 122

THE RESEARCH METHOD ............................................................................... 122

4.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 122

4.2 The nature and role of marketing research: an overview............................ 122

4.3 The methodological approach of this study ................................................ 125

4.3.1 Levels of measurement ............................................................................. 128

4.3.2 Descriptive research design ...................................................................... 129

4.3.2.1 The observational research method ....................................................... 130

4.3.3 Quantitative content analysis..................................................................... 131

4.3.3.1 Epistemological foundations of content analysis .................................... 132

4.3.3.2 The role of theory in quantitative content analysis .................................. 134

4.3.3.3 Applications of content analysis ............................................................. 135

4.3.3.4 Website content analysis ........................................................................ 138

4.4 The content analysis research PROCESS as applied to this study ............ 138

4.4.1 Step 1: Theory and conceptualisation .................................................... 139

4.4.1.1 The objectives of the study ..................................................................... 141

4.4.2 Step 2: Units of analysis .......................................................................... 143

4.4.2.1 Sampling units ...................................................................................... 144

4.4.2.2 Data-collection units ............................................................................. 144

4.4.2.3 Units of analysis ................................................................................... 145

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4.4.3 Step 3: Sampling .................................................................................... 145

4.4.3.1 Sampling population ............................................................................. 146

4.4.3.2 Sample frame ....................................................................................... 146

4.4.3.3 Sampling methods ................................................................................ 147

4.4.3.3.1 Selecting the sample ........................................................................... 148

4.4.4 Step 4: Coding........................................................................................ 150

4.4.4.1 The code book ...................................................................................... 152

4.4.4.1.1 Accessibility and visibility ................................................................... 155

4.4.4.1.2 Ease-of-use of the website: navigability ........................................... 156

4.4.4.1.3 Ease-of-use: contactability ............................................................... 158

4.4.4.1.4 Ease-of-use: interactivity .................................................................. 159

4.4.4.1.5 Privacy and security of the user ........................................................ 161

4.4.4.2 The coding form ................................................................................... 163

4.4.5 Step 5: Pilot Study .................................................................................. 164

4.4.5.1 Coder training ....................................................................................... 165

4.4.6 Step 6: Final Coding ............................................................................... 167

4.4.7 Step 7: Data analysis and reporting ....................................................... 167

4.4.7.1 Reliability .............................................................................................. 167

4.4.7.2 Validity .................................................................................................. 169

4.4.7.3 Descriptive analysis ................................................................................ 170

4.5 Chapter Summary ...................................................................................... 171

x
CHAPTER 5 ....................................................................................................... 173

THE RESEARCH FINDINGS ............................................................................. 173

5.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 173

5.2 Background to the research findings ............................................................ 173

5.3 Methods of analysis ...................................................................................... 175

5.3.1 Descriptive analysis ................................................................................... 177

5.4 Realisation of the study ................................................................................ 179

5.4.1 Secondary objective 1: Accessibility and visibility .................................... 180

5.4.2 Secondary objective 2.1: Ease-of-use - navigability ................................. 183

5.4.3 Secondary objective 2.2: Ease-of-use – contactability ............................. 184

5.4.4. Secondary objective 2.3: Ease-of-use – interactivity ............................... 186

5.4.5 Secondary objective 3: Privacy and security of the user .......................... 188

5.5 Summary of the research findings ................................................................ 190

5.6 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................ 192

CHAPTER 6 ....................................................................................................... 194

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................... 194

6.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 194

6.2 Summary and discussion of the main findings ............................................. 196

6.2.1 Secondary Objective 1: Accessibility and visibility .................................... 196

6.2.2 Secondary Objective 2.1: Ease-of-use – navigability ............................... 198

6.2.3 Secondary objective 2.2: Ease-of-use – contactability ............................. 198

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6.2.4 Secondary objective 2.3: Ease-of-use – interactivity ................................ 201

6.2.5 Secondary objective 2.3: Privacy and security of the user ....................... 203

6.3 Limitations of the study ................................................................................. 205

6.4 Recommendations for future research ......................................................... 207

6.5 Conclusion.................................................................................................... 210

References ......................................................................................................... 213

LIST OF ANNEXURES

PAGE

ANNEXURE A: Selim’s Web-Evaluation Criteria ............................................... 226

ANNEXURE B: Funeral Website Content-Analysis code book.......................... 231

ANNEXURE C: Funeral Website Coding Form ................................................. 250

ANNEXURE D: NFDA members with active websites ....................................... 252

ANNEXURE E: List of funeral homes selected for the pilot study ..................... 253

ANNEXURE F: Statistical results of the pilot study ........................................... 254

ANNEXURE G: Statistical analysis of the data collected .................................. 256

ANNEXURE H: Descriptive analysis of the data ............................................... 265

ANNEXURE I: Data collected for the purpose of this study............................... 266

LIST OF FIGURES

PAGE

Figure 1.1: The Technology-Acceptance Model (TAM) .......................................... 5

Figure 2.1: Digital communication as part of IMC ................................................. 77

Figure 3.1: The different media types .................................................................. 85

xii
Figure 3.2: The use of media in perspective to the IMC process......................... 87

Figure 3.3: The evolution of Web technologies .................................................... 92

Figure 3.4: The digital communications mix ........................................................ 99

Figure 3.5: News 24.com’s interactive links ....................................................... 101

Figure 3.6: News 24.com’s protocol options ....................................................... 102

Figure 3.7: The Facebook page of Collinge & Co.............................................. 103

Figure 3.8: An example of a banner advertisement on an affiliated website ..... 104

Figure 3.9: Oakleigh Funeral Home main page ................................................. 110

Figure 3.10: Coca-Cola South Africa’s main page............................................. 111

Figure 3.11: Dove’s funeral group home page .................................................. 112

Figure 3.12: Jenny le Roux Funeral Services’ home page ................................ 113

Figure 3.13: An example of a free book trial offered by Amazon.com ............... 115

Figure 3.14: Cannon’s integrated matrix ........................................................... 119

Figure 4.1: The seven-step research process applied to this study................... 139

Figure 4.2: The unitising process of the study ................................................... 144

Figure 4.3: The sample delimitation of the study ............................................... 146

Figure 5.1: TAM in relation to the study............................................................. 174

Figure 5.2: The arithmetic mean, the median and the mode of this study ......... 178

Figure 5.3: The objectives of the study in relation to the arithmetic mean ......... 180

Figure 5.4: Accessibility and visibility ................................................................ 181

Figure 5.5: Navigability ...................................................................................... 183

Figure 5.6: Contactability .................................................................................... 184

Figure 5.7: Interactivity ...................................................................................... 187

Figure 5.8: Privacy and security of the user ...................................................... 189

xiii
 LIST OF TABLES

PAGE

Table 2.1: Definitions of the expanded marketing mix components ..................... 37

Table 2.2: The operational and functional perspectives of the services-marketing

mix........................................................................................................................ 38

Table 2.3: A summary of consumer-product classifications ................................. 43

Table 2.4: A summary of service definitions according to various authors .......... 44

Table 2.5: Lovelock’s taxonomy .......................................................................... 46

Table 2.6: A summary of service definitions in relation to the IHIP-method,

according to various authors ................................................................................ 52

Table 2.7: A comparison of the IHIP-method application ..................................... 53

Table 2.8: The goods-centred and service-centred views of marketing ............... 59

Table 2.9: Operand and operant resources used to distinguish the goods-

dominant and service-dominant views of Vargo and Lusch ................................. 60

Table 2.10: Vargo and Lusch’s ten foundational premises of the SDL ................. 61

Table 2.11: The goods-versus-service continuum ................................................ 64

Table 2.12: The digital perspective of the 7Ps of services marketing .................. 76

Table 3.1: The components of an IMC construct .................................................. 84

Table 3.2: The digital evolution of marketing in relation to Web 1.0 and 2.0 ....... 95

Table 3.3: The 6 Is of the e-marketing framework ............................................... 97

Table 4.1: Anderson’s summary of the differences between quantitative and

qualitative research ............................................................................................ 126

Table 4.2: The different types of quantitative research designs, methods, and

methods of data collection applicable to the social sciences.............................. 127

Table 4.3: A summary of measurement scales .................................................. 128

xiv
Table 4.4: Potter and Levine-Donnerstein’s theoretical design options for content

analysis .............................................................................................................. 134

Table 5.1: Calculation of the benchmark ............................................................ 179

xv
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION, BACKGROUND, AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1.1 INTRODUCTION

How does a marketer promote the funeral industry? A funeral service is probably

one of the most difficult types of services to promote, mainly due to its “unsought”

nature. Considering the components of an Integrated Marketing Communications

(IMC) program, such as advertising or sales promotions, which of the components

can be used to promote the industry? For instance, what kind of promotion could

a funeral home present to prospective consumers? An advertisement in the local

newspaper that states: Die now and get a casket free of charge on your funeral

costs?

Although the foregoing example may be considered humorous, it illustrates the

complexities of applying the traditional components of an IMC program to promote

the funeral industry. From a funeral-industry perspective, the consumer is at the

time of acquiring the services of a funeral home, firstly, in a state of bereavement,

and secondly, in a situation of immediate need – and does not have time to “shop

around” for the best deal (Schwartz, Jolson & Lee, 1986:41).

A familiar fact in contemporary communication practices is emphasised by Du

Plessis (2010:1-21): “Effective communication is one of the most important

functions in an organisation. When an organisation communicates to consumers

about products and services, communication enters into the functional area of

1
marketing communication (MC)”. Thus, when Armour and Williams (1981:705-

706) note that the funeral industry has, from its very beginnings, had a problem

with its image; and it has taken great pains to change how consumers view

funerals. Du Plessis’ statement poses a fundamental problem to those who

provide a funeral service and the promotion of the funeral industry in general.

How do funeral homes then communicate their product to an audience, which is

firstly making a decision in a moment of immediate need; and secondly, it has to

make that decision on a product that is best described by Sanders (2009a:47) as

a “dismal trade”?

It is imperative for a business to have an online visibility in the contemporary

market; and this statement includes funeral homes. Although the website of a

funeral home does not fulfil an e-commerce function, it can either encourage or

discourage the consumer from contacting the funeral home for more information.

It is to the benefit of the funeral home to establish an online presence, in order to

provide information about the funeral home, its products and the funeral packages

offered – so that potential clients can contact the funeral home (Waters, 2009:4-6).

Since their inception, the Internet and the digital media have dramatically

transformed consumer behaviour, and the way in which companies market both to

consumers and businesses. Technology has the ability to open up new markets,

and to radically change the existing markets. Due to its unique capabilities, the

Internet presents a fundamentally different environment for marketing than the old

traditional marketing approaches.

2
The challenge for marketers now is to assess which Internet innovations are most

relevant to their industry, and how to integrate the Internet effectively into their

IMC strategies (Nothnagel, 2006:4; Chaffey & Ellis-Chadwick, 2012:6-8; Ryan &

Jones, 2012:5).

To date, Armour and Williams (1981) are the only authors encountered in the

literature that directly address the various aspects of funeral advertising. Articles

on topics, such as funeral-home customer service (Blayac, Bougette & Montet,

2012), the management of funeral homes (Walls, 2012), the generic marketing of

funeral homes (Schwartz, Jolson & Lee, 1986; Williams, 2012), the website design

(Waters, 2009), and articles on death and dying (Bailey, 2010) exist. But none of

the literature focuses on the digital marketing of the funeral industry per se.

The lack of existing information in the literature regarding the marketing of the

funeral industry identifies an unexplored field of study, and a subsequent

knowledge gap in the marketing discipline.

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The primary objective of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of active

websites of members of the National Funeral Directors Association (NFDA) of

South Africa. The NFDA of South Africa is one of five representative associations

in existence in the funeral industry in South Africa. The study is delimited to those

members of the NFDA of South Africa with active websites. The NFDA of South

Africa was selected to represent the population of this study because its

3
membership base represents all of South Africa, unlike some of the other South

African funeral associations, which only represent certain components of the

South African landscape (refer to Chapter 2, Section 2.2.1).

The inherent digital nature of this study requires an appropriate model as the basis

for its approach in evaluating the websites of those members of the NFDA of

South Africa with active websites. Islam, Low and Hasan (2013:824) state that

consumers are more willing to accept and subscribe to modern technology in

contemporary life. The Technology-Acceptance Model (TAM) (refer to Figure 1.1)

is a widely used model to assess the consumer’s perceived ease-of-use, the

perceived usefulness, and the consumer’s intention to use the website based on

the ease-of-use, and its perceived usefulness (He & Wang, 2012:528).

This model recognises the consumer’s intention to use technology, which is

influenced by the consumer’s attitude to the use of technology. The consumer’s

attitude to the use of technology is consequently determined by the perceived

usefulness and the perceived ease-of-use of the technology (Islam, Low & Hasan,

2013:827). The TAM, therefore, provides an explanation of the determinants of

technology acceptance that enable an explanation of user behaviour across a

wide spectrum of end-user information technologies, such as a website (Lee,

Hsieh & Hsu, 2011:126).

4
 Perceived
Perceived Ease of Use Intention to use
Usefullness

Figure 1.1: The Technology-Acceptance Model (TAM)

Source: He & Wang, 2012:528.

This study takes its point of departure from the bereaved user (as noted by

Schwartz, Jolson & Lee, 1986:41) who wants to find a funeral home to conduct the

funeral of a loved one, but who does not want to search through a maze of online

obstacles, in order to meet this need. Therefore, for the purpose of this study,

only the perceived ease-of-use component of the TAM will be applied and not the

remaining perceived usefulness and intention to use components (refer to Chapter

6 for a detailed description regarding this aspect).

The following secondary objectives were identified in relation to the ease of use

component of the TAM:

• To determine the accessibility and visibility of each website:

o Accessibility and visibility of the websites refer to the visibility of the

websites on a search-engine results page (SERP), after conducting

a search, and whether the websites are directly accessible from the

SERP.

• To assess the ease-of-use of each of the websites in terms of:

o The ease of navigability of the website:

5
  Navigability refers to the user’s ability to move with ease

between the different pages of the website. This requires the

presence of fully functional navigation tabs on the website.

o The contact information (contactability) provided on the website:

 Contactability relates to the presence of contact information

provided on the website, which would enable the user to

contact the funeral home beyond the website.

o The interactivity of the website:

 Interactivity refers to the factors relating to a comprehensive

language style use on the website, external links to resources

that are connected to the funeral home, such as florists, the

clergy, and casket manufacturers, and links to social-

networking sites (SNS).

• To determine whether the websites include the necessary privacy and

security measures:

o Privacy and security measure the levels of security that are built into

the website to protect the user’s privacy, and the security of personal

information. Aspects of importance in this regard relate to the

presence of a privacy statement from the funeral home, a terms-of-

use statement, and whether the website contains a security

certificate.

The criteria used in this study to evaluate these objectives are based on a study

conducted by Selim (2011). The primary focus of that study was to establish

criteria for assessing Internet Business Models (IBM’s). The study involved a

6
detailed literature review of the criteria used by previous studies to evaluate

Internet Business Models. Only criteria relevant to this study were extracted from

Selim’s original criteria (refer to Annexure A).

1.3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The quantitative content-analysis method is used to evaluate the active websites

of members of the NFDA of South Africa.

Berelson, as acknowledged by Krippendorff (2013:25), defined content analysis in

1952 as “a research technique for the objective, systematic, and quantitative

description of manifest content of communications”. Krippendorff (2013:24), one

of the modern-day advocates of the content-analysis research method, re-defines

the content analysis method, as a research technique for making valid conclusions

from texts, or other meaningful sources, such as websites, to the contexts of their

usage.

Krippendorff further explains that text is not intended to restrict content analysis to

written material. The phrase “or other meaningful sources” is included in the

definition to indicate that in content analysis, works of art, images, maps, sounds,

signs, symbols, and even numerical records, may be included as data. That is,

they may be considered as texts provided they address issues outside of those

which can be sensed or observed.

7
The key distinction between texts, and what other research methods use as their

starting point, is that a text means something to someone. It is produced by

someone, in order to have meanings for someone else. The reading of text, the

use of text within a social context, and the analysis of text, serve as appropriate

metaphors in content analysis (Neuendorf, 2002:14-15; Franzosi, 2008: xxvii;

Krippendorff, 2013:25).

In this study, Krippendorff’s account of content-analysis methodology can be

applied as follows:

• Works of art, images, maps, sounds, signs, symbols, and even numerical

records may be included as data. This aspect relates to the websites of the

funeral homes that will be analysed in this study. When developing a

website, the web developer makes use of several elements to construct a

website, such as images, navigation tabs, symbols and text.

• A text means something to someone. A website and its content is the way

in which the funeral home communicates its services to prospective

consumers online.

• A text is produced by someone to have meaning for someone else. What

the website of the funeral home communicates to the prospective consumer

should convey some meaning to the recipient, such as quality service, trust,

dignity, and respect.

• The meanings of text must therefore not be ignored. The basis of the

research question for this study is embedded within these questions: Is the

website easy to use? Does it fulfil the expectations of the consumer? And

8
 does it provide the necessary privacy and security measures to protect the

privacy of the user?

A seven-step content-analysis research process is applied to this study. The

methodology follows the process as conceptualised by Holtzhausen (2010:165-

190):

• Step 1: The theory and conceptualisation of the study is explained;

• Step 2: The units of analysis are determined;

• Step 3: The sampling process of the study is described;

• Step 4: The coding of the variables is discussed;

• Step 5: The conducting of the pilot study is described;

• Step 6: The final coding procedure relating to the study is explained;

• Step 7: The data analysis procedure is described, and the reporting of the

findings of the study is explored.

1.3.1 Theoretical overview

Neuendorf (2002:95) states that a content analyst should consult both scholarly

literature and commercial research, as these “non-theoretical investigations”

provide the basis from which variables can be taken to study. The consultation of

the literature pertaining to a study topic is generally referred to as a literature

review.

The conducting of a literature review serves as a “systematic, explicit and

reproducible method for identifying, evaluating, and synthesizing an existing body

9
of completed and recorded work produced by researchers, scholars, and

practitioners” (Fink, 2005:3).

A theoretical background to this study is compiled in Chapters 2 and 3, based on

the existing scholarly and commercial literature. Both printed and electronic

sources were consulted in the compilation of the literature review.

1.3.2 Empirical research design and methodology of the study

Empirical research is described as research that is conducted to collect factual

information on a specific problem because of the lack of existing information (Bak,

2004:11; Mouton, 2001:113). The research design and methodology, the

sampling procedure followed by this study, and the data collection and analysis

processes are discussed in the sections below.

1.3.2.1 Research design and methodology

The units of analysis required for this study are to be found within the active

websites of the selected funeral homes. At an early point in a content analysis

study, the data collected for a study need to be broken into units for sampling,

collecting, analysis and reporting (Neuendorf, 2002:71-72; White & Marsh,

2006:29). This process is also referred to in content analysis as “unitising” (White

& Marsh, 2006:29; Krippendorff, 2013:84,98).

10
Although Krippendorff (2013:99-104) uses different terminology for unitising, the

application of unitising in content analysis is in harmony between the various

authors cited.

Data-collection units are the units that are used for measuring variables (White &

Marsh, 2006:29). Data-collection units are contained in sampling units; and they

are distinguished, and then separately described or categorised (Krippendorff,

2013:100). The data-collection units of this study are the websites of those

members of the NFDA of South Africa that have dedicated websites.

1.3.2.2 Sampling

When the entire population of the target population is investigated, this is referred

to as a census (Du Plooy, 2009:108; Daniel, 2012:23). If the population is small

and the results are important, it is worth doing a census, in order to collect data

from every member of the population (Waters, 2008:73).

Based on the complete member list of the NFDA of South Africa, members with

dedicated websites were identified for the purpose of this study. It was

established that only certain members (10%) of the NFDA of South Africa have

dedicated websites. All the websites were included in the sample of the study.

Thus, from both the population and sampling frame perspectives, the units of

analysis for this study constitute a census.

11
1.3.2.3 Data collection: coding, pilot testing and final coding

In quantitative content analysis, the coding process is determined a priori,

indicating that it is done before coding even begins. The coding process involves

converting the content that is being researched into a format that is suitable for

analysis. The recording of the data takes place when observers, readers or

analysts interpret what is seen, read or found; and they then relate their

experiences in the form of an analysis (White & Marsh, 2006:31; Du Plooy,

2009:17; Holtzhausen, 2010:175; Krippendorff, 2013:127-128).

Coding, also referred to as “rating”, is the term used by content analysts when the

process of recording is carried out, in accordance with observer-independent

rules. The person(s) that conduct the recording, or the coding process, are

referred to as a coder(s) (Krippendorff, 2013:127-128; Leedy & Ormrod,

2013:149). This study used human coders to record the variables, as prescribed

in a code book into a corresponding coding form (refer to Annexures B & C).

Neuendorf (2002:51) suggests that if a census of the population were possible, a

pilot study would not then be necessary; and the analyst could proceed with the

coding of the variables. The content analysis process of this study, however,

involved the conducting of a pilot study, because this informs the researcher as to

the reliability and overall viability of the coding scheme (Neuendorf, 2002:133).

For the reliability testing of the research instrument (the coding form), the pilot

study was conducted by three independent, qualified coders – the researcher and

12
two additional coders with grounded knowledge on marketing and information

technology.

Once the reliability test results for this study were received from the statistician,

the researcher proceeded to code the websites of the members of the NFDA of

South Africa, according to the instructions of the final code book.

Krippendorff’s alpha (α) was applied, in order to conduct the reliability testing of

the results – of both the pilot study and the final results. Krippendorff’s alpha (α)

satisfies all the known measurements’ formulation criteria in one formula. It

accomplishes this by calculating disagreements, instead of correcting per-cent

agreements, consequently eliminating the limitations of the other measurements

(Hayes & Krippendorff: 2007:80-81; MacNamara: 2005:11).

It was, therefore, considered the most applicable and reliable method of analysis

for this study.

1.3.2.4 Data analysis and reporting

There are several known measurements of reliability testing in content analysis,

such as Cohen’s kappa, also referred to as the “weighted kappa coefficient”, and

Fleiss’s kappa (K), both of which are variations on Scott’s pi (π). Other

measurements include Cronbach’s alpha (αC), Spearman’s (rho), Pearson’s

correlation coefficient (r), and the percentage agreement, which is the most basic

assessment of content-data analysis (Neuendorf, 2002:151).

13
On account of the descriptive nature of the study, the descriptive-analysis method

was applied to analyse the data.

1.3.2.4.1 Descriptive analysis

Descriptive statistics is defined by Babbie and Mouton (2001:459) as a method

used to present quantitative descriptions of data in a manageable form.

Muehlenhaus (2011:18-19), in addition, notes that not only can it be used to

describe what is observed in each website, using descriptive statistics; but it also

numerically analyses relationships among variables that might not have been

noticed via descriptive analysis alone.

Two types of measures are used to describe the data, namely measures of central

tendency and measures of dispersion (Hair et al., 2010:249). This study applied

the measures of central tendency to represent the central location of the data.

The arithmetic mean of the data is used as a benchmark to discuss the results of

the study grouped, according to the objective.

1.4 KEY TERMINOLOGY

This study involves a number of key concepts. The key terminology pertaining to

this study is listed in Sections 1.4.1 to 1.4.4. The terminology is divided into four

sections, namely: methodological terminology, marketing terminology, digital

terminology, and terminology related to the funeral industry.

14
1.4.1 Methodological terminology

This section contains terminology relating to the methodological applications of the

study. The terminology is compiled from Neuendorf (2002:8,111); He and Wang

(2012:528); Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2012:171); Krippendorff (2013:380-

382); and Varma and Marler (2013:1447):

• Alpha: A generalised coefficient of agreement used to assess the reliability

of units, coding and data. Alpha expresses the agreement among coders.

• Content analysis: A research technique for making replicable and valid

inferences from texts to the contexts of their use.

• Coder(s): An individual(s) who make(s) judgments about variables as

applied to each variable being analysed in the study.

• Coding: The process of categorising, describing, evaluating, or measuring

descriptively undifferentiated units of analysis.

• Code book: A document that contains all the operational definitions for all

variables measured in the study. The code book corresponds with the

coding form, as it is designed to guide the coders through the coding

process.

• Coding form: A document, which provides spaces for recording the codes

of all the variables measured in the study. It corresponds with the code

book.

• Descriptive research: A research process applied to gain an accurate

profile of events, persons or situations researched.

15
 • Technology-Acceptance Model (TAM): An analytical framework to study

the acceptance of technology, and the influence of the perceived benefits of

technology on the individuals using the technology.

1.4.2 Marketing terminology

There are many terms relating to contemporary marketing. This section only

highlights the essential terminology relating to this study (Belch & Belch,

2012:708-720; Moriarty, Mitchell & Wells, 2012:638-655; Semenik et al.,

2012:675-687; Shimp & Andrews, 2013:701-707).

• Consumer: The buyer or user of goods, services, and ideas.

• Integrated-marketing communication (IMC): The practice of unifying all

marketing communication efforts, in order to send a consistent brand

message to target audiences. The goal is to generate both short-term

financial returns, and to build long-term brand and shareholder value.

• Marketing: Business activities that direct the exchange of goods and

services between producers and consumers.

• Marketing communications: A collection of all elements in an

organisation’s marketing mix that would facilitate an exchange by

establishing shared meanings with the customers.

• Marketing mix: The blend of the four responsibilities of marketing, namely:

the product (design and performance), price (value), place (distribution),

and promotion (marketing communication).

16
 • Mass media: Communication channels, such as newspapers, television or

the Internet, that are used to send messages to large and diverse

audiences.

• Media: The channels of communication that carry the message to target

audiences.

• Media channels: Media that transmit communication messages from the

advertiser to the audience – and from the consumers back to the

companies.

• Promotional mix: The blend of advertising, public relations, personal

selling, direct marketing, and digital-marketing elements usually aimed at a

specific target market.

• Service: Any act or performance that one party can offer to another that is

essentially intangible, and does not result in ownership of anything.

1.4.3 Digital terminology

The advent of technology has resulted in some new terminology, together with

existing, descriptive words applied to the technological environment. The key

terminology of this section is compiled from the studies of Stokes (2011:530-562)

and Chaffey and Ellis-Chadwick (2012:648-674).

• Digital marketing: Achieving marketing objectives through applying digital

technologies.

• Internet: A worldwide system of interconnected computer networks; the

Internet connects millions of individuals from every corner of the globe.

17
 • Search engine: A tool for searching the Internet. Users of search engines

enter keywords relevant to their search, and the search engine returns

results from its databases.

• Search Engine Results Page (SERP): The page that shows the results for

a search on a search engine.

• Web browser: This is what allows the user to browse the World Wide Web.

Examples of such browsers include Microsoft Internet Explorer, Google

Chrome, Apple Safari and Mozilla Firefox.

• Website: This is the online presence of a person or an organisation.

1.4.4 Funeral-industry terminology

The following terminology relates to the funeral industry; and it is compiled from

lists provided by the Washington State Funeral Directors Association (2012), and

the Michigan Funeral Directors’ Association (2010). Although more terminology is

listed by the sources, only terminology applicable to this study is listed:

• Bereaved: (N) The immediate family of the deceased. (V) Suffering from

grief upon the death of a loved one.

• Deceased: (N) One in whom all physical life has ceased. (V) Dead.

• Funeral director: A professional who prepares for the burial or other

disposition of dead human bodies, supervises such burial or disposition,

and maintains a funeral establishment for such purposes. Synonyms:

mortician, undertaker.

• Funeral home: A building used for the purpose of embalming, arranging

and conducting funerals. Synonym: mortuary.

18
 • Funeral service: 1) The profession which deals with the handling of dead

human bodies; 2) The religious or other rites conducted immediately before

the final disposition of the dead human body.

1.5 STRUCTURE OF THE DISSERTATION

This dissertation consists of six chapters. Each chapter serves a specific purpose

within the overall structure of the dissertation. This section provides a brief outline

of the content of each of the subsequent chapters.

Firstly, an overview of the funeral industry in South Africa is provided in Chapter 2.

The funeral industry is reviewed in relation to the marketing communication

perspective. The funeral industry is classified in terms of its positioning as an

intangible product. Products are generally classified into two major categories:

consumer products and business products. Consumer products are further

divided into four sub-categories, namely: convenience products, shopping

products, speciality products and unsought products, to which the funeral industry

relates (Strydom, 2004:108; Lamb et al., 2010:242-245; Kotler & Armstrong,

2010:250-251).

The classification of funeral services within the consumer-product structure is best

illustrated by the “goods-versus-service continuum” proposed by Jordaan and

Prinsloo (2004:8). The continuum progresses on a parallel path from the

perspective of pure, tangible goods towards pure, intangible services. It offers a

simplified, yet effective five-level process of classification. The continuum is able

19
to effectively clarify contentious issues on the classification and defining of

services.

The marketing of services is discussed, following the positioning of the funeral

industry within the marketing discipline. Firstly, the 7Ps of service marketing are

discussed, followed by a review of the recognised perspectives of services in the

literature. The funeral industry as an unsought service is discussed in relation to

services marketing.

Chapter 3 presents digital marketing as a component of the IMC construct. It

provides an overview of the advent of the Internet and the implications for

contemporary marketing communications. Websites, as a digital communication

vehicle are reviewed in relation to the funeral industry.

The research method followed by this study is described in Chapter 4. The

chapter, firstly, provides a brief overview of the nature and the role of marketing

research. The seven-step process of conducting the content-analysis research

process, as it is applied to the study, is detailed thereafter.

The description of the research process commences with a discussion of the

theory and conceptualisation of the study. This is followed by the theoretical

background to the units of analysis and the sampling process. The coding

process, the code book and the coding form are explained in relation to the study.

Chapter 4 concludes with a description of the data-analysis process, including the

20
reliability and the validity factors that might have an influence on the results of the

research conducted for this study.

Chapter 5 presents the research findings of the study. Firstly, a background to the

research findings is provided. The methods of analysis, including the calculation

and reporting of the descriptive analyses, are described. The realisation of the

study is presented, using the descriptive methods of reporting data. Chapter 5

concludes with an alignment of the findings of the study in relation to the TAM.

The final chapter of the study, Chapter 6, provides a detailed discussion of the

implications of the findings of the data in relation to the objectives of the study.

Conclusions are drawn from the findings of the study. The shortcomings of the

study, together with some future recommendations, conclude the chapter.

1.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY

This chapter has introduced the study, outlined the background to the study, and

presented the objectives. A summary of the research design and the

methodology were presented. Certain key terms were presented, followed by an

outline of the structure of the remainder of the dissertation.

The next chapter commences the literature reviewed for the purpose of the study.

Chapter 2 provides an overview of the funeral industry in South Africa, the

positioning of services-marketing within the marketing discipline; and it concludes

with the placement of the funeral industry within the services-marketing construct.

21
 CHAPTER 2

AN OVERVIEW OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN FUNERAL INDUSTRY IN

RELATION TO SERVICES MARKETING

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Death is universal; and funerals comprise one of the earliest-known concrete

symbols of human social rituals. In fact, funeral insurance is one of the earliest

documented forms of insurance (Berg, 2011:1). Regardless of its origins, where

there is death, there will be a funeral of some sort. Whether it is a “funeral”, where

the remains of the deceased are present, or a “memorial service”, where the

remains of the deceased are not present, humans across cultures and from

different belief-and-value systems, will congregate to pay their last respects to the

deceased (O’Rourke, Spitzberg & Hannawa, 2011:729-730).

A funeral service serves different functions from the perspectives of the attendees.

The functions of a funeral home are listed by O’Rourke, Spitzberg and Hannawa,

(2011:743) as follows. It serves to:

• Maintain social order;

• Support belief in the spirit and the afterlife;

• Assists in the grieving process; and

• Provide mourners with a forum to express emotion, connection, love, and

respect for the deceased.

22
The funeral industry is a social product that, like any other economic sector, has

masked its constructed nature – to the extent that it is taken for granted by the

consumer (Sanders, 2009b:2). Despite general beliefs, consumers do not need

the funeral industry to dispose of their dead. For instance, in certain states in the

United States of America the bodies of the deceased can be interred in a

residential backyard after conducting a “do-it-yourself” funeral. The largest portion

of consumer spending in the funeral industry is, therefore, discretionary spending

(Sanders, 2009b:2). Thus, the consumer decides where and how they choose to

spend their money when arranging a funeral.

By reconstructing itself as a cultural industry since the early 1990s, the funeral

industry has become a consumer-oriented, flexible, and niche-oriented supplier of

symbolic goods and services to its consumers. The industry, therefore, relies on a

growing number of sophisticated marketing tools to assist it in serving a diverse

market of “investors” (Sanders, 2009b:1,6).

Due to the unsought – or otherwise expressed “unwanted” – nature of funeral

services, consumers generally avoid the industry, and are unlikely to invest in

such a service through the exposure of, for instance, an advertisement. This is

because the services the funeral industry offers are primarily associated with

death and grief (Theron, 2011:2).

Consumers in general are better educated regarding products and service

delivery, than they are to the funeral industry. Funeral consumers do not only

want value for money; but, they are not afraid to compare prices and ask for

23
explanations of charges. Therefore, developing a service strategy for the funeral

industry involves the same processes as for any other industry, namely: defining

potential customers, determining what their expectations are, and creating a

compatible strategy between the consumer’s expectations and the funeral home’s

ability to deliver that service.

Without a service strategy, a funeral home cannot be managed in a way that

would assure quality service to its consumers (Wolfelt, 2007).

This chapter will provide a brief overview of the funeral industry in South Africa;

this will be followed by a discussion of services-marketing applied to the industry.

The services perspective is approached from the “unsought” perceptions of

consumers on funeral services. The chapter will conclude with an application of

the funeral industry to the services-marketing mix construct.

2.2. THE SOUTH AFRICAN FUNERAL INDUSTRY

Due to a lack of information in the public domain that is suitable for the purpose of

this research, a report was commissioned from an attorney to provide clarity on

the regulation of the funeral industry in South Africa. Rademan (2012a:1-2)

reported that the funeral industry is largely unregulated in South Africa, which

presents a fundamental challenge in relation to the effective controlling of

practices in the industry in general. The absence of any concrete legislation,

unfortunately, leads to the escalation of unscrupulous operators; and this is, inter

24
alia, the very reason why so many representatives in the industry are currently

supporting the feasibility of a regulated industry.

The South African funeral industry has been characterised by elements of

widespread corruption and unhealthy practices (Rademan, 2012a:2). Due to the

unregulated nature of the industry at present, opportunities are created for “fly-by-

night” operators to enter into the industry at low set-up costs. A widespread call

for regulating the legislation exists among funeral directors in the industry. Strict

regulation would not only eliminate illegal and unhealthy practices, but it would

inevitably affect the nature of competition in the industry (Rademan, 2012a:2-3).

A South African Market Summary (SAMS) report presented by the Gauteng

Enterprise Propeller (GEP) (2010:1) noted that the South African funeral industry

is worth an estimated R40 billion; and it consists largely of independent operators

that operate in localised markets. Other than independent operators, the report

identifies three dominating funeral companies in South Africa, namely: AVBOB,

Doves and Martin’s. The report describes the nature and scope of the funeral

industry, as essentially providing cost-effective funeral arrangements.

Additional services provided by the funeral industry are listed as the use of

mortuary facilities, the registration of the death at the Department of Home Affairs,

as well as the placement of the funeral notice in local newspapers. Additional

services, described as “non-pricing factors”, are listed as the quality of services,

the extent of personal services, location, plush surroundings (sic!), reputation, and

25
consumers’ prior experience or knowledge of the services provided by the specific

funeral home.

Existing legislation of the industry, however, only pertains to municipal by-laws

and the Health Act 63 of 1977 (Rademan, 2012a:4). A by-law is defined as a law

that is passed by the council of a municipality to regulate the affairs and the

services it provides within its area of jurisdiction (City of Cape Town, 2012).

Municipal by-laws determine that if the by-laws are not adhered to, the offender

(the funeral director or funeral business) can be prosecuted.

The by-laws influencing the legal aspects of the funeral industry pertain mainly to

the use of burial sites and business premises. The municipal by-laws are also not

standardised laws; and they could differ from municipality to municipality

(Rademan, 2012a:4).

The Health Act, as with all the municipal by-laws, is of a very limited nature when

applied to the funeral industry; and it merely dictates who can act in the funeral

industry, and under what circumstances (Rademan, 2012a:4-5). This is explained

by Rademan (2012a:4; 2012b:1-2) in terms of the “certificate of competence”

issued to funeral directors in South Africa, permitting the funeral director to

operate the funeral home.

The certificate of competence is a formal document issued to all funeral parlours,

which authorises the funeral director to perform the necessary functions expected

of a funeral director. The issuing of a certificate of competence is regulated by the

26
applicable by-laws of each local municipality. In conjunction with the municipal by-

law, the Health Act also becomes relevant when an applicant applies for the

certificate of competence (Rademan, 2012b:1-2).

The Health Act and Regulations Relating to Funeral Undertaker’s Premises, no.

237, evaluates the prospective funeral director’s premises to determine whether

they are acceptable within the standards and norms required for the operation of a

funeral parlour. The requirements taken into consideration, as listed by Rademan

(2012b:1-2), are whether:

• The premises comply with all the requirements laid down in the municipal

regulations of the by-laws;

• The premises are, in all respects, suitable for the preparation of corpses;

and

• The premises would not be offensive to any neighbours of such premises in

the immediate vicinity of the funeral home.

Molyneux (2012) is of the opinion that the health regulations and the municipal by-

laws are sufficient to regulate the industry; but this author notes that not even

these regulations are being implemented by funeral directors in South Africa.

According to Molyneux (2012), the decree to regulate the industry is merely an

outcry by funeral directors in South Africa to “keep out potential competitors”.

However, Basilio (2012:17) asserts that the South African government does not

understand exactly what it is that the industry needs in terms of legislation.

Furthermore, many policies and procedures are in place within the funeral

27
industry, but they are not being enforced by the government. Communication

between government and the funeral industry is therefore essential, in order to

implement policy in the industry.

2.2.1 The South African funeral industry associations

The funeral industry in South Africa is represented by five associations, namely:

the Funeral Federation of South Africa (FFSA), the National Funeral Directors

Association (NFDA), the Independent Funeral Directors Association (IFDA), the

South African Funeral Practitioners Association (SAFPA), and the Private Funeral

Directors Association (PFDA).

These associations fulfil a similar task to that of a trade union (Bester et al.,

2005:30-31; Rademan, 2012a:3). Each of the associations has its own set of

policies and codes of conduct, which are applicable to members of the association

only. The representative associations, however, do not have the legal power to

regulate the industry in general. Hereafter, is a brief description of each of the

associations that represents the South African funeral industry (Bester et al.,

2005:30-31):

• Funeral Federation of South Africa (FFSA)

The FFSA was established in May 2001; and it represents about 80% of the

funeral industry. It serves as an apex body for the National Funeral

Directors Association (NFDA), the Independent Funeral Directors

Association (IFDA), and the South African Funeral Practitioners Association

(SAFPA).

28
 • National Funeral Directors’ Association (NFDA)

The primary purpose of the NFDA of South Africa is to act as a

representative of its members to government, and to ensure that standards

in the funeral industry are maintained. The latter is applicable to members

of the NFDA of South Africa only, as it has no jurisdiction on the standards

of the other representative bodies. The NFDA of South Africa’s

membership is dominated by the larger funeral groups, such as AVBOB,

Doves and Martin’s.

• Independent Funeral Directors’ Association (IFDA)

The focus of the IFDA is primarily on the best practice, as it relates to the

funeral services offered by members; and it is not concerned with issues

relating to insurance.

• South African Funeral Practitioners’ Association (SAFPA)

SAFPA is representative of the previously disadvantaged contingent of the

South African population. An African-owned funeral home is a

predetermined requirement for membership of SAFPA. Its purpose is to

improve the standard of insurance offered by its members, and to set best

practices in relation to the funeral services offered.

• Private Funeral Directors’ Association (PFDA)

The PFDA has applied to become part of the FFSA apex; but it has to date

not been granted membership. It is similar in its practices to those of the

IFDA.

The sample elements of this study are drawn from the member list of the NFDA of

South Africa. Selecting the sample elements of this study from the NFDA member

29
registry is based on two reasons: firstly, the NFDA’s membership covers the

entire country and some neighbouring countries, and secondly, the NFDA was the

only governing body that agreed to participate in the study: - thus, the only South

African funeral governing body that was prepared to disclose their membership

register for the purpose of this study.

A brief outline of the NFDA of South Africa, its structure, vision and mission, and

code of conduct is provided next.

2.2.1.1 The National Funeral Directors’ Association (NFDA)

The NFDA of South Africa, as stated in Section 2.2.1, is one of five representative

associations in existence in the funeral industry in South Africa. Its membership

base represents all of South Africa; and it is subsequently divided into different

regions. Its central management structure consists of a president of the body, a

vice-president, treasurer, national secretary, public relations officer, and regional

representatives, who are also referred to as “chairpersons” (The Southern African

Funeral Director, 2012:15).

The membership base of the NFDA of South Africa is divided into six regions (The

Southern African Funeral Director, 2012:24-27), namely:

• The Inland region (the Inland region includes all the provinces of South

Africa not listed below);

• The Western Cape region;

• The Southern Cape and Eastern Cape region;

30
 • The Kwa-Zulu Natal region;

• The North West, Northern Cape and Free State region; and

• An International region, which represents neighbouring countries, such as

Lesotho (Maseru) and Zimbabwe (Harare).

In addition to the regional divisions of the NFDA of South Africa, its representation

also includes individual representations of the three largest funeral groups in

South Africa, namely: AVBOB, Doves and Martins (GEP Report, 2010:1;

Rademan, 2012a:2-3; The Southern African Funeral Director, 2012:31-37).

The vision of the NFDA of South Africa is simply stated as: “To be at the forefront

of the funeral development in Southern Africa” (The Southern African Funeral

Director, 2012:4). According to the NFDA of Southern Africa (2012:4), the vision

statement is demonstrated in the mission outline, which is to:

• Unite the funeral industry;

• Represent all the members of the NFDA of South Africa;

• Support all cultures and religions; and

• Serve the nation with:

o compassion and respect;

o quality service;

o professionalism; and

o to uphold ethical standards.

The NFDA of South Africa has aligned its membership code of conduct, in order to

be representative of the vision and mission statements. In the code of conduct for

31
members of the NFDA of South Africa, members pledge as follows (NFDA of

South Africa Code of conduct, 2012):

“In the full realisation that funeral directing is an essential public service, we, as

members of this association, solemnly pledge ourselves to conduct our

business with honour and dignity, and to this we agree:

• To act in the interests of all who need our services;

• To respect all beliefs, and to treat all personal information as strictly

confidential;

• To treat every deceased person with care, dignity and respect, and to take

all due precautions with regard to health regulations;

• To charge reasonable rates for services rendered, and not to exploit

bereaved families;

• To be responsible in advertising, and to refrain from soliciting and

corruption;

• To maintain high ethical standards in our relationship with the public and

other funeral directors; and

• To be loyal to our vocation and to the National Funeral Directors’

Association of Southern Africa.”

The foregoing information regarding the NFDA of South Africa indicates a well-

structured governing body, with the ultimate aim to serve its clients with dignity

and respect in all funeral services.

Section 2.2.1.2 provides an overview of the essential tasks of a funeral director.

32
2.2.1.2 The tasks of a funeral director

The funeral director’s primary responsibility is to take care of the deceased;

therefore, the allotted term “custodian of the dead” (Riley, 2012a; Molyneux,

2012). This statement indicates that there is more to the aspect of “taking care of

the deceased” than the simplified definition suggests.

Riley (2012a) lists the characteristics of a funeral director as someone who:

• Practises exceptional client services;

• Has the ability to empathise with the bereaved;

• Has excellent listening skills;

• Is able to handle stress;

• Is a good negotiator;

• Has the ability to direct a crowd; and

• Is available 24 hours a day, in order to assist the bereaved.

Contained within these characteristics are the primary functions of a funeral

director. These two aspects are inseparable; and they are complementary to one

another. According to Le Roux (2012), Lindhorst (2012), Molyneux (2012) and

Smith (2012), the five core functions of a funeral director are to:

• To take care of the deceased until the burial or cremation;

• To assist the bereaved in the arrangement of the funeral of the deceased;

• Attend to the required legal documentation and related administrative

procedures pertaining to the death of a loved one, on behalf of the

bereaved;

33
 • Conduct the funeral (being a director at the funeral); and to

• Provide aftercare services, such as emotional support to the bereaved.

The above listed characteristics and functions of a funeral director indicate that all

the key elements relating to the practice of a funeral service, relate directly to

service delivery. Nowhere in any of the descriptive classifications does “product”

hold precedence above that of “service”. This indicates that the funeral industry,

together with all its actors, primarily functions as a service industry. The

remainder of this chapter is, therefore, focused on services marketing and the

application thereof to the funeral industry.

2.3 THE SERVICES-MARKETING MIX (SMM)

The term “marketing mix” has been assigned various definitions by various

marketing authors, theorists, researchers and practitioners over the past half

century. A number of definitions are listed by Bellmunt and Deltoro (2005:117)

such as Borden’s (1964) initial definition that “companies have a list of variables

under their control that can be manipulated to achieve their marketing objectives”,

and the definition of Kotler et al. (1995) that the marketing mix is “a set of

marketing tools that the firm uses to achieve its commercial objectives in relation

to a target market”.

The most noteworthy notation of a marketing-mix paradigm according to Bellmunt

and Deltoro (2005:119) was the conceptualisation by McCarthy (1964) of the

commonly known four Ps of marketing (Product, Price, Place and Promotion). It

34
has been at the core of the marketing concept ever since its inception, and is

described as the perfect marriage between the marketing mix concept and the four

Ps – “the fusion being so complete, that it has been difficult to separate these

identities from each other”.

Although not without criticisms, the four Ps have been a universal marketing

model, a dominating paradigm for most academics; and they have had a

tremendous impact on the practice of marketing (Grönroos, 1994:5).

The most significant modification of the four Ps since their conceptualisation, and

of more relevance to this study, came about as a result of the emergence of

services marketing. The original marketing mix did not incorporate the

characteristics of services, as it was developed from research done on

manufacturing companies. Therefore, it had an inherent inability to accommodate

the intangible characteristics of services.

In 1981, Booms and Bitner assigned an additional three Ps to the original

marketing mix, in order to incorporate services marketing. The authors first

identified the additional three Ps as participants, physical evidence and process of

service assembly, resulting in the now-known seven Ps of services marketing, or

otherwise known as the “expanded-marketing mix” (Bellmunt & Deltoro,

2005:126).

Contemporary literature refers to the expanded marketing mix as people (originally

referred to as “participants” by Booms & Bitner), process(es), and physical

35
evidence (Jordaan & Prinsloo, 2004:6-7; Wilson et al., 2008:21-22; Du Plessis,

2009:9-10; Zeithaml, Bitner & Gremler, 2009:24; Lovelock & Wirtz, 2011:44-47).

The services-marketing mix has evolved considerably since its conceptualisation

by Booms and Bitner – in order to accommodate the rapid development of how

businesses operate. This is largely due to the introduction and rapid expansion of

the Internet, ultimately resulting in a globalised operational sphere for businesses.

Following is a synopsis of the disposition of the services-marketing mix in the

contemporary environment, its definitions, the application thereof, and the

relevance to the funeral industry.

2.3.1 The seven Ps of services marketing

Acknowledgement of the importance of the additional service variables to the

traditional marketing mix has led service marketers to adapt to the concept of an

expanded marketing mix for services, appropriately labelled by Lovelock and Wirtz

(2011:52) as the “strategic levers of services marketing”. Due to the fact that

services are usually produced and consumed simultaneously, customers are often

present in the organisation’s service “factory”, thus being part of the service-

production process (Zeithaml, Bitner & Gremler, 2009:24).

The four Ps of the original marketing mix had to be adapted to suit services-

marketing as a complete unit. As stated in Section 2.3, the original

conceptualisation of the marketing mix (four Ps) was built on the tangible aspects

of products. Although the original four Ps are still applicable to the expanded

36
marketing mix, it was necessary to customise these components to suit the

intangible characteristics of services. It can, therefore, not be applied in its original

format to services marketing.

Definitions of the additional components of the expanded services marketing mix

(provided by three contemporary authors), are presented in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1: Definitions of the expanded marketing mix components

Author(s) People Physical evidence Process

Du Plessis Refers to all aspects of
(2009:9-10) employee involvement in
service delivery. It
concerns all the people
that play a part in service
delivery, and who can
influence the customers’
perceptions.
Zeithaml, All human actors who play
Bitner and a part in service delivery
Gremler and thus influence the
(2009:24-26) buyer’s perception, such
as the personnel of the
firm.
Lovelock and Direct interaction between
Wirtz customers and service
(2011:47-49) employees. Loyal, skilled,
motivated employees
present a key competitive
advantage.
The environment in which
the services are delivered
and customer interaction
when the service
encounter actually takes
place.
The environment in which
the service is delivered
and where the firm and
customer interact. Any
tangible components that
facilitate performance or
communication of the
service.
The design of the physical
environment of the
service factory (also
referred to as
“servicescapes”). Thus,
the appearance of
buildings, vehicles,
interior furnishings,
equipment, and staff
uniforms – all visible cues.
The procedures,
mechanisms, and flow of
activities and operations
by which the service is
delivered.
The actual procedures,
mechanisms, and flow of
activities by which the
service is delivered, i.e.
the service delivery and
operating systems of the
firm.
Creating and delivering
product elements requires
the design and
implementation of
effective processes. How
a firm does things is as
important as what it does.

Services marketing, however, do not solely function in the additional three Ps.

Taking into account that definitions are generally constructed to help readers

understand what is meant by a word, phrase or idea (Longman’s Dictionary of

37
Contemporary English, 2003:412), it is necessary to place the services-marketing

mix into the operational and functional context of service production, in order to

fully comprehend its purpose. The seven Ps are summarised in Table 2.2: Firstly

from the operational perspective of Akroush (2011); and secondly, from the

functioning perspective of Jordaan and Prinsloo (2004).

Table 2.2: The operational and functional perspectives of the services-

marketing mix

The operational perspective The functional perspective

Akroush (2011:124-125)
Service The extent to which a service
Product organisation develops a
comprehensive service offer to meet
customers’ needs and requirements in
highly competitive markets.
Service The extent to which a service
Price organisation practises pricing policies
and activities in setting a service
price.
Service The extent to which a service
Distribution organisation uses distribution
(Place) channels and activities in setting a
service-distribution strategy.
Service Defined as the extent to which a
Promotion service organisation uses the
components of promotion activities
and elements in formulating a service-
promotion strategy.
Service The extent to which a service
Providers organisation is customer-oriented in
(People) practising its business; putting the
customer at the heart of business
activities.
Jordaan and Prinsloo (2004: 6-7)
A service product is anything offered by
the organisation to potential customers,
whether it is tangible or intangible. The
product component of a service can
also be seen as the technical outcome
of the service. It comprises the “what”
of service.
The pricing decisions for services are
designed to cover costs and generate
profits for the organisation. They
include strategic and tactical decisions
about the price to be charged, discount
structures and terms of payment.
The distribution strategy for services
depends on the type of service the
organisation delivers. It is dependent
on the nature of the service and what
customers value as efficient services.
The service organisation communicates
with its target groups to influence
knowledge, attitude, and behaviour.
Marketers must actively support a good
service by communicating the benefits
of the service to their target audience
through appropriate communication
channels and media.
Firstly, personnel form an integral part
of the process of service delivery. All
personnel act as marketers of the
organisation’s offerings in that their
actions have a direct effect on the
output received by the customers.
Secondly, customers make up the other
half of an organisation’s people

38
 decisions. It is through customer
management that personnel will attain
success.

The interaction makes the task of

Service The extent to which a service
Process organisation has set customer-
oriented and systematic procedures
for a successful service-delivery
process. The process aspect relates
to the actual procedures, mechanisms
and flow of activities, whereby the
offering is delivered.
Service The extent to which a service
Physical organisation is interested in creating a
Evidence customer-friendly atmosphere in their
working environment.
people planning extremely important in
a service organisation.
The service process is viewed as the
“how” of service provision, in order to
satisfy the customers’ needs. It is at
the heart of the service experience of
the customer, which takes place in real
time. It can take place in any building
or in any environment (such as the
Internet) created by the service
organisation.
The intangible nature of the services
makes it difficult for potential customers
to judge a service before consumption,
which increases the perceived risk of
the purchase. The associated risk can
be reduced by using tangible evidence
of the service provided, for example
brochures, appearance of staff, and
physical facilities.

If the total number of elements of the services-marketing mix (as outlined in Table

2.2) are sufficient to create customer satisfaction, the organisation would realise

its primary objective of maximising profit, because customers would purchase the

service offering (Jordaan & Prinsloo, 2004:7). This statement is resonated by

Lovelock and Wirtz (2011:52), who state that to be successful in the service

industry requires not only an understanding of the seven Ps, but also how to

implement each of these components effectively.

In the following section, the expanded services-marketing mix will be discussed in

relation to the funeral industry.

39
2.4 THE PRODUCTS-VERSUS-SERVICES CONTINUUM: TOWARDS A

DEFINITION

Wilson et al. (2008:8) note that many contemporary organisations have started to

search for new ways to achieve and retain their competitive advantage through

the development of effective services-marketing concepts and strategies in

response to the tremendous growth of service industries. The notable growth and

economic contributions of the services sector have drawn increasing attention to

the challenges of the service-sector industries globally. Consumers are becoming

more critical of the quality of the service they experience. These factors are forcing

organisations to adopt proactive consumer-service strategies, in order to deliver

better services to consumers. Delivering higher quality services is, therefore,

being increasingly recognised as one of the most effective strategies to ensure

that an organisation’s offerings are considered superior.

The deliverance of quality service is particularly important to the funeral home.

According to Armour and Williams (1981:705-706), the funeral industry has, from

its beginnings, had a problem with its image. The industry has taken great pains

to change how consumers view funerals, and those who provide the funeral

services.

Aspects, such as the provision of services to the client, the growth of their

businesses, and client expectations and demands, pose fundamental problems to

the funeral industry at large. How do funeral homes then convince their clients to

invest in their services, when the client is firstly making a decision in a moment of

40
immediate need; and consequently, has to make that decision of a service that is

best described by Sanders (2009a:47) as a “dismal trade”?

To put the foregoing question into the perspective of this study, it is necessary to

firstly distinguish between products and services, and secondly, to position these

factors within the services-marketing mix. A brief overview of the classification of

products and services, according to contemporary literature, is presented next,

followed by an evaluation of the perception of services. The marketing mix, as it

relates to services marketing, is universally known as the seven Ps of services

marketing. This marketing mix will then be presented.

2.4.1 Product categories

Product categories are defined as “mental representations of stored knowledge of

groups of products” (Babin & Harris, 2012:266). For instance, when consumers

consider a new product, they rely on the knowledge that they have of the relevant

product category. Knowledge of the existing category is then transferred to the

new offering. Even if the product is very different from current offerings,

consumers would still draw on their existing categorical knowledge to guide their

expectations of, and their attitudes towards, the new product.

The classification of product categories can be traced as far back as 1923, when it

was first categorised by Copeland (as quoted by Mise et al., 2013:23). Copeland

identified three major product categories, namely: convenience, shopping, and

specialty goods. Contemporary classifications of product categories still

41
incorporate Copeland’s categorisation of products. However, products at present

are firstly classified into two major categories, namely: consumer products and

business products:

• Business products primarily focus on business-to-business interaction.

Business-to-business marketing is defined as the process where

organisations buy goods and services from other organisations for further

processing, or for use in their manufacturing processes (Strydom, 2004:26;

Cant & van Heerden, 2010:637; Lamb et al, 2010:484; McDonald & Wilson,

2011:10).

• Consumer products, which apply to this study, are divided into

convenience-products, shopping-products, and specialty-products,

according to Copeland’s original classification of products. A fourth product

category is added to Copeland’s classifications in contemporary practice,

namely the unsought-product category (Adeoti, S.a.:2-4; Strydom,

2004:108; Kotler & Armstrong, 2010:250-251; Lamb et al., 2010:242-245).

Although there are authors that exclude the unsought-product category, the

majority include the category in contemporary literature.

The four sub-categories of consumer products (including the unsought category)

are summarised in Table 2.3.

42
Table 2.3: A summary of consumer-product classifications

Product Definition Examples

Category
Convenience Relatively inexpensive items that merit little Milk, bread, soft drinks, lotto
shopping effort. ticket.
Shopping Items that are more expensive are found in Dishwashers, televisions,
fewer shops. furniture, clothing.
Specialty* Consumers search extensively for a Fine watches, gourmet
particular item and are reluctant to accept restaurants, expensive cars,
substitutes. such as a Ferrari.
Unsought Product is unknown to the potential buyer Funeral services, funeral
until the buyer needs to actively seek for the policies, fire extinguishers.
product.
*Some authors refer to this category as speciality (Strydom, 2004:108; Lamb et al., 2010:242-245),
and others as specialty (Adeoti, S.a.:2-4; Kotler & Armstrong, 2010:250-251). In this study, it will
be referred to as specialty.

The primary purpose of product classification is to provide the producers

(manufacturers) of products with the necessary information as to why consumers

buy certain products, and for what reasons (Adeoti, S.a.:4-5). Not all consumers

buy products for the same reasons; and buying behaviour differs from consumer

to consumer, and from product to product. Product classification, therefore, has

implications for marketing decisions for both the producer (manufacturer) and the

consumer.

2.4.2 Service categories

Services today are of great economic relevance; and they are established as one

of the main sources of income for organisations (McDonald & Wilson, 2011:10). It

is, therefore, necessary to understand services and the implications of their

specific characteristics. McDonald and Wilson (2011:10) state that a service does

not lend itself to being specified in the same way, as does a product. Services do

not have the same reproducible physical dimensions as products, which can be

43
tangibly measured. Therefore, a large element of trust, on the part of the

consumer is required when a service is being purchased, as the consumer can

only be sure of the service’s quality and performance after it has been completed.

Yet, defining services is complex and may not even be possible to a full extent

(Becker, Böttcher & Klingner, 2011:1-2). Services include a vast array of different

and often very complex activities, which contribute to the complexity of defining

services according to a standard definition (Lovelock & Wirtz, 2011:37). There are

numerous different perspectives on the definition and classification of services in

the literature, as presented in Table 2.4.

Table 2.4: A summary of service definitions according to various authors

Authors
Zeithaml, Bitner and Gremler
(2009:4)
Lovelock and Wirtz
(2011:37)
Strydom (2004:107-109)
Jordaan and Prinsloo
(2004:8-23)
Du Plessis (2009:2)
Lamb et al. (2010:467-470)
Kotler and Armstrong
(2010:248, 268-270)
Cant and van Heerden
(2010:160, 450-451)
Wilson et al. (2008:6)
Grönroos (2006:323)
(The Nordic School view)
Definition
Services are deeds, processes, and performances provided or
coproduced by one entity or person for another entity or person.
Services are economic activities offered by one party to another.
Economic activities constitute activities between two parties,
implying an exchange of value between seller and buyer in the
market place.
Service is categorised as part of product types and defined as an
“intangible product”.
An act or performance that one party can offer another that is
essentially intangible and does not result in ownership of anything.
A deed, a process or performances that one party offers another
that is essentially intangible and does not result in the ownership of
anything.
Deeds, performances, or efforts that cannot be physically
possessed.
Activities, benefits, or satisfactions that are for sale that are
essentially intangible and do not result in the ownership of
anything.
Intangible benefits that are purchased by consumers but do not
involve ownership.
Services are deeds, processes and performances that include all
economic activities. The output is not a physical product or
construction. They are generally consumed at the time they are
produced; and they provide added value in forms that are
essentially intangible.
A service is a process that consists of a set of interactions between
a customer and the people, goods and other physical resources,

44
 systems and/or infrastructures that represent the service provider
and possibly involve other customers; with the aim of solving
customers’ problems.
Arens, Weigold and Arens A service is a bundle of intangible benefits that satisfy some need
(2011:209) or want, are temporary in nature, and usually derive from the
completion of a task.
Edvardsson, Gustafsson and Service is a perspective on value creation rather than a category of
Roos (2005:118) market offerings. It focuses on value through the lens of the
customer, and the co-creation of value with customers is key. The
interactive, processual, experiential, and rational nature of service
forms the basis for characterising service.
Vargo and Lusch (2004b:2) Service is the application of specialised competences, such as
knowledge and skills through deeds, processes, and performances
for the benefit of another entity or the entity itself.

The application of the abovementioned definitions of services is even more

diverse than their definition. To illustrate the diversity of the application of the

services definitions to services marketing theory, four perspectives on the

classification of services will be discussed. Firstly, the attempts of Lovelock to

classify services is summarised; and secondly a brief summary of the evaluations

of service definitions and classifications by Edvardsson, Gustafsson and Roos is

presented. This is followed by an overview of the IHIP-method of classifying

services; and lastly, a summary of Vargo and Lusch’s Service-Dominant Logic of

Marketing Theory will be discussed.

2.4.2.1 The frameworks of Lovelock

According to Moeller (2010:360), Lovelock proposed that services should be

classified according to its characteristics. Some of Lovelocks earliest works

published in 1983 stated that the purpose of developing the taxonomy was to help

“managers in service businesses do a better job of developing and marketing their

products" (Lovelock, 1983:19). Lovelock subsequently developed a taxonomy of

45
five classifications. The taxonomy attempted to answer a specific question, and

then to provide a solution to service marketers (Lovelock, 1983:10-19). (Refer to

Table 2.5 for a summary of Lovelock’s taxonomy.)

Table 2.5: Lovelock’s taxonomy

Question asked Solution to marketers

What is the nature of the service act?
• At whom (or what) is the act directed?
• Is the act tangible or intangible in nature?
What type of relationship does the service
organisation have with its customers?
How much room is there for customisation and
judgement on the part of the service provider?
By thinking creatively about the nature of their
services, managers may be able to identify
opportunities for alternative, more convenient
forms of service delivery or even for
transformation of the service into a
manufactured good (product).
The marketing task is to determine how it might
be possible to build sales and revenues through
memberships. Marketers should avoid requiring
membership if it would result in the exclusion of
a large volume of desirable casual business.
Marketing efforts need to focus on the process
of client-provider interactions.

What is the nature of demand and supply for the
service?
Successfully managing demand fluctuations
through marketing actions is a key factor to
profitability for organisations that have to deal
with sharp fluctuations between supply and
demand.

How is the service delivered? Offering service through several outlets

increases the convenience of access for
customers. On the contrary, this may start to
increase problems of quality control, as
convenience of access relates to the
consistency of the service product delivered. It
is worth noting at this point that this solution
was postulated prior to the technological
explosion of the 1990s, and rapid developments
thereof in the 2000s and onwards. The
accessibility and application of technological
advances denounce this solution to a large
extent.

In a final attempt by Lovelock and Gummesson (2004:20-41) to categorise

services marketing, they reinforced the fact that progress in any scientific field

requires a paradigm – a fundamental set of assumptions that is shared by

members of a particular scientific community. Defined as such, a paradigm

46
shapes the formulation of theoretical generalisations, focuses on data gathering,

and influences the selection of research procedures and projects.

Although paradigms can facilitate research and generate conclusions that are

useful for both teaching and practice, they are not absolutes; and the validity of

the underlying assumptions may be open to challenge. It was for this reason, that

the authors suggested an open dialogue on paradigmatic issues regarding

services marketing.

Lovelock and Gummesson (2004:37) laid out several alternative routes for the

progression of future services-marketing research in their presentation:

• The first option was to argue that services marketing and goods marketing

should be reunited under a service banner.

• Another option would be to acknowledge that:

o there continue to be important differences between the ways in

which the core products of manufacturing and service enterprises

are created, marketed, distributed, and consumed; but that

o the differences among services are equally significant, and must be

acknowledged by developing separate paradigms for different

categories of services.

• The third option put forward by the authors, was to look for a new paradigm

that would intersect the traditional goods and services dichotomy.

As a result of the preceding options conceptualised by Lovelock and Gummesson,

an alternative set of assumptions tentatively labelled the “rental/access paradigm”,

47
was proposed (Lovelock & Gummesson, 2004:34-36). The rental/access paradigm

was based on the premise that:

• Those marketing exchanges which do not result in a transfer of ownership

from seller to buyer, are fundamentally different from those that do; and that

• Services are presented as offering benefits through access or temporary

possession, rather than ownership, with payments taking the form of rentals

or access fees.

The proposed rental/access paradigm offered no absolute solution to the defining

and practice of services. Rather, the authors presented it as a “lens to explore

aspects of services marketing and consumption not clearly visible in current

theory” (Lovelock & Gummesson, 2004:34). The paradigm presented by Lovelock

and Gummesson had the potential to stimulate new approaches to both research

and practice, as it provided a bridge to manufacturing by explicitly recognising the

role of service-based “rentals”, as an alternative to the direct sale of durable

products.

In conclusion, Lovelock and Gummesson (2004:38) admitted that the proposed

rental/access paradigm was merely a set of assumptions. It cannot be justly

described as a paradigm – until it is shared among other scholars – and starts to

shape the formulation of theoretical generalisations, focuses on data gathering,

and influences research procedures and projects.

Thus, despite all the efforts and approaches presented by Lovelock, and Lovelock

and Gummesson, no formal conclusion on the definition and the characteristics of

48
services marketing was attained. The majority of Lovelock’s presentations still

remain theoretical postulations only.

2.4.2.2 Edvardsson, Gustafsson and Roos’ evaluations of service definitions

The concept of service, according to Edvardsson, Gustafsson and Roos

(2005:113) is “fuzzy”; and “it is perhaps normal within an emerging discourse”.

According to the authors, the terms or concepts used in defining services are

furthermore open to different interpretations. Edvardsson, Gustafsson and Roos

(2005:107) are of the opinion that the definitions regarding services are attempts

to construct ways of describing services with a clear focus on what the service

does for the customer.

They use the metaphor “service portraits” to analyse the various definitions and

characteristics of services portrayed in service research. By doing so, services

are positioned as a “perspective”.

The authors postulate that existing service definitions are all at an abstract level,

and may consequently be operationalised and interpreted in a number of different

ways. For instance, services on an empirical level include many different

offerings, organisations and customers. The theoretical definitions, therefore,

have to be at a high level of abstraction, in order to deal with the diverse

phenomenon of services. There is a wide range of views, however, on the role of

the customers, and a tendency to stress “value-in-use”.

49
Although the authors acknowledge that, despite the difficulties in defining service,

the marketing literature does reflect some agreement in terms of both conceptual

description and empirical substantiation as to which elements characterise

services (Edvardsson, Gustafsson & Roos, 2005:113-118).

In conclusion, Edvardsson, Gustafsson and Roos (2005:118-119) suggest two

approaches to service research: (1) Service as a category of market offerings;

and (2) service as a perspective on value creation. As a result of the former, a

new “portrait” of services is presented, which portrays services as:

• A perspective on value creation rather than a category of market offerings;

• A focus on value through the lens of the customer; and

• The interactive, processual, experiential, and relational nature of service

forms the basis for characterising services.

Definitions of services are changing constantly. The authors specifically state that

a service definition at lower abstraction levels does not exist. It has to be

determined (Edvardsson, Gustafsson & Roos, 2005:119):

• At a specific time;

• In a specific company;

• For a specific service; and

• From a specific perspective.

The purpose of a service definition may, therefore, be the “value-in-use”

perspective, or it may also be a long-term relationship between the customer and

50
the company. Regardless of the purpose of, or the view of the service, if it is an

all-inclusive structure, service may be defined as a perspective.

Although the authors have presented valuable arguments in their approach, they

present no clearer definition of service in their conclusion than they did in their

introduction. “Perspective” still remains an approach that is open to the

interpretation of the perceiver, receiver and producer of services.

2.4.2.3 The IHIP-method of classifying services

A well-known approach to classifying services is the IHIP-method (Intangible,

Heterogeneous, Inseparable and Perishable). According to Balin and Giard

(2006:787) the application of the components of the IHIP-method can be traced as

far back as 1966, when it was used in a dialogue by Rathmell, a point in time

referred to by the authors as “the Sixties”, “when researchers started to enumerate

distinctive characteristics of services, in order to distinguish them from goods”.

The tendency then was more inclined towards making a distinction to be able to

develop strategies, or methods, in marketing and in production management.

Some of the early, more prominent advocates of the IHIP-method, as listed by

Wild (2010), include Shostack (1977), Hill (1977), Lovelock (1983), Zeithaml,

Parasuraman and Berry (1985), and Fisk, Brown and Bitner (1993).

Although the abovementioned authors all employed components of what is today

known as the IHIP-method from their own theoretical perspectives, Zeithaml,

51
Parasuraman, and Berry presented the first systematic review of the IHIP-method

in 1985, based on the previously existing literature. Their theory appears to have

had a nearly uniform and almost unquestioned acceptance by marketing scholars

ever since; and they are “repeated in almost every context without any discussion

of the undermining logic” (Grönroos, as quoted by Vargo & Lusch, 2004b:326).

Summarised in Table 2.6, are six variations of service definitions, and the

alignment of these definitions to the components of the IHIP-method in

contemporary literature.

Table 2.6: A summary of service definitions in relation to the IHIP-method,

according to various authors

Author(s) Service definition Service classifications

Strydom (2004:107-109)
Jordaan and Prinsloo (2004:8-
23)
Du Plessis (2009:2-9)
Lamb et al. (2010:467-470)
Kotler and Armstrong (2010:248,
268-270)
Cant and van Heerden
(2010:160, 450-451)
Intangible product. • Durability
• Buying behaviour
• Buyer type
• Tangibility/Intangibility
An act or performance that one • Intangibility
party can offer another that is • Inseparability
essentially intangible and does • Heterogeneity
not result in ownership of • Perishability
anything.
A deed, a process or • Intangibility
performances that one party • Inseparability
offers another that is essentially • Heterogeneity
intangible and does not result in • Perishability
the ownership of anything.
Deeds, performances, or efforts • Intangibility
that cannot be physically • Inseparability
possessed. • Heterogeneity
• Perishability
Activities, benefits, or • Intangibility
satisfactions that are for sale • Inseparability
that are essentially intangible • Variability
and do not result in the
ownership of anything.
Intangible benefits that are • Inseparable
purchased by consumers but do • Intangible
not involve ownership. • Perishable
• Variability
• Right of ownership

52
Even though the majority of the authors listed in Table 2.6 based their

classification of services on the IHIP-method (or at least certain aspects thereof),

they still varied hugely in their definitions of services.

Definitions of the various components of the IHIP-method (as defined by three of

the authors cited in Table 2.6) are presented in Table 2.7. In addition, the

perspectives of Edvardsson, Gustafsson and Roos (discussed in Section 2.4.2.2.),

Zeithaml, Parasuraman and Berry’s initial summarisation of the four components;

and the definitions of Vargo and Lusch (discussed in Section 2.4.2.4), are also

listed.

Table 2.7: A comparison of the IHIP-method application

Author Intangible Heterogeneous Inseparable Perishable

Zeithaml, The fundamental Concerns the Inseparability of Services cannot
Parasuraman, difference potential for high production and be saved.
and Berry universally cited variability in the consumption.
(1985:33-34) by authors. Due performance of Other than goods
to the fact that service. that are first
services are manufactured,
performances, sold and then
rather than consumed,
objects, it cannot services are first
be seen, felt, sold, then
tasted, or produced and
touched in the consumed
same way as simultaneously.
goods can be
sensed.
Du Plessis Service cannot The actual Reflects the inter- Services cannot
(2009:7-9) be tasted, felt, transaction of connectivity be inventoried
smelled, stored providing a between the and used later.
or seen prior to service happens service provider
purchasing. in real time and delivering the
there is little service and the
scope for quality customer
control before the involved in
service is receiving the
experienced by service.
the consumer.

53
 Lamb et al. Services cannot Services are less Services are Services cannot
(2010:468-470) be touched, standardised and often sold, be stored,
seen, tasted, uniform than produced, and warehoused or
heard of felt in goods. consumed at the inventoried for
the same manner same time and in later
in which physical the same place. consumption.
products can be The production
experienced. and consumption
of services are
inseparable
activities.
Jordaan and The primary Difficult, if not Services are Inventory holding
Prinsloo (2004:8- source of impossible, to produced, of services
23) difference achieve delivered and proves to be
between physical standardisation of consumed all at impossible.
goods and output in services once. Periods of
service. It is also because service increased
the source from is largely demand cannot
which all the produced by a be handled
other human being through
characteristics which makes the inventory, as is
emerge. Eluding service difficult to the case with
clear cut control with any tangible goods.
measures of degree of
productivity and consistency.
impossible to
taste, smell, feel,
see or hear.
Edvardsson, Denotes that There are two Production and Services are
Gustafsson and services are ways of looking at consumption stored in
Roos (2005:113- activities and not heterogeneity: need to be systems,
117) physical objects, (1) Service simultaneous. buildings,
as is the case providers and machines,
with goods. service processes knowledge, and
Often services tend to be people. The
cannot be seen, heterogeneous; ATM is a store of
felt, tasted, or and (2) the standardised
touched before production within cash
they are a given company withdrawals. The
purchased. tends to be hotel is a “store
heterogeneous of rooms”.
due to employee-
induced variation
and variation
among customers
in terms of needs
and expectations.
Vargo and Lusch Lacking the The relative The The relative
(2004b:326) palpable or tactile inability to simultaneous inability to
quality of standardise the nature of service inventory
goods. output of services production and services as
in comparison to consumption compared to

54
 goods. compared with goods.
the sequential
nature of
production,
purchase, and
consumption that
characterises
physical
products.

It is evident from Table 2.7, as well as Table 2.6, that the various authors ascribe

varying definitions to the components of the IHIP-method. Although the authors

listed in Table 2.7 in most instances agree with the core function of the IHIP

components, they assign their own interpretation to it, which inevitably leads to

conflicting interpretations to the observer.

The most apparent agreement of the IHIP components in Table 2.7, is in terms of

the tangibility aspect, where all the authors are in agreement that a service cannot

be experienced with all five of the human senses. However, if the heterogeneous

aspect is analysed, each of the authors has a different approach to the

classification. For instance, Edvardsson, Gustafsson and Roos (2005:117)

present a two-factor classification process, which arguably complicates the

classification of heterogeneity even further.

The majority of the authors agree in some way or other that inseparability relates

to the fact that services are produced and consumed simultaneously, and that

perishability relates to the fact that services cannot be stored. Their definitions of

these components are worded differently, which in turn, could also lead to

confusion for the observer.

55
Although still widely applied in contemporary literature, the IHIP-method is not

without its criticisms. Lovelock and Gummesson (2004) criticised the IHIP-method

by challenging the claims that services are uniquely different from goods – based

on the four specific IHIP characteristics. According to Lovelock and Gummesson

(2004:32), these claims are not “supported by the evidence, was never true for all

services, and is less true now than when service marketing was in its infancy”.

This is echoed by Vargo, Lusch and Gummesson (2010:15), who noted that

almost every textbook and chapter on services marketing includes the IHIP-

method, yet it has never been substantiated; and there has never been any

scientific justification that it clarifies the differences between goods and services.

According to Lovelock and Gummesson (2004:32), as a paradigm, the notion that

the four IHIP characteristics make services uniquely different from goods is

“deeply flawed”. The IHIP-method, as exemplified by many mainstream marketing

management texts, may endorse the paradigm, but there is no consensus

between these texts on how to define each of the IHIP components.

Lovelock and Gummesson (2004:32) furthermore claim that the disparity widens

among specialist texts in services marketing, where it is evident that only “half of

all the texts published in recent years” employ the IHIP-method as a framework for

examining differences between goods and services. The underlying problem,

according to the authors, is rooted in the extensive and still-growing diversity of

activities within the service sector.

56
The reasons for the “deeply flawed” characteristics of the IHIP-method, as

presented by Lovelock and Gummesson, are analysed by Moeller (2010). The

“deeply flawed” statement is reflected upon in contemporary services literature as

a result of the rapid expansion of technology. The results thereof are firstly that

the focus of services marketing has changed; and secondly, the development of

information and communication technology has advanced dramatically over the

last two decades. Moreover, the changes brought on by the development of

technology have increasingly watered down the applicability of most of the IHIP

characteristics.

According to Moeller (2010:359), the inseparability of production and

consumption, as well as the perishability of services can be overcome by

technology-based communications. It is, therefore, not surprising that

dissatisfaction with the IHIP-method has grown over the years – due to the rapid

expansion of technology globally.

As a result, and due to a lack of suitable characteristics, the core term “services”

remains undefined.

2.4.2.4 The service-dominant logic of marketing

The most significant paradigm shift in the marketing mix since McCarthy’s

conceptualisation of the four Ps in 1964, and Booms and Bitner’s additional three

Ps in 1981 to incorporate services marketing; is the Service-Dominant Logic (SDL)

model.

57
The SDL model of marketing was first presented by Vargo and Lusch in 2004

(Vargo & Lusch, 2004a). The core difference between the marketing of products

and services is seated in the fact that the marketing of goods focuses largely on

operand resources (primarily tangible goods) as the unit of exchange. The

marketing of services, on the other hand, implies that marketing is a continuous

series of social and economic processes that is largely focused on operant

resources, with which the firm is constantly striving to make better value

propositions than its competitors (Vargo & Lusch, 2004a:5).

A fundamental principle of the subject matter of marketing, according to Vargo and

Lusch (2006:45), is exchange. One of the most consistent reproductions and

misinterpretations of the SDL theory is that because services, rather than goods,

dominate modern economies, it is appropriate for marketing to adopt methods that

reflect this transition. The SDL model however, goes beyond the service-

exchange perception. It implies that service is the foundation of all exchange; yet

it is only from the perspective of an operational model that includes the

fundamental assumption that exchange is driven by goods, that the importance of

service will become apparent.

Once the parameters of exchange are established, the economy can be perceived

to be transiting from a goods-focused (goods-dominant) to a service-focused

(service-dominant) logic.

Vargo and Lusch (2008:4-5) state the foundation of the SDL to be that “all

economies are service economies”; and they postulate that “all businesses are

58
service businesses”. This liberates marketers to think of innovation in new and

innovative ways – innovation that is not defined by what firms produce as output,

but how firms can improve their services. The general orientation of the SDL can

be applied to any service system. It is directly applicable to firms, employees,

suppliers, customers and various other stakeholders. The “service-for-service

perspective” of the SDL characterises the interaction within and among all of the

aforementioned service systems.

A summary of the differences between products and services, according to Vargo

and Lusch (2006:8-9), is presented in Table 2.8. The presentation of the

differences is largely based on information retrieved from various literature

sources; and it is used by Vargo and Lusch to describe the differences between

the goods-centred and service-centred views of marketing.

Table 2.8: The goods-centred and service-centred views of marketing

Products
Core premise: Goods as the unit of exchange.
1. The purpose of economic activity is to
make and distribute things that can be
sold.
2. To be sold, these things must be infused
with utility and value during the production
and distribution processes. They must
offer superior value to the consumer in
relation to the competitors’ offerings.
3. The firm should set all decision variables at
a level that enables it to maximise the profit
from the sale of output.
4. For maximum production, control, and
efficiency, the goods should be
standardised and produced away from the
market.
5. The goods can then be inventoried until it
is demanded and delivered to the
consumer at a profit.
Services
Core premise: Marketing as a continuous
learning process directed at improving operant
resources.
1. Identify or develop core competencies, the
fundamental knowledge and skills of an
economic entity that present potential
competitive advantages.
2. Identify other entities (potential customers)
that could benefit from these
competences.
3. Cultivate relationships that involve the
customers in developing customised,
competitively compelling-value
propositions to meet specific needs.
4. Gauge marketplace feedback by analysing
financial performance from exchange to
learn how to improve the firm’s offering to
customers, and to improve the firm’s
performance.

59
Vargo and Lusch present a completely different and innovative view of the goods-

centred and service-centred views of marketing than that of any of their

predecessors have done. The approach of Vargo and Lusch is based on six

differences between products and services. These differences are based on the

distinction between the goods-dominant (products/operand) logic, and the service-

dominant (services/operant) logic of marketing (refer to Table 2.9).

Table 2.9: Operand and operant resources used to distinguish the goods-
dominant and service-dominant views of Vargo and Lusch

Resources Traditional goods-centred Emerging service-centred

dominant logic
Primary unit of exchange People engage in exchange for
goods. Goods serve primarily
as operand resources.
Role of goods Goods are operand resources
and end products.
Role of customer The customer is the operand
resource. The customer is the
recipient of goods. Marketers
segment consumers, penetrate
the segments, distribute to it,
and promote to the customer.
Determination and meaning Value is determined by the
of value producer. It is embedded in
the operand resource (goods)
and is defined in terms of
exchange value.
dominant logic
People engage in exchange to
acquire the benefits of
specialised competences
(knowledge & skills), or
services. Knowledge and skills
are operant resources.
Goods are transmitters of
operant resources (embedded
knowledge); they are
intermediate “products” that
are used by other operant
resources (customers) as
appliances in value-creation
processes.
The customer is a co-producer
of service. Marketing is a
process of doing things in
interaction with the customer.
The customer is primarily an
operant resource, only
functioning occasionally as an
operand resource.
Value is perceived and
determined by the consumer
on the basis of “value in use”.
Value results from the
beneficial application of
operant resources sometimes
transmitted through operand
resources. Firms can only
make value propositions.

60
Firm-customer interactions
Source of economic growth
The customer is an operand
resource. Customers are
enticed to create transactions
with resources.
Wealth is obtained from
surplus tangible resources and
goods. Wealth consists of
owning, controlling, and
producing operand resources.
The customer is primarily an
operant resource. Customers
are active participants in
relational exchanges and co-
production.
Wealth is obtained through the
application and exchange of
specialised knowledge and
skills. Wealth represents the
right to the future use of
operant resources.

The foregoing distinctions between the goods-centred and service-centred views

lead to the formulation of eight foundational premises (FPs) (Vargo & Lusch,

2006:43-44). Together with the six differences between the goods-centred and

service-centred dominant logic, the foundational premises form the basis from

which the service-dominant logic developed.

The eight foundational premises were later reviewed and extended to ten

foundational premises. A summary of the ten (revised) foundational premises of

the service-dominant logic is summarised in Table 2.10 (Vargo & Lush, 2008:6-9):

Table 2.10: Vargo and Lusch’s ten foundational premises of the SDL

FP Foundational Premise Application

Service is the fundamental basis of
1
exchange.
Indirect exchange masks the fundamental
2 basis of exchange.
Goods are distribution mechanisms for
3 service provision.
Operant resources are the fundamental
4
source of competitive advantage.
All economies are service economies.
5 outsourcing; it has always been what is
Service is exchanged for service.
Micro specialisation, organisations, goods,
and money obscure the service-for-service
nature of exchange.
Goods (both durable and non-durable)
derive their value through use – the
service they provide.
Operant resources, especially know-how, are
the essential component of differentiation.
Service is only now becoming more apparent
with increased specialisation and
exchanged.

61
 The customer is always a co-creator of
6 value.
The enterprise cannot deliver value, but only
offer value propositions.
7
A service-centred view is inherently
customer-oriented and relational.
8
All social and economic actors are resource
9
integrators.
Value is always uniquely and
10 phenomenologically determined by the
beneficiary.
There is no value until an offering is used –
experience and perception are essential to
value determination.
Since value is always determined by the
customer (value-in-use), it cannot be
embedded through manufacturing (value-in-
exchange).
Operant resources being used for the benefit
of the customer places the customer
inherently in the centre of value creation and
implies relationship.
Implies the context of value creation is
networks of networks (resource integrators).
Value is idiosyncratic, experiential,
contextual, and meaning laden.

The SDL was not originally presented as a new theory, but rather as a “counter-

paradigmatic” challenge to the goods-dominant logic of marketing (Vargo & Lusch,

2008:2). Ballantyne, Williams and Aitken (2011:179) conclude that for now, the

SDL “can be confirmed as a paradigmatic challenge to marketing orthodoxy”, with

its claims, for example, that all business interactions are enactments of the

exchange principle, that value-in-use is what beneficiaries get from service

interaction, and that to serve is to be of use to others through the integration of the

resources offered to others.

2.4.3 Defining service marketing for the purpose of this study

The broad definition of services implies that intangibility is a key determinant of

services, regardless from which perspective it is approached (Wilson et al.,

2008:7). This is agreed with by Jordaan and Prinsloo (2004:13), who propose

intangibility as the primary source of difference between physical goods and

services.

62
The notion of tangibility versus intangibility is portrayed in the literature by various

authors as the “tangibility spectrum” (Wilson et al., 2008:7), “continuum of the

tangibility concept” (Du Plessis, 2009:6), “classifying products by tangibility” (Cant

& van Heerden, 2010:159), and the “goods-versus-service continuum, based on

the degree of tangibility”, as presented by Jordaan and Prinsloo (2004:8).

The foregoing is merely diverse terminology assigned to the same process; and it

does not indicate any core differences between tangibility and intangibility. The

tangibility/intangibility aspect in relation to service classification is not without its

criticisms in contemporary literature. Authors, such as Vargo, Lusch and

Gummesson (2010:17), for instance, claim that the value-proposition concept

used in the service-dominant logic makes the goods-versus-service continuum

distinctions redundant. The criticisms can be aligned to the various perspectives

on, classifications of, and postulations by the various authors on what constitutes

services (as discussed in the previous sections).

The “goods-versus-service continuum based on the degree of tangibility” proposed

by Jordaan and Prinsloo (2004:8-10), best illustrates tangibility as the primary

difference between physical goods and services (represented in Table 2.11).

63
Table 2.11: The goods-versus-service continuum

A: Pure goods Pure services

1 2 3 4 5
Pure tangible Tangible goods Hybrid offers: A major service with Pure services
goods with Equal parts accompanying minor
accompanying tangible goods goods and services
services & intangible
services
Services cannot An automobile with Sitting down for a Major service = conducting a Consists of service
enhance a service plan. meal at a restaurant funeral. only such as health
customer value where a waiter Minor tangible goods = insurance.
as the primary serves the casket, flowers, hearse. There are no
purpose of the customer. Minor services = organising tangible aspects
product delivered venue, facilitators of the related to the
to the customer is service, registering the death product offering.
seated in the at the Department of Internal
tangibility of the Affairs on behalf of the
product. bereaved.
B: Tangible Intangible

Source: Adapted from Jordaan and Prinsloo, 2004:8.

In order to differentiate goods from services, the continuum progresses on a

simultaneous path from pure goods to pure services (refer to component A in

Table 2.11), and tangible goods towards intangible services (refer to component B

in Table 2.11). It offers a simplified, yet effective five-level process of

classification. The continuum is able to effectively clarify contentious issues in the

classification and defining of services.

2.4.4 Unsought services

There is virtually no information available in existing literature on the marketing of

unsought services, except for the classification thereof as part of the product-

classification structure, and the generic definitions thereof.

64
Thus far, an extensive Internet search relating to the abovementioned aspects has

delivered only three scholarly articles:

• The first article delivered by Lin et al. (2005) focused on advertising of

unsought products in e-commerce. It departs from the premise that an

effective shopping recommender system could assist retailers in increasing

their sales. The remainder of the paper, however, is focused on the

development of electronic, Internet-based systems, which could be

advantageous to the retailer in “breaking through clutter”, and not unsought

product strategies as such.

• The second article by Badger (2008), which was the closest aligned to the

unsought-product category, approached the topic from a librarian

perspective. The paper identifies subscription databases of journal articles

and reports on library unsought products. This implies that the many

“meaningless names” of databases have no brand recognition, personality

or equity likely to entice a browsing student to explore the databases any

further, hence, the alignment with the term unsought. This leads the author

to identify these databases, as “cold sellers”, which could be turned into

“must haves”. The path of the paper towards a conclusion is designed on

existing generic marketing strategies, based on the marketing mix, with a

specific focus on branding strategies applied to make the databases more

approachable to “browsing students”.

• A third and more recent article by Theron and Ebersohn (2013) investigated

the management of trust in an unwanted (unsought) service setting,

namely, the termination of pregnancy counselling services. This specific

industry is positioned as a typical example of an unsought service. Theron

65
 and Ebersohn (2013:2-3) state that, whilst some services are generally

assumed to be of an unsought nature (such as funeral services, pest

control and plumbing services), there also appears to be negativity amongst

the general public about these services. Hence, the inclusion of

statements, such as “strong negative emotions” and “unreceptive buying

situations” in their definition of unsought services (refer to Definition 2 in

Section 2.4.4.1).

Other than the foregoing scholarly papers, no specific strategic approaches,

definitive communication structures, or any literature that focuses specifically on

the challenges (and solutions to the challenges) associated with the marketing of

unsought services, have been located.

2.4.4.1 Unsought services in relation to the funeral industry

It is evident from the illustration of the goods-versus-service continuum

represented in Section 2.4.3 that the functional element of the funeral industry is

primarily seated in the services sector (refer to Table 2.11, Level 4: a major

service with accompanying minor goods and services).

In order to find a clear definition of what unsought services entail, a definition was

compiled from two different existing definitions:

66
 • Definition 1: Consumer products or services that the consumer either

does not know about or knows about, but does not normally think of buying

or investing in (Strydom, 2004:108; Kotler & Armstrong, 2010:250-251;

Lamb et al., 2010:242-245).

• Definition 2: ‘Unwanted services’ refers to services that could evoke strong

negative emotions, which could result in an unreceptive buying situation

(Theron & Ebersohn, 2013:3).

• An unsought service can, therefore, be defined as: A service which

does not form part of the consumer’s regular spending patterns that could

evoke strong, negative emotions resulting in an unreceptive buying

situation.

It is evident from the foregoing attempts at defining unsought services just how

problematic the marketing of this specific category of service delivery is – not only

from the perspective of the funeral industry, but also from the consumer’s

perception of these types of services.

Sanders (2009a:64) places the preceding statement into the unsought service

perspective by illustrating that the funeral industry is situated in both social and

economic relations. These relations are part of those consumer tendencies, which

require novel and engaging stimuli that would encourage further consumption

through marketing communication methods, such as advertising. Thus, like any

other industry, it should focus on the creation of products and services, whose

values rest primarily on their symbolic content, and the ways in which they

stimulate the pragmatic activity of consumers.

67
The marketing of intangible services, and particularly unsought services, poses

inherently unique challenges to marketers: The product features of a tangible

product, such as a new design, can easily be copied by competitors, but to copy

the quality of service is not that easy, especially if the services are of an unsought

nature (Wilson et al., 2008:10; Du Plessis, 2009:6; Lamb et al., 2010:468).

Each firm must, therefore, assume the responsibility for educating its clients

(Zeithaml, Bitner & Gremler, 2009:485). Especially firms that specialise in expert

services that are difficult for clients to evaluate, even after they have received the

service (such as a funeral service). Zeithaml, Bitner and Gremler furthermore

argue that service companies must educate their clients on their services offered,

because if the client is:

• Unsure about how the service would be provided;

• What their role in the delivery of the service involves; and

• How to evaluate a service they most probably have never used before.

The chances are that the client would be disappointed. And if disappointed, the

clients would hold the service company accountable for the disappointment, and

not themselves.

The challenge for the marketer of unsought services is, therefore, not only to

educate their clients on the services delivered, but also to do so at a time when

the client requires the services of, for instance, the funeral industry when the client

is in a state of bereavement (Schwartz, Jolson & Lee, 1986:41).

68
The following section will focus on the expanded marketing mix. The expanded

marketing mix, as previously discussed in Section 2.3.1, provides marketers with a

“set of tools and strategies” (Wilson et al., 2008:19), which they can utilise to

effectively market their products and/or services to clients. These tools or

strategies will be discussed in relation to the funeral industry.

2.4.4.2 The expanded services marketing mix in relation to the funeral

industry

According to Tait (2009:89-90), most service organisations specify a long term

customer relationship as one of their key marketing goals. Service organisations

in general build a range of relationships with their customers who vary from short

term encounters to relationships that develop and continue over a longer period of

time. The extended relationships between customer and the service organisation

are mainly as a result of consumers that return to the organisation or business as

a result of a previously satisfactory experience. In the services environment,

customer retention and loyalty is largely based on customer satisfaction, which in

turn, is dependent on the service delivery of the organisation. Nowhere is this

more apparent than in the funeral industry, where the needs and desires of the

client should take unprecedented priority in the short span of interaction between

the service provider and the client (in relation to the opportunities other

businesses have in building client relations over a longer period of time).

A funeral service is not something, which forms part of the client’s regular

consuming patterns. Clients only acquire the services of a funeral home once a

69
direct relation to the client has passed away. It is in these circumstances where

the client is normally met with three “uncommon conditions” (Schwartz, Jolson &

Lee, 1986:40):

• The client has not, prior to the death, sought out information about

available, required, and desired options, including cost considerations;

• The purchase of the service cannot be avoided and substantial time

pressures prevail;

• The emotional state of the bereaved client has a strong impact on the

rational decision-making process.

The funeral director, therefore, literally has only a couple of days to complete the

entire transaction – from first contact with the clients until completion of the funeral

activities. It is within this short span of time, where the funeral director has to

deliver services at high impact to the desires and needs of a client who is, at the

time of interaction, also in a state of bereavement. This is a factor, which further

complicates the process for both the client and the service provider (refer to

Schwartz, Jolson & Lee’s “uncommon conditions” in the preceding paragraph).

The complicated interaction process between the client and the service provider in

the funeral industry has led to the notion of “funerals are for the living”; and this

saying has become axiomatic to those delivering the funeral services (Sanders,

2009a:61). As a result, the funeral industry increasingly presents its offerings to

the public in terms of events – focusing on experiences, environment, atmosphere,

and memories of the deceased. From the perspective of the funeral industry,

these “events” result not only in satisfying the needs and desires of the paying

70
client (the bereaved); but they also create an opportunity to capitalise on

prospective clients who attend these events.

According to Zeithaml, Bitner and Gremler (2009:24), clients would – due to the

intangible nature of services – often look for any tangible cue to help them

understand the nature of the service experience. It is thus imperative for funeral

directors to implement the various components of the services-marketing mix

effectively in their marketing strategies, in order to create not only an awareness of

their services, but also the successful delivery of their services.

Following is a summarised view of how the various service aspects of the funeral

industry apply to the expanded services-marketing mix. The summary is based on

perspectives from funeral directors in the South African funeral industry (Le Roux,

2012; Lindhorst, 2012; Molyneux, 2012; Riley, 2012b; Smith, 2012):

• Service Product: the “what” of services

The service product aspect of the service-marking mix has elicited the most

diverse perspectives from the funeral directors. Both Lindhorst (2012) and

Smith (2012) noted that the product aspect of services applied to the

funeral industry, relates to a “one-stop shop” service delivery, which

includes not only services delivered to the clients, but also tangible aspects.

Riley (2012b) noted that the coffin or casket evokes (in most instances) the

highest response from the clients, as the bereaved client does not inspect

the actual condition of the deceased; the focus is rather on the “container”

enclosing the deceased.

71
• Service Price: covering costs and generating profit

Clients rarely have any idea of the cost of a funeral, nor have they any

means of real comparison. For most funeral directors, price is a primary

competitive factor. Taking into account that funerals are largely customised

to meet the requirements of the clients, costs to clients are determined by

their needs. Costs to the funeral home, in turn, imply operating costs. Due

to the erratic nature of the industry, income varies on a monthly basis for

the funeral home. Profits from high income periods, therefore, should be

used to build a financial reserve for lower income periods, in order to

maintain the standard operating costs of the funeral home. These costs

refer to aspects, such as vehicle maintenance, personnel remuneration,

upholding the standards of the premises, and equipment maintenance.

• Service distribution (Place): the use of distribution channels

The premises of the funeral home are regarded as the most important

aspect of service distribution. This is the central location from which the

services are conducted; and it is, therefore, considered to be of the utmost

importance. Additional aspects relate to the location of the premises, the

functionality of the premises, and the perceptual influence of the premises

on the client, which is described by Le Roux (2012) as “peaceful, tranquil

surroundings, where bereaved clients can feel nurtured”.

• Service Promotion: communicating benefits of the service to the

target audience

Word-of-mouth is considered to be the primary form of service promotion in

the funeral industry. This is largely based on the fact that advertising is

constrained because of the sensitive nature of the service. Clients as such

72
 are not receptive to the funeral home’s advertising until there is a need for

its services. Word-of-mouth is usually promoted through unique and

efficient personal service from the funeral home; and networks are built

through the use of key players (or alternatively defined by Molyneux (2012)

as “opinion makers”) such as clergy, matrons of old-age homes, estate

lawyers, doctors, and nursing staff. The premise is that clients in their initial

state of bereavement will accept the guidance of a “trusted” person, such

as the aforementioned.

Websites are considered a more contemporary way of promoting the

funeral home, yet even this method of promotional communication is still

only utilised by clients when the need arises for the services of a funeral

home. Other promotional avenues, besides print advertising, include

outdoor media, radio advertisements and interviews, and exposure on

national television programmes, such as lifestyle programmes or discussion

forums.

• Service providers (People): the extent to which a service organisation

is client-oriented

Due to the nature of the funeral industry, it is often challenging to find the

“right person for the right job” (Smith, 2012). This is an industry that places

an equal premium on both client and personnel aspects. Every client

needs to be treated individually, and in a caring manner by the personnel of

the funeral home. Personnel characteristics, such as attitude and empathy,

are considered important attributes in building good relationships with

clients at the time of their bereavement.

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 • The Service Process: the “how” of services

The industry is largely reliant on team work: from the first call to remove the

deceased from the place of death, until the final disposal, each component

of the procedure has to be executed to the finest detail, in order to ensure a

well-executed service delivery. Therefore, aspects such as well-written

procedures, processes, and effective business-management systems need

to be in place for every funeral home. Client’s reactions and perceptions of

the service delivered (contained within the execution process) are

considered to be the backbone of success for a funeral home.

• Service Physical Evidence: using tangible evidence of the service

provision

Several tangible items are at the disposal of the funeral home to support

their service output, such as written testimonials from previous clients,

information leaflets pertaining to several aspects – ranging from information

about the funeral home, services provided, and bereavement-counselling

information.

The foregoing information illustrates the fact that the funeral industry in its entirety

operates within the services-business segment. Whether the service delivery is of

a pure, intangible nature (client interaction), or whether it is accompanied by a

minor product, such as a casket, the funeral industry is firmly seated within the

services industry.

It is notable from the information provided in the preceding section that most of the

funeral directors still rely on word-of-mouth regarding their service output, in order

74
to create public awareness of their services (Le Roux, 2012; Lindhorst, 2012;

Molyneux, 2012; Riley, 2012b; Smith, 2012).

The fact that most of the funeral directors foresee the nature of the industry as an

obstruction to advertise their services publicly to prospective clients, further

underlines the necessity of this study. Prospective clients should be made aware

of the services of the funeral homes, in order to create a recollection placement of

the services delivered within the minds of clients, particularly in respect to the fact

that the services of the funeral industry are only sought after by clients – firstly,

when needed, and secondly, when in a state of bereavement.

2.4.4.3 The digital perspective of the expanded services-marketing mix

Armour and Williams (1981:702) state that most funeral homes are reluctant to

advertise, as they believe that the public would be offended if the advertisements

are too explicit. Funeral homes, therefore, rather seek out alternative means of

presenting their business to the general public. One such alternative might be to

create a web presence through the use of the Internet.

This could be done by creating a dedicated website with information on the funeral

home, and/or to create a presence on various social media platforms, such as

Facebook, LinkedIn or Twitter. From a marketing perspective, Internet-based

marketing is referred to as digital or e-marketing (Stokes, 2011; Chaffey & Ellis-

Chadwick, 2013; Swanepoel & Bothma, 2013).

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Digital marketing can be broadly defined as “the application of marketing principles

using electronic means” (Swanepoel & Bothma, 2013:20). Digital marketing is,

just like traditional marketing, still about satisfying consumer needs by using all the

resources of the organisation. There is still a product or a service at the centre of

the digital marketing strategy, with a price attached to it. The product or service

still needs to be communicated and delivered to the consumer in some way. The

major difference is that all this, from the digital marketing perspective, is done by

using electronic channels and technologies.

Digital marketing affects all aspects of the traditional and service-marketing mix.

Chaffey and Ellis-Chadwick (2012:259) offer a summarised view of the translation

of the 7Ps of services marketing into the digital perspective (refer to Table 2.12).

Table 2.12: The digital perspective of the 7Ps of services marketing

Product Price Place Promotion People,

Process &
Physical
evidence
Looking at Focus on the Considering the Exploring Focus is on how
opportunities to implications for implications for promotional these elements of
modify the core setting prices in distribution for techniques in the marketing mix
product for digital digital markets. digital marketing. advance of more relate to
environments. New pricing detailed coverage customer
models and of new relationship
strategies are techniques. management,
required. and managing
the organisation’s
digital presence.

The implementation of the extended digital marketing mix is facilitated through

websites. It is, therefore, important that the organisation should develop a

website, which could facilitate its extended marketing mix. Web development

could subsequently be seen as the thread that holds digital marketing together

76
(Stokes, 2011:107). Websites are the first thing consumers think of when they

think, of all things: “Internet”. Website owners want their website to be talked

about, and linked to, for the right reasons.

Successful website development and design is all about foundations, and the

resulting website usually forms the foundation of any digital marketing to follow.

Almost all digital marketing, according to Stokes (2011:108), is designed to get

users to a website, where they can communicate with potential customers. An

effective website is, therefore, at the centre of all the organisation’s online

marketing activities.

A variety of promotional tools is available to the marketer to identify, inform, and

persuade consumers to invest in a product or service, namely: direct marketing,

public relations, sponsorships, personal selling, sales promotions and digital

communication (Du Plessis, 2010:5-7). The umbrella term for the combination of

these tools to effectively communicate with consumers is referred to as Integrated

Marketing Communications (IMC). The role of digital communication, as part of

the IMC construct, or otherwise referred to as the promotional mix, is depicted in

Figure 2.1.

Marketing
Mix

Promotion Physical
Product Price Place People Processes
(IMC) evidence

Public Sales Personal Direct Digital

Advertising Sponsorship
Relations Promotions Selling Marketing Communication

Figure 2.1: Digital communication as part of IMC

Source: Adapted from Du Plessis, 2010:4; Holtzhausen, 2010:39.

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The application of digital communication, as part of the IMC construct to the

funeral industry, will be discussed in Chapter 3.

2.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY

The primary focus of this chapter was to provide an overview of the funeral

industry in South Africa – in relation to services marketing – thus establishing the

funeral industry as one that primarily functions as a service industry. This was

followed by establishing what service marketing entails, by outlining the services-

marketing mix (SMM), or what is otherwise known as the seven Ps of services

marketing.

Several theoretical perspectives from existing literature were used to discuss the

classification of products and services. The definition of product categories was

summarised in Table 2.3, resulting in the conclusion that most authors agree as to

the classification of products. Services classifications focused on the theories of

Lovelock, Lovelock and Gummesson, Edvardsson, Gustafsson and Roos, as well

as the IHIP-method of classification. Lastly, the perspectives of Vargo and Lusch

were discussed. Although there were similarities between the definitions and

classifications of services, it was concluded that the classification of services is still

dependent on the perspective of the author; and that there is still no clear

definition of what services entail.

In order to gain clarity between services and product marketing, it was necessary

to establish the core differences between services and products. Through the

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product-versus-service continuum, it was established that funeral services can be

classified as a “major service accompanied by minor products”. The foregoing

also indicated that the funeral industry falls into the category of unsought services,

indicating that clients would only seek the services of a funeral home once the

need for such a service arises.

This aspect suggests some of the inherent difficulties for the funeral industry in

marketing their services. In order to align the funeral industry with services

marketing, the key elements of the funeral industry were applied to the expanded

marketing mix (seven Ps).

Chapter 3 will focus on the core principles of IMC, the role of digital marketing

within the IMC construct, and the application thereof to the funeral industry.

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 CHAPTER 3

INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATION: A DIGITAL PERSPECTIVE

3.1 INTRODUCTION

All marketing communication messages are carried by some form of media.

Communication, in its simplest form, is defined as the transmission of a message

from a source to a receiver (Baran, 2012:4). The definition applied to this study

indicates the source as the funeral home, and the receiver as the target market for

which the message is intended.

Chapter 3 will focus on the implementation of digital marketing communications to

create an effective Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC) strategy. A brief

overview of the traditional media will be provided; this will be followed by a

discussion of the application of digital communication media as part of the new

media construct of IMC. The advancement of the Internet and the change effects

it has had on marketing will be reviewed. This will be followed by a discussion of

websites as a digital media vehicle.

The chapter will conclude with a presentation of an integrated matrix of traditional

and new media-vehicle communications based on media class.

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3.2 THE IMC CONSTRUCT: A BRIEF OVERVIEW

It was not until the 1990s that IMC began to gain acknowledgement among

marketers (Blakeman, 2007:5). According to Kitchen et al. (2004:20), this was

partly due to the trend in organisations to allocate marketing budgets away from

mass media advertising due to:

• Increased media fragmentation and increased segmentation of consumer

preferences;

• Easier access to consumer databases due technological advances;

• A growing importance in reinforcing consumer loyalty through relationship

marketing; and

• The importance of building and increasing a brand’s image equity.

Although marketing communication has been previously used by organisations –

as an umbrella term to refer to the various communication functions used by

marketers – it is the strategic integration of the functional aspects of IMC, which

brings it to its full value in an organisation (Kitchen et al., 2004:21).

IMC is not only a communication process from organisation to consumer, but a

process, which is also driven by the buyers of products and services, resulting in

an outside-in approach to communication with stakeholders from within the

organisation (Kitchen et al., 2004:22). Tarkoff (2010) describes an outside-in

approach, as a process where an organisation starts with an external market

orientation, and carefully studies customer trends, in order to design a marketing

81
strategy, using customer trends as an indication for product and service

development.

An inside-out strategy, on the contrary, is a process whereby the organisation

relies on an internal orientation. Marketers depart by asking the question: What

can a company do with its existing resources? And, it then considers which of

these resources needs to be aligned through the right-sizing and reserved

spending.

According to Clow and Baack (2010:34), the foundation of an IMC program from

an outside-in approach, consequently, consists of a careful review of the

company’s image (how it is perceived by the consumer), the consumers that need

to be served, and the markets segments in which the consumers are located. The

components of an IMC program that can be implemented by a marketer into an

integrated communications strategy are described in Section 3.2.1.

3.2.1 The components of an IMC program

An effective IMC program sends a consistent message on the nature of the

company, its products, and the benefits that result from making a purchase of the

product or service the organisation offers (Clow & Baack, 2010:41; Arens, Weigold

& Arens, 2011:595). Schultz (as quoted by Belch & Belch, 2012:10) notes that not

only is the alignment of the communications program of importance to a company,

but also the accountability and measurement of the outcomes of the marketing-

communication programs.

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The central idea of IMC is based on the premise that communication does not take

place in a vacuum, but in a broader context, which includes not only traditional

media, but also other communication efforts, such as new media vehicles (Finne &

Grönroos, 2009:179). The challenge to marketers is, therefore, how to use the

various components of IMC to communicate efficiently to the targeted consumer.

According to Belch and Belch (2012:17-18), a sufficient IMC program requires a

marketer to find the right combination of promotional communication tools and

techniques. This combination, in turn, is used to define the role and the extent to

which these tools and techniques can be used to communicate to consumers and

to co-ordinate their use.

Moriarty, Mitchell and Wells (2012:485) state that although IMC has been around

for more than twenty years, very few marketers understand the breadth, and

depth, of its communication focus. IMC involves the entire organisation – it

engages all stakeholders in meaningful and interactive experiences with the

organisation’s brand, whether it is a tangible product or an intangible service.

When the IMC components are correctly applied by an organisation, this leads to

solid brand relationships, which in turn lead to enhanced brand equity.

Summarised in Table 3.1 are the components of the Integrated Marketing

Communications (IMC) construct:

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Table 3.1: The components of an IMC construct

Component Description
Advertising Advertising is generally defined as any paid form of non-personal
communication about an organisation, its product, service, or idea.
Advertising’s ability to reach a mass audience has positioned it as one of
the most important components of the promotional mix.
Direct Marketing Direct marketing is the process whereby the organisation communicates
directly with its consumers through a variety of activities such as database
management, direct selling, telemarketing and direct mail.
Sales Promotion Sales promotions refer to the activities that provide an added incentive to
the consumer. The aim is to initiate an immediate sale by encouraging
product interest, trial or purchase.
Publicity/Public Publicity and Public Relations relate to a variety of programs. Publicity is
Relations non-personal communication, such as press releases, media interviews,
featured articles, newsletters and podcasts. Public relations refers to
annual reports, fund-raisings, lobbying, special event management and
public affairs. Although public relations is invaluable during a marketing
crisis, marketers realises that it also needs to be a regular part of any
marketing communications program.
Personal Selling Personal selling is the face-to-face interaction with one or more prospective
consumer for the purpose of making a sale. The interaction provides the
marketer with communication flexibility, as the marketer can see and/or
hear the consumer’s reactions, and is then able to modify the message
accordingly.
Sponsorship/ Sponsorship is defined as the provision of resources (such as money,
Event Marketing products or equipment) by the organisation to the sponsored property
(sport, school, environment or social causes) to enable the sponsored
property to pursue some activity in return for the sponsorship. Event
marketing is public sponsorship of events or activities.
Internet/Digital The Internet, and especially the development of Web 2.0, has led to
Marketing dynamic and revolutionary changes in marketing. The interactive nature of
the Internet allows for interactive media, which in turn allows for a two-way
flow of information, where consumers can participate in the dissemination
of information in real time. This capability allows for marketers to gather
valuable information from consumers and adjust their offers accordingly.

Source: Keller, 2008:235-271; Du Plessis, 2010:5-7; Arens, Weigold & Arens, 2011:219-223;
Belch & Belch, 2012:18-26; Moriarty, Mitchell & Wells, 2012:484-603.

Blakeman (2007:5) state that IMC is the construct that acts to interactively

integrate the marketing communication between a specific individual and the

organisation, using a specific message, through specific media outlets. The goal

of IMC is to build a long-term relationship between the buyer of a product or

service and the seller, by involving the targeted individual in an interactive, two-

way exchange of information. Blakeman, furthermore, states that for a marketer to

84
achieve this level of integrated communication, the marketer must develop a

creative strategy that co-ordinates the communication effort both visually and

verbally.

According to Du Plessis (2010:4), IMC focuses on the use of promotional media

types, such as advertising, direct marketing, sales promotions, sponsorships,

public relations and publicity, and digital communication to communicate a

personalised message to individual consumers.

The media types that an organisation can use to communicate with its target

markets are broadly divided into traditional media and digital media (see Figure

3.1).

Integrated Marketing Communication

Media Types

Traditional Media New Media

Broadcast Print Out -of-home Digital Media

Internet based
Television Newspapers Outdoor
mediums

Radio Magazines Cinema

Transit

Figure 3.1: The different media types

Source: Adapted from Koekemoer, 2005:66; Cant & Van Heerden, 2010:331-334; Du Plessis,
2010:88; Kotler & Armstrong, 2010:465; Lamb et al., 2010; 375-377; Schiffman & Kanuk,
2010:296; Lovelock & Wirtz, 2011:195-196; Arens, Weigold & Arens, 2011:236; Belch & Belch,
2012: 18; Moriarty, Mitchell & Wells, 2012:355.

85
Different forms of media vehicles are used within the classified media types to

communicate to the target markets of an organisation. Moriarty, Mitchell and

Wells (2012:355) define a media vehicle as a specific element that is used to

transmit a message to the target audience. Traditional media can be broadly

divided into broadcast, print, and out-of-home media.

The media vehicles that these traditional media types use to communicate to the

target audience are divided into television, radio, magazines and newspapers

(Belch & Belch, 2012:324-359; Shimp & Andrews, 2013:423-424).

According to Moriarty, Mitchell and Wells (2012:81-82), the traditional media types

listed in the foregoing paragraph, have served organisations sufficiently for

generations. Yet, Shimp and Andrews (2013:352) state that the advent of the

Internet has created more opportunities (media vehicles) for an organisation to

communicate with its target audience. Their contention is that online media

(digital media) are superior to traditional media because they provide consumers

with virtually full control over the commercial information they choose to receive or

avoid.

The Internet is a better communications medium due to its versatility and

superiority at targeting consumers effectively. The consensus, however, is that

digital media are key elements in IMC programs – they are not simply a

replacement for the traditional media.

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Figure 3.2 depicts the positioning of the various media within the IMC process,

with the emphasis on digital communication, as it is the focus of the study.

Media type Medium Media vehicle Media unit

•Digital •Internet •Website •Content of the
Communication website

Figure 3.2: The use of media in perspective to the IMC process

Source: Adapted from Duncan, 2005:346.

The premise of this study is based on digital media as an IMC medium. Semenik

et al. (2012:461-462) state that although the traditional media still dominate the

majority of all media planning, the digital media offer many new media

opportunities for integrated marketers. According to Baines, Fill and Page

(2011:627), digital media are being used increasingly in the marketing profession

to complement, or in some instances, to replace the traditional communication

channels and marketing activities.

The next section will focus on digital marketing communication. This will provide

an overview of the origin of digital marketing communications, followed by a

discussion on the path of development of digital media communications.

3.3 DIGITAL-MARKETING COMMUNICATION

Chaffey and Ellis-Chadwick (2012:35) state that digital-marketing communications

differ significantly from traditional marketing communications due to the fact that it

enables new forms of interaction, and subsequently new models for information

exchange. According to Rosenbaum-Elliot, Percy and Pervan (2011:129), the

87
notion of new media in contemporary marketing communications goes beyond

placing an advertisement on the Internet or transmitting it through a mobile

telephone. What consumers are experiencing currently are communication

messages that are delivered in different ways – through both traditional and new

media vehicles.

The accelerated growth of new media technologies in the last two decades has

led to definitive changes in the way marketers approach their target markets. The

consumer can now easily obtain information about a product or service through

digitally receptive channels. The digital communication media have allowed

companies to create awareness, provide information, and influence the attitudes

of consumers on their offerings in a more personalised way than traditional media

have been able to do (Belch & Belch, 2012:491-493).

Section 3.3.1 will focus on the advancement of the Internet since its inception, and

how it has given rise to the evolution of digital marketing.

3.3.1 The advancement of the Internet and the World Wide Web

The Internet has become a global, 24/7 operational medium that facilitates

organisations and consumers alike in building communities, influencing popular

culture, and informing and connecting individuals worldwide. For a marketer, the

Internet offers many opportunities to build relationships with consumers from

corporate websites to branded programming content, videos, advertising

campaigns, and brand platforms (Landa, 2010:226).

88
Baines, Fill and Page (2011:629-630), furthermore, note that it is important for the

marketer to understand how the many and varied digital resources differ across

key structural properties. Understanding the concepts related to the Internet and

how it can be applied to a digital-marketing strategy allows the contemporary

marketer to make informed decisions about which resources would be most

suitable for achieving the marketing objectives.

The following section will briefly discuss the origins of the Internet, followed by a

discussion of its development and the advantages these developments have

created for digital-based IMC.

3.3.1.1 The origins of the Internet

The Internet originated when the United States’ National Science Foundation

funded a computer research network in 1979 that would connect several

participating universities. As part of the research venture, the participating

universities set up an ongoing communication via networks called the Computer

Science Network (CSNET) and Because It's Time Network (BITNET). The

communication between these universities took place through a file transfer

protocol named “e-mail” (electronic mail). The interconnection, through which

these networks communicated, was referred to as the Internet (Sterin, 2012:64).

Baran (2012:267) explains that the Internet, since its inception as an

interconnected medium, is now perceived as a “network of networks”. These

networks consist of Local Area Networks (LANs), which connect two or more

89
computers (usually within the same building) with each other, and Wide Area

Networks (WAN’s), which connect the locations of the local area networks with

each other.

Building on the then-existing Internet and e-mail system, British mathematician

Tim Berners-Lee developed a hypertext-based communication language in 1991

that allowed personal computers and servers to communicate with each other on

the Internet, using standardised protocols across a vast network. This network

would become what is known today as the World Wide Web (www), or commonly

referred to as the Web (Baran, 2012:269; Sterin, 2012:64,196-197).

The Web, however, is not a physical place or a network of computers – it is a set

of protocols that define its use (Baran, 2012:269). Sterin (2012:197) explains that

the Web uses a set of Hypertext Transfer Protocols (HTTP) to transport files from

one computer to another via the Internet. The Hypertext Make-up Language

(HTML) in addition, is the programming language that allows the Web developer to

specify how a document will appear once transferred via the protocol through the

Internet, to when it is accessed by a variety of Internet browser programs.

In turn, each file or directory on the Internet is designated by a Uniform Resource

Locator (URL). Baran (2012:269) notes that the URL (or commonly referred to as

the “domain name”) is effectively the address of a website. The URL is therefore

an important aspect for every organisation, as it becomes the physical locater of

the organisation on the Internet. Stokes (2011:91-92) suggests that the URL

contains the name of the organisation as its primary “address code”. The practical

90
implication for both the user and the organisation is that by having a

corresponding URL, the user can easily locate the organisation’s website on the

Internet.

According to Baran (2012:272), the Internet is not a medium that is accessed by

“audience members”; but it has “users”, which at any time can both read and

create content. An example of reading and creating content is when consumers

(users) respond to organisations’ blog entries, or use Social Networking Sites

(SNS), such as Facebook and Twitter to communicate online. Baines, Fill and

Page (2011:627) furthermore note that whilst the user is accessing the website,

s/he reads content, responds to content, or creates a new content entry, and

therefore, simultaneously reads and creates content in real-time.

Through this process, interactive, two-way communications are established

between the organisation and its consumers. It is on this platform that the

marketer and the user (consumer) interact with each other in an interactive, real

time exchange of information. Section 3.3.1.2 explores the development of new

media technologies, which have given rise to contemporary, interactive, online

communication media.

3.3.1.2 The development of new media technologies

Sterin (2012:194) defines new media, based on new media technologies, as

digital media that is produced using computer-based technologies, is distributed

via digital platforms, and hosted partially or entirely in cyberspace. New media

91
essentially followed a path of development through what is labelled as Web 1.0

and Web 2.0 (depicted in Figure 3.3) (Chaffey & Ellis-Chadwick, 2012:32-35;

Sterin, 2012:194-199):

Figure 3.3: The evolution of Web technologies

Source: Chaffey & Ellis-Chadwick, 2012:34.

• Web 1.0: Web 1.0 focused primarily on digital publishing and distribution. Its

abilities allowed for early forms of e-mail communication. The Internet,

therefore, started as a text-dominant medium, which published academic and

professional journals; and then expanded to include books, magazines and

newspapers that contained pictures. Web 1.0 yielded only one-way

communication from the creator to the consumer.

• The Internet connections that facilitated Web 1.0 were slow, which in turn,

inhibited accessibility.

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 From a marketing perspective, Web 1.0 only allowed one-way communication

from the organisation to the users. The users could, therefore, only receive

information from a website, but could not respond to it.

• Web 2.0: Participation and interaction is at the core of Web 2.0. Building on

Web 1.0, Web 2.0 enabled a vast range of interactive Internet tools and social

communication techniques, such as blogs, podcasts, Really Simple

Syndication (RSS) feeds, and social networks. The interactive tools enabled

by Web 2.0 are aimed at increasing user participation on the Web.

Widespread adoption of high-speed broadband connectivity enhanced the

interactive use of the Web for several purposes. It enabled interactions, such

as online trading, exchanging data between sites, and the use and creation of

Rich Internet Applications (RIA). RIA allow for more immersive and interactive

Internet experiences, such as video streams, virtual worlds, tagging and

mash-ups.

Web 2.0 also enabled rich media communication on devices, such as mobile

telephones and handheld computers, for example an iPad.

The main characteristics of Web 2.0 include:

o Interactive applications hosted on the Web, such as blogging;

o Supporting participation;

o Encouraging the creation of user-generated content;

o Enablement of rating and categorising of content, which help to indicate

the relevance and quality of websites’ content;

o Advertising funding of neutral websites, such as Google mail (Gmail);

93
 o The use of rich Internet applications, which provide for a more

immersive, interactive experience using rich media; and

o Rapid application development using interactive technology approaches

known as “Ajax” (a combination of Asynchronous JavaScript and XML).

The best known Ajax implementation is Google Maps, which are

responsive without having to refresh the maps, in order to display them.

Baines, Fill and Page (2011:634-635) state that the evolution of Web 2.0 offered

many new possibilities for marketers. Not only did it open up opportunities for two-

way communication between the organisation and the users; but it also allowed

marketers to use different platforms to communicate with both existing and

prospective consumers. At its core functionality, Web 2.0 facilitates the practice of

user-generated, co-created and user-shared content through both device and

interpersonal activities.

The implication of the foregoing for the digital marketer is the shift of focus away

from the marketer to the user, as an active participant and co-creator of content.

Online searches, social web platforms, and mobile resources differ considerably

from the earlier forms of Internet marketing (such as the platforms provided by

Web 1.0) in terms of its external and internal pacing, the interactivity it enables,

and the differing modes of transfer it facilitates (Baines, Fill & Page, 2011:635;

Chaffey & Ellis-Chadwick, 2012:33-34; Ryan & Jones, 2012:9-15; Swanepoel &

Bothma, 2013:20-23).

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The digital evolution of marketing in relation to Web 1.0 and Web 2.0 is

summarised in Table 3.2:

Table 3.2: The digital evolution of marketing in relation to Web 1.0 and 2.0

Web 1.0 Web 2.0

Marketing focus Website or content User/participant
Approach Push Push and pull
Market role Audience Participants
Market behaviour Passive Passive and active
Interactivity Machine interactivity Person and machine interactivity
Product offering Production Co-production
Communication model Monologue (one to many) Dialogue (one to many, many to many)
Control External pacing External and internal pacing

Source: Baines, Fill & Page, 2011:635.

Applied to the funeral home perspective, two-way communication not only takes

place between the funeral home and its immediate consumers, but for example by

posting directions to the venue of the funeral (an interactive map can be used for

this purpose), creating an online obituary option on their web page, or any other

information regarding a specific funeral, the funeral home is able to involve a

larger spectrum of the consumer base through two-way communication.

Furthermore, by making available these additional web services to the bereaved

family, the funeral home is not only creating a communication channel with current

consumers, it is also facilitating a subliminal process of awareness creation of the

funeral home and its services amongst the prospective funeral attendees.

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3.3.2 Digital marketing: a new approach

The “online revolution” has forced marketers to think differently about marketing

communications in a digital world (McDonald & Wilson, 2011:274). The

commercialisation and subsequent growth of the web have resulted in both

organisations and consumers going online in increasing numbers. According to

Swanepoel and Bothma (2013:15), consumers can now use the Internet to gain

information about an organisation’s offerings, compare offerings, and even buy

products online, whenever they want to do so.

As a result of the digital advancement, McDonald and Wilson (2011:274)

developed a new framework to accommodate the digital approach of marketing

communications. McDonald and Wilson’s e-marketing framework considers six

capabilities provided by digital channels (media), which can be used to enhance

an organisation’s performance when validated against the consumer’s buying

criteria.

Summarised in Table 3.3, are the “6 Is of e-marketing” framework as

conceptualised by McDonald and Wilson (2011:274-280), and adapted by Chaffey

and Ellis-Chadwick (2012:35-41).

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Table 3.3: The 6 Is of the e-marketing framework

Component Description Application

Integration Joining up the Multichannel communication integration in an organisation
customer is as important with Internet-based communication as it is
experience with any of the traditional communication channels. The
multiple channels by which the consumer demands to be
able to reach the supplier imply that the data must also be
integrated across communication mechanisms. For
example, a telephone salesperson must be aware of a
service request that was sent previously by e-mail, in order
to facilitate the request efficiently.
Applied to the funeral industry:
The funeral director can communicate with the bereaved
via e-mail regarding the arrangement of the funeral.
Quotations for the costs of the funeral can be submitted in
writing to the bereaved. Documentation, such as the
memorial leaflets can also be submitted using e-mail for
approval by the bereaved. In turn, the bereaved can
submit questions, and supply any information required by
the funeral director via e-mail.
Interactivity Beyond With the multitude of interactive communication channels
addressability to available, such as websites, social media and mobile
dialogue phone applications, marketers need to think differently
about the sales process, as consumers rightly expect them
to use interactivity to communicate with them. This can be
classified as the electronic equivalent to a face-to-face
conversation.
Applied to the funeral industry:
A funeral director can set up the website representing the
funeral home to allow for messages of condolences for a
specific funeral to be posted on the funeral home’s
website. The bereaved can access the website and read
the messages of condolences online. Through this
process, the funeral home creates awareness beyond the
bereaved about the funeral home, since people who post
these messages would have to access the funeral home’s
website to do so.
Individualisation Information- Internet-based communication makes it possible for an
enabled tailoring organisation to individualise its product and/or services,
according to consumers’ needs. Integrated information
about the consumer forms the basis for the organisation’s
individualisation of its products or services.
Applied to the funeral industry:
The funeral director can advertise the services and
accompanying products on the funeral home’s website.
Potential consumers can access this information and make
comparisons with other funeral homes that have similar
websites.
Independence of The death of A website can serve a geographically widely spread
location distance consumer population. Interdependence of location allows
an organisation to achieve individualisation. For instance,

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 niche markets can be served even if the market is globally
dispersed. Independence of location also frees a company
of the cost of physical facilities and can lower overall costs
in sectors, such as banking, travel and Internet retailing.
Applied to the funeral industry:
The funeral home can display examples of flower
arrangements, available types of caskets, and information
on green funerals, amongst others, on their websites. Not
only can the bereaved make choices online, but the funeral
home can also receive orders for specific items from
suppliers online.
Intelligence Informed Internet-based communication does not just enable
strategy consumers to get what they want. It also provides a rich
source of insight for the organisation, in order to form an
appropriate marketing strategy. Internet-based
communication provides numerous ways of gaining market
intelligence, ranging from traditional questionnaires to
behavioural analysis.
Applied to the funeral industry:
The funeral home can set up a section on its webpage,
where the bereaved, or even attendees of a funeral, can
post testimonials of the service provided by the funeral.
Industry Redrawing the Due to the vast effect of technological innovation,
restructuring market map consumers’ needs are being met in new and innovative
ways by new “players” in the market. With the advent of
each innovation, the marketer is forced to redraw the
market map. For instance, with iTunes or MP4 formats,
music is now downloadable from an Internet Website. The
marketer of a music label, which, in its own way evolved
from vinyl to compact disc, now has to adjust to the new
innovation, in order to retain the consumer who uses an
iPod or a mobile telephone, laptop or electronic tablet to
obtain music from his/her favourite artists assigned to the
specific music label.
Applied to the funeral industry:
A website per se can become a powerful marketing tool for
the funeral home. When faced with the death of a loved
one, searching for a funeral director online can be an
obvious process for the bereaved. The funeral home can,
for instance, post interactive maps to venues relating to a
specific funeral (church, cemetery, cremation chapel) for
intended attendees to access.

Although there are numerous specific tools that can be used in support of

McDonald and Wilson’s e-marketing framework, these authors propose four major

components for a digital communications mix, namely: websites (search

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marketing), social media, advertisements and affiliates, and e-mail and viral

marketing (McDonald & Wilson, 2011:280-285).

The components of McDonald and Wilson’s digital communications mix are

depicted in Figure 3.4.

Social Media Advertisments and

•Social network presence Affiliates
•Brand communities •Banner advertisments
•Monitoring & intervening •Affilate marketing
•Sponsorship

Websites Email & Viral

(Search Marketing) marketing
•House & Cobranded
•Search engine
emails
optimization TARGET SITE •Rented lists
•Paid search
Website •Viral emails

Microsites
Social Network
pages

Figure 3.4: The digital communications mix

Source: McDonald & Wilson, 2011:281.

The discussion of the digital communications mix is based entirely on the

information provided by McDonald and Wilson (2011:280-285), unless cited

otherwise.

• Websites (Search engine marketing): According to McDonald and Wilson, a

high proportion of consumers’ online journeys begin with a search engine,

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 which makes search marketing a crucial part of the digital-marketing mix.

Some of the most well-known search engines are Google, Yahoo! and Bing.

Odom and Habermann (2013:25-26) emphasise the value of search marketing

by explaining that when a user conducts an online search using a search

engine, a number of related website links will appear on the search engine

results page (SERP). The first three entries that appear on a search engine

page are entries that are reserved for paid search entries. This means that a

company pays the search engine to list their website amongst the first three

entries when certain key words relating to their website, organisation, or

product or service, match the users’ search entry. This type of “paid search”

provides higher visibility and accessibility of the company’s website on the

search site.

• Social media: The greater majority of the true cost of social media marketing

is not to advertise on the social Web pages, but to engage interactively with the

users through protocols, such as blogging and hosting brand communities.

Social media, such as Facebook, MySpace, Twitter, and LinkedIn (to mention

a few) provide the marketer with four broad purposes for investing in social

media, namely: customer insight, brand exposure, relationship building, and

customer service:

o Customer insight: Through interacting with consumers on social media

platforms, a marketer can gain valuable insights into what consumers

think about the organisation, its products and/or services.

o Brand exposure: The default reaction of many marketers is to add

community facilities to their own websites in the hope of making this the

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destination of choice or consumers in their product/service category.

Another way of interacting via social media is to have hyperlinks on the

company’s webpage to social network pages, such as Facebook and

Twitter (refer to Figure 3.5 for an example of interactive linking options

provided to users from the News24.com website).

Figure 3.5: News 24.com’s interactive links

Source: http://www.news24.com

The next step in the chain of interconnectivity is to create discussion

forums on certain topics relating to the product or service itself. The

protocol options through which users can interact with the organisation

from the website could include RSS feeds, e-mail, and several blogging

options. Figure 3.6 depicts the interconnected features of the

News24.com website to which users can subscribe.

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 Figure 3.6: News 24.com’s protocol options
Source: http://www.news24.com

o Relationship building: Social networks can play a role for consumers

who are actively involved in purchasing a product or service. Word-of-

mouth, whether online or offline, can be the “most powerful

communication tool of all for any product or service” (McDonald & Wilson,

2011:282). Ryan and Jones (2012:152) state that through the use of the

social media, an organisation has the potential to foster a more productive

and meaningful relationship with the consumers. By engaging with the

consumers online, the organisation allows the consumer to contribute to,

and collaborate with the organisation in ways that were not possible

before. Through this process, the organisation can collect valuable

information on the consumer’s perceptions of their products/services.

This, in turn, could lead to increased development of the organisation’s

products/service to enhance consumer satisfaction. Figure 3.7 provides

an example of how social media can be integrated within the context of a

funeral home’s website.

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 Figure 3.7: The Facebook page of Collinge & Co.
Source: http://www.facebook.com/pages/Collinge-Co-Funeral-
Directors/283822348323998.

In this example, consumers can review comments made by other

consumers who have invested previously in the services of Collinge & Co.

on their Facebook page.

• Customer service: Social media can be a constructive platform for the

organisation to deliver customer service. Not only is online advice to

consumers cheaper to disseminate through the social media platforms, but it

also answers general questions consumers might have regarding the

organisation and its products or service. For instance, the comments posted on

the Facebook page of Collinge & Co. (refer to Figure 3.7) can influence the

decision-making of a prospective consumer to a large extent, as it serves as a

form of testimonial of the funeral home’s level of service delivery.

• Advertisements and affiliates: According to McDonald and Wilson, banner

advertisements on websites remain the most popular form of advertising on

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 websites. An effective form of banner advertising on a website is called affiliate

advertising, where one organisation will place an advertisement on another

organisation’s website (the affiliate). Refer to Figure 3.7 for an example of a

banner advertisement on an affiliated website.

Figure 3.8: An example of a banner advertisement on an affiliated website

Source: http://www.bizcommunity.com

In this example, the University of Cape Town is advertising online short courses

for marketers on the Bizcommunity.com website. Therefore, the University of

Cape Town is an affiliated advertiser on the Bizcommunity website.

• E-mail and viral marketing: Most e-mail campaigns form part of an

organisation’s customer-relationship management (CRM) strategy to grow the

value of existing customers. However, the ease of forwarding e-mails makes it

an ideal digital media vehicle for a viral marketing campaign, especially if e-

mails are forwarded from peer to peer, once they have been disseminated from

the organisation.

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 Viral marketing is a process that encourages individuals to spread a marketing

message to others. The term “viral marketing” is derived from the biological

concept of a virus spreading rapidly through a host’s body, as well as through

large segments of a population, hence, the term “viral” marketing (Sterin,

2012:206). By encouraging individuals to pass on (spread) a marketing

message, the individual becomes part of a “promotion team” to the benefit of

the organisation, without any costs incurred by the organisation. The Internet is

a low-cost medium, which allows for a consumer to forward an organisation’s

communication messages to peers at almost no cost to the consumer.

Besides an online campaign on an organisation’s social media site, a viral

campaign can be conducted through the transmission of any electronically

based communication medium, such as mobile communication, image-sharing

and e-books (electronic book formats).

Although McDonald and Wilson provide a feasible strategy for digital marketing,

not all of the components presented apply to this study. The aim of this study is to

evaluate the websites of members of the National Funeral Directors Association

(NFDA) of South Africa with active websites. Swanepoel and Bothma (2013:31)

argue that the marketing aspect of a website centres on the provision of

information on an organisation’s products and services to prospective consumers.

However, if the website does not lead to generating new business, it could just as

well be deemed redundant. It is, therefore, imperative that a website should

entice the user into investing in the offerings of the organisation.

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Section 3.3.2.1 will provide an overview of the websites as a digital marketing

communication vehicle.

3.3.2.1 Websites as a digital-marketing communication vehicle

A website is a collection of Web pages with supporting text, images, audio and

video applications (Landa, 2010:227; Sreedhar, Chari & Venkata-Ramana,

2010:71; Semenik et al., 2012:504-506). Linked together, these Web pages

(collectively referred to as a “website”) are made available on the World Wide Web

for user consumption. Websites can be authored and owned by companies,

organisations, and individuals (Landa, 2010:227).

Huizingh and Hoekstra (2003:352-353) note that a function of websites that is

similar to the marketing objectives of traditional media, such as print and

broadcasting media, is influencing buyers. One of the most important differences

between websites and the traditional media is the role of the consumer. The

traditional media portray consumers in a passive role, while website visitors are

“active explorers” who determine what messages they receive, in what order, and

for how long.

It is, therefore, important for organisations to consider the consumer as their

starting point for building websites. This factor also implies that the stream of

messages offered on the Web should be presented in such a way that they form

an experience that the consumer considers interesting and informative.

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In essence, an organisation’s website is an advertisement for the organisation.

Websites can be considered as the centrepiece of organisations’ online

advertising efforts (Shimp & Andrews, 2013:362). One of the most important

aspects of a website is the information it provides to the user. Swanepoel and

Bothma (2013:27-28) argue that if an organisation’s website is executed

effectively, it could play a major role in adding value to an organisation’s marketing

efforts. The different types, purposes of, and objectives of websites will be

discussed next.

3.3.2.1.1 Types, purposes and objectives of websites

Vu, Zhu and Proctor (2011:440) state that the purpose of a website is to be a dual,

but parallel process. A website’s purpose, firstly, reflects the needs of an

organisation; and secondly, the specific tasks that the users of the website need to

accomplish. Explained from the company’s perspective, the website may be

designed to promote the sales of the company’s offerings. From the user’s

perspective, the website must be able to provide the user with the necessary

information on the company’s offerings, and/or to assist the user to find and

purchase the offerings.

The types of sites found on the Web can be categorised as personal,

organisational, or topical, and commercial (Shelly & Campbell, 2012:17-18):

• Personal websites: Individuals can create their own personal websites for

a range of communication purposes. They might be used to promote the

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 employment credentials of the individual (LinkedIn), to share photos with

friends and family (Facebook, Pintrest), or to share common interests or

hobbies with fellow enthusiasts (Wix.com). The purpose of these types of

websites is dictated by the purpose, for which the user created the website.

• Organisational and Topical websites: An organisational website is one

that is owned by any professional or amateur group, association or

organisation. An example of an organisational websites is The Society of

Publication Designers (SPD.org). This website is dedicated to promoting

and encouraging excellence in editorial design.

A website that is focused on a specific subject is referred to as a topical

website. These types of websites typically include entertainment, arts and

humanities, sports and various hobby websites. An example of a topical

website is Goodreads.com. The website is a community forum, where

users can post their opinions on the books they have read. The purpose of

organisational and topical websites is to provide resources on a specific

subject.

• Commercial websites: The purpose of commercial websites is to promote

and sell the offerings of a business. These types of websites are often

referred to as e-commerce (electronic commerce) sites. E-commerce is the

generation of direct sales from a company’s website to the user (Belch &

Belch, 2012:495). Examples of e-commerce websites are Kalahari.com

and Amazon.com. Both websites offer a variety of books, e-books, DVD’s

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 and music CD’s, as well as technology devices, such as laptops, hand-held

computers, and accompanying accessories to these items.

Websites providing information on a business can also be classified in this

category. An example of such a site is Woolworths.co.za, which provides

information on the organisation’s offerings, information about special

discounts on products, reward programmes, the company’s corporate

structure, as well as financial and legal assistance. These types of

websites also provide opportunities for users to contact the company via

the website, by providing a contact option, which is generally transmitted to

the business via an e-mail function that initiates from the website, thus

creating a two-way communication channel between the user (consumer)

and the company.

In addition to the type of websites, Belch and Belch (2012:493-495) list several

communication objectives that a company could pursue, when using websites as a

media vehicle. These objectives are briefly discussed in the section below.

• Create awareness: A website can be a useful tool when a business wants to

create awareness of its offerings. This objective can be especially useful for

small-to-medium enterprises (SMEs) which cannot afford expensive marketing

budgets. An example of a small-to-medium enterprise that uses a website to

create awareness of the business, is the Oakleigh Funeral Home website (refer

to Figure 3.9).

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 Figure 3.9: Oakleigh Funeral Home main page
Source: http://www.oakleigh.co.za

The Oakleigh Funeral Home website provides pictures of the business, and a

summary of the services it provides on the main page of the website. From the

main page, the user can navigate to several other pages on the website for

more information on funeral options, wills and estates, and grief counselling.

• Generate interest: A website can also be used to generate interest with users

– to the extent that the users would visit the company’s website more than

once. Elements that can be used to generate interest include product

information centres on the website, sales items, and competitions. Some

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companies also integrate traditional media into their websites by displaying their

latest print and television campaigns on their websites. Coca-Cola South

Africa’s website is an example of a website that uses interactive links to

generate interest from users (refer to Figure 3.10).

Figure 3.10: Coca-Cola South Africa’s main page

Source: http://www.coke.co.za/pages/landing/index.html

The Coca-Cola South Africa website displays a number of interactive options

on the main page of the website, such as videos, downloads, product

information and an interactive game labelled “view my shake”. Apart from that,

competitions are advertised below the navigation buttons, followed by

information about the company, its products and corporate identity information.

Additional links to Coca-Cola’s Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and Flickr pages

are provided at the top of the site page, thus encouraging the user to engage in

the social media platforms related to the website of the company.

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• Disseminate information: One of the primary objectives of a website is to

provide in-depth information on a company’s offerings. An example of the

dissemination of information is the Dove’s funeral group’s website (refer to

Figure 3.11).

Figure 3.11: Dove’s funeral group home page

Source: http://www.doves.co.za

The home page of the Dove’s funeral group provides information on the

services it offers, such as funerals and cremations. The home page also

includes a link to the mission and vision of the funeral group. Additional links

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 are provided to the company’s profile, as well as a downloadable catalogue of a

selection of caskets.

These links are all created to disseminate as much information as possible on

the business and its offerings.

• Create an image: Many websites are designed to portray the image of a

company. Traditional branding and image-creating strategies are in this

instance adapted to the Internet medium. Figure 3.12 presents an example of

Jenny le Roux Funerals Services’ website.

Figure 3.12: Jenny le Roux Funeral Services’ home page

Source: http://www.jennyleroux.com/

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 This home page is an example of a small-to-medium enterprise that utilises the

Web to create a specific image of the business, as well as creating a strong

brand identity with the user (this will be discussed in the next communication

objective). The business is named after the owner, Jenny le Roux; and this

results in the owner representing the biggest brand ambassador of the

business. This factor is emphasised by the placement of a picture of the

owner of the funeral home on the home page of the website.

• Create a strong brand: The Internet, as part of the IMC program, can be a

useful tool for branding. Supplementing conventional communication channels

with Internet-driven tools, such as a website, can reflect a reasonable cost

saving in the overall marketing budget (Lovelock & Wirtz, 2011:199).

However, the Web-based communications must form part of an integrated,

well-designed communications strategy, in order to reflect a positive Return On

Investment (ROI).

• Stimulate trial: Websites can be an effective tool for companies to stimulate

trials of their offerings. An example of a stimulated trial is the option to

download electronic samples of music and books from the Amazon.com

website (refer to Figure 3.13).

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 Figure 3.13: An example of a free book trial offered by Amazon.com
Source: http://www.amazon.com

Amazon.com offers sample downloads of e-books in their Kindle section,

where the user can first download selected pages (pre-compiled by

Amazon.com) from a book directly to their e-readers. This provides an

additional browsing opportunity for the user, thus offering a trial read, in order

to assist in the decision-making process of whether to purchase the book, or

not.

• Create a buzz: The viral nature of social networking (discussed in Section

3.3.2) creates attractive opportunities for marketers to create awareness of the

company’s offerings.

Chaffey and Ellis-Chadwick (2012:578) note that it is important for organisations to

ensure the continuous improvement of their websites. If a website remains static,

the opportunity for the users to engage with the organisation’s brand decreases

dramatically. In addition, Ryan and Jones (2012:37) state that a website is not just

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an online brochure designed to inform the user about the organisation and its

offerings. A website is primarily a “conversation engine” designed to generate

traffic through all of the organisation’s digital-marketing endeavours.

In order to achieve the set objectives of a website, the organisation has to

carefully plan its website, in conjunction with the target objectives (Ryan & Jones,

2012:38). Section 3.3.2.1.2 provides a brief overview on the design of websites.

3.3.2.1.2 Website design

There is no consensus in the literature consulted on website design and the

evaluation standards of an effective website. Most of the authors that address the

topic have their own opinions on what an effective website should be (Keller,

2008; Persuad, Madill & Rubaj, 2009; Landa, 2010; Udo, Bagchi & Kirs, 2010;

Simmons, Armstrong & Durkin, 2011; Vu, Zu & Proctor, 2011; Kulkarni,

Rajeshwarkar & Dixit, 2012; Shelly & Campbell, 2012, and Sterin, 2012).

Keller (2008:249), for instance, states that websites require creative, dynamic

pages that can sustain users’ interest, employ the latest technology, and

effectively communicate the corporate message. According to Keller, it is

important for the users “to feel as if they have just entered a new, cohesive world,

requiring that different pages and content areas within a site have consistent

design elements, colours, and placement”.

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Landa (2010:232-233), on the other hand, lists nine elements of website design

where it is stated that “most content should be brought to the immediate attention

of the visitor; however, it is acceptable to allow some content to be “found” (sic!).

Udo, Bagchi and Kirs (2010:489) note that care must be taken to develop

websites that “can be easily navigated; incorporating accessibility and universal

usability, design principles, and contain simple and readily understood

instructions”.

Shelly and Campbell (2012:46-49) list “balance and proximity, contrast and focus,

as well as unity and visual identity” as measures for effective website design.

Selim (2011:4-5), who has conducted extensive secondary and empirical research

on the evaluation of websites, states three reasons for the diverse opinions on

website analysis in the literature:

• Firstly, several studies have developed evaluation criteria applicable to

specific types of websites only. For instance, criteria are developed to

evaluate a website that is dedicated to English education only;

• Secondly, most studies have developed guidelines, rather than a complete

set of criteria; and

• Thirdly, most of the developed sets of criteria are not empirically validated.

Selim, subsequently, developed a comprehensive set of criteria, which not only

validate a website, but can also be used by website organisations to evaluate the

reliability and usability of their websites. The variables of Selim’s model of

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evaluation criteria, which is used partially for the data-collection method of this

study, will be discussed in Chapter 4.

3.3 INTEGRATED NEW MEDIA COMMUNICATIONS

Keller (2008:149) states that the main advantages for marketers to use Web-

based marketing strategies are the low costs involved in creating and maintaining

a website, and the level of detail and degree of customisation that it enables. By

capitalising on the Web’s interactive nature, marketers can construct websites that

allow users to choose to access the product or service information relevant to the

user’s needs or desires.

Through the creation of online information sources, such as websites, marketers

could, furthermore, deliver updated and reliable sources of information on the

company’s offerings to users.

Cannon (2001:28-42), however, cautions that from an IMC perspective, the

successful integration of both traditional media and new media remains a problem

for marketers. Media plans, according to Cannon, never focus on a single

medium, but the issue of integration has been exaggerated with the increase in

the number of available media alternatives, and in particular, the development of

Internet-based media vehicles. Cannon compiled a matrix of the integrated

traditional and new media environment (reproduced in its entirety in Figure 3.14).

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Figure 3.14: Cannon’s integrated matrix
Source: Cannon, 2001:30.

Although compiled in 2001, the matrix remains relevant in its application of the

integrated marketing tools. In Cannon’s matrix, the environment is defined by the

consumers’ need for information, and the consumers’ capacity to process the

information. The matrix is further defined by the level of involvement between the

consumer and the media vehicles. Cannon’s matrix serves as an indication of the

importance of integrating new, as well as traditional media vehicles, into the

strategic planning of an IMC program.

In conclusion: Baines, Fill and Page (2011:657) state that the evolution in digital

technologies has resulted in an evolution in the focus of digital marketing

activities. The evolutionary process is a reflection on how digital technologies

have changed – not only the manner in which consumers use and interact with

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digital technologies – but also the role of markets and marketing within the digital

marketing discipline.

3.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY

An IMC strategy is one of the most important planning and execution tools a

marketer can use to effectively communicate with the company’s targeted

audiences. The primary focus of this chapter was to provide an overview of the

implementation of digital marketing communications – to create an effective IMC

strategy.

Digital marketing encompasses a number of activities, and these activities are

increasingly changing as digital resources develop and evolve in both functionality

and marketing applicability (Baines, Fill & Page, 2011:658).

An overview of the traditional media vehicles, which can be used by a marketer to

communicate with a targeted audience, has been discussed in this chapter. The

discussion was followed by an overview of the development of the Internet and

Web-based communications. This was discussed in the light of the advanced

communication options these media vehicles offer the marketer to communicate

effectively with the target market.

One of the key Internet media vehicles that allow opportunities for two-way,

interactive communications between a company and its targeted audience is the

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development of company websites. The different types and designs of websites

have already been discussed in this chapter.

The chapter concluded with an integrated matrix of traditional and new marketing

communications media. The matrix was included, as it illustrates the validity of the

inclusion of digital-marketing strategies in the IMC construct.

Chapter 4 will discuss the methodology of this study. It will follow a seven-step

process of conducting the content-analysis process, as it applies to this study.

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 CHAPTER 4

THE RESEARCH METHOD

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The preceding two chapters provided a literature overview of the aspects

pertaining to this study. This chapter describes the methodology of the study.

Firstly, a brief overview of the nature and the role of marketing research are

provided. The exposition of the research process commences with a discussion of

the theory and conceptualisation of the study. This is followed by the theoretical

background to the units of analysis and the sampling process. The coding

process, the code book and the coding form are explained in relation to the study.

The chapter concludes with a description of the data-analysis process, including

the reliability and validity factors that might have an influence on the results of the

research conducted.

4.2 THE NATURE AND ROLE OF MARKETING RESEARCH: AN OVERVIEW

Marketing research is defined as research that is being undertaken by an

organisation, when it is already marketing its products and services (Bickerton,

Bickerton & Pardesi, 2012:38-39). It is used to provide feedback from the market,

in order for management to formulate the most effective marketing strategies to

counter the effects of competitive actions.

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Marketing research, therefore, concerns inquiry into the marketing practices of an

organisation. Tustin et al. (2005:6) describe marketing research as the function

within the organisation that links the consumer, the customer, and the public to the

marketer through information used to identify and define marketing opportunities

and problems. The marketer uses the information to generate, refine, and

evaluate marketing actions, to monitor marketing performances, and to improve

the understanding of marketing as a process.

The process of marketing research incorporates all the different aspects

considered when satisfying consumer needs (Bradley, 2010:4). It, therefore,

embraces all activities that lead to meeting consumer requirements, such as to

match supply with demand.

It is important to understand what marketing research can deliver to the marketing

output of an organisation. Malhotra, David and Wills (2012:26-27) state that the

marketing research industry has great opportunities to add value to research, as

researchers can offer advice and insight on the opportunities and threats

experienced by the company. Input from research results can, therefore, assist

decision-makers within the company to improve the “stature” of the company, and

ultimately enhance profitability.

In order to achieve the desired outcomes of a marketing-research project, Wiid

and Diggines (2013:3) identify three types of marketing research, namely:

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 • Descriptive research, which describes a current situation regarding the

consumer, industry and environment, and the impact it has on the

organisation;

• Diagnostic research, which diagnoses the effects of a certain event in a

given situation; and

• Predictive research, which is used to predict or forecast the outcomes of

any new strategies being developed by an organisation.

In addition to the foregoing, Kotler and Armstrong (2010:129) state that, in order to

achieve maximum input from marketing research conducted, the marketing

manager and the researcher must work closely together, in order to define the

problem or opportunity that needs to be researched. Once a marketing problem or

opportunity has been defined, the next step in the marketing-research process

would be to define the objectives of the research project.

Both the definition of the problem or opportunity, and the definition of the research

objectives are fundamentally important steps in any research process, as these

two factors guide the remainder of the research project (Kotler & Armstrong,

2010:130; Wiid & Diggines, 2013:48).

Marketing research and academic research follow the same methodological

processes in the conducting of the research projects. This is in accordance with

several authors who have produced literature on the methodological constructs of

academic research projects (Babbie & Mouton, 2001; Mouton, 2001; Bak, 2004;

Hofstee, 2006; Fox & Bayat, 2007; Du Plooy, 2009; Bryman, 2012).

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Taking into account that this study is conducted for academic purposes, the

remainder of this chapter will focus on the methodological process as it is applied

to this study.

4.3 THE METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH OF THIS STUDY

Technology is transforming research dramatically. Internet-based tools, such as

web-surveys, interactive and social Web 2.0 tools, and mobile applications are

remoulding the way in which the data are collected for research. Yet, despite the

explosion of new research tools and concepts, established research practices,

such as hypothesis testing, construct definition, reliability and validity, sampling,

and data analysis remain essential to evaluating the uses and value of new data-

collection processes (Hair et al., 2010:4).

Although this study is seated in the digital marketing discipline, it still adheres to

the established research practices, as discussed in this chapter.

The terminology “research design” and “research methodology” are often

confused by researchers. A research design is a blueprint for how the researcher

intends to conduct the research, whilst research methodology focuses on the

research process and the type of tools and procedures that would be used in the

process (Mouton, 2001:55-56).

Research designs can be quantitative or qualitative, or a combination of both,

depending on the requirements of the research project (Wiid & Diggines,

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2013:59). Various methods can be used when conducting research. Secondary,

experimental, survey, and observation research methods are identified as

applicable to quantitative research (Tustin et al., 2005:116-117; Cant & van

Heerden, 2010:129-131; Holtzhausen, 2010:156; Kotler & Armstrong, 2010:131-

137; Arens, Weigold & Arens, 2011:242-243; Wiid & Diggines, 2013:73-84, 109-

147).

Anderson (2006) summarises the core differences between quantitative and

qualitative research as listed in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1: Anderson’s summary of the differences between quantitative and

qualitative research

Quantitative
Objective
Generates rich, detailed and valid data that
contribute to in-depth understanding of the
context.
Refers to counts and measures of things.
Aims at in-depth description.
Involves a continual interplay between theory
and analysis. In analysing qualitative data, it
seeks to discover patterns, such as changes
over time, or possible causal links between
variables.
Qualitative
Subjective
Generates reliable population based and
generaliseable data.
Refers to the meanings, concepts, definitions,
characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and
descriptions of things.
Measures what it assumes to be a static reality
in the hope of developing universal laws.
Exploration of what is assumed to be a dynamic
reality. It does not claim that what is discovered
in the process is universal, and thus, replicable.

A research project can consist of one of, or a combination of, three types of

research designs, namely: exploratory, descriptive and causal research (Babbie &

Mouton, 2001:79-84; Tustin et al., 2005:82-87; Kotler & Armstrong, 2010:130;

Wiid & Diggines, 2013:49). Table 4.2 summarises the different types of

quantitative research designs, research methods, and the applicable methods of

data-collection pertaining to the social science research methods, to which this

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research project relates (Babbie & Mouton, 2001: Chapter 4; Tustin et al., 2005:
Chapters 6,7,8,10 & 11; Du Plooy, 2009:Units 1 & 2; Wiid & Diggines, 2013:
Chapters 5,6 & 7):
Table 4.2: The different types of quantitative research designs, methods, and
methods of data collection applicable to the social sciences
Research Research Description
Design Method
Exploratory Secondary The process of analysing data
that have been previously
collected either by the
organisation itself, or by
another organisation, or
research institute, that relates
to the marketing problem or
opportunity.
Causal Experimental Used to determine the
influence of an independent
variable on a dependent
variable.
Descriptive Survey The most widely used method
for primary data collection.
Information is gathered by
communicating with a
representative sample of
people.
Descriptive Observational The systematic process of
recording the behavioural
patterns of people, objects,
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Research techniques
• Internal data:
Generated in the daily
transactional processes of the
organisation
• External data:
Collected from sources
outside the organisation such
as research reports,
government publications, and
a variety of reports
• Databases:
A collection of interrelated
data that are arranged and
stored in a logical order for
future use.
• Online computer data:
Some of the techniques
developed to collect
secondary data electronically
include:
 Web addresses
 Subject directories
 Search engines
 Newsgroups
 Browsing
 Virtual reference libraries
Laboratory and field
experiments.
Data is obtained through the
conduct of:
• personal interviews
• telephonic interviews
• mail surveys
• web-based surveys.
• Observation of people
• Observation of physical
traces or otherwise known
 and occurrences without
questioning or otherwise
communicating with them.
as trace analysis
• Observations of records
and inventories
• Observation of contents,
also known as content
analysis.

4.3.1 Levels of measurement

The scales of measurement of any study will ultimately dictate the statistical

procedures than can be used for processing the data. Measurement levels fall

into one of four categories, namely: nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio (Krippendorff,

2013:287-292; Leedy & Ormrod, 2013:84). The four levels (scales) of

measurement are summarised in Table 4.3 (Leedy & Ormrod, 2013:87).

Table 4.3: A summary of measurement scales

Measurement Characteristic Statistical possibilities

Non-Interval Nominal Measures data only in
Scales terms or names,
designations of discrete
units, or categories.
Ordinal Measures data in terms of
such values as “more” or
“less”, but without
specifying the size of the
intervals.
Interval Scales Interval Measures data in terms of
equal intervals or degrees
of difference, but with an
arbitrarily established zero
point that does not
represent “nothing” nor
“something”.
Ratio Measures data in terms of
equal intervals and from
an absolute zero point.
Enables the determination
of the mode, percentage
values, or chi-square.
Enables the researcher to
determine the median,
percentile rank, and
correlation rank.
Allows the conduct of most
inferential statistical
analysis.
Allows for the conduct of
virtually any inferential
statistical analysis.

The data of this study were analysed by using a nominal scale, as it measures the

data in terms of “designations of discrete units” (variables). The data are

presented in percentages. The methodology of this study did not require the

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interviewing of people. It is, therefore, built on a quantitative, descriptive,

observational content analysis.

4.3.2 Descriptive research design

A major purpose of many social scientific studies is to describe situations or

events (Babbie & Mouton, 2001:80). The researcher thus observes and then

describes what is being observed. By using descriptive research methods, the

researcher is attempting to understand the way things are (Welman, Kruger &

Mitchell, 2005:23). In contrast with, for instance, exploratory research, which is

characterised by flexibility, descriptive studies comprise an attempt to provide a

complete and accurate description of a situation (Babbie & Mouton, 2001:81;

Struwig & Stead, 2001:8).

Fox and Bayat (2007:8) further explain that if a solution to a problem is not to be

found in either the past or the future, a researcher would make use of descriptive

research to clarify current issues or problems through a data-collection process

that allows the researcher to describe a situation more completely. The authors

state that the descriptive method is suitable for situations where researchers

believe that information does not exist for solving the problem.

To date, desk research conducted did not find any information regarding the

evaluation of websites of funeral homes. The descriptive research design is,

therefore, considered suitable for this study. This involves a descriptive,

observational research design (refer to Table 4.2) to collect data for the purpose of

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solving the research problem (this will be discussed in more detail in Section

4.4.1.1 of this chapter).

4.3.2.1 The observational research method

Observation is defined as a method of primary data collection that avoids relying

on co-operation (Bradley, 2010:129). It involves seeing, tracking, or sensing

behaviour or actions in some way. The data-collection methods for observational

research are usually more reliable than asking for data (Waters, 2008:79). Tustin

et al. (2005:266) explain that instead of asking people questions by using paper-

based interviewer-administered or self-administered questionnaires, observational

methods of data collection rely on the observation skills of the observer, rather

than on communication to collect the information.

One of the major advantages of observation research relates to the fact that the

process does not rely on a respondent’s willingness and ability to answer

questions. Observation does not affect the respondent’s activities because it is

less intrusive in comparison to the effects an intrusive survey might have on a

respondent’s activities (Wiid & Diggines, 2013:133).

Research projects that use observational techniques witness (observe) and record

information, as it happens (Tustin et al., 2005:266). In order for observation to be

conducive to primary-data collection, three conditions must be met (Tustin et al.,

2005:267):

• The data must be accessible for observation;

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 • The behaviour must be repetitive, frequent or predictable;

• An event must cover a relatively short time span.

Observation, as a method of collecting primary information, is considered a very

useful tool in marketing research; and it is of particular use in advertising and

media research. In some instances, it is considered an essential ingredient in

marketing research (Tustin et al., 2005:286-287; Bradley, 2010:129-130).

In this study, the websites of the funeral homes are observed; and the specified

content elements of the websites were recorded, quantified, and described.

4.3.3 Quantitative content analysis

Content analysis, as a research technique, is a product of the electronic age.

Although content analysis was regularly performed in the 1940s, it became a more

credible and frequently used research method since the 1950s, when researchers

started to focus on concepts rather than simply on words, and on semantic

relationships rather than just the presence of variables in the content analysed

(Palmquist, S.a.).

Krippendorff (2013:83) states that traditional guides to research methods tend to

insist that all scientific research must test hypotheses, to determine whether or not

patterns are evident in the data. A content analysis addresses the prior questions

concerning why available texts came into being, what they mean to whom, and

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whether these texts enable the analyst to select valid answers to questions

concerning their contexts.

This constitutes the logic of content analysis designs, and is justifiable – not only

according to the accepted standards of scientific data processing, but also by

reference to the context in which the text must be analysed.

The epistemological foundations of content analysis as a research method, its

quantitative structure, and the application of content analysis to website analysis

will be discussed in the next sections.

4.3.3.1 Epistemological foundations of content analysis

Content analysis was originally designed to assist researchers to distinguish

patterns, themes and repetition within, and across, numerous text documents

(Muehlenhaus, 2011:8). It has since evolved into an established research method

for analysing other formats of texts, such as media images, and in the case of this

study, websites.

Berelson (as quoted by Krippendorff [2013:25]) formulated one of the earlier

definitions of content analysis as “a research technique for the objective,

systematic, and quantitative description of [the] manifest content of

communications”. Shapiro and Markoff (as quoted by Krippendorff, 2013:26)

equate content analysis with scientific measurement, as well as “any systematic

reduction of text (or other symbols) to a standard set of statistically manipulable

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symbols representing the presence, the intensity, or the frequency of some

characteristics relevant to social science”.

Krippendorff (2013:24), one of the modern-day advocates of content analysis,

redefines it as a “research technique for making replicable and valid inferences

from texts (or other meaningful matters) to the contexts of their usage”.

Kolbe and Burnett (1991:244) state that content analysis allows for an unobtrusive

appraisal of various communications. It, furthermore, allows the researcher to

assess the effects of environmental variables and source the characteristics of

message content. Content analysis, in addition, also provides an empirical

starting point for generating new research evidence about the nature and effect of

specific communications, as is attempted with this research project, by analysing

the ease-of-use perspective of the websites of the selected funeral homes.

Since content analysis can be applied to examine any piece of writing or

occurrence of recorded communication, it is used in a large number of

communication research disciplines, including marketing and its media-related

fields, such as digital communications (Palmquist, S.a). Furthermore, due to its

unobtrusive techniques, content analysis allows researchers to analyse

unstructured data, since the meaning, symbolic qualities, and the expressive

contents thereof – can be ascertained – from the perspective of the

communicative roles these variables play in the reality of the data’s sources

(Krippendorff, 2013:49).

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4.3.3.2 The role of theory in quantitative content analysis

Formal theory is evident when scholars directly address “a set of interrelated

concepts, definitions, and propositions that present a systematic view of

phenomena by specifying relations among the variables with the purpose of

explaining and predicting the phenomenon” (Potter & Levine-Donnerstein,

1999:262). Summarised in Table 4.4, are the content-analysis theoretical design

options, as presented by Potter and Levine-Donnerstein (1999:261-273).

Table 4.4: Potter and Levine-Donnerstein’s theoretical design options for

content analysis

Type of content to be coded

Manifest Content Latent Pattern Projective Content
Content
Definition Content that is on the Pattern of content Receiver’s
surface and easily interpretation of
observable content cued to
schema
• Frame of reference
and accumulated
knowledgebase.
Role of theory Not relevant Basis for deductive • Deduction of codes
• Relatively simple coding scheme from weak theory
design task • Induction from
• Coders need very results to stronger
little training to be theory
capable of
performing well
• Inductive
Task of coders Coding by coders Recognising patterns Constructing
interpretations
Validity Accuracy. Accuracy Creation of strong
norm
• Validity coding Binary rules based on Pattern recognition Personal interpretation
scheme definitions implied in pattern
recognition
• Validity standard Objective criterion Criterion set by expert Intersubjective norm
set by coders
Reliability Consistency with Consistency with Intersubjectivity
standard standard among coders
• Threats to Coder fatigue Inconsistent Side range of coder
reliability application of rules interpretation

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This study is designed from the inductive, manifest content perspective. The

content analysed for this study is visible on the websites (surface) of the funeral

homes, and is easily observable – if the variable is present on the website. The

coders for this study needed very little training. The variables that are to be

observed are clearly described in a code book. The coders only have to confirm

the presence or absence of the variables on the code form.

4.3.3.3 Applications of content analysis

The process of content analysis is described as “a detailed and systematic

examination of the contents of a particular body of material for the purpose of

identifying patterns, themes, or biases” (Leedy & Ormrod, 2013:148). This relates

to the fact that content analysis is typically performed on forms of human

communication, including all traditional and digital-media communication vehicles.

Content analysis is a systematic process (Holtzhausen, 2010:162). Wiese and

Jordaan (2012:37) note that the content analysis process codes data and provides

empirical evidence, from which the conclusions can be drawn. Content analysis is

often a preferred method of data collection, as reliability and validity tests can be

conducted and analysed with the appropriate software (Cooper & Schindler, as

quoted by Wiese & Jordaan, 2012:37).

Franzosi (2008:xxiv) notes that one of the main concerns of content analysis’

methodology is its reliability and validity. However, the technique has been widely

applied in both quantitative and qualitative methodologies over a number of

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disciplines, such as psychology, psychoanalysis, education, political science,

sociology, media, advertising, communication, and marketing (Franzosi, 2008:xl;

Muehlenhaus, 2011:8; Leedy & Ormrod, 2013:148). This reaffirms its applicability

to this study.

Neuendorf (2002:14-15) contextualises the quantitative content-analysis method

by stating that the goal of a quantitative content analysis is to produce counts of

key categories, and measurements of the amounts of other variables. In either

case, the process remains a numerical process. The goal of a quantitative content

analysis, therefore, is “a numerically based summary of a chosen message or

message set”.

According to Kolbe and Burnett (1991:243), content analysis as an observational

research method that is used to “systematically evaluate the content of all forms of

recorded communications”. This study is based on the content observation of

websites of selected funeral homes, together with the subsequent description of

what is being observed. Bradley (2010:130) acknowledges the process of visiting

a website, and analysing the contents of the website, as a form of observation.

The observation process is formalised by making notes of website features, such

as the use of colour, and impact.

Malhotra, David and Wills (2012:307) further state that the primary objective of

content analysis is to reduce the data by summarising and structuring the data,

according to rules derived from existing theory. The “existing theory” applied to

this study refers to the Technology-Acceptance Model (TAM), which tests the

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ease-of-use of websites, its perceived usefulness, and the consumer’s intention to

use a website. (Refer to Chapter 1, Figure 1.1, and Chapter 5, Section 5.2 (Figure

5.1) for a detailed discussion of the application of the objectives of this study in

relation to the TAM).

Based on the existing premise of the TAM, the observation of variables in this

study, relates to the accessibility and visibility, navigability, contactability,

interactivity, and privacy and security of the selected websites (discussed in more

detail in Section 4.4.4.1). A coding form is drafted for the purpose of recording the

data (refer to Section 4.4.4.2). In appearance, the coding form is similar to that of

a questionnaire; but it is designed for the observer to capture the information

observed (Bradley, 2010:130).

From a marketing-research perspective, the application of the quantitative content

analysis involves the observation and analysis of the content or messages of

advertisements, newspaper articles, television and radio programmes, and in the

case of this study, the analysis of the selected websites (Malhotra, David & Wills,

2012:307).

This study analyses the content of selected websites. The quantitative content

analysis method is, therefore, considered to be appropriate for this study.

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4.3.3.4 Website content analysis

According to Hern (2009:44), content describes the information provided on a

website. Content on a website should be engaging, relevant, and appropriate to

the audience. It must be created for the Web in a clear and concise format, and it

must work well in the medium.

Website content analysis research is still in its infancy. Simmons, Armstrong and

Durkin (2011:535) note that, despite existing literature, there have been calls for a

closer association between Internet-adoption research and adoption outcomes

related to business processes and growth. The role of marketing also still has to

be adequately positioned and explained in relation to Internet adoption. This issue

is also addressed in Section 4.4.1 of this chapter.

4.4 THE CONTENT ANALYSIS RESEARCH PROCESS AS APPLIED TO THIS

STUDY

Holtzhausen (2010:165-189) proposes a seven-step, structured research process

for conducting content analysis. Depicted in Figure 4.2 is an outline of

Holtzhausen’s content analysis research process. The process is applied, as it is,

to this study.

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 Step 1
•Theory and conceptualisation

Step 2
•Units of analysis

Step 3
•Sampling

Step 4
•Coding

Step 5
•Pilot study

Step 6
•Final coding

Step 7
•Data analysis and reporting

Figure 4.1: The seven-step research process applied to this study

4.4.1 Step 1: Theory and conceptualisation

A content analyst should consult both scholarly literature and commercial

research, as these “non-theoretical investigations” provide the basis from which to

study the variables (Neuendorf, 2002:95). The consultation of literature pertaining

to a topic is generally referred to as a literature review. A literature review serves

as a “systematic, explicit and reproducible method for identifying, evaluating, and

synthesising an existing body of completed and recorded work produced by

researchers, scholars, and practitioners” (Fink, 2005:3).

Conclusions from a literature review are, therefore, based on the original work of

scholars and researchers. A theoretical background to this study was compiled in

Chapters 2 and 3, based on the existing scholarly and commercial literature. Both

139
printed and electronic sources were consulted in the compilation of the literature

review.

From the literature review conducted, the following shortcomings were

encountered, which serve to authenticate the feasibility of the study:

• There is only a limited amount of literature available on the funeral industry

in South Africa;

• Although information on services marketing and the promotional aspects of

Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC) are plenary, none of it has been

researched in relation to the application thereof to the funeral industry from

a worldwide perspective. Only one study has been encountered where the

development of a website for a funeral home has been investigated

(Waters, 2009);

• There are numerous scholarly articles and publications investigating

effective website design and evaluation criteria, yet almost none of these

articles agree on what exactly should be identified as effective website

evaluation criteria. Selim (2011:5) concludes that the lack of a definitive

website for evaluation criteria could be ascribed to the fact that such

evaluation criteria are either developed for a specific industry, or that the

researchers developed their own criteria for evaluation. A comprehensive

set of criteria was developed by Selim, which can be used to evaluate

websites. The evaluation criteria for this study were extracted from Selim’s

proposed set of website evaluation criteria. They are discussed in Section

4.4.4.1.

140
4.4.1.1 The objectives of the study

The primary objective of the study is to evaluate the websites of members of the

National Funeral Directors Association (NFDA) of South Africa from an ease-of-

use perspective. The literature review, therefore, focused on the relevant, existing

literature pertaining to the objective.

The criteria extracted from the study conducted by Selim were divided into subsets

of criteria for the purpose of this study. The subdivision was done, according to

the variables listed in the literature pertaining to the effectiveness of a website.

When evaluating the effectiveness of a website several authors list accessibility,

usability and searchability as the most important contributing aspects to the

success of a website (Stokes, 2011:88; Chaffey & Ellis-Chadwick, 2012:386-389;

Ryan & Jones, 2012:40-41; Odom & Habermann, 2013:212):

• Accessibility refers to the barriers, which might prevent users from

accessing a website;

• Usability essentially refers to the design element of the website intended to

enable users to complete any tasks on the website with ease; and

• Searchability is how easily the website can be found by using a search

engine on the Internet.

An additional set of criteria was added to the foregoing, namely: “privacy and

security of the user”. In a study conducted by Nepomuceno et al. (2012:182-183),

it was found that consumers’ perception of online risk is increased when two

negatively loaded pieces of information, such as the intangibility of a product or

141
service and privacy concerns, are processed simultaneously. These concerns

generate an increase in risk for the consumer, thereby indicating that an online

product or service, which is hard to describe, is also perceived by the consumer as

riskier.

The secondary objectives listed below were identified, in accordance with the

information gathered from the existing literature stated above:

• To determine the accessibility and visibility of each website;

• To assess the ease-of-use of each of the websites in terms of:

o the contact information provided on the website;

o the interactivity of the website;

o the ease of navigability of the website;

• To determine whether the websites include the necessary privacy and

security measures.

The variables of importance relating to the objectives included:

• The existence of the website being made known through a basic Google

Chrome search;

o The reason for using Google Chrome as the default search engine is

because it has become the most used and most stable search

engine across the globe (Soames, 2012; Ebizmba.com, 2013).

• Accessibility to the website from the Google Chrome search engine results

page (SERP);

• Navigation on the website, in order to gain information on the funeral home

and its service-providers;

142
 • The contact and location information of the funeral home; and

• Whether online security measures are present on the website to protect the

users’ information.

The category descriptions of each of the variables are detailed in the code book,

which will be used in conjunction with the coding forms (refer to Annexures B & C).

4.4.2 Step 2: Units of analysis

Neuendorf (2002:13) distinguishes between units of data collection (units of

observation) and units of analysis. The units of data collection are the elements

on which each variable is measured. Units of analysis are the elements on which

data are analysed – the latter being the units for which the findings are reported.

The units of observation required for this study are contained within the active

websites of the selected funeral homes. At an early point in a content analysis

study, the data collected need to be broken down into units for: sampling,

collecting, analysis and reporting (Neuendorf, 2002:71-72; White & Marsh,

2006:29). This process is also referred to in content analysis as “unitising” (White

& Marsh, 2006:29; Krippendorff, 2013:84,98).

Although Krippendorff (2013:99-104) assigns different terminology to unitising, the

application of unitising in content analysis is in agreement between the authors

cited. Figure 4.2 provides a graphical overview of the unitising process applied to

this study.

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 Population Sampling units Data collection Units of analysis
units

•Funeral •Members of •Members of •Accessibility

homes in the NFDA of the NFDA of •Navigability
South Africa SA SA that has •Contactability
dedicated
•Interactivity
websites
•Privacy &
Security

Figure 4.2: The unitising process of the study

4.4.2.1 Sampling units

Sampling units are “units that are distinguished for selective inclusion in an

analysis” (Krippendorff, 2013:99). They, therefore, serve to identify the population

and establish the basis for sampling (White & Marsh, 2006:29). The population of

this study includes all the funeral homes in South Africa. The sampling unit of this

study is the members of the NFDA of SA.

4.4.2.2 Data-collection units

Data-collection units are the units that are used for measuring variables (White &

Marsh, 2006:29). Data-collection units are contained within sampling units. The

data-collection units are identified, need to be separately described or categorised

from the sampling units (Krippendorff, 2013:100). Sampling units are often too

rich or too complex to be described reliably. It is for this reason that it is advisable

for the analyst to select data collection units that are significantly smaller than the

144
sampling units (Krippendorff, 2013:101). The data collection units of this study are

the websites of members of the NFDA that have dedicated websites.

4.4.2.3 Units of analysis

The units of analysis are the basis for reporting the analyses (White & Marsh,

2006:29). According to Scheaffer et al. (2012:38), this step involves the detailed

specification of which analyses are to be performed. It may also list the topics that

are to be included in the final research report.

The units of analysis of this study consist of the variables that are being

investigated. Bryman and Cramer (2009:17) note that every quantitative

researcher is concerned with exploring variation in observed values among units

of analysis. All quantitative techniques, from the most basic methods to the most

advanced, are concerned with capturing and understanding, variations. Variables

are, therefore, intended to be measures or indicators that are designed to quantify

concepts.

The units of analysis relating to this study are outlined in the code book and the

corresponding coding forms, as described in Section 4.4.4.1.

4.4.3 Step 3: Sampling

Daniel (2012:1) defines sampling as “the selection of a subset of a population for

inclusion in a study”. For sampling to be effective, rather than just efficient, it

145
requires informed knowledge of the characteristics of each data source. The

same statistical sampling rules applied in survey research would ensure the

statistical relationship between the population and sampled coded data in content

analysis (Franzosi, 2009:556). Sampling is therefore advisable for a content

analysis study, since it can be an expensive, labour-intensive methodology.

4.4.3.1 Sampling population

According to Du Plooy (2009:108), the term “population” is not only assigned to

people, but can also be defined as any group or aggregate of individuals, groups,

organisations, social objects, such as mass media messages, or social

interactions and events. As mentioned previously, the population of this study

comprises the funeral homes in South Africa. Figure 4.3 summarises the

sampling delimitation of this study.

Sampling population Sample frame Sampling method

•Funeral homes in •Members of the NFDA of •Census

South Africa SA with dedicated websites

Figure 4.3: The sample delimitation of the study

4.4.3.2 Sample frame

A sampling frame is a list used to define a researcher's population of interest

(Currivan, 2012). The sampling frame defines a set of elements from which a

researcher can select a sample of the target population. Bradley (2010:154)

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simplifies the definition of a sample frame by stating that a sample frame should

mirror the population of interest in a summarised form.

The sample frame of this study is the members of the NFDA. The NFDA was

selected for this study since its member registry represents funeral homes from

across South Africa, and not only a particular component of the country’s

population (refer to Chapter 2, Section 2.1.1), therefore “mirroring the population

of interest in summary form” (refer to Bradley, 2010:154 in the previous

paragraph).

4.4.3.3 Sampling methods

Different sampling methods are appropriate to different research topics.

Quantitative sampling methods can be classified as either probability sampling or

non-probability sampling (Du Plooy, 2009:115124; Bradley, 2010:160). The

difference between the two methods is described by Daniel (2012:66):

• Probability sampling is a procedure that gives every element in the target

population an equal (non-zero) probability of being selected as part of the

sample; whilst

• Non-probability sampling is a procedure that does not give any of the

elements in the population an equal probability to be selected for the

sample.

However, when all the units of the target population are investigated, it is referred

to as a census (Du Plooy, 2009:108; Daniel, 2012:23). In some instances, it can

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be difficult to collect the data, even if the researcher has a sampling frame. If the

population is small and the results are important, it is worth doing a census to

collect the data from every member of the population (Waters, 2008:73).

Based on the complete member list of the NFDA, members with dedicated

websites were identified. The selection can be argued from a population census

and a sampling-frame perspective. Only certain members of the NFDA have

dedicated websites (refer to Section 4.4.3.3.1). Thus, from both the population

and sampling frame perspectives, the units of analysis for this study constitute a

census. (Refer to Annexure D for the list of members of the NFDA with dedicated

websites.)

4.4.3.3.1 Selecting the sample

For the purpose of this study, Google Chrome was used as a search engine to

determine which of the members of the NFDA have dedicated websites. In order

to ensure the consistent use of technological applications in the study, Google

Chrome was also used as the default web browser when the data for the study

were collected. Thus, for both the pilot study and the final study it was required

that Google Chrome be used as the default browser. It is imperative that coders

use the same browser, because the interface might be displayed differently when

using different browsers (Neuendorf, 2002:137). Should this occur, it could

influence the coding of the variables.

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Several Internet searches were conducted to find members of the NFDA that have

dedicated websites. For instance, sources such as www.searchengine.co.za were

consulted, in addition to word searches on Google Chrome. Searchengine.co.za

is an online search site that minimises the search option to South Africa only.

However, if the funeral home is not registered on a website, such as

Searchengine.co.za, it will not reflect when a keyword search is conducted.

Word searches on Google Chrome using words such as “funeral homes”, “funeral

parlours”, and “funeral directors” listed a number of funeral home websites on the

Google Chrome SERP. The Google Chrome SERP, however, did not only reflect

members of the NFDA, but funeral homes from across the globe.

A more dedicated approach was subsequently taken to ensure that every member

of the NFDA that has a dedicated website was included in the sample. A Google

Chrome word search was, therefore, conducted by entering the name of each of

the funeral homes, as listed on the NFDA member directory. Only 20 members

out of the 191 (10%) members listed on the NFDA in South Africa have dedicated

websites.

Taking into account that this is a very small part of the funeral home population,

the members with websites were flagged, and each of these funeral homes with

dedicated websites were then used to collect the data for the purpose of this

study, thus conducting a census of the targeted population.

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4.4.4 Step 4: Coding

In quantitative content analysis, the coding process is determined a priori -

indicating that it is done before coding begins. The coding process involves

converting the content that is researched into a format that is suitable for analysis.

The recording of data takes place when observers, readers or analysts interpret

what is seen, read or found, and then relate their experiences in terms of an

analysis (White & Marsh, 2006:31; Du Plooy, 2009:17; Holtzhausen, 2010:175;

Muehlenhaus, 2011:13; Krippendorff, 2013:127-128).

Coding, also referred to as “rating”, is the term used by content analysts when the

process of recording is carried out in accordance with observer-independent rules.

The person(s) that conduct the recording, or coding process, are referred to as a

coder(s) (Krippendorff, 2013:127-128; Leedy & Ormrod, 2013:149).

Neuendorf (2002:52) distinguishes between computer coding and human coding:

• Computer coding involves the automated tabulation of variables of the

content analysed for the computer. This means that computer software

analyses the set of text, sets of key words, phrases or text-only markers.

• Human coding on the contrary, involves the use of people as coders, each

using a standard coding code book and corresponding coding form to read,

view, or otherwise code the content. The human coder then records his/her

objective observations, according to the list of predetermined variables.

This study employed human coders to record the variables.

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Muehlenhaus (2011:13) states that codes are strict definitions of what the

researcher will be investigating when conducting the data collection of the sample.

Coding in essence, is therefore the assignment of numerical values to responses

to each of the codes (Hair et al., 2010:238). The codes of this study refer to the

variables identified within the set of criteria discussed in Section 4.4.4.1, and listed

in the coding form, according to the code book.

The primary reason for assigning numerical codes to responses is because it is

quick and easy to capture the responses for statistical analysis (Hair et al.,

2010:238).

Two numerical values were assigned to the variables in this study. A numerical

value of 1 indicated a YES response, and a numerical value of 0 indicating a NO

response. Therefore, 1 indicates the presence of the variable on the website

evaluated, whilst 0 indicates the absence of the variable on the website evaluated.

This type of coding is the simplest form of coding; and it is referred to as dummy

coding (Davis, 2010:66-67). Dummy codes, according to Davis, have some

distinct advantages that cause to be widely practised in research despite the

availability of more advanced coding structures.

A particular benefit of the dummy code structure is that it works well with nominal,

homogeneous data, as applied in this study. Dummy coding, furthermore,

provides the researcher with an “ease of interpretation” of the data (Davis,

2010:68). The descriptive analytical method is used to analyse the data in this

study. The dummy method applied to the coding of the variables for this study

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therefore aligns with the simplified analysis of the data, resulting in an all-

encompassing “ease of interpretation” methodology (refer to Chapter 5 for the

interpretation of the data collected for this study). It was, therefore, considered to

be an appropriate method of coding for this study.

4.4.4.1 The code book

“The code book of a content analysis study serves as a record of the practical

implementation of the study” (Holtzhausen, 2010:177). It enables other

researchers to duplicate the research. For a content analysis study, an efficient

code book is developed to obtain clear, distinct descriptions of all the variables

under consideration.

In order to achieve the foregoing, the categories described in the code book must

be represented in the coding forms that the coders will be using to code the

variables.

When the categories for the content analysis study are designed, the analyst must

ensure that the categories are exhaustive, mutually exclusive, and at an

appropriate level of measurement (Neuendorf, 2002:118). White and Marsh

(2006:32) emphasise the importance of mutually exclusive categories for reliability

purposes of a content analysis study by stating that if all the relevant aspects of

the construct:

• Are represented;

• Are mutually exclusive;

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 • Measured at the highest possible scale;

• Have clear definitions;

• Easy to follow instructions; and

• Contain unambiguous examples,

Then the likelihood is that all the coders will code the same item in the same way

at different points in time.

A coding scheme should be developed deductively, based on the available code

books from previous quantitative content studies (Sjøvaag & Stavelin, 2012:9).

This is advisable, as previous coding schemes have already been validated

through use, and this enables comparisons with previous studies. The process of

compiling the code book for this study included the examination of existing code

books. Due to the lack of existing, definitive website evaluation criteria (as

discussed in Section 4.4.1), the variables for this study were extracted from a

study conducted by Selim (2011).

The primary focus of the study conducted by Selim was to establish criteria for

assessing Internet Business Models (IBMs). The study involved a detailed

literature review of the criteria used by previous studies to evaluate IBMs. Selim

(2011) proposed thirteen criteria with subsequent variables that could be used to

assess an organisation’s IBM effectively. The thirteen key variables of analysis,

as compiled by Selim, are listed below (refer to Annexure A for the full list of

criteria compiled by Selim pertaining to each key variable):

1. Accessibility and visibility

2. Accuracy and credibility
3. Authority

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 4. Coverage
5. Currency
6. Interactivity
7. Metadata/Bibliographical control
8. Navigability
9. Orientation/Objectivity
10. Privacy
11. Searchability
12. Security
13. Services

Taking into account that the aim of this study is not to assess the IBMs of the

participating funeral homes, but to assess the content of the websites from an

ease-of-use perspective, only criteria relevant to the objectives of this study were

extracted, namely:

• Accessibility and Visibility

• Navigability
• Interactivity
• Privacy
• Security

For the current study, navigability and interactivity were grouped together under

one criterion, namely ease-of-use. The purpose for the grouping of these criteria

relates to the core premise of the TAM. Perceived ease-of-use in the TAM is

defined as the degree to which a prospective user expects a lack of effort when

using technology.

An additional criterion, contactability was added to the ease-of-use criterion. The

motivation for this was based on the fact that the consumer, in a state of

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bereavement, must be able to find contact information for the funeral home when

accessing the funeral home’s website.

The third criterion combined privacy and security into one criterion. This was done

because the variables of these criteria all relate to the privacy and security

concerns of the user, when accessing the website of the funeral home.

The criteria used to collect the data for this study are in alignment with the

objectives of the study, as outlined in Section 4.4.1.1. The criteria will be

discussed in more detail next.

4.4.4.1.1 Accessibility and visibility

Accessibility is defined as the art of designing Websites that are accessible to

Internet users, regardless of the Internet browser that they are using (Selim,

2011:12). Stokes (2011: 88-89,91) states that search-engine traffic is vital to a

website. Without it, chances are that the site would never fulfil its marketing

functions. Accessibility, therefore, relates to barriers – which might prevent users

from accessing an organisation’s website. From the perspective of the user, the

SERP is the first connection with the organisation’s website after a key word

search has been conducted.

Minasyan (2012:35) explains that the Internet is transforming into “a sophisticated

search bar with a big search button”. Searching the Internet is a powerful and

intuitively simple mechanism for finding information online. Users search for

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products, online and offline services, media content, games, dating, and more.

Businesses, therefore, strive to attract these users with their products and services

with the intention of increasing their consumer base. It is within this process that

the search-engine results become fully operational.

Accessibility and navigability are represented by five variables. The first variable

was constructed to assess whether the existence of the website can be made

known through a word search on Google Chrome. The second variable assessed

whether the name of the funeral home is displayed, as it is typed in on the search

bar of the browser below the URL of the website on the SERP.

The next variable assessed whether the website can be accessed without any

restraints from the SERP by clicking on the name of the funeral home, as it is

displayed on the SERP. Restraints in this instance refer to forms that the user

would need to complete, in order to gain access to the website, and whether the

website needs plug-ins to operate at full functionality.

4.4.4.1.2 Ease-of-use of the website: navigability

Navigability evaluates how easily users may move around the website and find the

information that they require (Selim, 2011:14). Effective navigation offers easy

access to the breadth and depth of the website’s content. Websites should make

effective use of navigational visual devices, such as menus, icons, buttons, and

scroll bars, in order to help the user to navigate the web content. Users should

never feel lost when they are navigating within a website, and therefore, each

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webpage should be self-sufficient and provide links to and from the main contents

of the website (Selim, 2011:15).

Stokes (2011:99) proposes four basic evaluation questions for the design of

effective navigation on a website. If these questions can be answered

successfully by the user, the website has been successful in its navigation:

• Where am I? Here, the logo should tell the user what site they are on.

Menu changes and page titles tell a user where they are on the site.

• How did I get here? Navigation often indicates the general path a user

could have taken. In the case of site search, the keyword used should be

indicated on the SERP.

• Where can I go next? Navigation clues let a user know where to go to

next. This may be an action on an e-commerce site, like “add to cart”; or it

might be a contextual link indicating “click here to read more”. The key

element here is to make the options clear to the user.

• How do I get home? It’s become standard that the logo of the website

takes the user back to the home page; but many users still look in the main

menu for the word “home” to return to the front page of the website.

When a user accesses the website of the funeral home, it should be easy for the

user to move around on the website to find information. The information required

by the user might include a selection of coffins, floral arrangements, different types

of religious services, and the printing of memorial letters. In this study, variables

evaluated included the identification of, and the functionality of navigation links on

the website.

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4.4.4.1.3 Ease-of-use: contactability

Contactability is the degree to which the contact information of the funeral home is

presented on the website. According to Swanepoel and Bothma (2013:32), online

consumers should be allowed to choose their mode of response to any enquiry,

whether it is via phone, email or fax. It is, therefore, crucial for a funeral home to

provide detailed contact information on the website.

For instance, in a scenario where a loved one has just passed away, it is always

the relative’s first response to find someone to remove the remains of the

deceased. This aspect does not depend on office hours: the funeral home,

therefore, has to provide contact details that are available 24 hours per day.

By assuring the user that the organisation will respond to any enquiries received

via its website, the website owner is sending a message to the consumer that the

web is considered equally as important as the phone number, fax number, and/or

the name of a contact person (Swanepoel & Bothma, 2013:32). The contactability

criterion addresses the fact that a user must be able to contact the funeral home at

any time of day or night, as death does not occur only during office hours. It is,

therefore, imperative for the funeral home to provide comprehensive contact

details on its website.

Variables for this criterion included the identification of contact details on the

website, such as telephone numbers – whether it be Telkom landline numbers,

cell phone numbers, and/or toll free numbers, email addresses, and the physical

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address of the funeral home. Other criteria include the contact names and

surnames of funeral directors, interactive online maps, such as Google maps,

written directions and/or GPS co-ordinates to the funeral home’s premises, and an

online contact form, which the user can complete and send from the website if

additional information is required.

4.4.4.1.4 Ease-of-use: interactivity

Interactivity refers to the interaction between users and computers that occurs at

the interface of web sites. Specifically, interactivity allows users to control what

elements are to be delivered, and when they are to be delivered through the

interface. It should project the distinct feeling that the user is not reading a

magazine or watching television (Selim, 2011:14).

The interface is what the user sees and interacts with on the computer screen. It

is, therefore, the visual representation of all the work that goes into developing a

website. It is what the website will first be judged by; and it is the initial step in

creating a positive user experience (Stokes, 2011:97).

Chaffey and Ellis-Chadwick (2012:35-40) list interactivity as the first of six core

benefits of digital media. Digital interactivity relates to the following aspects:

• The customer initiates contact;

• The customer is seeking information;

• It is a high-intensity medium, where the marketer will have 100% of the

user’s attention, while s/he is viewing the website; and

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 • A company can gather and store the responses of different individuals.

The foregoing indicate that the user first of all needs to understand the language

used on a website, and that the text used on the website is clear of any bias or

possible offensive material – in order to create a conducive, interactive experience

for the user. It is also to the website owner’s advantage to provide additional links

to products or services from the business’ website. This is generally referred to as

the pull or inbound strategy of digital marketing (Chaffey & Ellis-Chadwick, 2012:

40).

Variables included in this criterion relate to consistent and professional language

use, the existence of any cultural, political, commercial, and visual bias. Additional

variables in this criterion evaluate the existence of any links on the webpage to

SNSs such as Facebook, LinkedIn or Twitter. An added variable can be

evaluated if the links on the website actually direct the user to an active SNS

relating to the specific funeral home.

The importance of including the SNS variable is motivated by the fact that as a

result of digital advances, marketing is evolving rapidly to become more

“conversational than instructional” (Ryan & Jones, 2012:152). Through the

engagement with consumers on SNSs, businesses can foster a more productive

and meaningful relationship with their consumers, gain insight into the consumer’s

perceptions of the business’ products and services, and collaborate with the

consumers in a way that was not possible before. Qualman (2013:28) claims that

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the Internet version of the traditional marketing concept of word-of-mouth (W.O.M)

has now evolved into a digital world-of-mouth (e-W.O.M) concept.

The mechanism that drives the e-W.O.M is the social media. The advantages of

social media are that they disseminate information quickly and globally; their

digital aspect allows the original integrity of the message to remain intact; and it is

traceable to an original source.

It is evident from the sources quoted in the foregoing paragraph that the alignment

of the website of the funeral home with a social media site related to the funeral

home could increase the online visibility of the funeral home.

4.4.4.1.5 Privacy and security of the user

This criterion refers to the matter of protecting users’ privacy rights. User interface

and website security are sensitive issues for gaining a user’s trust (Selim,

2011:16). The user interface represents the user’s experience in using the

information, and also the content and resources of a website. In terms of website

design, the central core of usability is the user interface that allows the interaction

between the user and the content of a site. If a user is going to present personal

details, such as using an information contact form, the user needs to be assured

that the information would not be misused.

The potential increase in online security risks reinforces the need for users to

understand and be able to assess the security risks pertaining to a website.

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Website owners and users alike, need to understand the various security issues

and risks that they might encounter, in order to manage their online operations

effectively (Chaffey & Ellis-Chadwick, 2012:137). To protect valuable data has

become one of the major challenges for businesses (Sharwa & Ojha, 2013:42).

According to Shah, Okeke and Ahmed (2013:571), researchers identified data

usage, user awareness, data sensitivity, compensation, and familiarity with firms

as five major influences on the users’ privacy concerns. Users’ perceptions of

system security comprise one of the biggest concerns for online users. It is,

therefore, imperative that websites of funeral homes contain the terms of use and

privacy statements.

According to Snail and Papadopoulos (2012:276), many Internet users find the

monitoring of their web activities problematic, as the consumers feel that it

infringes on their right to privacy. In South Africa, the consumer’s right to privacy

is protected in terms of both the common law and the Constitution of the Republic

of South Africa Act 1996.

• The common law allows the consumer to rely on the law of delict for the

protection of their rights. A delict is the wrongful, culpable conduct of a

person who causes harm to another (Roos & Neethling et al., as quoted by

Snail & Papadopoulos, 2012:276).

• Section 14 of the Constitution of South Africa provides that (Snail &

Papadopoulos, 2012:277):

o Everyone has the right to privacy, which includes the right not to have:

 Their person or home searched;

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  Their property searched;

 Their possessions seized; and

 The privacy of their communications infringed.

Taking the foregoing legal aspects into account, the variables related to this

objective focused on the existence of a privacy statement, and the terms-of-use

statement on the websites. It also assesses whether the website provides a

security certificate.

The final variable to this objective investigated whether the name of the funeral

home, as it is displayed on the website, correlates with the URL of the funeral

home’s website. This further serves as a security measure that the user will be

accessing an authentic website.

4.4.4.2 The coding form

The coding form corresponds to the code book; and it therefore provides spaces

for recording the codes for all variables measured (Neuendorf, 2002:132).

Together, the code book and the coding form stand alone as a protocol for the

content analysed.

Apart from evaluating the variables, the coders for both the pilot study and the

final study were required to provide additional information on the coding form. The

information required was listed at the beginning of the coding form under Section

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1: Demographic data. The information required in this section was required for

record-keeping purposes. It relates to:

• The number of the funeral home, as it appears on the master list of funeral

homes to be coded, in order to ensure consistency with the master list;

• The funeral home’s name and website address as it appears on the master

list of funeral homes to be coded to ensure consistency with the master list;

• The date and time of coding, this is important to note on the coding form

since websites are continuously evolving media. Should the study be

replicated, and the same data not be found, updates that were done since

this coding should be established on a timeline; and

• The coder’s name and surname must be included – for reference purposes.

The code books of both the pilot study and the final study are presented in

Annexure B. Paper-based coding forms were used to record the variables

observed for this study. Refer to Annexure C for the coding forms of the pilot and

final study. Taking into account that there were no discrepancies recorded by the

coders, the same code book and coding form were used to collect the data for the

pilot and for the final data-collection processes.

4.4.5 Step 5: Pilot Study

Neuendorf (2002:51) suggests that when a census of the population is possible, a

pilot study would not be necessary; and the analyst can then proceed with the

coding of the variables. The content analysis process of this study, however,

involved a pilot study – because, amongst others, pilot coding, or otherwise

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referred to as practice coding, informs the researcher as to the reliability and

overall viability of the coding scheme (Neuendorf, 2002:133).

It is advisable to conduct a pilot study on a sample of applicable content, before

the final study is executed. This step provides the opportunity for revisions to be

made before the final coding commences (Neuendorf, 2002:133; Krippendorff,

2013:130). For the purpose of this study, South African funeral homes with

dedicated websites that are not members of the NFDA have been sampled for the

pilot testing. The funeral homes selected for the pilot study were sampled by

conducting a Google Chrome word search.

The funeral homes listed on the Google Chrome SERP were verified against the

member list of the NFDA – to ensure that they are not members of the NFDA, and

from there on were identified for the pilot study. (Refer to Annexure E for a list of

the funeral homes selected for the pilot study).

For the reliability testing of the research instrument (the coding form), the pilot

study was conducted by three independent, qualified human coders: the

researcher and two additional coders with grounded knowledge of the marketing

discipline and on information technology.

4.4.5.1 Coder training

The importance of coder training is emphasised by Neuendorf (2002:133),

Krippendorff (2013:129-132), and Leedy and Ormrod (2013:149). Coding is not a

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natural or everyday activity. Coders may be asked to interpret variables in terms

that are unfamiliar to the person who has no knowledge of the research topic.

Although the written instructions should ideally be understood if explained clearly

in the code book, it is typical for content analysts to provide additional training to

ensure that the coding process, as well as all the variables listed for coding, is

understood by the coders.

The coders for the pilot study were trained in a one-hour session, after which the

variables were coded independently. None of the coders stated any uncertainties

during the discussion opportunity at the end of the training session. Discussion is

a common tool used in content analysis, in order to reach consensus (Harwood &

Garry, as quoted by Holtzhausen, 2010:182).

After the training session, the coding was conducted without any difficulties or

variances reported by the coders.

The numerical data from the pilot study were presented to a statistician, who in

turn, conducted the statistical reliability analysis, using KALPHA (α) for the

reliability test. It is important to note at this stage that the reliability test of the pilot

study achieved a 100% reliability of the measuring instrument; and it was

confirmed (α=1.0) (refer to Annexure F). This implied that the final coding for this

study could be conducted by one coder (the researcher) only. Leedy and Ormrod

(2013:149) confirm that when judgements are entirely objective, only one coder is

necessary.

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4.4.6 Step 6: Final Coding

Once the reliability test results for this study were received from the statistician,

the researcher proceeded to code the websites of the members of the NFDA,

according to the instructions of the final code book (refer to Annexure I for the full

dataset).

4.4.7 Step 7: Data analysis and reporting

Researchers may collect a large amount of data, but the data are of no use unless

the findings are interpreted in the light of the problem at hand (Iacobucci &

Churchill, 2010: 32). This step addresses the reliability and validity issues relating

to the study. It also provides an overview of the descriptive analytical methods of

the data collected for this study.

4.4.7.1 Reliability

Demonstrating the reliability of data collection is only one premise in a

researcher’s argument towards validity (Rourke & Anderson, 2004:6). Data by

definition are the “trusted ground” for reasoning, discussion, or calculation

(Krippendorff, 2013:267). To stand undisputed, the content analyst must ensure

that the data have been generated with all possible precautions in place, and

mean the same thing for everyone who uses them. This, according to

Krippendorff (2013:267), is how reliability grounds itself empirically.

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Krippendorff’s alpha (α), or otherwise referred to as KALPHA (De Swert, 2012:2),

was employed to conduct the reliability testing of the pilot study. KALPHA

satisfies all known measurements’ formulation criteria in one formula. It

accomplishes this by calculating disagreements instead of correcting percentage

agreements, consequently eliminating the limitations of the other measurements

(McNamara: 2005:11; Hayes & Krippendorff: 2007:80-81).

KALPHA is calculated per variable. It provides information on the reliability of

variables, not of coders (De Swert, 2012:2; Krippendorff, 2013:309). The ultimate

aim of testing reliability is to ensure that “unreliabilities” are insignificant. A

coefficient level exceeding 80% can be accepted as reliable (Neuendorf,

2002:143; De Swert, 2012:5; Krippendorff, 2012:324-325). KALPHA is, therefore,

considered to be the most reliable and applicable method of data analysis for the

proposed study, as the data are analysed per variable, within each of the

objectives of the study (described in Section 4.4.1.1).

The numerical data collected for both the pilot study and the final study were

captured on an MS Excel 2007 spreadsheet and presented to the statistician. The

statistician firstly used the information collected from the pilot study to conduct the

KALPHA coefficient to determine the reliability of the research instrument. Once

the results of the KALPHA coefficient were received, the data were collected for

the final study. The Statistical Analysis System (SAS™) was employed to conduct

both the KALPHA analysis and to analyse the final data collection for descriptive

analysis.

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There are several user-friendly statistical software packages available for the

analysis of data, such as MS Excel™, SPSS™ (Statistical Product and Service

Solution), NCSS™ (Number Cruncher Statistical System), SYSTAT™ (System

Statistics), and Stata™ (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2012:473; Wegener,

2012:8).

Although some authors such as Shiu et al. (2009) and Hair et al. (2010) favour the

use of SPSS™, compatible macro’s to conduct KALPHA exist for both SAS™ and

SPSS™ (Krippendorff, 2013:279).

The results of the reliability of the data of this study are discussed in Chapter 5,

Section 5.3.

4.4.7.2 Validity

Validation serves as the ground for developing theories, and for the basis of

successful interventions. A measuring instrument is considered valid if it measures

what the researcher claims it measures. A content analysis is valid if the

inferences drawn from the available content withstand the test of independently

available evidence, new observations, competing interpretations, or being able to

inform successful actions (Krippendorff, 2013:329).

There are four basic forms of validity measures, namely: face validity, content

validity, construct validity, and criterion validity (Neuendorf, 2002:114-118;

Krippendorff, 2013:329-331; Leedy & Ormrod, 2013:89-90):

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 • Face validity is the extent to which an instrument is measuring a particular

characteristic. That is, the research findings are accepted because they

“make sense” (Krippendorff, 2013:329).

• Content validity is the extent to which a measurement reflects the full

domain of the concept being measured.

• Construct validity is the extent to which an instrument measures a

characteristic that cannot be directly observed, but is assumed to exist. It

acknowledges that many concepts in the social sciences are abstract and

cannot be observed directly – concepts such as self-esteem, prejudice, and

alienation.

• Criterion validity is the degree to which a measure correlates with, or

estimates something external to it (Krippendorff, 2013:331). Criterion

validity may either be concurrent or predictive. When concurrent, the

standard or behaviour exists at the same time as the measure. When

predictive, the standard or behaviour occurs after the measure.

The validity measurement of this study relies on content validity, as it reflects the

full domain (websites of funeral homes of members of the NFDA) of the concept

being measured (the objectives of the study).

4.4.7.3 Descriptive analysis

The data of this final study were summarised using descriptive statistical analysis.

According to Leedy and Ormrod (2013:10), statistics have two primary functions:

170
Firstly, to assist the researcher in describing the data; and secondly, to draw

inferences from the data. Descriptive statistics therefore summarise the general

nature of the data in terms of the average appearance of certain characteristics of

the data collected, how variability exists among different pieces of data, and how

closely the characteristics of the data are associated with each other.

The arithmetic mean, the mean and the mode were calculated, in order to

determine the central tendency of this study, and to find a measurable way to

report the findings of the study. These methods of analysis are discussed in more

detail in Chapter 5, Section 5.3.1.

4.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY

This chapter has presented an overview of the methodology followed for this

study. Firstly, the nature and the role of marketing research were presented. The

methodologies applicable to marketing research were presented, followed by a

discussion of descriptive observational research to which the content analysis

relates. This formed the basis to proceed to the method of data collection and

analysis of this study – content analysis.

An overview of the epistemological foundations of content analysis was then

presented.

The second part of this chapter provided a detailed description of the seven-step

process followed to conduct the content analysis study. Following a discussion on

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the conceptualisation of the study, the units of analysis and the sampling

procedures were described. An essential part of any content analysis is the code

book and coding forms that the coders use to code the data that are being

collected.

These documents, and how they were applied to the study, were discussed next,

followed by a discussion of the reliability and validity factors pertaining to the

study.

The findings of the data collected, as they relate to the study’s objectives will be

presented in the following chapter.

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 CHAPTER 5

THE RESEARCH FINDINGS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this chapter is to present the research findings. The chapter

commences with an overview of the research (background to the study). The next

section explains the methods of analysis, including the calculation and reporting of

the descriptive analyses. The realisation of the study is presented – using the

descriptive method for reporting the data. Column charts are used to present the

findings per objective. The chapter concludes with an alignment of the findings in

relation to the premise of the Technology-Acceptance Model (TAM).

5.2 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH FINDINGS

The aim of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of funeral homes’ websites –

from the perspective of the user. The primary objective of the study was,

subsequently, to evaluate the effectiveness of the websites of members of the

National Funeral Directors Association (NFDA) of South Africa.

One of the models most widely used in research to understand user acceptance of

technologies, namely the TAM, was applied to this study. The core premise of the

TAM is based on the perceived usefulness and the perceived effort required when

using technology. Perceived usefulness is defined as the user’s subjective

probability of using a specific application system (for instance a website). Ease-of-

173
use, in turn, is defined as the degree to which a prospective user expects a lack of

effort when using technology. The perceived ease-of-use and the perceived

usefulness significantly affect the user’s attitude and behavioural intention in the

use of websites (Davis, 1989:319-321).

The TAM also includes the assumption that the user’s behaviour is voluntary or in

dependent on the user’s discretion, which excludes both the subjective norm and

behavioural constructs in the research model (He & Wang, 2012:528; Islam, Low

& Hasan, 2013:827; Varma & Marler, 2013:1477). Figure 5.1 depicts the

objectives of the study in relation to the TAM.

Perceived ease Perceived Intention to use

of use usefullness

• Accessibility • The website • The

and visibility provides the possibility
• Navigability necessary exists that the
• Contactability information user decides
required on a funeral
• Interactivity
regarding the home based
• Privacy and funeral home on his/her
security of experience of
user the funeral
home's
website

Figure 5.1: TAM in relation to the study

Taking into account, that this study departs from the fact that the user does not

want to search through a maze of online obstacles, in order to fulfil his or her

intention to find a suitable funeral home, the following objectives were identified in

relation to the perceived ease-of-use premise of the TAM:

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 • Secondary objective 1: To determine the accessibility and visibility of each

website;

• Secondary objective 2: To assess the ease-of-use of each of the websites

in terms of:

o Secondary objective 2.1: The contact information (contactability)

provided on the website;

o Secondary objective 2.2: The interactivity of the website;

o Secondary objective 2.3: The ease of navigability of the website;

• Secondary objective 3: To determine whether the websites provide

privacy and security measures to users accessing the website.

The results of the study are represented per objective in Section 5.4.

5.3 METHODS OF ANALYSIS

A pilot study was conducted before the data-collection phase of the study. The

pilot study served two primary purposes: Firstly, to assess the reliability of the

research instrument (the coding form); and secondly, to establish the content

validity. The aim of content validity is to measure all the important aspects of the

construct, which is being evaluated (Neuendorf, 2002:116-117). In this study, the

aspects of the construct that was evaluated relate to the criteria that were used to

assess the websites of the selected funeral homes. The training of the coders and

the subsequent pilot study were conducted on 13 March 2013 between 09h00 and

12h00.

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Three coders were employed to conduct the pilot study. The results of the pilot

study were analysed using the Statistical Analysis System (SAS™) to conduct the

KALPHA analysis. According to De Swert (2012:5), Krippendorff (2013:324-325),

and Neuendorf (2002:143), a coefficient level amongst coders exceeding an 80%

level of agreement can be accepted as reliable.

The pilot study conducted for this study, achieved a 100% reliability (α=1.0) factor

(refer to Annexure F for the results of the pilot study). The 100% reliability factor

further indicated that the judgements were entirely objective, thereby signifying

that only one coder (the researcher) was required to collect the data (Leedy &

Ormrod, 2013:149).

Once the final coding had been conducted, the data were analysed, in order to

determine the frequency and percentage values. The coding of the websites was

conducted on 15 March 2013 between 09h00 and 18h00. Due to the 100%

reliability factor achieved with the pilot study, and the fact that only one coder

conducted the final coding, it was not necessary to conduct any inter-coder

reliability or proportionate analyses. It may, therefore, be stated that this study

complied with the three reliability measurements listed by Krippendorff (2013:270-

272) namely stability, replicability and accuracy:

• Stability is the degree to which a process is unchanging over time. It is

measured as the extent to which the measuring/coding procedure delivers

the same results when the study is repeated.

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 • Replicability is a measure of the degree to which a process can be

reproduced by different analysts, working under varying conditions, at

different locations, or using different measuring instruments.

• Accuracy is the degree to which a process conforms to its specifications,

and delivers what is it was designed to deliver.

This study did not attempt to test any hypotheses, based on a sample of the

population. Therefore, no confidence intervals and significance tests were

conducted. Taking into account that a census was conducted, the true population

values are reflected in the presentation of the data (𝑁=20).

5.3.1 Descriptive analysis

Descriptive statistics were used to summarise and describe the data obtained for a

descriptive study (Shiu et al., 2009:513). The one-way tabulation method was

applied to summarise the frequency and percentage of the data collected. One-

way tabulation is generally considered to be a useful tool to communicate the

results of a study (Iacobucci & Churchill, 2010:352; Churchill, Brown & Sutter,

2010:114-115).

The purpose of descriptive statistics is to summarise and describe the data

obtained from a sample of respondents, or as in the case of this study, a census.

Two types of measures are used to describe the data, namely: measures of

central tendency and measures of dispersion (Hair et al., 2010:249). This study

applied the measures of central tendency to represent the central location of the

177
data. Three commonly used statistical measures were used to determine the

central location of a dataset (Wegner, 2012:63):

• The arithmetic mean (𝑥̅ ), also referred to as the average of a data set.

The arithmetic mean or average is found by adding up all the data and then

dividing the total by the sample size of the dataset.

• The median is referred to as the middle quartile or the 50th percentile. The

median is, therefore, the middle number of an ordered set of data.

• The mode or modal value is defined as the most frequently occurring

value in a set of data.

The percentage results of the statistical analysis of this study were transferred into

MS Excel 2007™. The data analysis function of MS Excel 2007™ was used to

conduct the descriptive analysis of the data (refer to Annexure H for the complete

analysis). Figure 5.2 presents a graphical representation of the arithmetic mean,

the median and the mode of the data collected for this study.

Descriptive Summary
120
100
80
Average %

60
40
20
0
Accessibility & Privacy &
Navigability Contactability Interactivity
Visibility Security
Mean 94 100 53 67 60
Median 95 100 55 70 75
Mode 95 100 85 100 75

Figure 5.2: The arithmetic mean, the median and the mode of this study

178
 The arithmetic mean is the most applicable descriptive measurement for this

study, as it provides a level of central measurement against which the findings of

each objective can be measured. The arithmetic mean assumes that each data
1
value is equally weighted (𝑥̅ = 𝑁) (Wegner, 2012:71). The arithmetic mean of the

∑𝑥1,2,3,4,5 𝑁
total dataset of this study is calculated to an average of 75% (𝑥̅ = 𝑁
) (refer

to Table 5.1).

Table 5.1: Calculation of the benchmark

Privacy
Accessibility
Navigability Contactability Interactivity & Mean
& Visibility
Security
∑𝑥1,2,3,4,5
(𝑥̅ ) 𝑥̅1 𝑥̅2 𝑥̅3 𝑥̅4 𝑥̅5 𝑥̅ = 𝑁

Mean 94 100 53 67 60 75

The findings of the research are presented in Section 5.4. The results are

depicted per objective, as described in Section 5.2. Column charts are used to

present the percentage calculations of the results per objective.

5.4 REALISATION OF THE STUDY

The arithmetic mean of the study is used as a benchmark (point of reference) to

discuss the results of each of the secondary objectives of this study (refer to

Figure 5.3).

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 Arithmetic Mean
100
100
94

90

80

70

67
60
60

50 53

40
Accessibility & Privacy &
Navigability Contactability Interactivity
Visibility Security
Mean 94 100 53 67 60

Figure 5.3: The objectives of the study in relation to the arithmetic mean

It is evident from Figure 5.3 that two of the objectives: accessibility and visibility,

and navigability, achieved an overall result above the benchmark of 75%. Apart

from interactivity, which scored on a par with the benchmark, the rest of the

objectives all produced results below the benchmark.

5.4.1 Secondary objective 1: Accessibility and visibility

Accessibility and visibility of the websites refer to the process of conducting a

search for the funeral home on Google Chrome. The primary aspects evaluated in

this objective were to assess whether the funeral home’s name appears at the top

of the search-engine results page (SERP), when it is entered into the Google

Chrome search option; and whether the website can be accessed, when the user

180
clicks on the title tag. The title tag refers to the name of the funeral home, as it is

displayed on the SERP in blue lettering.

Additional aspects evaluated in relation to accessibility and visibility included the

presence of registration requirements to gain access to the websites, when

registration fees were required to gain access to the websites, and when the user

has to complete an application form, in order to gain access to the website. A final

evaluation assessed whether plug-ins were required for the website to function

optimally. The percentage summary of the findings of the accessibility and

visibility objectives are presented in Figure 5.4.

Accessibility & Visibility

100
100
95 95
80 90 90
Percentage value

60

40

20 10 10
5 5
0
0
N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y
C2: URL
C1: Existence C3: Obstacles C4: Access C5: Plug ins
displayed on
on SERP encountered requirements required
SERP
Series1 5 95 10 90 10 90 100 0 95 5

Figure 5.4: Accessibility and visibility

The accessibility and visibility variable of the websites evaluated, delivered an

19
overall score of 94%. Figure 5.4 shows that 95% ( 𝑁 ) of the websites were

reflected at the top of the Google Chrome SERP when the name of the funeral

181
 18
home was typed in the search bar (C1) 1. A total of 90% ( 𝑁 ) of the URL’s details

relating to the funeral homes were displayed under the title tags on the SERP
18
(C2). In addition, 90% ( 𝑁 ) of the websites that were visible on the SERP could be

accessed without any obstacles (C3).

20
None of the websites evaluated (100% ( 𝑁 )) required any additional processes,

such as completing a registration process or paying registration fees to gain

access to the website, nor were the completion of any other forms required to gain
1
access to the funeral homes’ websites (C4). Only 5% (𝑁) of the websites needed

a plug-in for the website to function optimally (C5). The depiction of a negative

score (0=No) relating to these variables does not indicate a negative result in both

instances, because it indicates that the user is able to access the websites from

the SERP without any additional obstacles. The scores of these variables were

converted to positive scores (0=Yes), in order to reflect a positive value for the

results of these variables.

The overall score of the variables analysed for this objective indicates that the

user would experience a 94% ease-of-use when searching for and accessing the

websites of the funeral homes evaluated. The fact that the user does not need to

complete additional forms, or to have to install a plug-in, in order to gain access to

the website further contributes to the ease-of-access (accessibility) of the websites

analysed.

1
C refers to the criterion number, as it is listed on the coding form. The criteria numbers are listed
throughout the discussion of the data section for the ease-of-reference purpose.

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5.4.2 Secondary objective 2.1: Ease-of-use - navigability

The navigability variable evaluated the user’s ability to move with ease between

the different pages of the website. This required the presence of fully functional

navigation tabs on the website. The results of the navigability criteria are depicted

in Figure 5.5.

Navigability
100
90 100 100
Percentage value

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
N Y N Y
C6: Navigation links C7: Navigation links operational
Series1 100 0 100 0

Figure 5.5: Navigability

All websites evaluated to assess the navigability of the website, indicated a 100%
20
( 𝑁 ) presence of navigation links (C6). The second step in the evaluation process

was to assess whether the navigation links on the websites were operational.
20
Again, the websites evaluated produced a 100% ( 𝑁 ) score. This is an indication

that all the navigation links on the websites were operational, and that the user

could browse with ease between the different web pages on the website.

183
5.4.3 Secondary objective 2.2: Ease-of-use – contactability

In this objective, the presence of contact information that is provided on the

websites was evaluated. This resulted in the use of the term contactability. The

variables evaluated in relation to this objective include the presence of a

telephone number, the name and surname of a contact person, an e-mail address,

and a contact form on the website of the funeral home. These issues were all

evaluated. Additional factors, such as the presence of a physical address of the

funeral home on the website, written directions to the funeral home, GPS co-

ordinates, and an interactive map were also considered as “contactable”

information. Figure 5.6 reflects the details of the results of the contactability

evaluation.

Contactability
100
100
90 95
90
80 85 85

70 65
Percentage value

60
60 55

50 45
40
40 35

30

20 15 15
10
10 5
0
0
N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y
C8: C12:
C9: Street C11: Written C13: Contact C15: Contact C10: GPS co-
Telephone C14: E-Mail Interactive
address directions person form ordinates
Number map
Series1 0 100 5 95 85 15 15 85 40 60 35 65 55 45 90 10

Figure 5.6: Contactability

184
The contactability of the websites delivered a 53% overall result. The highest

scoring criteria were the existence of telephone numbers, physical street

addresses, and the presence of an e-mail address. These criteria obtained scores

that were higher than the 75% benchmark.

20
A 100% ( 𝑁 ) of the websites evaluated contained telephone numbers, where the

19
funeral home could be contacted 24 hours a day (C8). As many as 95% ( 𝑁 ) of the

websites provided the physical street address of the funeral home on the website
17
(C9); and 85% ( 𝑁 ) of the websites provided written directions to the funeral home

17
(C11). A total of 85% ( 𝑁 ) of the websites contained an e-mail address as an

additional contact option (C14).

These criteria indicate that the user would be able to contact the funeral home

either via telephone, e-mail, or be able to locate the funeral home through written

directions provided on the websites; thus, indicating an average of 91%

contactability in relation to these criteria.

The remainder of the criteria evaluated regarding contactability delivered results

12
below the benchmark of 75%. A total of 60% ( 𝑁 ) of the websites provided the

name and/or surname of a contact person at the funeral home (C13). As many as
13
65% ( 𝑁 ) of the websites provided a contact-form option on the website itself, from

which the user could contact the funeral home, should the user need any

additional information not directly available on the website (C15).

185
The evaluation of the presence of interactive maps (C12), and GPS co-ordinates

that would aid the user in finding the physical premises of the funeral home (C10),
9
scored 14% - 49%, respectively, below the 75% benchmark. Only 45% (𝑁) of the

websites provided interactive maps (such as Google Maps) to the premises of the
2
funeral home on their websites; whilst only 10% (𝑁) of the funeral homes provided

GPS co-ordinates, alongside the physical address on their websites.

The implications of these low scores in relation to the digital perspective of this

study will be discussed in Chapter 6.

5.4.4. Secondary objective 2.3: Ease-of-use – interactivity

Interactivity refers to the factors relating to a clear and consistent language style

used on the website, external links to resources that are connected to the funeral

home, such as florists, clergy, and casket manufacturers, and links to Social

Networking Sites (SNS). The results of the interactivity evaluation are represented

in Figure 5.7.

186
 Interactivity
100
100 100 100
90
80
70 70 70
Percentage value

60 55

50 45

40
30 30
30
20
10
0 0 0
0
N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y
C16: C17:
C19: External C20: SNS C21: SNS
Language Professional C18: Bias
links links operational
used tone
Series1 0 100 0 100 100 0 55 45 70 30 70 30

Figure 5.7: Interactivity

The interactivity aspect of the websites evaluated, on average attained a result

20
equal to that of the 75% benchmark. All the websites 100%, ( 𝑁 ) evaluated

contained a consistent, professional, written-language style suitable for the South

20
African market (C16 and C17). None of the websites 100%, ( 𝑁 ) contained any

offensive visual material with a cultural, political, or commercial bias (C18).

9
Only 45% (𝑁) of the websites contained links to external resources connected with

the business of the funeral home (C19). These links related to additional services

provided by external sources that are not directly related to the funeral home, such

as clergy, bereaved support, and florists.

187
Another aspect relating to interactivity is the extension of the website into the
6
social media. Only 30% (𝑁) of the websites evaluated contained links to social

media sites related to the funeral home (C20). All of the links were active, and

redirected the user from the funeral home’s website to the relevant social media

site (C21). These scores were 29% below the benchmark of 75%.

Taking the growing importance of the social media as a digital marketing tool into

account (discussed in Chapter 4, Section 4.4.4.1.4), these scores indicate that

there was a 70% lack of social media integration within the sample.

5.4.5 Secondary objective 3: Privacy and security of the user

The privacy and security objective evaluated, which measures the security of the

individual are built into the website, to protect the user’s privacy and security of

personal information. Aspects of importance in this objective were the presence of

a privacy statement from the funeral home, a terms-of-use statement, and whether

the website contained a security certificate. Another measure was added to this

objective to ensure the security of the user. These criteria related to the fact that

the name of the funeral home, as it is displayed in the URL of the website on the

Google Chrome SERP, correlates with the name of the funeral home, as it is

displayed on the website.

This added security measure ensures that the user is entering the correct website

from the Google Chrome SERP. Figure 5.8 depicts the data collected in relating

to the privacy and security of the users when using the websites.

188
 Privacy & Security
100
100 100
90
80 80 75 75 75

70
Percentage value

60
50
40
30 25 25 25
20
20
10
0 0
0
N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y
C26: C25: Terms
C27: URL C22: Privacy C23: Privacy C24: Terms
Security of use
correlation protected statement of use
certificate statement
Series1 0 100 0 100 80 20 75 25 75 25 75 25

Figure 5.8: Privacy and security of the user

The privacy and security objective attained a 60% overall score – 15% below the
20
75% benchmark. It is evident from Figure 5.8 that a 100% ( 𝑁 ) of the websites

5
contained security certificates (C26). All of the websites [100%, (𝑁)] displayed a

clear association between the name of the funeral home and the URL, as it is

displayed on the SERP (C27).

In contrast to the other data analysed to assess the privacy and security of the
4
user, only 20% (𝑁) of the websites provided an explicit statement in terms of the

5
privacy protection of the users of the website (C22). In addition, 25% (𝑁) of the

websites provided a link on the website to a detailed privacy statement (C23). As

5
to the matter of a statement on the terms-of-use of the website, 25% (𝑁) of the

189
websites contained a link to, and subsequent detailed statement of use (C24 and

C25).

These criteria scored an average of 23%, which is 52% below the benchmark of

75%. Taking into account the online risks and user concerns regarding security

and privacy matters when accessing a website (discussed in Chapter 4, Section

4.4.4.1.5), these scores are very low in comparison with the other criteria

evaluated in this objective. The possible consequences and managerial

implications of the absence of these criteria on the websites evaluated are

discussed in Chapter 6.

5.5 SUMMARY OF THE RESEARCH FINDINGS

The findings of the study were summarised per objective evaluated, and

presented in Section 5.4. The objectives evaluated the websites in terms of

accessibility and visibility, whether it contained several contact options of the

funeral home, its interactiveness, and whether the websites had the necessary

online safety and security measures in place.

The primary objective of the study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the

websites of members of the NFDA of South Africa. This was done, in accordance

with the perceived ease-of-use component of the TAM.

In summary, the following can be concluded from the data collected:

190
 20
• Navigability: The objective achieved a 100% ( 𝑁 ) overall score. This

indicates that the user would be able to navigate between the different

pages of the website without any difficulty.

• Accessibility and visibility: The results of the variables evaluated,

19
achieved a 94% ( 𝑁 ) overall score. Although some of the variables

evaluated required additional access, and plug-ins were required for the

websites to function optimally, the results of these criteria indicated a

positive contribution to the perceived ease-of-use component of the TAM.

• Interactivity: The variables evaluated in relation to this objective, achieved

13
a 67% ( 𝑁 ) overall score. The lack of external links to additional services,

and the absence of social media links contributed to a lower overall score of

the objective.

• Privacy and Security: The variables evaluated in relation to the privacy

12
and security measurements of the websites evaluated, achieved a 60% ( 𝑁 )

20
overall score. Although 100% ( 𝑁 ) of the websites analysed complied with

the security certificate, and the URL correlation criteria, the overall scores

of the objective were negatively influenced by the absence of privacy

statements, and a detailed terms-of-use statement.

12
• Contactability: The variables relating to this objective achieved a 53% ( 𝑁 )

overall score. The absence of interactive maps, GPS co-ordinates and

written directions on the websites could be attributed to the low ranking

score of this objective. Other contributing factors relating to the lower score

of this objective include the absence of the name of a contact person (40%

191
 8 7
(𝑁) absence), and the absence of an online contact form (35% (𝑁)

absence).

The realisation of this study (the data analysis) was discussed per objective in

Section 5.4 in relation to the TAM. It is necessary at this point in the dissertation

to note the statement of Leedy and Ormrod (2013:10) that the data emerge from

the real world. The data, according Leedy and Ormrod, are therefore

unorganised, separate bits of information. They have no focus, and have to be

managed in some ways. Statistical analysis provides the researcher with a means

to create order out the unorganised bits of information, as was the purpose of this

chapter.

Leedy and Ormrod (2013:10) nonetheless proceed to caution the researcher to be

aware that statistics may summarise the data, but cannot capture all the nuances

of the data – the statistical analysis of the data only provides the researcher with

information about the data. The research project is, therefore, not completed until

the meaning of the data is revealed in relation the research problem that was

investigated.

5.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY

This chapter has presented the empirical findings of this study. Firstly, the

methods of analysis were discussed. A descriptive analysis of the data was

provided, from which a benchmark against which the data could be evaluated,

was calculated. The realisation of the study followed a depiction of the data

192
collected per objective. Column charts were used to depict the calculations of

each individual criterion within each objective analysed. The chapter concluded

with a summary of the data in relation to the components of the TAM.

The next chapter, Chapter 6, concludes this study. It will provide a detailed

discussion of the implications and conclusions of the study. The shortcomings of

the study and subsequent recommendations will also be discussed.

193
 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The marketing of the funeral industry poses fundamental challenges to a marketer.

The majority of the promotional components of the Integrated Marketing

Communication (IMC) construct, such as sales promotions, personal selling, direct

marketing and sponsorships, appear to be unsuitable for the industry. Digital

marketing, especially the use of websites, offers both the marketer and the owner

of the funeral home an unobtrusive way of promoting and communicating the

services – of what is generally perceived to be a dismal trade – to the general

public.

The primary objective of this study was to evaluate the websites of members of

the National Funeral Directors Association (NFDA) of South Africa with active

websites in terms of its effectiveness in relation to the ease-of-use component of

the Technology-Acceptance Model (TAM). Apart from the primary objective, five

secondary objectives were identified in relation to the ease-of-use component,

namely: the accessibility and visibility of the websites from the Google Chrome

search engine results page (SERP); the navigability of the websites; the contact

information provided on the websites; the interactivity of the websites; and the

privacy and security measures of the websites.

194
In order to achieve the objectives of the study, a content analysis was conducted

on the websites of active websites of members of the NFDA. All of the objectives

were achieved and the results thereof were discussed in Chapter 5.

This dissertation commenced with an overview of the study in Chapter 1; this was

followed by a discussion of the funeral industry in South Africa in relation to

services marketing in Chapter 2. The product-service continuum was applied in

Chapter 2, in order to position the funeral industry within the services spectrum.

Chapter 3 provided a literature review of digital marketing as a component of the

(IMC) construct. It reviewed the advent of the Internet and the implications thereof

for contemporary marketing communications.

Websites – as a digital communication medium – were reviewed in relation to the

funeral industry.

The research method followed for this study was described in Chapter 4. This

included the process applied to the content analysis, as well as the sampling

procedures applicable to the study. The research findings of the study were

presented in Chapter 5. The results of the study were described in the light of

each objective.

Chapter 6 concludes the study. A summary of the main findings and conclusions,

together with the implications of the main findings, are presented. This is followed

by a discussion of the limitations of the study, after which recommendations for

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future research are presented. In conclusion, closing arguments relating to the

study are presented at the end of the chapter.

6.2 SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION OF THE MAIN FINDINGS

Different variables relating to the websites were evaluated, in order to reach a

conclusion to the set of secondary objectives (discussed in Chapters 4 and 5).

The main findings, according to each objective, are presented in this section. A

benchmark of 75% was established by calculating the overall mean of the

variables in each objective. The overall performance of the variables in each

objective was evaluated against this benchmark (refer to Chapter 5, Figure 5.3).

The discussions following, in Sections 6.2.1 to 6.2.5, are structured – according to

each of the research objectives in relation to the ease-of-use and the perceived

usefulness components of the TAM.

6.2.1 Secondary Objective 1: Accessibility and visibility

For this objective, the variables evaluated related to the visibility of the websites’

links on the Google Chrome SERP. Additional variables evaluated the

accessibility of the websites from the SERP to the actual website of the funeral

home: thus, how easy it would be for the user to access the website once a

Google Chrome search had been conducted.

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The accessibility and visibility variables achieved an overall score of 94%. The

majority of the websites (95%) were reflected on the SERP, when a search was

conducted with the Google Chrome search engine to locate the funeral home

online. A total of 90% of the websites’ URLs depicted the name of the funeral

home. Only 10% of the websites evaluated did not open directly to the website of

the funeral home, when the link on the SERP was selected.

The lower score of the objective overall may be attributed to the high negative

scores of two of the variables evaluated, namely: whether any additional

requirements were necessary to access the websites, and whether additional

plug-ins were required for the website to operate optimally.

From a managerial perspective, this indicates a positive result. Chaffey and Ellis-

Chadwick (2012:490-491) state that it is vital for any business to introduce quality

visitors to a website. Users (searchers) use search engines, such as Google

Chrome, to find more information on the business within the business’ website by

appending qualifiers, such as a product name to the brand name or site name.

Taking into account the ease-of-use of accessing the funeral homes’ websites

from the SERP, the overall results for this objective indicate a 94% possibility that

a user would be able to proceed from the SERP to the actual website of the

funeral home, in order to obtain more information on the funeral home.

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6.2.2 Secondary Objective 2.1: Ease-of-use – navigability

Swanepoel and Bothma (2013:52) define a website’s navigation as “the system

that allows the user to move (navigate) through a website”. The ease-of-

navigability of a website relates directly to the accessibility of the website. Once

the user has accessed the website, the user must be able to navigate without any

difficulty between the different options displayed on the website, in order to gain

as much information as needed.

The navigability of the websites evaluated delivered a 100% result for both

variables evaluated: indicating first of all that all the websites evaluated contained

navigation links; and secondly, that the coders were able to navigate with ease

between the different navigation options on the websites.

From a managerial perspective, this indicates that, through the ease of navigation,

the user would be able to find more information on the funeral homes and their

products and services offered, without any difficulty.

6.2.3 Secondary objective 2.2: Ease-of-use – contactability

The contactability component of the research project relates to the different

alternative contact options present on the websites of the funeral homes. These

contact options are provided for the ease-of-use to the user should they need to

contact the funeral home beyond the website. According to Swanepoel and

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Bothma (2013:32), a great deal of attention is paid by organisations to optimise

conversations between website users and the organisation.

The authors recommend that an organisation provide additional contact details on

their websites over and above any online enquiry form, in order to encourage

extended communication between the consumer and the organisation. This factor

extends even further in the case of a funeral home, as users might have to call a

funeral home to remove the body of a deceased; and in the days leading up to the

funeral, they might have to visit the premises of the funeral home, in order to

finalise the arrangements for the funeral.

The contactability objective achieved an overall score of 53%. The majority of the

websites evaluated, contained telephone numbers (100%), a physical street

address (95%), and an e-mail address (85%). These scores indicate that the user

should be able to call the funeral home when needed; would be able to locate the

funeral home; and would be able to communicate with the funeral home via e-mail.

The telephone numbers listed on the websites included Telkom landline numbers,

cell-phone numbers, and/or toll free numbers. The type of telephone numbers

that are provided on the websites of the funeral homes differed from funeral home

to funeral home. The assessment here was not to evaluate which type of

telephone number is provided on the website, but the fact that a telephone

number is provided via which the funeral home could be contacted.

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In terms of the other criteria evaluated on contactability, 60% of the websites

provided the name and surname of a contact person at the funeral home, and

65% of the websites provided a contact form option on the website itself, from

which the user could contact the funeral home. Although these percentages are

below the benchmark, a factor such as a toll-free number must be taken into

account. It is often difficult to list the name of a person who would be answering a

toll-free number, especially in the case of the corporate funeral homes, where the

call is most likely to be answered by a call-centre agent.

Another factor that might contribute to the lack of a contact person’s name on the

website is the fact that different employees of the funeral home could be on duty

at different times after hours. The funeral home might, therefore, list a roaming

cell-phone number on their website, which is rotated between the employees that

are on duty after hours.

Only 45% of the websites contained GPS co-ordinates to the physical location of

the funeral home; and only 10% of the websites contained interactive maps. From

a digital perspective, the lack of interactive maps on the websites posed a

fundamental managerial implication to the ease-of-use when locating the funeral

home’s premises. Google Maps have become an integral part of many business’

online location identifiers. Williams and Crawford (2012:55) note that Google

Maps have become the predominant location-based search tool for online users

who want to locate a specific location.

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Google Maps constitute an application that communicates from the Google server

to the business’ website, constructing an embedded map into a web page that is

returned to the user. This is a medium that is an effective and useful means of

conveying and analysing the spatial information in the form of maps (Petersen,

2008:9-10). According to Petersen, “hundreds of millions of map users” have

been introduced to interactive maps through the Internet since their inception.

The use of Google Maps provides a very efficient mechanism to deliver digital

cartographic information to the Internet users with a fast response time and user-

friendly interaction (Hu & Dai, 2013:107). In consideration of the ease-of-use

perspective of the objective, it is notable that the majority of the websites did not

contain the interactive map feature.

From the ease-of-use perspective, the inclusion of an embedded, interactive map

of the location of the funeral home could be of benefit to both the user and the

funeral home. The inclusion of an interactive map and/or GPS co-ordinates to the

physical location of the funeral home, could add to the ease of locating the funeral

home online without having to leave the website of the funeral home and engage

in a different website – for directions to the funeral home – or alternatively, to

consult a printed map.

6.2.4 Secondary objective 2.3: Ease-of-use – interactivity

The interactivity objective of the study scored an overall rating of 67%. All of the

websites evaluated were considered to contain a clear and consistent language

201
style suitable for the South African market, displaying a professional tone in their

written content, and were considered to be free of any racial, cultural, political and

commercial bias. From a managerial perspective, these elements could lead to a

positive and amicable perception of the funeral home for the user.

Only 30% of the websites evaluated contained links with social-media sites, such

as Facebook and Twitter. With the rapid advancement and interactivity seated at

the core of Social Networking Services (SNS), this is another notable observation

from the perspective of digital marketing.

As a result of digital advances, marketing in general is evolving rapidly to become

more conversational than instructional (Ryan & Jones, 2012:152). Through the

engagement with consumers on SNSs, businesses can foster a more productive

and meaningful relationship with their consumers, gain insight into the consumer’s

perceptions of the business’ products and services, and collaborate with the

consumers in a way that has not been possible before.

Qualman (2013:28) claims that the Internet version of the traditional marketing

concept of word-of-mouth has now evolved into a digital world-of-mouth concept.

The mechanism that drives the world-of-mouth concept is the social media. The

advantages of social media are that:

• They disseminate information quickly and globally;

• Their digital nature allows the original integrity of the message to remain

intact; and

• They are traceable to their original source.

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From a managerial perspective, it is evident from the sources quoted in the

foregoing paragraph that the alignment of the website of the funeral home to a

social-media site could increase the online visibility of the funeral home. A funeral

home can, by integrating a social networking site with the funeral home’s website,

create a platform for testimonials, online forums for bereaved family members

(such as support groups for family members who have lost loved ones), or as a

platform for of notifications of deaths. The funeral home could also use a social

media site (such as the funeral home’s Facebook page), to create a platform

where friends and family members, who are unable to attend the funeral, could

leave messages of condolences to the bereaved family.

This process could also serve as a platform to create more visibility of the funeral

home and its services to prospective clients, who are not directly involved in the

current funeral proceedings.

6.2.5 Secondary objective 2.3: Privacy and security of the user

The privacy and security of the user in this dissertation refers mainly to the

measures of security that are built into the websites of the funeral homes’

websites, in order to protect the privacy and security of the users, without affecting

the users’ ease-of-use of the website. The user interface (the website) represents

the user’s experience in using the information, content and the resources of a

website. User interface and website security are sensitive issues for gaining a

user’s trust (Selim, 2011:16).

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All of the websites evaluated contained a security certificate. The URLs of all the

websites, as displayed on the Google Chrome SERP, corresponded with the

name of the funeral home, as it is depicted on the website; thereby indicating that

there are no misleading elements built into the URLs. Users could, therefore,

access the websites of the funeral homes with ease of mind that the link they are

selecting would take them directly to the required website.

The lowest scores in the objective pertained to the existence of and access to the

websites’ privacy statements and terms-of-use statements. These criteria scored

an average of 25%. To protect valuable data has become one of the major

challenges for businesses (Sharwa & Ojha, 2013:42). According to Shah, Okeke

and Ahmed (2013:571), researchers identified data usage, user awareness, data

sensitivity, compensation, and familiarity with firms, as five major influences on the

users’ privacy concerns.

Online security is, therefore, a major barrier to the effective utilisation of the

Internet as a marketing tool. Users’ perception of system security is one of the

biggest concerns for the online users. It is, therefore, imperative that even the

websites of funeral homes should contain terms-of-use and privacy statements.

The managerial implications of these low scores reinforce the fact that

organisations and users need to understand and be able to assess security risks.

Thus, website owners and users alike need to understand security issues and any

risks they might encounter when managing online operations effectively (Chaffey

& Ellis-Chadwick, 2012:137).

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6.3 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

As far as could be established, this study is the first of its kind: in both the

marketing discipline and the funeral industry, respectively. This very fact posed

several issues that contributed to the limitations of the study.

This study was conducted on active websites of members of the NFDA of South

Africa only. The active websites of members of the remaining funeral associations

in South Africa were not included in the sample. The study is, therefore, not only

limited to the South African context, but it is further limited within the South African

context to members of the NFDA only.

The data for this study were collected within a specific timeframe. This limits the

study to the extent that it can only report on the data as they appeared on the

website at that specific point in time. Websites are continuously evolving media:

consumers can interact with the medium and organisations can update the

contents of their websites at any time (Chaffey & Ellis-Chadwick, 2012:435).

This limits the reporting of the data collected, as they were displayed on the

websites – to the time of the data collection. It is for this purpose that the date and

time of the evaluation of the website needed to be recorded on the coding form by

the coders.

Reliability remains a contentious issue in content analysis. Although

Krippendorff’s alpha (α) is a recognised method of analysis, it was only applied to

205
this study, in order to conduct the reliability testing of the research instrument, and

to conduct the frequency and percentage analysis of the data. The lack of a

misnomer of inferential statistics is most likely one of the greatest shortcomings of

this research project.

Since this study is a first of its kind, there are no previously tried and tested

measuring instruments that could be applied to this study.

For the statistical analysis of the data, the descriptive statistical method was

employed. The reporting of the data (per objective) reflected the same reporting

structure, as was done by Muehlenhaus’ (2011) content evaluation of regional

maps. However, Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2012:171) note that the object of

descriptive research is to gain an accurate profile of events or situations.

Descriptive research may, therefore, be a forerunner to – or an extension of –

exploratory research; and it should, therefore, be thought of as a means-to-an-end

measure, rather than an end in itself.

A more comparative dataset would have had a greater impact on the data

collected for this study. For instance, a comparison between active websites of

members of the NFDA and the other funeral associations in South Africa, such as

the Funeral Federation of South Africa (FFSA), or the South African Funeral

Practitioners Association (SAFPA), would have yielded a more complete picture of

the ease-of-use of the websites of funeral homes in South Africa.

206
The lack of a higher-order statistical analysis of the data could be ascribed to the

fact that the current study only assessed the “how” of the research topic, and not

the “why”. Wiese and Jordaan (2012:36) state that one of the reasons for doing

research is to answer the “why” question. This study applied the TAM, as a basis

for the research. The model consists of three components, namely: the user’s

perceived ease-of-use of the website, the perceived usefulness of the website,

and the intention to use the website.

Only the ease-of-use perspective of the websites was evaluated, thus limiting the

study to explore and describe only the “how” component of the research problem.

While acknowledging this study to be exploratory in nature, the limitations of this

study open the pathway for many future research opportunities in the field of

digital marketing. Some recommendations for future research are presented in

Section 6.4.

6.4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

The marketing of the funeral industry worldwide is largely unexplored by

academia. Extending this study could provide more insights into the digital

marketing opportunities of an industry that is generally perceived to be a dismal

trade. It is, therefore, recommended that the sample for future research be

extended to include the active websites of members other funeral associations in

South Africa. Furthermore, taking into account that the Internet is a borderless,

worldwide phenomenon, it is almost imperative that future research should include

207
the active websites of funeral homes across the globe. Such a study could be

delimited to members of the National Funeral Director’s Associations of other

countries. The United States of America, Canada and Australia all have active

National Funeral Director’s Associations. A comparative study between the active

websites of funeral homes in these countries compared with those of the South

African market could yield valuable insights that might be measured on an

international standard.

As stated in Section 6.3, this study did not address the “why” factor. In order to

incorporate the “why” factor, it is recommended that future studies extend the data

collection to the perspective of the user, thus addressing the remaining two

components of the TAM, namely: the perceived usefulness of the websites, and

the user’s intention to use the websites. This could be achieved by applying a

mixed-method approach to the study.

The perceptions of the users could be determined by extending a survey to the

users, in order to evaluate their intentions to use the websites. The users’

perception of the websites could be evaluated by incorporating qualitative, in-

depth interviews with the users, in order to assess their experiences when

interacting with the websites of funeral homes. It has to be kept in mind though

that by including the user perspective, this would not necessarily include those

consumers who have made use of the services of a specific funeral home.

The focus should remain digital marketing and websites specifically throughout. It

might be purposeful to test the perceptions and intentions of any consumer. By

208
gaining information from any users – and not only those users who have made

use of funeral home websites – a clear perspective could be attained relating to

the shortcomings of the websites, which in turn, could lead to the development of

a more user-friendly website model for funeral homes.

Another aspect relating to the “why” factor which remains unexplored, is the fact

that only 10% of the members of the NFDA of SA have dedicated websites. The

reasons why the remaining 90% of the members does not have dedicated

websites could provide a better understanding of the perceptions of funeral homes

towards digital marketing. This factor could be incorporated to include perceptions

from both ends of the continuum – those of the service user and the service

provider. It is therefore suggested that further research include the collection of

data from the members of the NFDA who does not have dedicated websites in

order to assess their reasons for not investing in websites as a digital marketing

tool.

From a digital perspective, a very small component of the digital marketing

spectrum was addressed in this study. Further research could incorporate

aspects, such as Search Engine Optimisation (SEO) to assess how existing

funeral homes are applying this feature, in order to generate traffic to their

websites. This could, for instance, be done by evaluating which key words (meta

tags) are assigned to the funeral homes’ websites, in order to create a greater

visibility on SERPs.

209
Another digital aspect that could be explored by future research is the integration

of the social media platforms with the websites of the funeral homes. It is evident

from the discussion in Section 6.2.4 that the integration of social-media platforms

into an organisation’s digital marketing strategy has become a very important

issue. Here again, the users’ perceptions and expectations regarding such a

platform could be investigated, in order to provide a concise level of expectation

from the perspective of the user.

With the integration of the social-media component in future research, the TAM

could be extended to include McDonald and Wilson’s model for digital marketing

(discussed in Chapter 3, Section 3.3.2), in order to formulate a comprehensive

digital-media strategy for funeral homes.

Due to the unobtrusive nature of the Internet, it appears to be the most feasible

component of the IMC construct to promote the funeral industry. Internet

communications are a constantly evolving phenomenon, thus creating plenary

opportunities for further research relating to the digital marketing of the funeral

industry.

6.5 CONCLUSION

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the websites of

members of the NFDA in South Africa that have dedicated websites from an ease-

of-use perspective. This perspective is seated in the perceived ease-of-use

component of the TAM. Applied to this study, the ease-of-use perspective aimed

at evaluating the ease with which the user, in a presumed state of bereavement,

210
would find the website to be fully functional, to contain additional contact details, to

be interactive, and to have the necessary online safety and security measures in

place.

Based on the findings described in Chapter 5, it was found that the websites

attained an overall ease-of-use evaluation of 75%.

The study focused on the current content of the websites. Although the results of

this study only offer evidence relating of the ease-of-use of the websites at the

time of collecting the data, the study was conducted in an effort to firstly provide a

clear perspective of the ease-of-use of websites of the funeral homes evaluated;

and secondly, to provide marketers with information on the digital alternative to the

marketing of the funeral industry.

In conclusion, it is the opinion of the researcher that the funeral industry provides

plenty of opportunities for further research. By pursuing continuous research of

the digital marketing of the funeral industry, such future research could yield many

new and innovative approaches to the services of an industry that is largely

unsought.

Through continuous research, a comprehensive profile of the consumer of funeral

services can be compiled, which in turn could result in the acquisition of valuable

information, which could be applied to the digital marketing strategies for funeral

homes. In addition, through the pursuit of the digital marketing of funeral homes,

both marketers’ and consumers’ attitudes towards the industry could be positively

211
influenced. Although the aspects of death and dying, and the prospect of taking

care of the deceased remain a dismal prospect to consumers, the services of a

funeral home are still unsought services to which all consumers eventually will

have to subscribe.

By creating a positive, online experience for the consumer, the funeral industry

could improve its competitive positioning within the market. It is also the opinion of

the researcher that by creating a positive online experience of the funeral industry,

the perceptions of consumers and marketers alike could be influenced positively to

what is currently perceived to be a “dismal trade”.

212
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ANNEXURE A: Selim’s Web Evaluation Criteria

Accessibility and Visibility

Accessibility is defined as the art of designing Webpages that can be accessible to
all internet users (both disabled and non-disabled), regardless of any internet
browser that they are using (Eschenfelder et al., 1997; Smith, 2001; Tran, 2009).

1. Existence of website is made known through search tools.

2. The web site can be accessed publicly (no fees, registration or application
required to enter the site)
3. The web site can be accessed efficiently by non-disabled users regarding time
and network traffic
4. The web site is accessible to users with a visual impairment
5. The web site has been designed to work well with various internet browsers,
and with both Macintosh and PC
6. The website does not need “plug-ins” for full functionality.

Accuracy and Credibility

Accuracy is the degree to which the information and materials available on the
web site are correct and trustworthy (Eschenfelder et al., 1997; Tran, 2009). How
factual and verifiable is the content – Is the information cited correctly? Does the
institution belong to light or dark web? (Ronan Fitzpatrick, 2000; Ronan
Fitzpatrick, 2000; Taher, 2009)

1. There is a link to a page describing the nature of the organization, who owns
the website, and the types of community information and services the organization
provides.
2. There is a phone number and postal address to contact for further information.
(Just an e-mail address is not sufficient).
3. Is there a way of determining the achievements of this organization from its
inception to the present (including the information, services and activities related
to the local communities, the quality of such information and services, user
evaluation, new services in association with community needs, the availability of
funding, etc.)?
4. Are there statements that the contents, information, newsletters or policies of
the site have the official approval of the organization?
5. Is the text well written and understandable? Are there any errors of grammar,
spelling, etc.? (These kinds of errors not only indicate a lack of quality control, but
can also produce inaccuracies in information.)
6. Statement of status of document/website provided: e.g. “under construction”
“sample data only”.

Authority
Authority refers to two levels of authorship of the website: the author/owner of the
website, and the authors of information and other materials available on the web
pages. In addition, authority shows that the organization or individual responsible
for the web site has credible qualifications and knowledge (Greenwood & Steyn,
2006; Tran, 2009). Who is responsible for the content? And is the contact

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information available? Who is the publisher and is he/she other than the
Webmaster/Webmistress? (Taher, 2006)

1. Is the name of the organization to which the web site belongs clear?
2. Is there a statement of the sponsor(s) of the organization?
3. Is it clear who is responsible for the contents of the site?
4. Is the author(s) of the information given or the source it came from stated?
5. Is there any evidence, or are there any examples to support the information
given?
6. Are the sources of any factual information clearly listed, so that they can be
verified by another source?
7. If the material is protected by copyright, is the name of the copyright holder
given? Does the website give an indication of the host website?
8. The URL of the website gives an indication of the host site.

Coverage
Coverage is the degree to which information and contents are presented,
according to various topics through the site. Good contents and coverage should
be engaging, relevant, concise, clear, and appropriate for the audience (Sinha et
al., 2001). It is believed that coverage is a very important criterion for improvement
if the website is to be useful and have good information value (Alexander and
Tate, 1999). Website coverage assesses the relationship between the content and
the purpose and mission of the entity (Eschenfelder et al., 1997; Smith, 2001).

1. Match the purpose/mission.

2. Match the needs of stated audience.
3. Includes only necessary and useful information.
4. Coverage does not overlap: within the site, or with other agencies.
5. Amount of information is significant, and balanced.
6. Contains direct information resources: rather than indirect. For example, the text
of the document – rather than abstract and instructions on how to obtain
information in another format.
7. Clear and consistent language style that matches audience: Plain English, use
of Maori, Pacific islands and Asian languages if appropriate.
8. Positive professional tone: Avoids jargon, inappropriate humour,
condescension, accusation and chit-chat.
9. Content does not show bias: Racial, cultural, political, or commercial.
10. External links are to appropriate resources, connected with the business of the
entity.
11. Text is supported by illustrative images.

Currency
Currency refers to the timeliness of information, documents, materials and
services available on the website (Eschenfelder et al., 1997; Tran, 2009).
Websites should be seen as a way of providing very recent information (Smith,
2001). This criterion is extremely important to people who rely on web resources
for up-to-date information.

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1. Is the website updated frequently?
2. Have the pages been updated in the past three months?
3. Is there an indication of when the page was last updated/revised? (Or is there a
date on the page to indicate when it was uploaded to the web?)
4. If material is presented in graphs and/or charts and/or tables, is it clearly stated
when the data were gathered?

Interactivity
Interactivity refers to the interaction between users and computers that occurs at
the interface of websites. Specifically, interactivity allows users to control what
elements are to be delivered and when they are to be delivered through the
interface (Tran, 2009). It should project the distinct feeling that the user is not
reading a magazine or watching TV any longer (Sinha et al., 2001).

1. Are interactive features provided (e.g. forms, check boxes, list menus, etc.)?
2. Do these features work?
3. Do they add value to the web site?
4. Does the web site deliver the information, contents or services that the user
asked for?
5. Do any of the links lead to a dead end when tried?
6. Is the interface friendly and easy to use?
7. Is the interface easy to remember?
8. Are there any error messages?

Metadata / Bibliographic Control

Website metadata refer to the tags added to the HTML document containing
descriptive information that does not appear in the document body. Metadata can
be used by resource discovery tools, such as search engines, to increase the
relevance of the information retrieved in searches (Eschenfelder et al., 1997;
Smith, 2001).

1. Appropriate metatags are provided, e.g. title, author, description, keywords (with
consistent descriptors).
2. Headings are clearly phrased, descriptive, and understandable.
3. Each page is titled clearly.
4. Terminology and layout are consistent within the headings throughout the
website.

Navigability
Navigability evaluates how easily users may move around the website and find the
information that they require (Sinha et al., 2001; Smith, 2001). Good navigation
offers easy access to the breadth and depth of the website’s content. Websites
should make good use of navigational visual devices, such as menus, icons,
buttons, and scroll bars, in order to help the navigation of the web content
(Eschenfelder et al., 1997; Tran, 2009). Users should never feel lost; and
therefore, each webpage should be self-sufficient and provide links to the main
contents (Mateos et al., 2001).

1. Website is organized logically and according to the anticipated user need.

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2. Navigation options are distinct and spelled out.
3. Conventional navigation models are used: e.g. navigation menu on left hand
side in frame or bar.
4. Navigation links are provided from all pages: e.g. to homepage and other key
pages, to previous page, top of page in long pages.
5. A sitemap is provided.
6. The site map shows how pages are associated with each other.
7. Browsing is facilitated by, for example, menus and/or a site map.
8. Can reach any point in an appropriate number of links: For an average sized
site, should be able to reach any point in 3 links.
9. Search engine provided: Explicitly states what it covers; help is provided with
search commands.

Orientation / Objectivity
Website orientation includes Website purpose and scope, origins and status of the
types of information, and services provided. Orientation information should be
easily located (Eschenfelder et al., 1997; Smith, 2001; Tran, 2009).

1. A website overview is provided: States purpose/mission of website; appropriate

to entity's overall mission.
2. Scope of website is clearly stated: Type and origin of information, audience,
dates of coverage, etc.
3. Services and information provided at the website are described.
4. `What's new” section: this alerts frequent users to changes in content, services,
etc.
5. Instructions for the use of the website are provided: Instructions should avoid
being platform/ browser-specific.
6. A liability/status statement warning the user of the nature of information
provided at the site, and through any links made from the site, is provided: e.g.
whether the information is suitable for access by children; what the official status
of information is; that important information may be available through other
channels; degree of responsibility for incorrect information, etc.
7. Copyright statements are provided: Identifies owner of intellectual property on
site, and conditions for re-use, linking, etc.
8. Does the resource fulfil the stated purpose of the web site?
9. Is the organization’s bias clearly stated?
10. If there is any advertising on the page? Is it clearly differentiated from the
information content?

Privacy
This criterion refers to the sensitive issue of protecting users’ privacy rights
(Eschenfelder et al., 1997; Smith, 2001).

1. Users' privacy rights are protected.

2. Explicit statement on how users' privacy rights are protected: e.g. extent to
which site-use information is provided to others, or made public.

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3. Exchanges of information with users are encrypted. Information of concern
could be personal information about users, and information about the searches
that they have carried out at the site.

Searchability
Searchability is the ability to browse, search, and acquire data within a website
(Tran, 2009).

1. Is there a search engine available for searching the resources within the web
site?
2. Can a piece of information within the site quickly be found by searching?
3. Does the search engine work effectively (considering time and the use of
keywords)?
4. Can the resource be retrieved effectively by the search engine?
5. Is a help tool available for searching (instructions or guidelines for identifying
search terms and keywords, etc.)?
6. Can information be found within this site without using a search engine?

Security
The user interface represents the user’s experience in using the information,
content and resources of a web site. In terms of website design, the central core of
usability is the user interface that allows the interaction between the user and the
content of a site. User interface and website security are very sensitive issues for
gaining the user’s trust (Ataloglou & Economides, 2009; Smith, 2001).

1. There are areas of the website that are password protected.

2. There is a website certificate check.
3. The website is secure when necessary.

Services
Different from provision of information resources – involves actions by agency in
response to a request from client. These may allow supply of products or services,
or, in the government context in particular, an alternative way to submit.
applications etc. (Eschenfelder et al., 1997; Smith, 2001)

1. Availability of services: open to everyone on Internet, or require fees, restricted

to particular sector groups.
2. Meets the needs of the user.
3. Fully operational.

Extracted from: SELIM, H.M. 2011. Content evaluation criteria for general websites: analysis
and comparison. UAEU-FBE Working paper series, 3:2-32.

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ANNEXURE B: Funeral Website Content Analysis code book

Instructions to coders:

This code book is designed to help you in the process of coding the listed funeral
websites.

Before you commence with the coding of the websites, you are required to set up
your Internet browser to operate on Google Chrome.

The list of funeral websites that need to be coded is provided in the document
titled “List of funeral homes”, accompanying this code book.

The coding of the variables is conducted on a separate coding form.

• Refer to the printed documents provided separately entitled: “Funeral
Website Coding Form”.

The variables are divided into two objectives.

• Each objective contains relevant criteria pertaining to the coding of the
website. These criteria are defined, based on their contribution to the data
analysis of the study in relation to the objective.
• Each criterion is labelled with a “C” and a following number. For example,
C1.
• Each criterion on the coding form has space for a code that indicates the
presence of a variable. The items that are analysed are presented in rows,
and the variables that are coded are presented in columns.
• You are to refer to these criteria only when coding the websites.

The code book is divided into two sections:

• Section 1 provides guidelines to the completion of the coding forms.
• Section 2 is designed to provide coders with detailed instructions pertaining
to the coding of each of the criterion.

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Section 1: The Funeral Website Coding Form

Refer to the document “List of funeral homes” for a list of websites of those funeral
homes, which will be used for the purpose of the study.

• Only the funeral homes listed can be used for the pre-testing study. Each
of these websites must be coded “live”. (“Live” indicates that you must be
connected to the Internet, in order to successfully complete the coding
process).
• Before you proceed with the online coding process, Section 1 of the
“Funeral Website Coding Form” must first be completed in your own
handwriting. Refer to Table 1 below for instructions on how to complete
Section 1 of the “Funeral Website Coding Form”.
• This process must be completed for each website coded.
• A coding form is provided for each website that needs to be coded.
• You have to return to the Google-Chrome home page before you start with
the coding of each of the funeral home websites.

Guidelines to complete Section 1 of the coding form

Please follow the detailed steps Table 1 below to successfully complete Section 1
of the Funeral Website Coding Form.

Table 1: Section 1 of the Funeral Website Coding Form

Funeral Website Coding Form

Section 1: Demographical data
Number: 
Funeral
Home: 
URL: 
Date & Time
of coding:

Coder: Eg. C.A. Coetzee

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 • Number: Write the number of website to be coded as indicated in column
one of Annexure A in the field indicated with this icon .
• Funeral home: Write the name of the funeral home in the space indicated
with this icon. The name of the funeral home must be reproduced exactly
as listed in column two of Annexure A.
• URL: Write the URL of the funeral home exactly as it is indicated in column
three of Annexure A in the space provided next to “URL” on the coding form
(indicated with this icon ).
• Date and Time of coding: The date and time when you start the coding of
the specific website must be recorded in the space provided next to the
“date and time of coding” heading. The date and time must be recorded as
they appear on the taskbar at the bottom, right hand corner of the PC
screen.
• Co-Coder: Please write your initials and surname in the section provided
next to the Co-Coder heading. For example: C.A. Coetzee.

Once Section 1 of the coding form is completed, you can now proceed to complete
Section 2.

Following is a detailed description to the evaluation of each of the criteria listed in

Section 2 of the coding form.

Section 2: Coding of criteria

The criteria in Section 2 are worded to be measured easily and objectively by

coders.

Each website criterion indicator can accommodate only one of two answers: exist
(YES), and does not exist (NO). There are no other options. You are therefore
required to make a decision based on whether the criteria are present in the
website or not.

• If the criteria apply to the website, you are to mark the YES option with a 1.

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 • If the criteria do not apply to the website, you are to mark the NO option
with a 0.
• There can only be one answer per criterion.
• You are under no circumstances allowed to make a 1 and 0 selection to the
same criterion. If you select YES (1), the NO (0) option is to remain blank.
• Refer to Table 2 for an example of how to code the criteria.

Table 2: Example of coding of criteria

Criterion YES (1) NO (0)
Does the criterion apply to the website? 0
Was the information provided helpful? 1

CRITERIA

Following is a list of criteria to which the coding applies to. The criteria are divided
into 3 objectives. Each of these objectives contains of a set of criteria, which is
applicable to the objective.

OBJECTIVE 1: ACCESSIBILITY AND VISIBILITY OF THE WEBSITE

Accessibility is defined as the art of designing Web pages that can be accessible
to Internet users, regardless of any Internet browser that they are using.

C1. Is the existence of the website made known through the Google Chrome
search engine?

• With the Google Chrome home page open, type the name of the funeral
home in inverted commas (“Name”) the search bar, as it is displayed on the
document “List of funeral homes”, Column 2.

• Refer to Figure 1, Reference A and B:

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 o Reference A = The Google Chrome search engine, where the name
of the funeral home as displayed on the document “List of funeral
homes”, Column 2 must be typed in.
o Reference B = When the name of the funeral home is entered in the
search bar, is it displayed in the list generated by Google Chrome
search engine below the search bar?

If the answer to Reference B is yes, the criterion can be coded as YES (1). If
not, it must be coded as NO (0).

• If the name of the funeral home is typed into the Google Chrome search
engine and it does not display as depicted in Figure 1, the answer to C1
must be coded as NO (0).
• In order to proceed, type the URL of the funeral home, as displayed in
Column C of the document “List of funeral homes” in the Google
Chrome search engine and press enter.
• In this instance, C2 and C3 must also be coded as NO (0).
• Continue the coding process from C4 onwards, as instructed.

Figure 1. Google Chrome search engine results page.

Source: Google.co.za

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C2. Is the web address (URL) of the funeral home displayed below the name
of the funeral home on the search result page of Google Chrome?

• Refer to Figure 1, Reference C. If the URL is present, it will be displayed in

green lettering below the name of the funeral home displayed on the
Google Chrome search results page.
• Does the URL correspond to the URL address provided in Column 3 of the
document “List of funeral homes”?

If the corresponding URL is displayed below the name of the funeral home, the
criterion can be coded as YES (1). If not, it must be coded as NO (0).

C3. Can the web site be accessed publicly without any obstacles?

• Click on the name of the funeral home displayed in blue lettering on the
Google Chrome SERP (Search Engine Results Page).

If the website opens when the name of the funeral home (displayed in blue
lettering) is selected the criteria can be coded as YES (1). If not, it must be coded
as NO (0).

C4. Are any fees, registration or application forms required to enter the
website?

• When opening the website from the Google Chrome search page, are you
required to pay any fees, register yourself on the webpage, or complete any
application forms, in order to gain access to the website?

If any of the foregoing is required, the criterion can be coded as YES (1). If not, it
must be coded as NO (0).

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C5. Does the website need plug-ins for full functionality?

• A software plug-in (Figure 2) is an add-on for a program that adds

functionality to it. For example, a Photoshop plug-in (such as Eye Candy)
may add extra filters that you can use to manipulate images. A browser
plug-in (such as Macromedia Flash or Apple QuickTime) allows you to play
certain multimedia files within your Web browser. Most graphics and audio
programs today support plug-ins since they are a convenient way to expand
the capabilities of the program. Though some plug-ins may be shipped with
the program, most are developed by third-parties and are sold separately.
Because companies that make browser plug-ins are often competing for a
standard (such as Flash and QuickTime), these plug-ins are usually
available as free downloads from the Internet.

A typical example
of a plug-in
notification on a
website

Figure 2: An example of a plug-in displayed in Google Chrome

Source: Apple.com

If the website requires a plug-in to function, the criteria can be coded as YES (1).
If not, it must be coded as NO (0).

OBJECTIVE 2: EASE-OF-USE OF THE WEBSITE

Objective 2: Ease-of-use, builds on three components, namely: navigability,
contactability, and interactivity.

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 • First, read through the information on the home page of the website before
continuing to code objective 2.

Objective 2.1: Navigability

Navigability evaluates how easily users may move around the website and find the
information that they require. Good navigation offers easy access to the breadth
and depth of the website’s content. Websites should make good use of
navigational visual devices, such as menus, icons, buttons, and scroll bars in
order to help the navigation of the web content. Users should never feel lost and
therefore, each webpage should be self-sufficient and provide links to the main
contents.

C6. Does the website contain navigation links?

• The navigation link of a website is normally placed on the left or right-hand

side of the pages of the website in a frame or bar, or at the top of the page
(Refer to Figure 3).

Navigation Links
at the top of the
page

Navigation Links on the side of the

page

Figure 3: Example of navigation links at the top of the webpage

Source: ABSA.co.za

• The navigation links differ from website to website, according to the content
of the website. Standard navigation links usually contain the following
navigation options plus additional options provided by the company to
navigate to and from information on the website:

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 o Home
o About us
o Contact us
o Products, etc.

If the website contains navigation links from the main page, the criteria can be
coded as YES (1). If not, it must be coded as NO (0).

C7. Are navigation links provided to and from all pages on the website?

• Each page of the website should contain navigation links.

• The links should start from the main page to different pages on the website.
• Once a different page is accessed on the website, the user must be able to
either navigate back to the main page, or navigate to another page on the
website (refer to Figure 3).
o Figure 4 depicts the “Home” page of Emmanuel Funeral Services.
o If you click on the first option of the home page, “Contact Us”, you
are able to navigate to the page on the website that allows the user
access to the contact information of the funeral home (Figure 5).
o From the “Contact Us” page, you will note that the first option of the
navigation menu has now changed from “Contact Us” to “Home”. If
you click on the “Home” option, you will now be navigated back to
the home page of the website.
• You have to perform the navigation task on each of the navigation links
provided to and from each page on the website in order to conclude if the
navigation links of the website is operational.

If you were able to navigate successfully between all the navigation links of the
website, the criterion can be coded as YES (1). If not, it must be coded as NO (0).

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 Contact us navigation link

Navigation links on the left

hand side of the page

Figure 4: The “Home” page of Emmanuel Funeral Services website

Source: Emmanuelfunerals.co.za

Home navigation
link

Contact form

Figure 5: The “Contact Us” page of the Emmanuel Funeral Services website
Source: Emmanuelfunerals.co.za

Objective 2.2: “Contact ability”

“Contact ability” is the degree to which the contact information of the funeral home
is presented in the website.

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Navigate to the “Contact Us” (or sometimes listed as “Contact” only) page of the
website. Proceed to code criteria C8 to C14.

• Refer to Figure 6 as a reference as to the display of contact information on

a website. The information relates to criteria C8 to C14.

Figure 6: An example of contact information on a website

Source: SAS.com

C8. Does the website provide a telephone number where the funeral home
can be contacted?

C9. Does the website provide a physical street address of the funeral
home?

C10. Does the website provide GPS co-ordinates to the physical location of
the funeral home?

C11. Does the website provide written directions to the physical location of
the funeral home?

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C12. Does the website provide an interactive map to the physical location of
the funeral home?

C13. Does the website provide a name and/or surname of a contact person
at the funeral home?

C14. Does the website provide an e-mail address where the funeral home
can be contacted?

C15. Does the website provide a contact form through which the user can
submit a written enquiry to the funeral home?

• Refer to Figure 5 for an example of how a contact form is constructed on a

website.

If the answer to questions C8 to C15 is YES, the criteria can be coded as YES (1).
If not, they must be coded as NO (0).

Navigate back to the “Home” page of the website. The following set of questions
pertains to the home page of the website only:

Objective 2.3: Interactivity

Interactivity refers to the interaction between users and computers that occurs at
the interface of web sites. Specifically, interactivity allows users to control what
elements are to be delivered and when they are to be delivered through the
interface. It should project the distinct feeling that the user is not reading a
magazine or watching TV any longer.

242
C16. Is a clear and consistent language style used in the text on the website
that is suitable for the South African market?

• English, or any of the other official languages of South Africa, is used to

present information on the website.
• The eleven official languages of South Africa are:
o Afrikaans
o English
o isiNdebele
o isiXhosa
o isiZulu
o Sepedi
o Sesotho
o Setswana
o SiSwati
o Tshivenda
o Xitsonga

If the answer to questions C16 is YES, the criterion can be coded as YES (1). If
not, it must be coded as NO (0).

C17. Does the language use on the website display a professional tone?

• The written content of the website avoids jargon, inappropriate humour,

condescension, accusations and gossip.

If the answer to questions C17 is YES, the criteria can be coded as YES (1). If
not, they must be coded as NO (0).

243
C18. Does the written content contain any racial, cultural, political, and
commercial bias?

If the answer to questions C18 is YES, the criteria can be coded as YES (1). If
not, they must be coded as NO (0).

C19. Does the website provide external links to appropriate resources that
are connected with the business of the funeral home?

• Examples of external links are:

o Funeral insurance
o Clergy that can be contacted to conduct funeral services
o Bereavement-support group contacts
o Bereavement councillors
o Casket suppliers
o Florists
o Graphic designers and printers of memorial letters
o Memorial sites (such as a garden of remembrance, where the ashes
of a deceased can be scattered)
o Churches and chapels

If any of the references listed under C19 appears on the website, the criteria can
be coded as YES (1). If not, they must be coded as NO (0).

C20. Does the website contain any links to social networking sites relating
to the funeral home?

• Examples of social networking sites are Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn,

YouTube, RSS feeds and Google+.
• Refer to Figure 7 for an example of how links to social networking sites
might be depicted on a website.

244
If there are social networking site links on the website, the criteria can be coded as
YES (1). If not, they must be coded as NO (0).

Figure 7: An example of the depiction of social networking sites in a

website.
Source: Bizcommunity.com

C21. When you click on the social networking sites’ links on the funeral
home web page, does it direct you to the social networking site?

• You must select each of the social networking site links present on the
funeral home’s website, in order to test the functionality.

If there are social networking site links present on the website, the criteria for C21
must be coded as NO (0).
If the interactive features are operational, the criteria for C21 can be coded as
YES (1).
If the interactive features are not operational, the criteria for C21 must be coded as
NO (0).

OBJECTIVE 3: PRIVACY AND SECURITY OF THE USER

This objective refers to the sensitive issue of protecting users’ privacy rights. The
user interface represents the user’s experience in using the information, content
and resources of a web site. In terms of website design, the central core of
usability is the user interface that allows the interaction between the user and the
content of a site. User interface and website security are very sensitive issues for
gaining the user’s trust.

245
C22. Does the website provide an explicit statement on how users' privacy
is protected?

• This criterion refers to the extent to which site-use information is provided to

others, or made public.
• The links to the privacy statements must be provided on the home page of
the website. The links to the privacy statements are often found at the
bottom of the home page of the website.
• Refer to Figure 8 to guide you to where to find the privacy statements, and
how they can be displayed on a website.

If the website provides a link to the privacy statement of the funeral home on the
website, the criteria can be coded as YES (1). If not, they must be coded as NO
(0).

Figure 8: An example of where to find a website’s privacy statements and

terms of use.
Source: SAS.com

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C23. When accessing a privacy statement option on the website, does it
direct you to a web page, which displays the funeral home’s privacy
statement in detail?

• Refer to Figure 8 to guide you to where to find the terms of use statement
from the funeral home, and how it can be displayed on a website.

If you were able to navigate successfully to the website’s privacy statement, the
criteria can be coded as YES (1). If not, they must be coded as NO (0).

C24. Does the website provide a statement for terms of use of the website?

• Refer to Figure 8 to guide you to where to find the terms of use statement
from the funeral home, and how it can be displayed on a website.

If the website provides a link to the terms of use statement of the funeral home’s
website, the criteria can be coded as YES (1). If not, they must be coded as NO
(0).

C25. When accessing a privacy statement option on the website, does it

direct you to a web page which displays the funeral home’s terms of use in
detail?

If you were able to navigate successfully to the websites terms of use, the criteria
can be coded as YES (1). If not, they must be coded as NO (0).

C26. Does the website provide a security certificate?

• Refer to Figure 9 below.

• Click once on the security certificate link icon  displayed in the URL bar.
The icon will be displayed in front of the URL address of the website.
• When you click on the security certificate link icon , a security menu will
be displayed (refer to Figures 9 and 10).

247
 If you click on the link to the security certificate icon  and the security menu
is displayed, the criteria can be coded as YES (1). If not, they must be coded
as NO (0).
If the URL does not provide a security certificate link, the criteria must be
coded as NO (0).

Figure 9: Example of where to find the website security link on the URL bar
of a website.
Source: Linkedin.com

Figure 10: An example of how the security information of the website will be
displayed
Source: Linkedin.com

248
C27. Does the name of the funeral home (displayed on the home page of the
website) correlate with the URL of the funeral home?

• Refer to Figure 11 for a graphic representation of the correlation between

the URL and the name of the organisation, as it is displayed on the home
page of the website.

If the URL and the name of the funeral home displayed on the home page of the
website correlates, the criteria can be coded as YES (1). If not, they must be
coded as NO (0).

Figure 11: An example of the correlation between an URL and company

name in a website
(Source: Linkedin.com, 2013)

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ANNEXURE C: Funeral Website Coding Form

Funeral Website Coding Form

Section 1: Demographical Data
Number:
Funeral Home:
URL:
Date of coding: Time of coding:
Coder:
Section 2: Content analysis of the website
Objective Criteria Yes (1) No (0)
C1. Is the existence of the website made known
through the Google Chrome search engine?
C2. Is the web address (URL) of the funeral home
displayed below the name of the funeral home on
the search result page of Google Chrome?
Accessibility C3. Can the web site be accessed publicly without
and Visibility any obstacles?
C4. Are any fees, registration or application forms
required to enter the website?
C5. Does the website need plug-ins for full
functionality?
C6. Does the website contain navigation links?
Ease of Use:
Navigability C7. Are navigation links provided to and from all
pages on the website?
C8. Does the website provide a telephone number
where the funeral home can be contacted?
C9. Does the website provide a physical street
address of the funeral home?
C10. Does the website provide GPS co-ordinates to
the physical location of the funeral home?

Ease of Use: C11. Does the website provide written directions to

Contact ability the physical location of the funeral home?
C12. Does the website provide an interactive map to
the physical location of the funeral home?
C13. Does the website provide a name and/or
surname of a contact person at the funeral home?
C14. Does the website provide an e-mail address
where the funeral home can be contacted?

250
 C15. Does the website provide a contact form
through which the user can submit a written enquiry
to the funeral home?
C16. Is a clear and consistent language style used
in the text on the website that is suitable for the
South African market?
C17. Does the language use on the website display
a professional tone?
C18. Does the written content contain any racial,
cultural, political, and commercial bias?
Ease of Use:
Interactivity C19. Does the website provide external links to
appropriate resources that are connected with the
business of the funeral home?
C20. Does the website contain any links to social
networking sites relating to the funeral home?
C21. When you click on the social networking sites’
links on the funeral home web page, does it direct
you to the social networking site?
C22. Does the website provide an explicit
statement on how users' privacy is protected?
C23. When accessing a privacy statement option
on the website, does it direct you to a web page
which displays the funeral homes privacy statement
in detail?
C24. Does the website provide a statement for
terms of use of the website?
Privacy and
Security of C25. When accessing a privacy statement option
User on the website, does it direct you to a web page
which displays the funeral home’s terms of use in
detail?
C26. Does the website provide a security
certificate?
C27. Does the name of the funeral home (displayed
on the home page of the website) correlate with the
URL of the funeral home?

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ANNEXURE D: NFDA members with active websites

http://www.avalongroup.co/funerals.
1 AVALON FUNERALS
php
2 AVBOB http://www.avbob.co.za

3 CENTURION FUNERAL DIRECTORS http://www.centurionfunerals.co.za

4 COLLINGE & CO. FUNERAL DIRECTORS http://www.collinge.co.za

5 D&M BEGRAFNIS- & KREMATORIUMGROEP http://www.dmbegraf.co.za

6 DOVES http://www.doves.co.za

7 FERN FUNERALS http://www.fernfunerals.co.za

8 FULENI FUNERALS http://fuleni.webs.com/

9 GBA (GROUP BURIAL ASSOCIATION) http://www.gba.co.za

GROBBELAARS & CHURCH STREET FUNERAL http://www.grobbelaarschurchstreet.
10
SERVICES co.za
11 JENNY le ROUX BEGRAFNISDIENSTE http://www.jennyleroux.com

12 KONYANA FUNERAL DIRECTORS http://konyanafunerals.co.za/

13 LIM FUNERALS http://www.limfunerals.co.za

14 MARTIN'S DIRECT http://www.martinsfunerals.co.za

15 OAKLEIGH FUNERAL HOME http://www.oakleigh.co.za

16 OUDTSHOORN FUNERAL HOME http://odnfunerals.wozaonline.co.za/

17 ROSELEIGH FUNERAL HOME http://roseleighfuneralhome.co.za/

http://www.shanleysfuneralhome.co.
18 SHANLEY'S FUNERAL HOME
za
19 SIYAKUBONGA FUNERAL SERVICES http://www.siyakubonga.co.za
http://www.sonjasmith-
20 SONJA SMITH FUNERAL GROUP
funerals.co.za

252
ANNEXURE E: List of funeral homes selected for the pilot study

No Funeral Home Website

1 East Rand Funerals http://www.eastrandfunerals.co.za/
2 Bernard Ives Funerals http://www.bernardivesfunerals.co.za/
3 Collinge & Co http://www.collinge.co.za/Default.aspx
4 High Class Funerals http://highclass-funerals.synthasite.com
5 Thekwini Funerals http://thekwinifunerals.co.za

253
ANNEXURE F: Statistical results of the pilot study
The SAS System

Krippendorff's Alpha Reliability Estimate

res

Alpha Units Obsrvrs Pairs

Nominal 1.0000 135.0000 3.0000 405.0000

Judges used in these computations

nm

OBS1 OBS2 OBS3

Observed Coincidence Matrix

coinct

201.00 0.00

0.00 204.00

254
 Expected Coincidence Matrix

expect

99.50 101.50

101.50 102.50

Delta Matrix

deltat

0.00 1.00

1.00 0.00

Rows and columns correspond to the following unit values

tmap

0.00 1.00

255
ANNEXURE G: Statistical analysis of the data collected

The SAS System

The FREQ Procedure

v1

v1 Frequency Per cent Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Per cent

0 1 5.00 1 5.00

1 19 95.00 20 100.00

v2

v2 Frequency Per cent Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Per cent

0 2 10.00 2 10.00

1 18 90.00 20 100.00

v3

v3 Frequency Per cent Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Per cent

256
 v3

v3 Frequency Per cent Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Per cent

0 2 10.00 2 10.00

1 18 90.00 20 100.00

v4

v4 Frequency Per cent Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Per cent

0 20 100.00 20 100.00

v5

v5 Frequency Per cent Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Per cent

0 19 95.00 19 95.00

1 1 5.00 20 100.00

v6

257
 v6 Frequency Per cent Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Per cent

1 20 100.00 20 100.00

v7

v7 Frequency Per cent Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Percent

1 20 100.00 20 100.00

v8

v8 Frequency Per cent Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Per cent

1 20 100.00 20 100.00

v9

v9 Frequency Per cent Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Per cent

0 1 5.00 1 5.00

1 19 95.00 20 100.00

258
 v10

v10 Frequency Per cent Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Per cent

0 18 90.00 18 90.00

1 2 10.00 20 100.00

v11

v11 Frequency Per cent Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Per cent

0 17 85.00 17 85.00

1 3 15.00 20 100.00

v12

v12 Frequency Per cent Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Per cent

0 11 55.00 11 55.00

1 9 45.00 20 100.00

v13

259
v13 Frequency Per cent Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Per cent

0 8 40.00 8 40.00

1 12 60.00 20 100.00

v14

v14 Frequency Per cent Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Per cent

0 3 15.00 3 15.00

1 17 85.00 20 100.00

v15

v15 Frequency Per cent Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Per cent

0 7 35.00 7 35.00

1 13 65.00 20 100.00

v16

260
v16 Frequency Per cent Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Per cent

1 20 100.00 20 100.00

v17

v17 Frequency Per cent Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Per cent

1 20 100.00 20 100.00

v18

v18 Frequency Per cent Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Per cent

0 20 100.00 20 100.00

v19

v19 Frequency Per cent Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Per cent

0 11 55.00 11 55.00

1 9 45.00 20 100.00

261
 v20

v20 Frequency Per cent Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Per cent

0 14 70.00 14 70.00

1 6 30.00 20 100.00

v21

v21 Frequency Per cent Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Per cent

0 14 70.00 14 70.00

1 6 30.00 20 100.00

v22

v22 Frequency Per cent Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Per cent

0 16 80.00 16 80.00

1 4 20.00 20 100.00

262
 v23

v23 Frequency Per cent Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Per cent

0 15 75.00 15 75.00

1 5 25.00 20 100.00

v24

v24 Frequency Per cent Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Per cent

0 15 75.00 15 75.00

1 5 25.00 20 100.00

v25

v25 Frequency Per cent Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Per cent

0 15 75.00 15 75.00

1 5 25.00 20 100.00

263
 v26

v26 Frequency Per cent Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Per cent

1 20 100.00 20 100.00

v27

v27 Frequency Per cent Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Per cent

1 20 100.00 20 100.00

264
ANNEXURE H: Descriptive analysis of the data

Accessibility & Privacy &

Visibility Navigability Contact ability Interactivity Security

Mean 94 Mean 100 Mean 59.375 Mean 67.5 Mean 49.16666667

Standard Error 1.870828693 Standard Error 0 Standard Error 12.11689715 Standard Error 14.70544117 Standard Error 16.09433993
Median 95 Median 100 Median 62.5 Median 72.5 Median 25
Mode 95 Mode 100 Mode #N/A Mode 100 Mode 25
Standard Standard Standard Standard
Standard Deviation 4.183300133 Deviation 0 Deviation 34.27176055 Deviation 36.02082731 Deviation 39.42292058
Sample Variance 17.5 Sample Variance 0 Sample Variance 1174.553571 Sample Variance 1297.5 Sample Variance 1554.166667
- - - -
Kurtosis 0.612244898 Kurtosis #DIV/0! Kurtosis 1.264048034 Kurtosis 3.107242697 Kurtosis 1.873584946
- -
Skewness 0.512240833 Skewness #DIV/0! Skewness 0.385442882 Skewness 0.089062154 Skewness 0.957513769
Range 10 Range 0 Range 90 Range 70 Range 80
Minimum 90 Minimum 100 Minimum 10 Minimum 30 Minimum 20
Maximum 100 Maximum 100 Maximum 100 Maximum 100 Maximum 100
Sum 470 Sum 200 Sum 475 Sum 405 Sum 295
Count 5 Count 2 Count 8 Count 6 Count 6

265
ANNEXURE I: Data collected for the purpose of this study

GBA (GROUP BURIAL

SHANLEY'S FUNERAL
KREMATORIUMGRO

OAKLEIGH FUNERAL
D&M BEGRAFNIS- &

KONYANA FUNERAL
BEGRAFNISDIENSTE
AVALON FUNERALS

FUNERAL SERVICES

FUNERAL SERVICES
FULENI FUNERALS

MARTIN'S DIRECT

FUNERAL GROUP
GROBBELAARS &
CHURCH STREET
COLLINGE & CO.

FUNERAL HOME

FUNERAL HOME
FERN FUNERALS
Funeral homes

JENNY le ROUX

SIYAKUBONGA
OUDTSHOORN
LIM FUNERALS
ASSOCIATION)

SONJA SMITH
CENTURION

DIRECTORS

DIRECTORS

DIRECTORS

ROSELEIGH
FUNERAL

FUNERAL
AVBOB

DOVES

HOME

HOME
EP
Criter Codi Codi Codi Codi Codi Codi Codi Codi Codi Codi Codi Codi Codi Codi Codi Codi Codi Codi Codi Codi
ia ng ng ng ng ng ng ng ng ng ng ng ng ng ng ng ng ng ng ng ng
1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
3 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
9 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
10 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
11 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
12 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
13 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
14 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
15 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
16 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
17 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
18 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

266
19 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
20 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
21 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
22 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
23 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
24 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
25 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
26 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
27 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

267
268