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ISSAC NEWTON
Sir Isaac Newton (25 December 1642 – 20 March
1726/27) was an English mathematician,
physicist(described in his own day as a "natural
philosopher"), astronomer, theologian, and an
author who is widely recognised as one of the
most influential scientists of all time, and a key
figure in the scientific revolution. His book
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica”("Mathematical Principles of
Natural Philosophy"), first published in 1687, laid
the foundations of classical mechanics. Newton
also made seminal contributions to optics, and
shares credit with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz for
developing the infinitesimal calculus.

In Principia, Newton formulated the laws of

motion and uniersal gravitation that formed
the dominant scientific viewpoint until it was
superseded by the theory of relativity. Newton used his mathematical
description of gravity to prove Kepler’s Laws of planetary motion, account
for tides, the trajectories of comets, the precession of the equinoxes and
other phenomena, eradicating doubt about the Solar System's
heliocentricity. He demonstrated that the motion of objects on Earth and
celestial bodies could be accounted for by the same principles. Newton's
inference that the Earth is an oblate spheroid was later confirmed by the
geodetic measurements of Maupertuis, La Condamine and others,
convincing most European scientists of the superiority of Newtonian
mechanics over earlier systems.
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Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope and developed a

sophisticated theory of colour based on the observation that a prism
separates white light into the colours of the visible spectrum. His work on
light was collected in his highly influential book Opticks, published in 1704. He
also formulated an empirical law of cooling, made the first theoretical
calculation of the speed of sound, and introduced the notion of a Newtonian
fluid. In addition to his work on calculus, as a mathematician Newton
contributed to the study of power series, generalised the binomial theorem
to non-integer exponents, developed a method for approximating the roots
of a function, and classified most of the Cubic plane curves.
Newton was a fellow of Trinity College and the second Lucasian Professor
of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge He was a devout but
unorthodox Christian who privately rejected the doctrine of the Trinity.
Unusually for a member of the Cambridge faculty of the day, he refused to
take holy orders in the Church Of England. Beyond his work on the
mathematical sciences, Newton dedicated much of his time to the study of
alchemy and biblical chronology, but most of his work in those areas
remained unpublished until long after his death. Politically and personally tied
to the Whig Party, Newton served two brief terms as Member of Parliament
for the University of Cambridge , in 1689–90 and 1701–02. He was knighted
by Queen Anne in 1705 and spent the last three decades of his life in
London, serving as Warden (1696–1700) and Master (1700–1727) of the
Royal Mint, as well as president of the Royal Society (1703–1727).
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NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING -

Original statement given by Newton in 1701:
The rate of temperature change of a body is proportional to the difference
in temperatures between the body and its surroundings.
Scientifically modified to match the variations and various conditions.
Statement:
Newton's law of cooling states that the rate of heat loss of a body is
directly proportional to the difference in the temperatures between the body
and its surroundings provided the temperature difference is small and the
nature of radiating surface remains same.

IMPORTANT REFERENCES:
Heat: The energy in transit form hotter body to colder body. It a form of
energy generally most unnoticeable form to say so, it is associated with
dissipative forces like friction, viscosity, impulsive forces etc.
Temperature: the measure of hotness or coldness of a body. It is a
measurable property in science it is generally expressed in terms kelvin
(absolute scale) it is more commonly expressed in general terms of Celsius
or Fahrenheit with appropriated unit factors.

The kelvin scale is known as absolute scale for two major reasons:
1-Its formal character is independent of the properties of particular
materials.
2-Its zero is in a sense ,absolute
Surroundings: All of the universe excluding our system.
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MATHEMATICAL
DERIVATION OF NEWTON’S
LAW OF COOLING :
Consider a body with the following parameters :
• Emissivity – e
• Mass – m
• Surface Area – A
• Temperature of the body - T0
• Temperature of the surroundings = T
ENERGY EMITTED BY THE BODY = eσATAT4
where s is Stefan’s constant.
ENERGY ABSORBED = eσATAT04
➔ Pemitted = e σAT A (T4-T04)
➔ -ms dT/dt = e σAT A (T4- T04)
➔ -dT/dt = (e σAT A/m s) { (T0+ ΔT)T)4 – T04 }
➔ -dT/dt = (e σAT A T04/m s) {(1 + ΔT)T/T0)4 – 1}
ΔT)T<<<T0
(-dT/dt) = k x 4ΔT)T/T0
-dT/dt ∝ ΔT)T
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GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS
The graph which depicts the variation of heat loss with respect to time as
expected must be a continuously decreasing graph where the slope is
increasing till the point of thermodynamic equilibrium which the body attains
in its respective surrounding. The above statement can be simplified as-
the heat flow out of the body occurs till the temperature of the body equals
to that of the surrounding.

(This
graphs the expected trend (from the law).)
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APPLICATIONS :
An understanding of Newton's Law of Cooling has enabled us to
innovate and build in numerous fields. Some if it’s applications are in :
 the construction of quantum computers which use super cooled
conducting chips which is surrounded by gold metallic plates to
enable quicker heat transfer.
 Efficient cooling of electronic devices which get warm due to
excessive conduction.
 It is used in nuclear reactors to prevent overheating of the nuclear
core.
 Scientific purposes like maintaining temperature of organisms to
study them.

A BOMB CALORIMETER USED IN LABORATORIES

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MISCELLANEOUS -
 Common misconceptions about Newton’s law of cooling -Newton's
law does not apply only on "cooling". It applies on every heat exchange
(and cooling is one heat exchange). When you use newton's
law for cooling, you consider one hot body/gas in contact with one
cold gas/body. So your if your hot body is cooling, the gas
is warming (even though this effect may be neglected).
 It applies only to heat transfer through radiation mainly.
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EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF
NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING :

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS -
As shown in the figure, the law of
cooling apparatus has a double walled
container, which can be closed by an
insulating lid. Water filled between
double walls ensures that the
temperature of the environment
surrounding the calorimeter remains
constant. Temperature of the liquid
and the calorimeter also remains
constant for a fairly long period of time
so that temperature measurement is
feasible. Temperature of water in calorimeter and that of water
between double walls of container is recorded by two
thermometers.

EXPERIMENT JOURNAL -
The experimental verification of Newton's Law of Cooling was
fairly simple and we had no trouble performing the experiment. It
was very insightful and engaging and gave us an intuitive sense of
what we had already mathematically proven.
The apparatus used is already described in the paragraph given
above. We used a calorimeter and two scientific thermometers
alongside a host of other general laboratory equipment to perform
this experiment. The following bulleted points account the
procedure we employed :
• Firstly, we found the least counts of the thermometers (say
T1 and T2). After that some water was poured into the
calorimeter and it’s temperature recorded.
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• We required an accurate stopwatch to keep time. So we

selected a stopwatch and recorded it’s least count and zero
error.
• We poured some more water into the double-walled
enclosure of the calorimeter and inserted T2 into it. The
temperature was recorded yet again. We heated the water in
the calorimeter seperately to a temperature of about 400 C
above the room temperature and poured it back into the
calorimeter.
• We noted the temperature of the water within the double-
walled enclosure when it was 300 C lower than the heated
water.
• The water within the enclosure was gently, but constantly
stirred. The temperatures of the water in both, the
calorimeter and the enclosure, noted after intervals of about
two minutes.
• We tabulated all of our readings.
• The experiment was concluded once the temperature
difference was 50 C. A graph was drawn between the
temperature difference and time.
CONCLUSIONS DRAWN -
Once the graph was drawn, it seemed that the graph
between temperature difference and time was an exponential
decay graph. On drawing a graph between the log of the
temperature difference and time, a roughly linear graph was
obtained, thus confirming our suspicions.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT-

The success and final outcome of this project required a lot of

guidance and assistance from many people and I am extremely
privileged to have got this all along the completion of my project. All
that I have done is only due to such supervision and assistance and I
would not forget to thank them.

I respect and thank Mr.Dheeraj (who also teaches us physics) for

providing me an opportunity to do the project work I,and giving us all
support and guidance which made me complete the project duly. I am
extremely thankful to him for providing such a nice support and
guidance, although he had a busy schedule.

We would not forget to remember our seniors for their encouragement

and more over for their timely support and guidance till the completion
of our project work.

We would also extend thanks to our class teacher , Ms. Kalpana and
our principal, Dr.Arokiaraj for serving as inspiration throughout.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY-
Wikipedia – Biography of Newton
Alamy Stock Photos – Bomb Calorimeter
Carolina.com- Definitions and References
NCERT Physics Lab Manual – Guide for the experiment.