ABSTRACT

Transformers are critical and capital intensive assets for utility industry. Although the
transformers are very reliable, many in use today have exceeded their life It is broadly
accepted that the life of a power transformer is the life of the oil/ paper insulating system,
whilst accepting also the fact that most failures in their final form result from an
electro/mechanical base such as a surge or short circuit condition or a mechanical failure.

Paper ageing is a process involving both chemical and physical changes causing a
loss of both mechanical and electrical strength in the cellulose. Deterioration of both the
paper and transformer oil is caused by number of factors including oxidation accelerated by
high temperatures, air and moisture. The oil oxidation will lead to acids and par oxides
production. These compounds are introduced into the system along with additional water
also produced from this reaction.

The ageing of insulation in Transformers is influenced by short term and long term
over loads, Number and intensity of short –circuits, incidence of lightning, and internal
faults. The ageing behavior is likely to be different for different types of transformers. The
life span of the transformer, thus, depends initially on the design, and quality of
manufacture, and later on service conditions and maintenance standard these factors vary
considerably and affect the useful span of service life which therefore needs to be taken
into account for residual life assessment. During the natural ageing of transformers, the
insulation of winding, which is cellulose paper, deteriorates. Such deterioration can be well
assessed by subjecting the cellulose paper to various tests. Cellulose insulation degrades
due to heating or electrical Breakdown, resulting in the production of furfural derivatives,
which dissolve in oil. Hence, the chemical analysis of the Transformer oil gives evidence of
changes that are taking Place in the winding insulation during operating.

DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES FOR LIFE conventional analytical techniques in

ESTIMATION terms of data interpretation. The
techniques generally followed are
Different techniques have been
summarized below.
developed to estimate the life of
transformer winding insulation. Some of
 Estimation From CO2 and CO
the methods are mere extensions of

1
  Estimation from furfural 1 Sludge value 120%
2 Acidity after 25 mg
 Oil sample collection oxidation(max)
KOH
 Paper sample collection 3 Flash point 2940
F( 146.1
 Estimation from degree of
0 C)
polymerization 4 Viscosity at 700 F 37
5 Pour point -250F
6 Specific gravity No limit
OIL SAMPLE COLLECTION 7 Saponification 1.0 mg
value KOH/g
The oil sample is generally taken 8 Electric 40
from the bottom valve of the transformer. strength( 1min)
depending on the oil quality and furfural
content, it can be decided whether REQUIREMENTS OF INSULATING OIL
collection of further oil samples for
The three main functional requirements
ascertaining the status of transformer are of insulating oil are:
required. Approximately five liter of the oil
is to be collected in stainless steel
bottles/glass bottles by following relevant
 To meet the insulation function,
standard procedures. Oil sample may be
the oil has high dielectric
required a minimum three times of over a
strength and low dissipation
period of 6-8 months time during the
factor to withstand electric
transformer in service, to ascertain the
stresses imposed in service.
rate of rise of furfural
 To meet heat transfer and
cooling function the oil must

TRANSFORMER OIL have viscosity and pour point

that are sufficiently low to ensure
One of the main insulators that the oil circulation is not
which are used in a transformer is oil. Oil impaired at the most extreme low
serves the main function as well as temperature conditions for the
coolant. Since the life of a transformer on equipment.
the life of the oil, priority is given to the
quality and stability of the oil.

The oil filled transformer should have

the following properties:-

S. Characteristics Limit
No.

2
  To meet the arc quenching  The oil must not contain levels
of Contamination by an
function, the oil requires a
individual Metal.
combination of high dielectric
 The Density of oil has to be low
strength, low viscosity and high
enough to ensure that ice
flash point to provide sufficient
cannot float on the oil surfaces
insulation and cooling to ensure
at very low temperatures and
arc is extinguished.
cause internal flashover.

THE GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

 The Dielectric Dissipation
The more general requirements are, in Factor (the tangent of loss
many cases, related to and angle and commonly referred to
interdependent with the three main as tan delta) has to be
functional requirements, and oil needs to sufficiently low to ensure that the
have the general following properties: dielectric losses are small and
that the oil thus provides
 The oil must have low Acidity
satisfactory insulating
(Neutralization Value) to
properties.
eliminate the risk of sludge
formation and corrosion.
 The Flash Point need to be
sufficiently high to eliminate the
 Anti Oxidant Additives
risk of ignition of vapours above
(inhibitors) such as 2, 6-di-
the oil during maintenance or in
tertbutyl-p-cresol (DBPC) slows
service.
down the oxidation of oil. The
content of antioxidant in oil
 The unused oil must have low
depletes during the service life
Furan content, otherwise the
of the oil and therefore it is
effectiveness of condition
important to monitor .Oil are
monitoring by trend assessment
grouped in to three classes
of furan content is impaired.
depend upon antioxidant content
as uninhibited, trace inhibited
 The oil must have high
and inhibited.
Interfacial Tension (IFT) to

 The Breakdown Voltage should ensure the absence of polar

be sufficiently high to provide compounds in the oil and

dielectric strength to prevent oil suitability of oil for use as

under electrical stresses. insulating material.

3
 Mix Ability: Unused mineral
insulating oil of the same class,
the same groups are considered
to be mixable and compatible
with each other.
 The oil must have low
Polycyclic Aromatic (PCA)
carbon content to meet the
requirements of healthy and
safety legislation.

 The Moisture content of the oil

 The Pour Point is related to
must be low, otherwise the
viscosity and needs to be low
electric strength of the oil will be
enough to ensure that oil flows
impaired and moisture will be
satisfactorily under low
absorbed in any insulating
temperature conditions
paper, reducing insulation life
and increasing the risk of
 The oil must have low Sulphur
dielectric breakdown. Content and contain no
corrosive sulphur.
 The Oxidation Stability of the
 The Viscosity of oil needs to be
oil must be high to reduce
low enough to ensure the oil
oxidation process in service,
flows under all temperature
which degrades the oil,
(particularly low) conditions thus
producing sludge and acids.
providing necessary cooling and
These can reduce the
arc quenching properties.
effectiveness of cooling and
cause general internal  Of various insulating fluid
deterioration and eventual options, available to user,
failure. mineral insulating oil has for the
vast majority of situation proven
 The oil must have a low Particle
to be most cost effective choice
Size and Count and low fiber
and meets the above functional
content as the presence of such
requirements.
contaminants, especially in the
presence of moisture, can
SAMPLING OF INSULATING OIL FOR
considerably reduce the electric
TRANSFORMER
strength.

 Sampling should be performed

 The oil must have undetectable
on a sunny day. Do not sample
Polychlorinated Biphenyl
when humidity is above 75%.
(PCB) content to meet the
 The oil should be at least as
requirements of healthy and
wars as ambient temperature.
safety legislation.
Cold oil could condense moisture
from humid air and give poor

4
 results.
 The oil sample should be
obtained from the bottom drain
valve.Do not attempt to sample if
the transformer is under negative
pressure.
 The sampling valve must be
cleaned prior to sampling.
 Flush drain valve with sufficient
oil to remove stagnant oil from
the valve and drain pipe(1/2 to 1
gallon of oil).The oil sample must
be representative,ie, oil which is
circulating within the transformer.
samples are as follows-
Chemical tests
1. Moisture Content test
2. acidity test
Electrical tests
1. Breakdown test
2. Resistivity analysis
3. Particles Analysis test
4. Flash point and Fire point
MOISTURE CONTENT ANALYSIS
The effects of moisture on the

 Rinse the jar several times with insulation in old transformers have

the oil to be tested before become a major focus for investigations

obtaining the actual sample. into transformer failures. The solid

 Fill the 650 ml jar ¾ “from the tap insulation used in transformers is

to allow oil expansion or usually cellulose based. Whereas

contraction. Transformer oil is made by refining a

 Fill out the information tag fraction of the hydrocarbons collected

completely and attach it to the during the distillation of a petroleum

sampling bottle immediately crude stock. The temperature range and

following sampling. operating conditions are chosen

according to parameters of the
transformer in which the oil is used. As
In this analysis we have used oil solid insulation ages, the polymer
sample collection methodology for ageing structure breaks down, slowly releasing
analysis of transformer. For this analysis water into the insulating oil. If the
we visit in Vinoba Bhabhe Kanchghar transformer fluid cannot absorb this
Substation. There we saw 40 MVA water it remains within the windings.
Power Transformer . Its having voltage
rated 132 KV/33KV . Moisture contamination is one of

From that transformer we the most common causes of

collected the oil sample Perform the test deterioration in the insulating quality of

in high voltage lab in electrical oil. This contamination can be

department & chemistry lab in chemistry eliminated by purification. A less rapid

department. but more serious characteristic

The tests that we have performed on oil deterioration, the formation of acids and

5
 sludge, is caused by oxidation. Thus,
the exclusion of oxygen is of prime
importance. The rate of oxidation also
depends on the temperate of the oil; the
higher the temperature, the faster the
oxidative breakdown. This fact points to
the importance of avoiding overloading
of transformers, especially in the
summertime. Oxidation results in
 In the formation of acids in the
insulating oil
 In the formation of sludge.
Moisture can be present in oil (a)
in a dissolved form, (b) as tiny droplets
mixed with the oil (emulsion), or (c) in a
free state at the bottom of the container
holding the oil. Demulsification occurs
when the tiny droplets unite to form larger
drops which sink to the bottom and form
a pool of free water. Emulsified water or
water in the free state may be readily
removed by filtering or centrifugal
treatment; the filtration process can
partially remove dissolved water if the
filter papers are thoroughly dried before
filtration and are replaced frequently.
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON
MOISTURE
The amount of moisture which can
be dissolved in oil increases rapidly as
the oil temperature increases. Therefore,
insulating oil purified at too high a
temperature may lose a large percentage
of its dielectric strength on cooling
because the dissolved moisture is then
changed to an emulsion.
NEGATIVE EFFECT OF MOISTURE
Deterioration in transformer
cellulose decreases both its electrical
and mechanical strength. In general, the
greater the water content the more the
mechanical strength reduces.Mineral oil
has a very limited capacity to absorb
moisture. Most of the water produced
during ageing remains in the windings,
reducing the insulation resistance of the
transformer.It also reduces the
transformer’s ability to withstand the
mechanical and electrical stresses that
occur in operation additionally, high
levels of moisture can effectively reduce
the dielectric strength of the mineral oil.
Over time this will result in outages
and/or the necessary down rating of the
transformer and ultimately could result in
complete failure.
While preparing this study we have
used 831 KF Coulometer manufactured
by Metrohm Ltd, Switzerland.
PRINCIPLE OF KF COULOMETRIC
DETERMINATIONS
The coulometric Karl Fischer
titration is as version of the classical
water determination method by Carl
Fischer. The traditional method utilizes a
methanolic solution of iodine, sulpher
dioxide and a base as buffer. Several
reactions run in the titration of water –
containing sample and can be
6
summarized by the following overall
equation:
H2O+ I2 + [RNH]SO3CH3 + 2 RN ↔
[RNH]SO4CH3 + 2 [RNH]
According to the above equation, I2
reacts quantitatively with H2O.This
chemical relation forms the basis of the
water determination.
In the coulometric Karl Fischer titration,
the iodine needed is generated directly in
the electrolyte by electrochemical means
(“electronic buret”).the rigorously
quantitative relationship between the
electric charge and the amount of iodine
generated is used for high-precision
dispensing of the iodine. As the
Fig 1: 831 KF Coulometer
We have analyzed two samples
using 831 Coulometer, the first sample of
from Vinoba Bhabhe Kanchghar
Substation. 45 ppm/cc which shows the
oil is severely damaged and should be
coulometer Karl Fischer is an absolute
determination no titer need be
determined. It is necessary only to
ensure that the reaction which generates
the iodine runs with 100% current
efficiency. With the reagents available
today this is always the case.
The end point is indicated voltrametrically
by applying an alternating current of
constant strength to strength to a double
Pt electrode. This results in a voltage
difference between the Pt wires of the
indicator electrodes which is drastically
lowered in the presence of minimal
quantities of free iodine. This fact is used
to determine the end point of the titration.
replaced.
The second sample of from same
substation have 28ppm/cc which is near
to the permissible limit of moisture
7
content and thus can be used without The third oil sample of from same
replacement. substation have 78 ppm/cc.

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURE OF 831 COULOMETER

Acidity of oil is a measure of the

ACIDITY ANALYSIS acidic constituents in the oil. Its value,
negligible in an unused oil, increase as a
result of oxidative ageing and as a

8
general guide for determining when an oil
should be replaced or reclaimed,
provided suitable rejection limits have
been established and confirmation is
Fig 2: Process of Oil Contamination
Normally the transformer have
uninhibited oil. Sometimes inhibited oil is
used. The inhibitor works so that it
breaks the chain reaction by which
sludge & acid are produced.
If sludge is produced in oil, the oil
changes color and become darker and
turbid. The sludge can be removed by
means of filtration but if sludge formation
has it would increase with time. The oil
exchange should preferably be carried
out when transformer is warm and oil
viscosity is low.
Transformer oils deteriorate with
time. High operating temperatures, the
presence of oxygen and water combined
with the catalytic action of the materials
within the transformer, result in oxidation
and cracking of the oil. The by-products
of oxidation are acidic and the long-term
effect of these by-products results in an
exponential increase in deterioration of
the transformer and its oil. The resulting
received from other tests. Oil with high
neutralization value affects the winding &
paper.
sludge build-up reduces the cooling
effects of the oil driving the whole decay
mechanism at an increasingly
accelerated rate.
New transformer oils contain
practically no acids if properly refined.
The acidity test measures the content of
acids formed oxidation. The oxidation
products polymerize to form sludge which
then precipitates out. Acids react with
metals on the surfaces inside the tank
and form metallic soaps, another form of
sludge. Sludging has been found to begin
when the acid number reaches or
exceeds 0.4, and 0.4 is considered to be
the normal service limit. New oil has as
acid number of less than 0.05. The acid
number (formerly referred to as
neutralization number) equals the
milligrams of KOH (potassium hydroxide)
required to neutralize the acid contained
in 1 gram of oil. On the basis of this,
equal loading test cycles and other
9
 assumptions, it has been estimated that
50
different types of transformers would take
years
the following periods of time before
67
sludge would appear:
years

While the above periods may not

Transformers with free air access 10 correspond to actual field examples due

Transformers with conservators years to different load conditions than those

Transformers bolted tight 15 assumed, they are illustrative of the

Transformers with nitrogen over oil years relative periods of serviceability for the
different types of transformers

For this study we have used 702 SM Titrino manufactured by Metrohm Ltd.

Fig 3 : 702 SM Titrino

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURE OF 702 SM TITRINO

10
11
12
 ANALYSIS OF SUSPENDED range between 2 and 100 µm can be
PARTICLES AND THEIR EFFECT ON
determined in less than a minute. The
BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE
Spectrex instrument also counts
aggregates as large particles. With care
A Spectrex counter has been used reasonably good agreement has been
to make particle count measurements in obtained between the Royco and
liquid held in transparent containers up to Spectrex counters. The relatively large
a maximum of 200 mm in depth. The liquid volume with which the Spectrex
Spectrex counter uses a helium-neon counter can be used has made it
laser beam which is focused to a small, possible to determine the influence of
defined volume (10 ml) within the liquid. voltage stress and other factors on the
Total particle count over a predetermined particle count.
Fig 4 : PC 2200 Laser Particle Counter

The Spectrex counter permitted for the increased in 5kV steps to 25kV. The
first time a particle count in oil while voltage was then decreased similarly in
voltage stress was simultaneously 5kv steps. No particles were purposely
applied. To stay within the liquid depth added to the "clean" oil but particle
limit of the counter, special test cells motion between the electrodes could be
were built In one cell a ½" dia. clearly seen in the red laser beam of the
hemisphere was spaced from another Spectrex counter (The oil was not stirred
such electrode in horizontal alignment as it is in the ASTM D1816 test so that
The spacing was at least 2 mm to permit particle motion induced by voltage stress
the laser beam to be focused directly could be observed). The particle count
between the electrodes. increased as voltage was increased. The
particle motion back and forth between
Particle count was measured
the electrodes also could be observed to
without voltage and after one minute
increase with voltage. However, as the
intervals as the DC voltage was
voltage was decreased, the particles

13
appeared to stay suspended for some particle concentration started to increase
time. In Fig. 1 the voltage was raised as at 10kV but no partial discharges (above
fast as the counting time would permit In 2pC) were observed below 35kV.
other tests the DC voltage was raised
Progress has been made in
much more slowly without greatly
characterizing the shape of particles
influencing the results. However, with AC
removed from transformer oil and in
voltage the time of voltage application at
recognizing the possibility that small
a fixed voltage does influence the particle
particles may agglomerate to form large
count as shown in Fig. 2. The oscillatory
particles. These large agglomerates may
particle motion observed in the laser
also break up to smaller particles under
beam differs markedly from the back and
both mechanical and electrical stress.
forth motion with DC.
The parameters of these competitive
The visual observations in the laser processes have not been defined.
beam were as instructive as the particle However, the processes may well be
count. Particle chains were not observed responsible for the apparently
with AC voltage even when particles contradictory test results that have been
were purposely added or were produced obtained in some cases.
by voltage breakdowns. With DC, the
With both alternating and direct voltage,
carbonaceous particles after a
particle motion starts at 5% or less of the
breakdown sometimes did line up in a
breakdown voltage. On the other hand,
"chain" so as to almost completely bridge
measurable corona occurs only at
the gap. However, as the DC voltage
voltages above 80% of the breakdown
approached breakdown the particle
voltage. With alternating stress and the
"bridge" between the electrodes became
electrode geometries investigated,
unstable and broke up before voltage
steady corona sometimes does not occur
breakdown occurred.
before voltage breakdown. Particle
It has been possible to combine concentration in high field region tends
Spectrex particle count and partial first to increase as voltage stress
discharge measurements, as illustrated increases; then, at higher stresses or
by the results in Fig. 6. For this purpose, with time, particles tend to be drawn out
a needle to plane gap was used with a 25 of the high stress areas at the center of
mm spacing which could be made corona the electrodes.
free up to about 50kV and still meet the
size limitation for particle counting. For Since these measurements have all

this geometry, no increase in particle been made in oil alone with relatively

count and no corona was observed with small electrode gaps, the pertinence to

AC stress before breakdown. With a design. test and service performance is

positive DC voltage on the needle, thereby limited. The relatively greater

14
influence of particles and the lower
breakdown strength with direct voltage
compared with alternating voltage does
suggest that conservative design and
care in manufacture may be especially
important with such DC apparatus. The
results suggest, also, that corona in oil
(as distinct from gas-filled voids) may be
more likely to occur under direct than
alternating voltage.
.The larger and conducting particles
decrease the break down voltage. Also it
is concluded by analysis of different
samples of transformer oil that the
dissolved particle size increases after
thermal treatment of the good oil as the
suspended particles get combined and
form the bigger size particle and hence
total count become less. Thus Break
down Voltage (BDV) decreases by
increase of particle size.
In case of deteriorated or waste oil
their may be some dissolved particles
which may removed after thermal
treatment and gives just opposite results;
the break down strength of the waste oil
without thermal treatment found less and
after it’s heating up to 90 degree
centigrade it’s breakdown strength
becomes improved. Also after thermal
treatment the mean size of
suspended particle reduces as
particles may break due to thermal
stress. Also as result of analysis shows in
table III the size of the particle decreases
the BDV increases. This shows that with
the increase in particle size the BDV
decreases where as with the decrease in
particle size the BDV increases.
PRINCIPLE OF WORKING
Spectrex provides three
sealed calibration standards with each
unit. Each standard contains a precise
number of NIST traceable polystyrene
spheres of known size in suspension and
are sealed with inert Argon gas. These
standards have a proven stability of more
than 10 years and Provide efficient
calibration within 10 minutes. The
specifications of the instrument are as
follows-
 Size: 4.75 " x 14 " x 4.5 “(height
with Light Tight Cover is 5”)
 Bottle material: transparent,
scratch free glass
 Power: 115v 60Hz
 Detectable particle size: from 0.5
μm to 100μm
Spectrex laser particle Counter
utilizes the principle of "near angle light
scatter"; a revolving laser beam passes
through the walls of a glass container of
a flow-thru cell. When it is directed
the
through a central "sensitive zone" the
the
PC-2200 not only counts the particle in
suspension, but tabulates their size as
well.
15
We had taken two samples from same Bhabhe 40MVA 132/33kv transformer,
transformers and analyzed them with PC- kanchghar, Jabalpur
2200 under various conditions. The
results are given as follow:- Particulars Properties

Total counts 281.00/cc

Table :First Oil sample of Vinobha Specific 1.00

Bhabhe 40MVA 132/33kv transformer, gravity

Mean size 8.72 μm
kanchghar, Jabalpur Break down 35 kv
Particulars Properties voltage

Total counts 881.00/cc

Specific gravity 1.00ppm Table:Third Oil sample of
Mean size 12.82 μm Vinobha Bhabhe 40MVA
Break down voltage 20 kv
132/33kv transformer,
kanchghar, Jabalpur

Table: Second Oil sample of Vinobha

16
17
Particulars Properties
Total counts 267.00
cc
Specific gravity 1.00
Mean size 9.16
μm
Break down voltage 30 kv

18
Particle size Graph of Oil Sample of
Vinobha Bhabhe 40MVA 132/33kv
transformer, kanchghar, Jabalpur

BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE TEST

19
FACTORS CONTROLING & very low power factor varying between
AFFECTING THE BREAKDOWN 10^-4 at 20 degree and 10^-3 at 90
STRENGTH OF THE TRANSFORMER degree at a frequency of 50 Hz.
OIL

 Capacitance per unit volume or

relative permittivity. Dielectric Strength
 Resistively. The dielectric strength depends on
 Loss Tangent (Tan d) or power the atomic and molecular properties of
factor which is an indication of the liquid itself .However, under practical
power loss under a.c voltage conditions the dielectric strength
application. depends on the material of the
 Dielectric strength electrodes, temperature , type of applied
voltage, gas content in the liquid .,which
Relative Permittivity change the dielectric strength by
Permittivity of most of the changing the molecular properties of the
transformer oils is vary from 2.0 to 2.6.In liquid.
case of polar liquids i.e. transformer oil,
the permittivity is independent of PURIFICATION OF TRANSFORMER
frequency but in case of non polar liquids OIL
such as water it changes with frequency
like permittivity 0f water is 78 at 50 Hz The main impurities in dielectrics
and reduces to about 5.0 at one MHz. are dust, moisture, dissolved gases and
ionic impurities which reduces the
 Restivity breakdown strength of oil Dust Particles
 Resistivities of insulating liquids when present become charged and
used for high voltage applications should reduce the breakdown strength of the
be more than 10^16 ohm meter and most liquid dielectrics, and they can be
of the liquids in their pure state exhibit removed by careful filtration Gases like
this property. oxygen and carbon dioxide significantly
affect the breakdown strength of the
Power Factor liquids, and hence it is necessary to
Power factor is a measure of the control the amount of gas present which
power loss and is an important parameter is done by distillation and degassing.
in a cable and capacitor systems.
However, in the case of transformers, the
BREAKDOWN TEST OF THE
dielectric loss in the oil is negligible when
TRANSFORMER OIL
compared to copper and iron losses.
Pure and dry transformer oil will have a

20
 Breakdown test are normally
conducted using test cells. For testing
pure liquids, the test cells used are small
so that less quantity of liquid is used
during testing .The electrodes used for
breakdown voltage measurements are
usually spheres of 0.5 to 1 cm in
diameter with gap spacing of about 100-
200mm. The gap is accurately controlled
by using a micrometer. Sometimes
parallel plane uniform field electrode
systems are also used. Electrode
separation is very critical in
measurements with liquids, and also the
electrode surface smoothness and the
presence of oxide films have a marked
influence on the breakdown strength .The
test voltages required for these tests are
usually low, of the order of 50-100kV,
because of small electrode spacing .The
breakdown strengths and d.c.
conductivities obtained in pure liquids are
very high, of the order of 1MV/cm and
10^-18 to 10^-20 mho/cm respectively.

lower temperature only, and the oil is

therefore less likely to be restored to a
RESISTIVITY TEST satisfactory level by drying and low
temperature filtration The D.C. resistivity
test is used to determine the quality of
The resistivity of a liquid is a
transformer oil in service. It is found that
measure of its electrical insulating
water droplets in oil oscillate between the
properties under conditions comparable
measuring electrodes in a D.C. field,
to those of the test. High resistivity
transferring charge and giving rise to a
reflects low content of free ions and ion-
high conductivity. As the test temperature
forming particles and normally indicates a
is raised, oil dissolves more water and
low concentration of conductive
the quantity held in suspension
contaminants.
decreases with consequent decrease of
These characteristics are very sensitive
conductivity. This results in an inverted V
to the presence in the oil of soluble
resistivity-temperature characteristic.
contaminants and ageing
Solid conducting particles such as carbon
products.Resistivity is normally carried
give rise to high conductivity and a
out at ambient temperature but useful
resistivity-temperature characteristic
additional information can be obtained if
parallel to, but of lower level than, new
the test is carried out at ambient and a
oil. The conductivity is proportional to the
higher temperature such as 90degrees
square of the electric stress, the quantity
celcius.Unsatisfactory results at both
of conducting matter and inversely
temperatures indicate a greater extent of
proportional to the viscosity.
contamination than a poor value at the

21
 independent balancing of the Є and DF
components. The Є-DF tests are carried
out w.r.t. line frequency.
The Resistivity meter is auto
ranging with the reading displayed on 3½
digits DPM. Once the cell Constant is
Fig 7: Restivity test set, DTR –
3K,manufactured by Eltel Industries balanced with the cm dial, the Resistivity
meter reads volume Resistivity directly in
DESCRIPTION
ohm-centimeters. With the cm dial set to
The Dielectric Constant, Tan Delta
1000, the Resistivity meter reads
& Resistivity Test Set has been specially
resistance in ohms multiplied by a factor
designed to determine the Tan Delta,
of 1000. The auto ranging feature
Dielectric Constant and Resistivity of
eliminates the need for selecting the right
transformer oil and other electrical
range manually.
insulating liquids using a guarded three
terminal test cell. This may also be used
for measurement of the above
parameters of solid insulating materials
using a guarded three terminal solid test
cell.
Specifications
There are built-in safety features
which include zero start on voltage
adjustment, auto trip with LED indication
if two grounds are not connected, auto
trip with LED indication if safety interlock
is opened and built-in protection should
the test sample flash over.
The Є (Epsilon) - DF portion of
the instrument operates as a manually
balanced capacitance bridge. Since Є is
ratio of the full cell capacitance to the
empty cell Capacitance (in cm) must be
dialed in or be balanced out by using the
balancing procedure. The cell constant
(in cm) equals 3.6 x∏x1xC, where C is
the cell Capacitance in pF. The bridge
balance is accomplished with the aid of
synchronous and phase sensitive null
detector which allows easy and

22
S.N SPECIFICATIO RANGES 90O C in 15 mins approximately. A knob
O NS and a dial are provided to set the
1. ACCURACY ± 3% of
temperature at required level. A
reading ±
0.2% FS temperature sensing probe is supplied
linear
and this senses the temperature and
2. RESOLUTION 0.01 of
each stops heating the oil once the set
range.
temperature is reached. Two LEDs are
3. CELL 3 digit
CONSTANT adjustmen provided to indicate ‘heating on’ and
t for Tan
‘heating off’. To ensure safety the built-in
Delta zero
and micro switch interlock automatically trips
OIL
Capacitan
out the high voltage when the plexi cover
ce (cm).
Any cell or of the heater is raised.
test fixture
between
Specifications
50-70pF
can be
S.NO SPECIFICATIONS RANGES
used.
1 POWER SUPPLY 230 V AC
4. TEST +500 V
± 10%, 50
VOLTAGE DC-Fixed
Hz OR 110
5. POWER 230 V AC V AC ±
SUPPLY
± 10%, 10%, 60
Hz, 200VA
50Hz, OR 2 TEMPERATURE 20 -110O
110 V AC RANGE C
±10%, 3 ACCURACY OF ±2 Oc
TEMP. CONTROL
60Hz, 150 4 DIMENSION 310 x 190
VA. x 300mm
6. TEMPERATUR 5 WEIGHT Approx 12
-10OC to
E RANGE kgs
90OC
7. HUMIDITY Ambient
to 90%
RH OIL TEST CELL
8. DIMENSION 19”
standard This 3 Terminal Oil Test Cell is
rack
mounts designed for routine and laboratory Tan
chassis. Delta tests on transformer oils and other
9. WEIGHT Approx
electrical insulating liquids. The electrode
17 kgs
of the cell is designed with a spherical
TEST CELL HEATER
bottom which offers more uniform stress
The Oil Test Cell Heater OCH-85 is a on the oil as compared to electrode with
very compact unit and is used to heat the tapered end.
oil in the cell to the required temperature.
This uses high frequency induction
heating which raises the temperature to

23
Fig 10: Restivity

Fig 9 : Oil Test Cell

Specifications

S.N SPECIFICATION RANGES This calibration box is used to routinely

O S check and inspect the Test Set. The

3 terminal portable calibrator offers one
i. CONSTRUCTION
configuratio Capacitance three Tan Delta and four
n
Resistivity values. The maximum
Stainless
ii. MATERIAL operating voltage is 500V AC / DC.
Steel Body
(SS 316)
with Teflon
spacers
iii. CAPACITANCE 50-70pF
iv. ELECTRODE 2mm

SPACING
v. VOLUME 45ml
vi. DIMENSION 90mm X
185mm
vii. WEIGHT Approx
2.5Kgs

RESISTIVITY CALIBRATOR
FLASH POINT AND FIRE POINT

The flash point of a flammable

liquid is the lowest temperature at which
it can form an ignitable mixture in air. At
this temperature the vapor may cease to
burn when the source of ignition is

24
removed. A slightly higher temperature,
the fire point, is defined
temperature at which the vapor continues
to burn after being ignited. Neither of
these parameters is related to the
temperatures of the ignition source or of
the burning liquid, which are much
higher. The flash point is often used as
one descriptive characteristic of liquid
fuel, but it is also used to describe liquids
that are not used intentionally as fuels.
MECHANISM
Every flammable liquid has a vapor
pressure, which is a function of that
liquid's temperature. As the temperature
increases, the vapor pressure increases.
As the vapor pressure increases, the
concentration of evaporated flammable
liquid in the air increases.
temperature determines
concentration of evaporated flammable
liquid in the air under equilibrium
conditions. Different flammable liquids
require different concentrations in air to
sustain combustion. The flash point is
that minimum temperature at which there
is a sufficient concentration
evaporated fuel in the air for combustion
to propagate after an ignition source has
been introduced. Flash point is basically
the lowest temperature at which there is
enough fuel vapours to ignite.
MEASURING FLASH POINTS
There are two basic types of flash point
measurement:
 OPEN CUP DEVICE
 CLOSED CUP DEVICE
In open cup devices the sample is
as the contained in an open cup (hence the
name) which is heated, and at intervals a
flame is brought over the surface. The
measured flash point will actually vary
with the height of the flame above the
liquid surface, and at sufficient height the
measured flash point temperature will
coincide with the fire point. Examples
include Cleveland Open Cup and
Pensky-Martens open cup. The main
difference being that the former is heated
from below, while the later is heated from
the sides as well as below.
Closed cup testers, of which the
Pensky-Martens closed cup is one
example, are sealed with a lid through
which the ignition source can be
Hence, introduced periodically. The vapour
the above the liquid is assumed to be in
reasonable equilibrium with the liquid.
Closed cup testers give lower values for
the flash point (typically 5-10 K) and are
a better approximation to the temperature
at which the vapour pressure reaches the
Lower Flammable Limit (LFL).
of
The flash point is an empirical
measurement rather than a fundamental
physical parameter. The measured value
will vary with equipment and test protocol
variations, including temperature ramp
rate (in automated testers), time allowed
for the sample to equilibrate, sample
volume and whether the sample is
stirred.
PENSKY-MARTEN’S CLOSED CUP
In the Pensky-Martens closed cup
25
flash point test, a brass test cup is filled
with a test specimen and fitted with a
cover. The sample is heated and stirred
at specified rates depending on what it is
that's being tested. An ignition source is
directed into the cup at regular intervals
with simultaneous interruption of stirring
until a flash that spreads throughout the
inside of the cup is seen.
corresponding temperature is its flash
point.
PENSKY-MARTEN’S CLOSED CUP
FLASH TESTER
Determines flash points of a wide
range of products by a closed cup
method with slow speed stirring of the
sample. Extensively used in shipping and
safety regulations for detection
contamination by volatile and flammable
materials in fuel oils and lubricating oils,
and for characterization of hazardous
waste samples.
Smooth operating cover
mechanism slides shutter open and
applies test flame at the turn of a knob.
Cover fits over brass test cup and
includes pilot flame, test flame reference
bead, built-in stirrer and plated brass
thermometer ferrule
Electrically heated model is
equipped with a 750W nickel-chromium
heater with step less variable control for
accurate, repeatable temperature rate of
rise settings per specifications. Heater
unit is enclosed in stainless steel housing
with cooling vents. Includes line cord
receptacle and switch for accessory slow
speed stirrer.
Gas heated model has a built-in
nickel plated brass natural gas burner, or
can be supplied with an artificial gas
burner or liquid propane burner (specify
when ordering). Both models are
mounted on a sturdy cast iron base.
The
of Fig 11: Pensky Martin Apparatus
TRANSFORMER OIL TREATMENT
RECOGNITION OF NEED
The majority of power transformers
in operation today are filled with mineral
oil. The primary function of the oil is to
provide a high dielectric insulating
material and an efficient coolant. The
effectiveness of the oil as an insulating
material is reduced as the moisture level
increases, while cooling is reduced as
the oil oxidizes. Paper insulation will also
absorb moisture from the oil, thus
increasing power factor readings.
The oxidation of transformer oil
begins as soon as the transformer is
energized. A chemical reaction occurs
when the oil is exposed to a combination
26
of heat, oxygen, and core and coil MOISTURE INTRODUCED INTO
components. As the process of oxidation TRANSFORMER OILS
progresses, acids and polar compounds
are formed and in turn become sludge. Through Absorption From The

This sludge will then coat heat transfer Atmosphere Above The Oil Level. Many

surfaces on the core/coil and the transformer tanks are designed to seal

tank/radiators, reducing the heat transfer the transformer from the outside

capacity of the system. The operational atmosphere; however, top side leaks

temperatures are increased, thus may develop that allow normal

accelerating the degradation of the oil. temperature changes to cause

breathing . With each new inhalation
IDENTIFYING THE PROBLEM comes more moisture to be potentially
dissolved in the oil. Units designed as
Oxidizing Transformer Insulation Oils free breathing also can experience a
build-up of dissolved moisture. In
 Oil Which Is In The Initial Stages
extreme cases, top cover leaks may be
Of Oxidization, Forming Acids
present which can allow rain to enter into
And Polar Compounds. Some
the unit directly.
sludge deposits will be found in a
small percentage of oils in this  Condensation Inside
initial stage of oxidization (Acidity Transformers. The moisture is
levels <.20mg KOH/g oil). introduced by exposure to the
atmosphere above the oil level.
 Oil Which Has Advanced In The
Sudden temperature changes
Oxidization Process To The
can condense the moisture
Point Where Sludge Deposits
allowing it to run down the tank
Have Been Formed. This
walls into the oil. There it will
precipitating sludge coats all
dissolve slowly.
surfaces of the transformers tank
and radiator walls, as well as the
 Oxidation Of Oil And Paper
core and coil oil ways. In so
Insulation. Since oil and paper
doing, heat transfer is reduced
are organic compounds
causing the transformer to
containing hydrogen, gradual
operate at higher than normal
oxidation will allow the formation
temperatures, which in turn
of moisture. This can account for
speeds up the oxidation process
a major portion of the moisture in
(Acidity levels of .20mg KOH/g
badly deteriorated oils.
oil or greater).
LEVELS AT WHICH TREATMENT IS
RECOMMENDED

27
 TSI has found that production of water. This process does not significantly
moisture can become a problem if oil is change the acid or polar compound
allowed to deteriorate beyond an acidity levels, or remove dissolved water.
level of .05mg KOH/g oil; therefore, we Oxidation and sludge formation will
recommend treatment of oils that have continue as soon as filtering is stopped.
reached this level. In cases where acidity Very little is gained from this method.
levels do not require treatment, I.F.T.'s of
less than 24 dynes/cm, dielectrics of less A third method is to un-tank a unit,

than 25Kv, and moisture contents above flush the tank, radiators, and core and

30ppm signal the need for hot oil coil with solvents, then refill the unit with

treatment. Units with primary voltages new oil. This method can result in a

above 15Kv should have dielectric successful stabilization of the oil, but

readings of 30Kv or above and moisture there are several major drawbacks. The

contents below 25ppm. units must be de-energized and sent to a

service shop. This means days or weeks
without the use of the unit, plus
expensive handling, transportation, and
OIL TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES service charges.

Correcting the problems of oil TSI PROCEDURE

oxidation can be accomplished in several
ways with varying degrees of success.
Changing the oil will result in clean oil,
but will do little to remove sludge
adhering to the radiators, tank walls, and
core and coil. Within a year of changing
the oil, oxidation products not removed
will be redissolved into the new oil
resulting in acidity and polar compound
levels appreciably above those of new
oil. Subsequent oil changes may be
required to remove these redissolved
products of oxidation. Each time this is
done, the transformer must be de-
energized.
Another method is to filter press the
oil. The only thing accomplished by filter
pressing is the removal of solid particles
that have been in suspension and free
TSI has developed, and introduced
in 1952, an alternative procedure for
restoring transformer insulating mineral
oil, often while the units remain
energized. It has come to be generally
recognized as the most efficient and cost
effective method for restoring transformer
oil available today. The process starts by
heating the oil to a maximum of 200°F.
Processing begins when the oil reaches
a minimum of 150°F. The heaters have
the capability of 100°F temperature rise
at the rate of 600 to 1200 GPH. From the
heaters the oil enters the Fullers Earth
towers, which contain a minimum of 1000
pounds of Fullers Earth. The Fullers
Earth removes acid and polar
compounds from the oil. Next, the oil
enters the vacuum degassing chamber.

28
Vacuum is maintained at a minimum of  Oils With Acid Levels From .10
28 inches. This part of the process To .19mg KOH/g oil have an
removes dissolved moisture, air, and exposure time based on ten (10)
dissolved gases from the oil enabling a passes at a flow rate of 600 to
unit to be processed while energized. TSI 900 GPH.
has developed procedures using this
equipment to process transformer oils D-SLUDGING - ENERGIZED
that have oxidized. The thrust of this EQUIPMENT
program is that oil be exposed to
The treatment of oil in the
operational components of the re-refiner
advanced stages of oxidation is called D-
at temperatures above 150°F long
SLUDGING, which is a two step
enough for the purification process to be
treatment process. Oils with acid levels
completed. Pumping speed is of little
greater than .20mg KOH/g oil are
importance. Under normal conditions TSI
exposed to 10 passes for Step 1, and six
recommends flow rates between 400 and
(6) to ten (10) passes for Step 2, at an
900 GPH. Higher flow rates should be
average flow rate of 600 to 900 GPH. A
used with caution on energized
time interval of at least six (6) months
equipment.
occurs between Steps 1 and 2. This time
HOT OIL TREATMENT - ENERGIZED interval is referred to as the D-
EQUIPMENT SLUDGING period. The clean oil from
Step 1 redissolves decay products into
The treatment of oil in the initial stages of
the oil which are removed from the oil in
oxidization is called HOT OIL
Step 2. After treatment the oils will meet
TREATMENT. Within this category there
or exceed the following specifications:
are two exposure time periods.

I.F.T. ACIDITY DIELECTRIC MOISTURE

 Oils With Acid Levels Below .
34.0 .03mg 35Kv <15Kv -
10mg KOH/g oil have an
dynes/cm KOH/g oil MIN 30ppm
exposure time based on six (6)
MIN MAX >15Kv -
passes at a flow rate of 600 to
20ppm
900 GPH.

29