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Effect of Integrating Variable Intake Runner Diameter and Variable Intake Valve
Timing on an SI Engine’s Performance

Conference Paper · April 2018

DOI: 10.4271/2018-01-0380

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 Effect of Integrating Variable Intake Runner Diameter and Variable Intake Valve
Timing on an SI Engine’s Performance
Shashank Ghodke University of North Carolina Charlotte
AffiliatioCitation: Ghodke, S. and Bari, S., “Effect of Integrating Variable Intake Runner Diameter and Variable Intake Valve Timing
on an SI Engine’s Performance,” SAE Technical Paper 2018-01-0380, 2018, doi:10.4271/2018-01-0380.
Abstract
Design of the intake system of an internal combustion (IC) engine is
one of the critical parameters to improve the performance of an engine.
Induction pressure waves (compression and rarefaction waves) are
created in the intake runner due to valve operations. If the intake runner
is tuned correctly, a compression wave can boost the intake air flow
improving the volumetric efficiency which increases the torque and
power of the engine. In this research, the intake runner diameter and
valve timing were varied individually, after which both were varied
together to achieve optimum volumetric efficiency. A single-cylinder,
four-stroke spark-ignited 510 cc naturally aspirated engine was used
for the analysis. Simulations were carried out using engine simulation
software Ricardo Wave to find the effect of intake runner diameter and
timing on the engine performance. A chassis-dyno test was made on
the engine to know its factory state performance and compared the
torque and power with the simulation data. As a result, the validated
model is found to have a deviation of around 10.0 % from the actual
chassis dyno test. Gains achieved upon combined effects of variation
of both intake runner diameter and intake valve timing across the
engine speed range were appreciable. It was observed that when only
the runner diameter was varied, the improvement in volumetric
efficiency was approximately 8.5%. Similarly, when only the valve
timing was varied, around 3% improvement was seen. However, upon
varying both the intake runner diameter and intake valve timing for
each speed simultaneously, an average increment of 12% was noted.
Introduction
Performance of an engine directly depends upon the mass flow rate of
air and fuel going into the cylinder. The increased mass flow rate of air
increases the breathing capacity or volumetric efficiency of an engine
that determines the torque and power produced by an engine [1-4].
Volumetric efficiency can be increased using superchargers and
turbochargers. Increasing volumetric efficiency with supercharger
comes at a cost of power utilized from the engine, though the gains are
still high. In the case of turbocharging, there exists limitation of turbo-
lag which does not meet the adequate acceleration requirements during
varying driving conditions. These technologies are also expensive
apart from being complex. Hence, a majority of small to medium size
production vehicles are not equipped with these.
To overcome these obstacles encountered in the above-mentioned
technologies to increase volumetric efficiency, intake tuning is a better
approach. Conventionally, engines are optimized to yield the best
torque at a specific speed range, while varying traffic conditions
Page 1 of 9
Saiful Bari University of South Australia
encountered by a routine driver demand the best torque from an engine
at all speeds. For instance, in slow city traffic conditions, one needs
good torque at lower engine speeds, on the other hand cruising on
highways requires good torque at higher engine speeds. Hence, to
provide such flexibility and best possible torque at all engine speeds,
various tuning methods have been evolved that includes variability in
manifold length, manifold diameter, valve timing, variable valve
duration, valve lift etc. [5-12]. These measures do not prove to be as
effective as supercharging or turbocharging, yet provides comparable
benefits with their limitations eliminated.
There are numerous studies made in the past that show the importance
of intake runner diameter affecting the performance of an engine [13-
16]. These studies support their resulting relationships based on two
major principles: Resonator Wave Theory and Helmholtz Resonator
Theory. According to Resonator Wave principle, Wave Resonance
theory is used to predict the effects of pressure wave moving through
the compressible air in the intake system [16, 17]. On the other hand,
Helmholtz’s Theory explains this by considering air as incompressible
and phenomenon of internal sloshing in runners.
The variations in diameter vary the inherent energy of air-fuel flow
harmonics in an intake manifold which effects the mixture mass flow
delivered to the cylinder, in turn, affecting volumetric efficiency.
These flow harmonics of the air can be termed better as rarefaction and
compression waves [18]. The rarefaction wave propagates through the
intake manifold when the piston moves from TDC to BDC, reducing
the pressure at intake valve relative to the manifold’s other end. Once
these waves reach the other end, it returns back as a compression wave
towards the intake valves. This reciprocation of pressure waves can be
“tuned” to gain a positive effect by adjusting the geometry of manifold
relative to the speed of engine such that the compression wave reaches
the inlet valves while opening. This will aid the pressure of the
incoming charge resulting supercharging.
The intake valve events play a significant role in optimizing the peak
torque and power at a particular engine speed [19]. Usually, to cause
valve overlap (as shown in Figure 1), the intake opening event occurs
around 50 BTDC and exhaust valve closes around 30 ATDC [1, 20-
22]. This overlap aids in improving volumetric efficiency as well as
reducing NOx emissions. Volumetric efficiency increases because of
better scavenging of exhaust gases and also leads to a slight boost in
incoming charge due to the momentum of the exhaust gases [1].
Nevertheless, this may also be a cause of decreased volumetric
efficiency reason being increased internal exhaust gas residual (EGR)
in the cylinder, flowing back into the intake manifold. Increased
internal EGR limits the peak temperatures during combustion by
reducing the number of moles of oxygen available in the cylinder.
Though, when emissions are concerned this actually serves as a boon Bore 95 mm
against severe pollutant, NOx, which is a by-product of the combustion
when temperatures are high. This may seem to be a promising Stroke 72 mm
approach but not at all engine speeds. Consequently, when operating
under low-speed range not only excess internal EGR trapped in the
Length of Connecting Rod 122.4 mm
intake manifold decreases the torque, but also becomes a major cause
for increased CO emissions. The in-cylinder pressure drops after piston
descends from TDC due to this increased valve overlap, hence the Compression Ratio 11.9:1
efficiency of the engine to draw intake charge reduces. Therefore,
controlling the valve overlap period with changing RPM is vital that Number of Valves 2
decides volumetric efficiency and power of an engine.
Valve Diameter 40 mm
Figure 1. Minimum and maximum valve overlaps
Valve Lift 9.62 mm
The number of crank angle degrees past BDC when the intake valve is Intake
being closed decides another essential phenomenon to improve Runner Length 460 mm
volumetric efficiency known as Ram Effect [1, 6]. Momentum in
incoming flow of air/fuel is automatically increased with increase in
Stock Runner
42.86 mm
Diameter

Number of Valves 2

Valve Diameter 33 mm
Exhaust
Valve Lift 8.58 mm

Runner Length 573 mm

Runner Diameter 46.04 mm

Fuel Delivery Port Injected

Fuel Type Indolene

engine speed and as piston moves from TDC to BDC, and by closing Air/Fuel Ratio 14.7
the intake valve past BDC, the charge can be allowed to continue to
fill the cylinder using this momentum. To achieve most out of the ram IVO 13° BTDC
effect, the valve closing event should be delayed more at higher engine
speeds. However, at lower speed range the same amount of delay may Valve
hurt the effective compression ratio by reversing the flow of charge IVC 72° ABDC
Timings
back to the intake manifold. Hence, the intake valve closing timing
needs to be varied with respect to engine speeds to achieve maximum EVO 109° ATDC
performance.
EVC 36° ATDC
The specific focus of this paper is to find out optimum intake runner
diameters for the operating range of the engine, and further obtain Woschni Heat
Heat Transfer Model
optimum intake valve timings at those diameters. This would help in Transfer
investigating how the integration of variable intake manifold diameter
and variable valve timing contributes to volumetric efficiency and SI Wiebe
hence, the torque and power of the engine by comparing such an Combustion Model
Combustion
arrangement with another where there exists only one of the two.

Methodology
previous FSAE team. The specifications of the engine are given in
The engine used for this research was a KTM-500 EXC® which was Table 1 and Figure 2 shows the KTM-500 EXC® engine installed into
available at the Department’s research facility through the courtesy of a dirt bike with intake and exhaust runners which were used for the
FSAE car. The engine was tested on a chassis dynamometer operated
Table 1. Engine specifications
within a speed range of 1000 to 8000 RPM with increments of 500
RPM to find out the performance of the stock engine which was used
Number of Cylinders 1 to validate the model as shown later. The speed range was broad
enough to replicate both slow traffic as well as highway cruising
situations and capture corresponding performance parameters. To
Page 2 of 9
further expedite the research and reduce its cost, Ricardo Wave Build®
software was utilized as an engine simulator. This software simplified
the three-dimensional simulation into multiple one-dimensional
simulations. The intake and exhaust runners with the cylinder head
shown in Figure 2 are modeled in Ricardo Wave software. The post-
processing was achieved using WavePost allowing detailed analysis of
the simulated engine operation.
combustion model, heat-transfer model and associated temperature
values for liner, head, piston, valves, etc. with respect to the speed.
The software manipulates the user fed data using those into pre-
programmed equations and governing laws of physics like momentum,
energy, and mass transfer and then, different performance parameters
of the particular engine were solved. Figure 3 shows the model of the
engine, modeled as per its stock dimensions.

Equations 1, 2 and 3 represent the relationships of mass, energy, and

momentum respectively, which WAVE uses to solve the model [23]:

𝜕𝜌 𝜕(𝜌𝑢)
+ =0 (1)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥

𝜕(𝜌𝑢) 𝜕 𝜕 4 𝜕
+ (𝜌𝑢2 + 𝑃) = ( 𝜇 ) (2)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 3 𝜕𝑥

𝜕(𝜌𝑒𝑟 ) 𝜕 𝜕 4 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑇
+ 𝜕𝑥 (𝜌𝑢𝑒𝑟 + 𝑃𝑢) = 𝜕𝑥 (3 𝜇𝑢 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑘 𝜕𝑥 ) (3)
𝜕𝑡

Figure 2. The KTM-500 EXC® engine with intake and exhaust runners

Figure 4. Brake power vs. engine speed - Simulation power results

compared against experimental power results
Figure 3. Model of the engine
The engine brake power and torque obtained from the simulation are
A baseline simulation was performed with no variations to compare compared with the chassis-dyno-test results as shown in Figure 4 and
the performance of simulation model with that of the actual stock
Figure 5, respectively and a variance of around 10.0% is seen. The
engine. To achieve a more realistic comparison, all possible features
differences were mainly due to the losses from the engine shaft to the
of the real engine were explicitly defined in the simulation. This
wheel of the car standing on the roller of the chassis dyno, which was
includes an air box with two cylinder volumes separated by a filter not considered in the simulation.
screen, a close-coupled catalytic converter with entry cone, exit cone
and catalyst brick, downpipe, resonator, complex muffler, necessary
bends and throat angles for the ducts as well as their orientations.
Various engine characteristics were defined such as cylinder geometry,
valve profiles and flow coefficients, fuel injector, operating speeds,
Page 3 of 9
 There have been studies made in the past showing the criticality of
plenum size. Some indubitable research shows that the volumetric
efficiency increases with plenum size and then, decreases with further
increment [23, 25]. Experiments performed by McKee et al revealed
that a 3.5-liter plenum was an optimal volume for 500 - 600 cc engine
[26]. Therefore, in this research, the plenum volume was kept constant
at 3.5 liters and no variation is made to comprehend the sole effects of
intake valve timing and intake runner diameter.

After the determination of optimum diameters for each engine speed,

in a similar fashion valve timings were varied keeping the runner
diameters constant to isolate the effects. Optimized valve timings were
determined throughout the entire speed range. The performances
obtained from both optimization process are compared with the
performance obtained with the stock engine settings.

Results and Discussions

Different graphs obtained from the simulations are shown in this
section that will analyze the effect of intake runner diameter and valve
timing on engine volumetric efficiency and torque at different speeds.
The analysis was made within the speed range of 2000 to 8000 RPM
in steps of 500 RPM.

Variable Intake Runner Diameter

Figure 5. Brake torque vs. engine speed - Simulation results
compared against experimental torque results The first series of simulation was made with the diameter alone varied
from 15 mm to 90 mm and for each speed, values of diameter were
Post hardware comparison, effects of intake runner diameter on observed at which peak volumetric efficiency had occurred (peaks are
performance were studied by varying the diameter at every speed. Note shown as red spots in Figures 6, 7 and 8). Figure 9 shows these
that the diameter of the valve was kept constant throughout the study optimized diameters against their corresponding speeds.
and only the intake runner diameter was modified. At every engine
speed, the optimum diameter was observed that gave maximum
volumetric efficiency at that particular speed. The dependency of
geometry on “tuning” phenomenon can be mathematically expressed
as [24]:

1348∗𝐶𝑠 𝐴 𝑅−1
𝑁𝑠 = √( ) × (𝑅+1) (2)
𝐾 𝐿×𝑉

Where,
Ns = Speed at which resonance occurs
k = A constant (2 to 2.5 depending on the valve timing)
Cs = Speed of sound (m/s)
A = Cross-sectional Area of the intake manifold (cm2)
L = Length of manifold (cm)
V = Effective resonator volume (cm3)
R = Compression ratio
From equation 2, it is clear that the resonance effect strongly depends
on the volume and cross-sectional area of the manifold, hence is
affected by the diameter of the intake runner. Therefore, altering the
diameter relative to the engine speed will provide the necessary tuning. Figure 6. Peak volumetric efficiency in low-speed range
Throughout the research, the length of the intake manifold is kept
constant in order to isolate the effect of diameter on tuning.

Page 4 of 9

Figure 7. Peak volumetric efficiency in medium-speed range
Figure 8. Peak volumetric efficiency in high-speed range
Page 5 of 9
Figure 9. Optimized diameters for various speeds
From the figures, it can be observed that at lower speeds the diameter
required to attain the best performance is smaller compared to higher
speeds. At lower speeds, a lower diameter will increase the velocity of
the same mass flow of charge which increases the momentum of the
charge. Higher momentum will increase the volumetric efficiency [27,
28]. A higher velocity will increase the friction, however, the pipe
internal surface area for lower diameter will be lower. The combined
effect shows that at a lower speed small diameter improves the
volumetric efficiency. On the other hand, at higher speed, a larger
diameter decreases the velocity for a particular mass flow rate which
decreases the momentum of the charge [27]. A lower velocity
decreases the friction but larger diameter increases the internal
frictional area. Again, the combined effect is at a higher speed, larger
diameter shows better volumetric efficiency. On average, the
improvement in volumetric efficiency over the stock engine, by
varying the diameter over the entire speed range was around 8.5%.
Variable Intake Valve Timing
The intake valve opening times variations were made in the range of
290 to 370 crank angle, keeping the runner diameters optimized for
each speed. The angles yielding peak performance for a particular
speed were noted and shown as red spots in Figures 10, 11 and 12. The
best valve timings obtained giving the maximum performance are
shown in Figure 13.

Figure 10. Peak volumetric efficiency in low-speed range
Figure 11. Peak volumetric efficiency in medium-speed range
Page 6 of 9
Figure 12. Peak volumetric efficiency in high-speed range
Figure 13. Optimized inlet valve timing for various speeds
Figure 13 depicts that the performance improved at lower RPM range
if intake valve opened earlier while for higher RPM the performance
improved if the intake valve opened later i.e. closer to TDC. The valve
open duration was kept constant that is an early opening result into an
early closing and late opening results into a late closing of the intake
valves.
At lower RPM, the intake charge momentum is lower which demands
the valve to open earlier to have more time to fill the cylinder. Another
aspect of lower momentum at lower RPM would be the earlier closing
of the intake valve past BDC, otherwise, it will hurt the effective
compression of the intake charge. Since the valve opening duration
was kept constant, the early opening of intake valve means the early
closing of intake valve past BDC. Also, at lower RPM, early valve
opening causes the exhaust gases to flow back through the intake valve
out of the cylinder into the intake manifold. This aids to the volumetric
efficiency as there are fewer exhaust gases left in the cylinder to be
expelled in the exhaust stroke [29]. The combined effect shows that at
lower RPM early opening of intake valve improved the volumetric
efficiency [13].

On the other hand, at higher RPM, the momentum of the charge is

sufficient to allow to open the intake valve closer to TDC which also
reduces the backflow of the exhaust gases into the intake runner.
Furthermore, due to constant valve opening duration, the intake valve
closes later past BDC allows more intake charge flow into the
combustion chamber overcoming losses in the effective compression.
Therefore, the combined effect shows that at higher RPM, the later
intake valve opening closer to TDC improved the volumetric
efficiency [13]. The overall gain in volumetric efficiency by varying
the intake valve timing over the stock engine was around 3% across
the speed range.

Variable Runner Diameter and Variable Valve Timing

Finally, the engine is simulated with dynamically varying both intake

runner diameter and intake valve timing at different engine speeds. The
gains from only variable valve timing, only variable runner diameter,
and then its integration with variable valve timings are compared
against the stock engine performance characteristics, as shown in
Figures. 14, 15 and 16.

Figure 15. Comparison of brake torque for all engine speeds for stock
engine and both variable intake runner diameter and valve timing tuned
engine

Figure 14. Comparison of volumetric efficiency for all engine speeds

for stock engine and both variable intake runner diameter and valve Figure 16. Comparison of brake power for all engine speeds for stock
timing tuned engine engine and both variable intake runner diameter and valve timing
tuned engine

One can observe from Figure 14 that there exists a virtual

“supercharging” of the engine without any actual air compressor
arrangement [30]. Volumetric efficiency exceeded 100% with variable
runner diameter and further increased above 110% in the range of 5000
- 8000 RPM when integrated with variable valve timings. This
Page 7 of 9
integration resulted in an average improvement of roughly 12%.
Similarly, these “supercharging” effects can also be observed in torque
and power curves, more dominant under the speed range of 5000 -
8000 RPM as can be seen in Figure 15 and 16, respectively.
Figure 17. Inlet Valve Pressure vs Crank Position for Stock and
Optimized Models
These gains can also be bolstered well with the help of pressure wave
phenomenon. Figure 17 illustrates a comparison of inlet valve pressure
at inlet valve openings between stock and optimized simulation at 5000
RPM. One can observe from this comparison that when the engine was
optimized using variable runner diameter and variable valve timing at
the same time, pressure wave was timed in such a manner that the peak
occurred just when the intake valve opened. The pressures at the timing
of inlet valve opening were 1.18 bar and 1.23 bar, respectively for
stock engine and tuned engine.
Conclusions
This paper clearly depicts the gains in performance achieved by precise
tuning of the intake system of an SI engine over its entire speed range.
A series of simulations were made with variation in intake runner
diameter and intake valve timing using Ricardo WAVE® software.
When intake runner diameter was varied alone and optimized at each
speed, improvement of around 8.5% was achieved over the stock
engine performance. On the other hand, when only intake valve timing
was varied at each engine speed, roughly 3% improvement was
observed. However, integrating variable intake runner diameter with
variable intake valve timing yielded best results with approximately
12% improvement.
The approach of varying the diameters continuously with varying
speed ranges can be implemented practically by using butterfly valves
that can direct the charge to separate runners with different diameters.
This approach is more suitable to have only 2 to 4 runner diameter
instead of varying the diameter continuously. Such technologies are
available in Mahindra 2 wheelers [12] and Toyota’s Acoustic Control
Induction System (ACIS) [31, 32]. Pipes with a telescopic form that
change pipes with speeds can also be researched. Cam phasing is the
Page 8 of 9
simplest form that can be applied to change the valve timing.
Therefore, using butterfly valve to change the diameter to few
diameters and cam phasing to change the valve timing continuously
can improve the performance of an engine than having only variable
valve timing which is the current practice. However, more research
needs to be done to find out the optimum and practical diameters
limited to few stages along with variable valve timing to improve the
performance of an engine.
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