D-9-Stresses and Buckling2016-Final PDF

CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY
MODULE ON PIPELINE ENGINEERING

Post-graduate Course
COURSE NOTES – 9
STRESS AND BUCKLING ANALYSIS
January 2016
Module on Pipeline Engineering D-9: Stress and Buckling Analysis
D-9: STRESS AND BUCKLING ANALYSIS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION
2 STRESS ANALYSIS
2.1 Stresses in a Pipeline
2.2 Stresses Due To Pressure and Temperature
2.2.1 GENERAL STATE OF STRESS
2.2.2 HOOP STRESS
2.2.3 LONGITUDINAL STRESS DUE TO PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE
2.3 Stresses Due to Other Loads in a Pipeline
2.4 Axial Force in a Pipeline Due to Pressure and Temperature
2.5 Stress Evaluation Criteria
2.5.1 VON MISES EQUIVALENT STRESS CRITERIA
2.5.2 TRESCA STRESS CRITERIA
3 STRAIN CONSIDERATIONS
3.1 Background
3.2 Strain-Based Deign
4 BUCKLING CONSIDERATIONS
4.1.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 Local Buckling
4.2.1 CIRCUMFERENTIAL COLLAPSE
4.2.2 AXIAL COLLAPSE:
4.2.3 BEAM-COLUMN BUCKLING
4.2.4 FLEXURAL (BENDING) BUCKLING:
4.2.5 BUCKLING UNDER COMBINED LOADS:
4.3 Global Buckling
4.3.1 PROPAGATION BUCKLES
5 UPHEAVAL BUCKLING
6 FATIGUE ANALYSIS
6.1 Introduction
6.2 S-N Curve
6.3 Analysis Method – Outline Procedure
7 SOME NOTES FOR STRESS AND BUCKLING ANALYSES
8 REFERENCES:
APPENDIX 9:
Cranfield Unviersity, Cranfield, England, Jan2016

Dr. R. K. Jain. Higherdesigns (UK) Ltd.
APPENDIX A9.1: SOLUTION OF BEAM EQUATION

SOLVED EXAPLES
EXERCISES

D-9
STRESS AND BUCKLING
ANALYSIS
1 INTRODUCTION
The wall thickness required for pressure containment as discussed in Course Note D-6, is
checked further to ensure that the pipe is sufficiently strong to withstand the loads imposed
by pressure and other forces that may act on the pipeline during different phases of its
operational life. This Course Note discusses the stresse/strain checks that should be studied
to confirm pipe strength. Apart from stresses and strains, selected pipe should be able to
resist buckling caused by these loads and provide sufficient fatigue life against cyclic loads.
These Course Notes discuss stress and buckling checks in accordance with the conventional
design practices of BS PD8010, ASME B31.4/8, ISO and similar other codes. This should
form a good basis to perform these checks as per DnV OS F-101 that are similar to those
discussed hereunder but follow slightly different approach.
The methods of stress analysis discussed in this Course Note and elsewhere are very basic
and should help those who have no experience of pipeline design. The calculations based on
these discussions can be performed by hand or with the help of spreadsheets. However, in
practice, these relatively simplified analyses are rarely used for design. Most designs employ
more sophisticated finite element (FE) or similar modelling techniques using either specially
developed computer programs or use FE packages such as ABAQUS, ANSYS, etc. An
understanding of basic pipeline design will be helpful in using FE software.
2 STRESS ANALYSIS
2.1 Stresses in a Pipeline
Stresses in a pipeline during construction and operation are induced by the following loads as
discussed in Course Note D-5:
• Internal and external pressures
• Temperature of the product
• Environmental loads: waves, currents, wind, solar heat
• Installation, transportation and handling loads
• Accidental loads.

Equations for stresses due to internal and external pressure and temperature, and acceptance
criteria are primarily discussed in this Section. Stresses and strains due to loads other than
pressure and temperature are calculated by using established structural analysis methods and
in most cases will require computer programs. This Course Note, of course, discusses a
simplified approach for calculation of stresses due to transverse loads, i.e., loads that act
normal to pipeline axis. Majority of loads on pipelines are transverse in nature; there are only
limited mechanisms that cause axial or torsional loads. This Course Note also discusses the
combinations of stresses due to pressure and temperature with the stresses caused by other
loads, and the criteria for acceptance of stresses due to combined loads.
2.2 Stresses Due To Pressure and Temperature
2.2.1 GENERAL STATE OF STRESS
During operation, the pipeline is subject to hoop stress (circumferential), σh, as well
longitudinal (axial) stress, σz, acting in the two principal directions, i.e., circumferential and
axial directions. This is called biaxial state of stress. In general, a body is in triaxial state of
stress. The third principal axis in this case is in the radial direction see Figure 9.1. The radial
stress, σr, is ignored for thin cylindrical shells as it is very small compared to other stresses.
Thus in a pipeline system, two types of stresses are normally induced; these are hoop and
longitudinal stresses.
Figure 9.1 – Principal Stresses in Cylindrical Shells (Pipe)
The hoop and radial stresses in the pipeline is caused only by the internal and external
pressures while longitudinal stresses are caused by both pressure as well as temperature.
The longitudinal stress due to pressure and temperature depends on the constraints applied to
the pipeline along the axial direction but the hoop stress is independent of these constraints.

Compressive stresses are induced due to pressure as well as temperature if the pipe ends are
constrained from moving in axial direction and tensile strains are induced if ends are free.
2.2.2 HOOP STRESS
Most pipelines are relatively thin cylindrical shells with diameter to wall thickness usually
greater than 30. For such pipelines, the hoop stress, σh, for a pipeline of an outer diameter Do
and wall thickness t subjected to internal and external pressure pi and po, respectively, is
computed by the Barlow’s equation, as discussed in Course Note D-6, where
( pi − po ) Do
σh = (9.1)
2t
For pipes with diameter to wall thickness ration of less than 20-25, Lame’s equation for an
elastic tick cylinder should be used. Lame’s equation gives the hoop stress along the pipe
thickness as
Di2 ( Dr2 + Do2 )
σ h (r ) = ( pi − p o ) − po (9.2)
Dr2 ( Do2 − Di2 )
where Dr is the diameter of the concentric ring through a point P, see Figure 9.1. Note that
the hoop stress computed from equation (9.1) is not varying through the pipe thickness, i.e., it
is constant through the thickness while the thick wall equation (9.2) shows that the hoop
stress varies through the pipe wall thickness. Hoop stress calculated from equation (9.2) for a
thick (Do/t<10) and a thin pipe (Do/t>30) is plotted in Figures 9.2 to illustrate the stress
variation through the thickness. Following points are observed for the examples considered:
• Maximum hoop stress occurs at the internal wall surface in both cases
• For thick wall pipe, the stress at the internal wall surface is 20% higher than that at
the outer wall surface. For the thin pipe, the variation is very small, of the order of
5% only, indicating that for thin pipes it is not unreasonable to assume a constant
hoop stress throughout the pipe wall. This is a reasonable justification for using
Barlow’s equation.
Hoop Stress Through Thickness for Thin Pipe

Hoop Stress Through Thickness of a Thick Pipe (OD/t=42)
(OD/t=10)
Hoop Stress/Internal Pressure
5
Pressure Ratio
Stress/Internal
21
4.5 20.5
Hoop
20
4 19.5
Ratio
3.5 19
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
3
1
11
Points Through Thickness (ID to OD)
Points Through Thickness (ID to OD)
Figure 9.2 – Hoop Stresses for Thick and Thin Pipe Based on Lame’s Equation

Some operators proposed to base the computation of hoop stress on an equation similar to
Barlow’s formula but to use inner diameter rather than the outer diameter. For the thin pipe
considered in Figures 9.2, the hoop stress based on equation (9.1) using outer and inner
diameters would give the following results, respectively,
σh-od /p = 21
σh-id /p = 20
where p is the net effective pressure pi-po. It is apparent that hoop stress based on outer
diameter is approximately 5% higher than that based on the internal diameter. The hoop
stress based on thick wall theory is somewhere between the two values. Hence, it would be
advisable to use equation (9.1) with Do for hoop stress calculations although it is somewhat
conservative. For thicker pipes, use the Lame’s formula for more accurate calculations and to
avoid over-conservatism.
2.2.3 LONGITUDINAL STRESS DUE TO PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE
Longitudinal stress due to the effective internal pressure and temperature depends on whether
the pipeline is constrained to move in longitudinal direction or not. Constraint can be
introduced by several causes, e.g., pipeline ends could be anchored, seabed friction, etc.
End Cap Effect due to Pressure:
One of the longitudinal stresses caused by pressure is primarily due to ‘end-cap’ effect and is
given by the following formula
( p i − p o ) Do
σL = (9.3)
4t
The above formula is based on the fact that the pipe wall thickness is negligibly small
compared to its diameter. This stress is caused in the pipeline whether it is constrained or not.
Longitudinally Constrained Pipeline due to Pressure:
A long pipeline lying on the seabed or on land (buried or unburied) is normally constrained
from movement in longitudinal direction by the friction force between the pipe and the
seabed/soil. A pipeline could be partially restrained at its ends by partial anchors or riser
bends. This latter situation will be further discussed in Course Note D-12 when tie-in of the
pipeline to a platform riser is considered.
Longitudinal stress in a constrained or partially constrained pipeline is developed both due

the pressure as well the temperature effects. The pipeline during operation is subjected to net
internal pressure and the resulting hoop stress is tensile. This stress induces a circumferential
tensile strain thus tending to stretch the pipe circumferentially. When an elastic body
stretches/compresses in one direction due to applied loads, it contracts/stretches in the
transverse directions. This is the well-known Poisson’s effect. Thus in a pipeline,
circumferential tensile strain is accompanied by a longitudinal compressive strain. If the
longitudinal movement is restrained, then a longitudinal stress is developed in the pipe due to
the Poisson’s effect which is expressed as,
( p i − p o ) Do
σ LP = νσ h = ν (9.4)
2t
where σLP is the longitudinal stress due to Poisson’s effect and ν is the Poisson’s ratio for
steel having a value of 0.3.
Longitudinal Stress due Temperature
Pipelines tend to expand longitudinally due to temperature of the product. If there is no

longitudinal restraint, the pipeline will develop axial tensile strain. However, if the pipeline
is restrained in the axial direction, a longitudinal compressive stress is developed. If the
temperature differential between the internal and external temperatures is ∆T and the
coefficient of thermal expansion for the pipe material is α, then the tensile strain in
unconstrained pipeline and compressive stress σLT in a constrained pipeline are given as
𝜀𝐿𝐿 = 𝛼∆𝑇 (9.5a)
σ LT = − Eα∆T (9.5b)
Thus algebraically summing all the component stresses, the total longitudinal stress in a
restrained or partially restrained pipeline is
( pi − po ) Do
σ L = σ LP + σ LT = ν − EαDT (9.6)
2t

2.3 Stresses Due to Other Loads in a Pipeline
Apart from operating loads due to pressure and temperature, a pipeline is also subjected to
other loads at different times caused by pipe self-weight, wave and current loads and others
as discussed in Course Notes D-5 and D-7. These additional loads act in conjunction with the
operating loads and induce axial and bending stresses, and in very rare cases could cause
torsional stresses. In general, mechanisms for torsional stresses in a pipeline system do not
exist but if the possibility of torsional stresses occurs, these are minimised by design.
The longitudinal stresses due to each of these loads are computed by standard structural
analysis methods as discussed in books on strength of materials such a Timoshenko’s
‘Strength of Materials’, Reference [9.5]. For a pipe subjected to transverse loads, simple
beam bending equation, Reference [10.6], as one given hereunder can be used for computing
bending stresses
d4y d2y
+EI
T ( x ) − w( x) = 0 (9.7)
dx 4 dx 2
In the above equation, w(x) is transverse
load per unit length, y is the transverse
displacement; x is the co-ordinate along
Figure 9.3 - Beam under Axial and Transverse Loads
the pipeline axis; E is the Young’s
modulus of the pipe material; I is the
moment of inertia of the pipe cross-section; T is the axial force. The transverse load w(x)
could be caused by pipe dead weight or loads due to waves and current flow; the axial force
could be caused by pressure and temperature effects, see Section 2.4. Solution of this or
similar equations is given in a number of books on strength of materials and is also discussed
in Appendix 9.1. The solution gives transverse displacement, bending moments and bending
stresses, etc. in the beam due to the applied loads. Bending moments and stresses are
computed for each load case and added linearly. The above equation does not take account of
elastic medium underneath the pipeline such as the soil. Similar equations for a beam on
elastic foundations are derived in literature. All such equations can only be used for simple
cases of straight beams with supports at two ends only and hence cannot be used for long
pipelines with several supports on elastic foundations. Pipeline system configuration is
generally complex. In such a case hand calculations may not be practical and computer
programs will be required. Hence, determination of these stresses is not discussed in any
detail here.

Note that there is only one mechanism for hoop stress while the longitudinal stress can be
induced by a number of applied loads. The total longitudinal stress is computed by adding the
longitudinal stress due to different loads.
As discussed in Course Note 5, a pipeline system can be subjected to various loads at the
same time; the resultant effects on due to the combinations of these loads are evaluated. Table
9.1 gives various load combinations to be considered in different phases of pipeline operation
in accordance with design codes PD 8010 Reference [9.1] and ISO Reference [9.2]. DnV
code also specifies similar combinations. It is pointed out that in most pipeline design
analyse, it is assumed that load combinations and their effects are linear, i.e., net effect of all
loads acting together will be same as the sum of effects of individual loads.
TABLE 9.1 – LOAD CONSIDERATIONS/COMBINATIONS
Phase Load ↓ Pressure Temperature Environmental Weight Applied3

→
Installation No1 No Yes/No2 Yes Yes
Hydrotest Yes No No2 Yes Yes
Operation Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Notes:
1. Pressure is usually not considered but external pressure to be considered in deep
waters.
2. Environmental loads to be considered depending on conditions during installation
3. Applied loads could be from any source, e.g., intentionally applied, accidental, etc.
2.4 Axial Force in a Pipeline Due to Pressure and Temperature
Axial force on a pipeline subject to temperature, pressure and residual lay tension loads, Fa,
can be written as:
 ( pi - p o ) Do  ( p i - p o )p ( Do - 2t ) 2
Fx = Fa - As  EaDT - ν - (9.8)
 2t  4
where As is the cross-sectional area of pipe. Note that, in the absence of a residual tension, Fx
will generally be negative indicating it to be a compressive force. Even in the absence of
thermal loads, pressure terms would also induce a net compressive force even though the
Poisson’s term is a tensile force.

2.5 Stress Evaluation Criteria

The aim of all these analyses is to verify the structural strength of the pipeline system. As
discussed in Section 4, pipeline material’s minimum specified yield strength σy will be used
to evaluate the pipeline strength. To determine if the pipe strength is sufficient to resist
various applied loads, the total stresses due to these loads are calculated for various load
combinations outlined in Table 9.1. A combined or equivalent stress is then computed for
each load case as defined in Section 2.5.1. Two types of checks are performed on the
pipeline stress:
A. Hoop Stress Check: This check ensures that total hoop stress satisfies the design stress
criteria, i.e.,
𝜎ℎ = 𝑘ℎ 𝜎𝑦 (9.9)
Where σh is the hoop stresses, and kh is the design factor for and hoop stress, see
Table 9.2.
B. Combined stress and Equivalent Stress Checks:
Various stresses can be induced in a structure and to perform stress checks for
structural strength, one of following two criteria are commonly used.
2.5.1 VON MISES EQUIVALENT STRESS CRITERIA
As was discussed in course Note 6, six different types of stresses can be induced in an
isotropic material such as steel. An equivalent or stress has been proposed by Von Mises and
the details are available in books on theory of elasticity. Since the pipeline system has only
two stresses, e.g., hoop and longitudinal stresses, a number of design codes, such as PD 8010,
ISO and DnV, use the simplified von Mises equivalent stress criteria as follows.
σ eqv = (σ h2 − σ hσ L + σ L2 ) (9.10)
where σeqv is the equivalent stress. To ensure that the pipeline has sufficient strength to
withstand various loads in different phases of its life, the equivalent stress must not exceed
permissible values, i.e.,
σ eqv ≤ kσ y (9.11)
where k is the design factor . Values of k for different load combinations as given in PD 8010
and ISO standard are given in Table 9.2.
TABLE 9.2 – DESIGN FACTORS
Hoop Stress Equivalent Stress1 Equivalent Stress2

Code
Operation Construction
Hazardous Non-Hazardous Hazardous Non-Hazardous Hazardous Non-Hazardous
PD 8010 0.6 3
0.723
0.72 0.96 1.0 1.0
ISO13623 0.6 0.77 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.0
Notes to Table:
1. Equivalent stress due to functional, environmental and accidental loads
2. Equivalent stress during construction and hydrotest
3. Minimum wall thickness for hoop stress, other stresses use nominal wall thickness
DnV OS F-101 uses similar approach but with different set of design factors based on a
LRFD approach as briefly discussed in Course Note D-6. Recent editions of ASME codes
also consider Von Mises equivalent stress.
2.5.2 TRESCA STRESS CRITERIA
American codes ANSI B31.4, Reference [9.3] and ANSI B31.8, Reference [9.4] use different
combination of loads and criteria. Additional stress checks, in addition to the hoop stress,
used in these codes are defined as follows. These are known as the Tresca criteria. Co-
ordinates system is shown in Figure 9.4.

Fx
Axial Stress : sx =
As
i
Bending Stress : sb = M y2 + M z2
Z
Longitudianl Stress : sl = s x ±sb
1
Shear Stress (force) : s sf = Fy2 + Fz2
2A
M
Shear Stress (torsional) : s st = x
As
Shear Stress (resultant) : s s = s sf + s st
Expansion Stress : s e = s b2 + 4s st2
Equivalent Tensile Stress : s et = s h + s l
Mz
y
Fy
My
x
Mx Fx
Figure 9.4 – Co-ordinate System
Where Fx, Fy and Fz are reaction forces normal to x, y and z axes; Mx, My, and Mz are the
reactive moments. Various load combinations to be considered and the allowable stresses
according to ANSI B31.4 and ANSI B31.8 are given in Table 9.3.

TABLE 9.3 – STRESS FACTORS ANSI B31.4 AND B31.8
LOAD COMBINATIONS ALLOWABLE STRESS FACTORS
Equivalent Tensile Stress σTE)

Longitudinal Stress (σL)
Expansion Stress (σE)

Environmental Loads
Imposed Movements
Hydrotest Pressure
Hoop Stress (σh)
Shear Stress (σs)

Load Condition
Dead Weight
Temperature
Code
Pressure
Sustained + Occasional loads X X X X 0.72 0.75 0.45
ANSI B31.8
Sustained + Occasional +
Temperature loads X X X X X 0.72 1.00 0.45 0.90
Expansion X X 0.72
Hydrotest X X 0.90 0.90
Operational X X X X 0.72 0.80 0.45

ANSI B31.4
Additive Longitudinal X X 0.72 0.54 0.45
Equivalent Tensile X X X X X 0.72 1.0 0.90
Expansion X X 0.72
Hydrotest X X 0.90
3 STRAIN CONSIDERATIONS
3.1 Background
Most design codes used for pipeline design give emphasis to determining strength by
satisfying allowable stress criteria. This approach of setting limits on equivalent and hoop
stress values puts restrictions on operating conditions of a pipeline that may otherwise be
capable of operating at higher pressure and temperatures. The alternative approach allows
relaxation of stress limits, i.e., it allows pipeline materials to go beyond their elastic range
limit, denoted by their yield point, into their elastic-plastic range. One of these approaches is
discussed in Reference [9.8]. This section discusses the limitations imposed by the stress
criteria procedure.
For operating conditions in non-hazardous conditions, the equivalent stress calculated from
equation (9.2) should satisfy the following condition based on PD 8010 according to Table
9.2
σ eqv ≤ 0.96σ y (9.12)

Assume no other loads other than pressure and temperature are acting on the pipeline and the
selected wall thickness is just adequate to contain pressure, i.e., hoop stress in the pipeline is
at its maximum and equal to 0.72σy. With this pressure, thermal stresses in the pipeline are
calculated for various values of temperature; Figure 9.5 shows the variation of equivalent
stress with temperature for a maximum hoop stress of 0.72. Figure 9.5 also shows the
maximum allowable hoop stress for a specified design temperature satisfying the condition
(9.12). In Figure (9.5) non-dimensional parameters are defined as follows
αTE
TE = ,
σy
σe
SNE = , (9.13)
σy
σh
SNH = .
σy
Figure 9.5 shows that the temperature parameter TE cannot be greater than 0.586 unless hoop
stress is reduced, i.e., lowering the design pressure. Figure 9.5 shows that if the temperature
is increased beyond this value, pressure containment capacity of the pipeline will be reduced.
At a value of TE = 0.96, pipelines can not contain any pressure at all.
For carbon steel pipes, E = 2.07 x

105 N/mm2, α = 11.7 x 10-6 mm/oC
mm. The Table 9.4 below gives the
maximum allowable operating
temperatures for different grades of
pipe
TABLE 9.4 – MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE OPERATING TEMPERATURES

FOR HOOP STRESS = 0.72 SMYS
Steel Grade SMYS (N/mm2) Tmax (oC)

X 52 358 86.6
X 60 413 99.9
X 65 448 108.4
X 70 482 116.6
X 80 551 133.3
Note that the above discussion did not include other loads that may be imposed on a pipeline
system during its life. These loads generally induce additional longitudinal stresses due to
bending, etc., and affect the maximum allowable design temperature. This aspect needs to be
investigated on a case by case basis. For most pipeline systems to date this temperature
limitation does not pose a problem, hence most designs still are based on stress criteria. As
pipeline operations are shifting more and more towards transportation of hotter products, e.g.,
oil from high pressure/high temperature (HP/HT) reservoirs, an alternative to stress-based
criteria becomes necessary. Additionally, stress-based criteria make deep water designs very
difficult for installation.
3.2 Strain-Based Deign

Strain-based design criteria in conjunction with stress criteria have been used in some special
circumstances. Strain-based criteria as a design basis to overcome the limitations discussed
in Section 3.1, are relatively new for pipeline systems design. In most pipeline designs it may
not be necessary to use strain-based criteria as no advantage is gained in terms of reliability
or cost savings.
Provided the pipeline design satisfies the hoop stress criteria and the pipeline displacement is
controlled, PD 8010 Part 2 allows the pipeline to be designed using strain limitation criteria
in place of the equivalent stress criterion. Such situations arise if the pipeline is laid over
very uneven surfaces or if the pipeline is pulled through a J-tube or a bending shoe. In these
situations, pipeline stresses will exceed σy, the yield strength of the pipe. The strain-based
criterion in PD8010 is briefly discussed as follows.
PD 8010, Part 2:
Maximum allowable strain = 0.67 εc
where εc is the critical strain.
4 BUCKLING CONSIDERATIONS
4.1.1 INTRODUCTION
Buckling is a sudden failure of a structural member caused by high compressive stress; it is

irreversible damage. A structure buckles if it is subjected to a compressive load greater than a
critical value of the load for that structure. The compressive load beyond which a structure
buckles is called the critical buckling load. A structure should be designed so that the critical
buckling load is always greater than the maximum expected load on the structure. Pipelines

can also buckle under different loading conditions. A pipeline can suffer irreversible damage
either over short lengths of the order of 10-20 diameters (local buckling) or over much longer
lengths (global buckling) through propagating buckles due to the following loads acting alone
or in combinations:
• External pressure
• Axial compressive forces induced by operating pressures and temperatures
• Bending loads due to various loadings
• Torsional loads, extremely rare for pipelines.
The formulae for determining loading conditions that can cause buckling of a pipeline are
given in BS8010. The pipeline should be designed so that the conditions that cause buckling
are eliminated by design and operations.
4.2 Local Buckling
Local buckling is defined as the damage due to buckling that affects a short length of
pipeline; length of the order of 5-10 diameters. Local buckles can occur due to hydrostatic
pressure, axial compression, bending and torsion. Such buckling can occur alone or in
combination. Various modes of buckle except torsion induced buckling are discussed in the
following sections. Torsional buckling is generally not a problem for pipelines except during
pipelay of small diameter pipelines in deep waters.
4.2.1 CIRCUMFERENTIAL COLLAPSE
An excessive external hydrostatic pressure, po, on the outer surface of a subsea pipeline can
cause local buckling, usually referred to as “collapse or circumferential collapse”. The
pipeline will buckle if the resultant of the external pressure and the internal pressure, pr (i.e.,
pr = po – pi), in the absence of any other load, exceeds a critical collapse pressure, Pc.
The critical pressure is a function of the pipe dimensions (diameter and wall thickness) and
its mechanical characteristics (Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio and yield strength).
Therefore, to avoid collapse, pipe dimensions and mechanical properties are chosen such that
for a given water depth, the resultant external pressure Pr is less than the critical collapse
pressure, i.e., Pr < Pc. The critical pressure for a perfect circular tube is discussed in standard
books on strength of materials and in Reference [9.6].
All pipes have a certain degree of ovality. This tends to reduce the critical buckling pressure,
i.e., reduces resistance to collapse. The following equations from PD 8010 for the calculation
of Pc take account of ovality:
 Pc  
2
 Pc  Pc D0
 − 1   − 1 = f0 , (9.14a)
 Pec  Py   Py t nom
3
2 E  t nom 
Pec =   , (9.14b)
(1 − n 2 )  D0 
t nom
Py = 2σ y , (9.14c)
D0
where E is the Young’s modulus of pipe material; υ is the Poisson’s ratio for pipe material
and f0 is the initial ovalization of the pipe cross-section given as follows:
Dmax − Dmin
fo = (9.15)
Do
DnV recommend that the value of fo should not be less than 0.005 (0.5%). Collapse can
occur in any depth depending on the value of t/Do but it is a major problem in deep water and
for low t/Do values. Internal pressure helps to lessen the problem but design must address the
situations when the pipeline is in de-pressurised state.
Note that Pec in equation (9.14) is the critical pressure for a perfectly circular pipe to cause
elastic circumferential collapse, while Py is the plastic collapse pressure. Equation (9.14) is
based on empirical equations developed by Murphy and Langner in 1985.
The equations (9.14) are similar to those given in DnV OS F-101.
Equation (9.14a) is a cubic equation in the unknown parameter Pc and as such needs use of
solution methods for a cubic equation given in literature; a much easier solution procedure is
given in DnV OS F-101, Section 13, and Clause E700.
4.2.2 AXIAL COLLAPSE:
Axial compressive loads can be caused in restrained pipeline when operating under high
temperature and pressure, and some other loads (for example, residual tension). Equation
(9.8), Section (2.4) gives the equation for the axial load Fx. Two types of buckling can occur;
it can be either pure axial collapse or it can buckle laterally like it happens in bar buckling.
In pure axial collapse, the pipe buckles symmetrically with respect to its longitudinal axis,
Figure 9.6. This would happen if the axial compressive load is uniformly distributed along
the pipe face.
Figure 9.6: Axial Collapse of Cylinders

This axial collapse buckling will occur if the axial compressive force, Fx, exceeds the pipe's
critical buckling load, Reference [9.1], given by the following expression
Fxc = π ( D0 − t nom )t nomσ y (9.16)
The above value is valid only for pipelines with D0/tnom < 60. Since very thin pipelines are not
used in oil and gas applications, this equation should be sufficient for most pipeline designs.
4.2.3 BEAM-COLUMN BUCKLING
In the second type of axial buckling,

the pipeline tendency to expand
laterally could be restrained by some
mechanism such as friction; this could Figure 9.7 - Beam under Axial Compressive Loads
(Beam-Column Buckling)
lead to lateral bending and possible
buckling. This type of buckling commonly referred to as “bar or beam-column buckling” or
“lateral buckling”. This can take the form of horizontal snaking of unburied pipelines laid on
the seabed, or of a bent pipe in the vertical plane for trenched or unsupported pipelines. The
bar-buckling and beam column buckling is discussed extensively in literature and a good
description is given in Reference [9.6]. Lateral buckling of pipelines is discussed in
Reference [9.7].
A pipeline will buckle as a beam-column if the axial load is greater than the critical axial
load. For simply supported end conditions, the critical load is given as, Reference [9.6],

π 2 EI
Fcr = (9.17)
L2
where I is the cross-sectional moment of inertia of the pipeline and L is the length between
supports. If the axial force Fx exceeds the critical load as defined in equation (9.17), even a
small lateral load will cause the pipe section to buckle. Equations for critical axial load, Fcr,
for other end conditions are given in books on strength of materials and reference [9.6].
Equation (9.17) does not take account of friction between the pipeline and the seabed; a paper
by R. R. Hobbs, et al, Reference [9.7] is commonly used for studying pipeline lateral
buckling.
Various modes of buckling can occur; some of these are shown in Figure 9.8.
Figure 9.8: Various Modes of Lateral Buckling
This is just an introduction to lateral buckling, it is highly recommended to study the

available literature before undertaking pipeline buckling studies. As a starting point,
Reference [9.7] should be read before evaluating lateral buckling of pipelines.
4.2.4 FLEXURAL (BENDING) BUCKLING:
Flexural or bending buckles can result when the pipeline is subjected to high bending
moments. The potential conditions for such damage are: long unsupported spans on the
seabed, hooking of the pipeline by anchors or fishing gear or during pipelay when a sudden
loss of tension or other conditions cause bending moments which exceed the critical bending
moment. Critical bending moment is given as

M c = (1 − 0.0024 D0 / t nom )( D0 − t nom ) 2 t nomσ y (9.18)
Design of a pipeline system should ensure that the resultant bending moment in the pipeline
at any point does not exceed Mc. Similarly, pipeline will buckle in bending if strain due to
bending moments only exceeds the critical value, ε bc given by equation (9.19).
2
t 
ε bc = 15 nom  (9.19)
 Do 
4.2.5 BUCKLING UNDER COMBINED LOADS:
External pressure, compression/tension and bending can all act at the same time, leading to a
buckling failure of the pipeline. For example, a deep-water pipeline hooked during operation
by an anchor will be subjected to combined loads due pressure, temperature and
environmental loads. Where potential exists for the pipeline to be subjected to combination
of the above loads, pipeline design should ensure that the combined loads do not exceed the
maximum allowable combination of loads. According to BS PD 8010, Part 2, the maximum
allowable external overpressure P in a pipeline with an ovality of less than 0.05 (5%)
subjected to a compressive force Fx or a bending moment M can be determined from the
following equation
n
M F  P
 + x + ≤1 (9.20)
 M c Fxc  Pc
where M and F are the bending moment and axial force on the pipeline, respectively; Pc, Mc
and Fxc are the critical values as obtained from Sections 3.1.1-3.1.3, and

t nom σ hb
n = 1 + 300 x (9.21a)
D0 σ hcr
PDo
σ hb = (9.21b)
2t nom
2
 t 
σ hE = E  nom  (9.21c)
 Do − t nom 
2
σ hcr = σ hE for σ he ≤ σ y (9.21d)
3
 1  2σ y  2  2
σ hcr = σ y 1 − ×    for σ hE > σ y (9.21e)
 3  3σ hE   3
It is to be noted that the critical buckling loads for a pipe are functions of pipe dimensions
and its mechanical characteristics. In checking the buckling due to a combination of loads,
applied bending moment, axial force and net external pressure must be known. For example,
to check whether a pipeline will buckle during pipelay for a certain lay configuration,
bending moment from its bent configuration, axial load from applied tension and external
pressure for the submerged section can be determined.
4.3 Global Buckling
The buckles discussed above are all of local nature except bar buckling, i.e., only short
sections of pipe less than 10-20 pipe diameters are affected. Local buckling is a serious
problem since the damaged section could become operational hazard may need to be replaced
at considerable cost for repairs and loss of production. Apart from local buckling, pipelines
could suffer severe damage to much longer sections due to two phenomenon, viz.,
propagation and upheaval buckling.
4.3.1 PROPAGATION BUCKLES
The propagation buckle is the term used to describe the phenomenon where a local and large
imperfection, e.g., a dent caused by a dropped object or by an anchor, propagates along the
pipeline under an external load such as hydrostatic pressure. For subsea pipelines, the
propagation buckle is driven solely by the external hydrostatic pressure; for buried land
pipelines, the propagation pressure could be caused by soil pressure. The local buckle
initiated by any of the above mechanisms propagates along the pipeline if the external
pressure exceeds a critical value known as the propagation pressure. An unfortunate aspect
of this phenomenon is that once initiated, the buckle will not stop until it encounters an
obstruction or reaches shallower water where the external pressure is less than the
propagation pressure. Propagating buckle failure advances at high speed, several hundred
metres per second.
Propagation Pressure:
Propagation pressure Pp is a function of pipe diameter, wall thickness and yield strength. A
number of formulae for Pp derived from experimental data have been proposed. The most
commonly used relationship is that given in PD 8010:
9
Pp = 10.7σ y (t / D0 ) 4 (9.22)
The propagation pressure is less than the critical collapse pressure, Pc, of a pipeline. The
propagating buckle can be initiated at pressures less than the critical collapse pressure. Thus
the initiation pressure Pi lies between the propagation and critical collapse pressures, i.e.,
Pp<Pi<Pc. The initiation pressure is dependent upon the shape, type of damage, material
properties and geometric imperfections of the pipe.
Equation (9.22) shows that propagation pressure is linearly dependent on the material yield
strength but increases exponentially with wall thickness at a rate greater than the square of
wall thickness. From this it can inferred that it is preferable to use a thicker pipe than higher
yield strength.
Equation (9.221) is similar to the one given in DnV OS F-101.
Control of Propagation Buckling:

One way to avoid the damage from propagation buckling is to choose the pipeline wall
thickness and material strength such that the pressure required for propagation buckle is
greater than the maximum external pressure at all points along the pipeline. However, this
may be a costly solution since the design may end up with a very thick walled pipeline. A
more economical approach is to design the pipeline to resist local buckling due to the loads
discussed in the preceding sections and limit the length of pipeline damage due to
propagation buckling by placing “buckle arrestors” at regular intervals along the pipeline,
Figure 9. Buckle arrestors are thicker wall pipe sections intended to halt (arrest) the
propagating buckle. In this manner, only short sections of pipeline between two buckle
arrestors would be damaged and need to be replaced.

Buckle Arrestor Types:

A buckle arrestor is a device such as a thick steel ring that is welded to or otherwise attached
firmly to the pipeline and is sufficiently strong to resist a propagating buckle. A properly
designed buckle arrestor can confine the damage to a relatively short span.
Several types of buckle arrestors have been proposed that can be incorporated externally or
internally. For transmission pipelines following types of exterior buckle arrestors are
suitable.
• Free-ring arrestor
• Welded ring arrestor
• Integral ring arrestor
Figure 9.9: Three Types of Buckle Arrestors
A free-ring buckle arrestor is a stiffened ring that is fitted snugly onto the pipe by mechanical
means such as clamping; a welded ring buckle is also a stiffened ring that is girth welded at
both ends to the pipeline. An integral ring type buckle arrestor is a thick–wall long ring
having the same ID as that of the pipeline. It can be formed into a pipe joint or welded in
series directly into the pipeline. The integral type of buckle arrestor is the most efficient
since it requires the least amount of added material to stop the propagating buckle.

Figures 9.10 – Free Ring and Integral Buckle Arrestors
The efficiency of a buckle arrestor in stopping and containing the propagating buckle
depends on the dimensions and mechanical properties of the pipe and the buckle arrestor.
The pressure at which a buckle propagates past the buckle arrestor is called ‘crossover
pressure’. A buckle arrestor must be designed in such a way that its crossover pressure is
greater than the local external pressure.
The crossover pressure Pcross for a buckle arrestor of length l and thickness h has been
determined semi-empirically by Langner, Reference [9.9] as follows
Pcross − Pp = ( Pa − Pp )(1 − e −60tl / Do )

2
(9.23)
where Pp and Pa are the buckle propagation pressures for the pipe and the buckle arrestor
ring, respectively. Note that the propagation pressure proposed by Langner is different form
the one given in equation (9.21) above; it is
t2
Pp ( Langner ) = 4σ y (9.24)
Do2
It has been found that the crossover pressure predicted by equation (9.23) is conservative;
therefore a modified version of this equation has been proposed and used for design. The
modified equation for the crossover pressure is
Pcross − Pp = ( Pa − Pp )(1 − e −15tl / Do )
2
(9.25)
where in accordance with equation (9.22), Pp and Pa are given as follows
9
Pp = 10.7σ yp (t / D0 ) 4 (9.26a)
9
Pa = 10.7σ ya (h / Da ) 4 (9.26b)

For safety, the crossover pressure should be greater than the external pressure at the buckle
arrestor location. A safety factor ksa of a value between 1.3 and 1.5 is recommended. This
safety factor takes care of any sudden pressure surge due to storm and any dynamic
overpressures. Thus
Pa = k sa Po (9.27)
Spacing Between Buckle Arrestors:
The spacing between buckle arrestors is based primarily on an economic balance between the
cost of installation of buckle arrestors and the risk of damage and cost of repair of a damaged
section. The repair methods/costs are also dependent on the available construction facilities.
Depending on the pipe diameter, wall thickness, coating weights, etc., available vessels can
cut and lift a pipeline section between 10 and 16 joints long. Longer sections need either to
be cut to shorter sections or recovered by a reverse of pipelay. In either case, the repairs are
costly. Buckle arrestors are usually spaced between 10-16 joints, i.e., approximately 120 m –
200 m. It is advisable to review available repair methods, the cost of repairs, etc., to optimise
the spacing. There is no real analytical procedure. If the maximum length of pipeline that
would fail due to a propagation buckle can be determined, it would be possible to optimise
the costs. However, the required analytical tools have not been developed, hence engineering
judgement is used.
Design Procedure:
The outline procedure for design of buckle arrestor design is as follows:

1. Design wall thickness for pressure containment (Course Note D-6)
2. Determine critical buckling pressure (Section 4.1.1) – hydrostatic pressure needs
to be less than the critical buckling pressure, otherwise increase wall thickness so
that the critical buckling pressure is greater than the external hydrostatic pressure
3. Determine buckle propagation pressure, Pp from equation (9.22)
4. If propagation pressure is less than the external hydrostatic pressure, buckle
arrestors are required
5. Select a value of crossover pressure, equation (9.25)
6. Select a buckle arrestor length between Do and 4 Do
7. Calculate buckle arrestor wall thickness, equation (9.26)
8. To optimise buckle arrestor material, repeat steps 6 and 7 for different lengths of
the buckle arrestor and select the minimum volume arrestor.

5 UPHEAVAL BUCKLING o
As discussed in Section 4, axial compressive force can vertically deform trenched and buried
pipelines, i.e., pipelines that are restrained from snaking in the horizontal plane can be lifted
upwards. Depending on the operational pressure and temperature, pipe size and its weight,
and weight of any soil/rock cover, the pipeline can be deformed in a manner that can lead to
buckling. The term used for this phenomenon is 'upheaval buckling'. Imperfections in the
pipeline longitudinal profile and/or of the seabed enhance the upheaval buckling, leading to a
possible failure of the pipeline. Generally, high temperatures in the pipeline cause this type
of buckling.
Figure 9.11: Upheaval Buckling Phenomenon
This aspect of buckling has received considerable attention and specialist computer programs
have been developed to predict possible failure scenarios. Some recent studies have shown
that the effect of temperature fluctuations in imperfect pipelines can create a mechanism for a
slow growth of imperfection amplitudes which can lead to upheaval buckling at lower
temperatures after a number of loading-unloading cycles. Similar upheaval buckling
problems have been encountered in railroad tracks during hot weather.
Figure 9.12: Upheaval Buckling of a Subsea Pipeline

To minimise the impact of upheaval buckling, the following steps may be undertaken:
• decrease pipe wall thickness
• ensure that the seabed/trench is as smooth as possible
• increase vertical down load.
The reduction of wall thickness is usually achieved by increasing the material SMYS, i.e.,
using higher grade material. Additional vertical down load generally provided by rock-dump,
natural soil or by mattresses will lead to increase in the pipeline cost.
Commercially available computer programs can be used to model the seabed and long
lengths of the pipeline. These programs can identify sections of the pipeline that could be
vulnerable to upheaval buckling. Additional cover (overburden) with rock or similar
materials that might be needed to overcome the problem can also be determined. Most
programs are based on finite element methods for modelling the system where seabed
topography and other non-linearities can be considered.
DnV-RP-F110 deals with global buckling of pipelines which includes lateral and upheaval
buckling. This recommended practice gives a simple method for determining overburden to
avoid upheaval buckling for conceptual designs.
6 FATIGUE ANALYSIS
6.1 Introduction
Structures suffer a reduction in strength and ultimate failure when subjected to cyclic loading.
This phenomenon is known as fatigue. The fatigue is essentially caused by dynamic cyclic
loads. The effect of dynamic response is to reduce the fatigue life of a structure because the
structure is subjected to variable stress amplitudes. The frequency of stress reversal is
associated with natural frequencies of the structure and wave frequencies; wave frequencies
are much lower than structural frequencies. When the structure is under dynamic loads due
to waves and current, the cycles of stress are at a frequency equal to that of the waves. At
resonance, the frequency of structure vibration and of the stress is that of the structural
natural frequency. Maximum damage is done at resonant conditions. However, fatigue failure
can occur due to repeated cycles of loads and stresses at non-resonant frequencies.
The outline of the method discusses fatigue life calculations for offshore structure including
pipelines. The method involves determination of stress range for a number of waves and to
assess partial damage caused by each wave. The number of waves of a certain height in a
certain period, say one year, can be determined from the wave height distribution chart or
diagram. Estimates of possible damage due to each group of waves are made by using
historical/experimental data that has been accumulated. Total anticipated fatigue damage and
fatigue life could then be determined.
6.2 S-N Curve
Experiments have been performed on different types of structure to determine the number of
cycles it will take for a stress of specified amplitude to cause fatigue failure of the structure.
The experiments are repeated and the data is plotted on graphs showing stress range
amplitude and number of cycles. This diagram is called S-N diagram. Since scatter is often
reflected by the data, a mean curve is drawn through the data. S-N curves for different types
of construction are available. A typical S-N diagram is shown in Figure 9.10, where the
horizontal axis shows the number of cycles and the vertical axis shows the stress range. DnV
RP F-105 and DnV RP C-203 discuss fatigue of pipelines and structures.
Figure 9.13 – Typical S-N Diagram
6.3 Analysis Method – Outline Procedure
There are two approaches to the problem. One is based on probabilistic (stochastic) methods
where the wave spectrum is used and spectral methods determine the fatigue life. This
method is not discussed here.

The other approach is relatively simple and is normally used in pipeline/riser design. This
approach is outlined hereunder
• Obtain wave height distribution chart for the location from met-ocean report. This
chart is generally prepared for one year data.
• divide wave height distribution chart into a number of blocks, say m,
• select a representative height for each block
• determine number of waves in each block, say nI, i = 1, 2, …, m
• compute maximum and minimum stress in the pipeline/riser for the representative
wave using pipeline/riser structural analysis programs, S, i = 1, 2, …,m
• From S-N diagram, determine number of cycles need for failure for each
computed stress range, NI, i= 1, 2, …, m
• Compute the fraction of fatigue damage due to each stress range which is defined
as ni/Ni, i = 1, 2, …, m
• the cumulative damage, for the duration for which the wave height distribution
chart, is the sum of fractional damage, i.e.,
m
ni
Cumulativefatiguedamage, f d = ∑
i =1 Ni
• Anticipated fatigue life = 1/fd
The above method, based on Palmgre-Milner’s rule is used for most offshore structure. The
computed fatigue life should be 2-3 times the design life of the system.
7 SOME NOTES FOR STRESS AND BUCKLING ANALYSES
A. Hoop stress calculations for all stress and buckling analyses according to BS
and ISO design codes are based on minimum wall thickness of the pipe while
for all other stresses use nominal thickness, e.g., including fabrication
tolerances.
B. For these codes, all analyses of operational cases use minimum corroded wall
thickness for hoop stress, i.e., wall thickness without fabrication tolerances and
considering loss due to corrosion. Note that to compute stresses midway of
pipeline design life, consider only partial loss of wall thickness due to
corrosion until such time.

C. For temporary installation and hydrotest cases according to BS or ISO, use

design thickness without fabrication tolerances for hoop stress calculation but
use design wall thickness for all other analyses.
D. For operational case according to B31.4, B31.8, API RP 1111 design codes,
you must use nominal corroded wall thickness for all stresses (including hoop
stress) and buckling analysis.
E. For temporary installation and hydrotest cases according to B31.4/B31.8 and
API, use design wall thickness for all stress and buckling analyses.
F. Stress analysis or strength calculations do not consider the stiffness/strength
due to any coatings. All calculations are based on steel pipe diameter and wall
thickness. Moment of cross-sectional area also does not consider contribution
due to coatings.
G. Fluid loads due to waves/current are based on effective outside diameter that
considers coatings. In weight calculations, coatings as well as contents must be
considered.

8 REFERENCES:
9.1 PD 8010 Code of practice for pipelines, Part 2: Subsea Pipelines
(2004)
9.2 ISO 13623 Pipeline transportation systems for the petroleum and
natural gas industries
9.3 ANSI/ASME B31.4 Liquid transportation systems for hydrocarbons, liquid
petroleum gas, anhydrous ammonia and alcohol
9.4 ANSI/ASMI B31.8 Gas transmission and distribution piping systems
9.5 S. P. Timoshenko Strength of Materials, Parts 1 & 2
9.6 S. P. Timoshenko and J. Theory of elastic stability, McGraw-Hill Book Compnay
M. Gere
9.7 R.E Hobbs and F. Liang Thermal Buckling of Pipelines close to Restraints,
International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and
Arctic Engineering, 1989.
9.8 D. M. Richards and A. Ultimate strength of pipelines, European Offshore Mech.
Andronicou Symp., Trondheim, 1990
9.9 C. G. Langner Arrest of propagating collapse failure in offshore
pipelines, Shell Deepwate Pipeline Feasibility Study,
1975
9.10 Det Norske Veritas Submarine Pipeline Systems, OS F-101, 2010
9.11 Det Norske Veritas Global Buckling Of Submarine Pipelines, RP-F110

APPENDIX 9:
APPENDIX A9.1: SOLUTION OF BEAM EQUATION
SOLUTION OF EQUATION (9.7)
The beam bending equation with an axial force and a distributed load is, Reference [9.6],
d4y d2y
EI + T ( x) 2 − w( x) = 0 (A9.1.1)
dx 4 dx
For simplicity, it is assumed that the axial load T and the distributed load w are both uniform
along the beam length. The distributed
load could be due to pipe dead weight or
wave and current induced transverse Figure A9.1.1 - Beam under Axial and Transverse Loads
load. The solution of equation

(A9.1.1.1) assuming the axial load to be compressive is given as
wx 2
y ( x) = A4 sin kx + A3 cos kx + A2 x + A1 + (A9.1.2)
2T
where
T
k2 = (A9.1.3)
EI
If the axial load is tensile, the solution is
wx 2
y ( x) = A4 sinh kx + A3 cosh kx + A2 x + A1 + (A9.1.4)
2T
The four unknowns are determined by using the end conditions.
At a simply supported end, deflection and the bending moment are zero, these lead to the
following conditions at the simply supported ends of a pipe of length L
Y = 0, Y '' = 0 at x = 0 and x = L

Using these end conditions, the coefficients for equations (A9.1.2) and (A9.1.4)can be
determined.
Solution for Compressive Axial Load:
The solution of the unknown coefficients governing beam bending equation (A9.1.2) for the
case of compressive axial load is found to be
w 1 − cos kL 
A4 =
 
k 2T  sin kl 
w
A3 = 2
k T
wL
A2 = −
2T
w
A1 = − A3 = − 2
k T
With these coefficients, it is straight forward to determine the beam displacement y(x) at any
point along its length.
Bending moment and bending stresses at any cross-section of a pipe with outside diameter Do
are obtained from the following equations
d2y
M x = − EI
dx 2
Do M x
σx =
2 I
The bending moment and stress increases with increasing compressive load which ultimately
leads to buckling. The compressive load which causes the beam to buckle is known as critical
axial buckling load.
For a uniform pipe, the maximum values of bending moment and bending stress will occur at
the mid-span. The maximum bending moment in the pipeline span is given as
w  1 
M max = −
 cos(kL / 2)  .
1
k2  
In similar manner, bending moments for pin-fixed and fixed-fixed end conditions can be
derived; these are:

For Fixed-Pin M max =

wL
tan kL
[tan kL / 2 − kL / 2]
k tan kL − kL
w  kL / 2 
For Fixed-Fixed at Support: M x −sup = 1 − tan kL / 2 
k2 
w  kL / 2 
For Fixed-Fixed at Middle: M x − mid =  sin kL / 2 − 1
k2  
Solution for Tensile Axial Load:
The coefficients in equation (A9.1.4) can be determined in the same manner. The equations
for bending moments for the tensile axial load can also be found in books on strength of
materials.
The tensile axial load reduces bending moment and stresses in a pipeline.
BEAM WITHOUT AXIAL LOAD
If there is no axial compressive or tensile load, the beam bending equation simplifies as
d4y
EI − w( x) = 0
dx 4
If the transverse load is uniform, then the general solution of this equation is
𝑤𝑥 4 𝐴1 𝑥 3 𝐴2 𝑥 2
𝑦= + + + 𝐴3 𝑥 + 𝐴4
24𝐸𝐸 6 2
For simply supported end conditions, the deflection at any point along the beam is given as
𝑤𝑥 4 3
𝑦(𝑥) = (𝐿 𝑥 − 2𝐿𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 )
24𝐸𝐸
Maximum bending moment will be at the mid-point along the beam and has the value
𝑤𝐿4
𝑀𝑚𝑚𝑚 =
8

Note that an operational pipeline will always have some axial load due to internal pressure
and temperature.
SOLVED EXAPLES

EXAMPLE OF STRESSES DUE TO PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE
The pipeline data is given as in the following. Determine hoop stress, end-cap stress, thermal stress, longitudinal
stress in a constrained pipeline, equivalent stress for the constrained pipeline for hydrotest, mid-life and end of life
cases
Data:
Outside diameter, Do: 0.32385 m

Design wall thickness, t: 0.015 m
Corrosion allowance, tc: 0.003 m
Fabrication tolerance, f-: 10 %
Operating pressure, pi: 1.53E+07 N/m^2
Hydrotest pressure: 1.25 times Pi
Water depth, h: 10 m
Density of water 1025 kg/m^3
Gravitational acceleration, g: 9.81 m/sec^2
Operating temperature, Top: 45 deg C
Ambient temperature, Tamb: 5 deg C
Coef of thermal expansion: 1.17E-05
Young's modulud, E: 2.10E+11 N/m^2
Poisson's ratio, v 0.3
Solution:
Corrosion loss midway: 0.0015 m 50% corrosion allowance used

Minimum wall thickness:
During hydrotest, t-mintemp: 0.0135 m 𝑡𝑚−𝑡 = 1 − 𝑓− ∗ 𝑡
Midway: 0.012 m
End of life: 0.0105 m
Corroded nominal WT:

During hydrotest, t-corrtemp: 0.015 m
Midway: 0.0135 m
End of life: 0.012 m
External press, po: 100552.5 N/m^2 p o = ρgh

Internal pressure, operating: 15300000.00 N/m^2
Internal pressure, installation: 0.00 N/m^2
Hydrotest pressure: 19125000.00 N/m^2
Hoop stress:
During hydrotest: 228187678.6 N/m2
σh =
( pi − pe )Do
Midway: 205097544.7 N/m2
End of life: 234397193.9 N/m^2 2t
Note, minimum WT is used for hoop stress computation
End Cap Effect Stress:

σL =
( pi − pe )Do
Midway: 91154464.31 N/m2
4t
End of life: 102548772.4 N/m^2
Note: Nominal corroded WT is used for other stresses
Thermal stress: -98280000 N/m^2 σ LT = − Eα∆T

Note that thermal stress is independent of wall thickness so it is same for all cases.
Total Longintudinal Stress in a constrained pipeline:

During hydrotest: -132508151.8 N/m2 ( p i − p e ) Do ( p − p e )Do
Midway: -127905200.9 N/m2 σ tc = ν − Eα∆T − i
End of life: -130509614.2 N/m^2
2t 4t
Von Mises equivalent stress in constrained pipeline:

Midway: 290960110.5 N/m2 σ eqv = (σ h2 − σ hσ L + σ L2 )
End of life: 320259100.2 N/m^2
EXAMPLE OF STRESSES DUE TO PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE AND OTHER LOADS
The design data for a pipeline span of length 15 m is given as in the following. A current is flowing at a speed of 1.0 m/sec. Calculate the total longitudinal
stress and equivalent stress to check if the pipe section is overstressed anytime during its operational life. Use drag coefficient value as 0.7 and assume the
span is simply supported. Design factor for equivalent stress is 0.9.
Hint: Since pipeline strength is ensured during its entire lifetime, so we consider the worst case of corroded pipe at end of its life.
Data:

Design wall thickness, t: 0.015 m
Corrosion allowance, tc: 0.003 m
Fabrication tolerance, f-: 10 %
Operating pressure, pi: 1.53E+07 N/m^2
Density of water 1025 kg/m^3
Gravitational acceleration, g: 9.81 m/sec^2
Young's modulud, E: 2.10E+11 N/m^2
Desnity of steel, rho-st: 7800 kg/m3
Yield strength, sigma-y: 413 Mpa = 413 N/mm2
Solution: Part 1 - Stresses due to pressure and temperature
Corroded nominal wall thickness: 0.012 𝑡𝑟 = 𝑡 − 𝑡𝑐
Minimum wall thickness, end of life: 0.0105 m 𝑡𝑚−𝑡 = 1 − 𝑓− ∗ 𝑡 − 𝑡𝑐
Note: Minimum WT is used for hoop stress; Corroded nominal WT is used for other stresses
External press, po: 100552.5 N/m^2 p o = ρgh

Internal pressure, operating: 15300000.00 N/m^2
σh =
( pi − pe )Do
Hoop stress, end of life: 234397193.9 N/m^2
2t
End Cap Effect Stress, end of life: 102548772.4 N/m^2 σL =

( pi − pe )Do
4t
Thermal stress: -98280000 N/m^2 σ LT = − Eα∆T
Total Longintudinal Stress in constrained section, sigm-tc: -130509614.2 N/m^2 ( pi − pe ) Do ( p − p )D

σ tc = ν − Eα∆T − i e o
Since longitudinal stress is negative, it is compressive 2t 4t
Solution: Stresses due to weight and current loads
The span is under two transverse loads. The pipe weight acts downwards while the current load is in horizontal plane, hence bending displacements tak e
place in two planes but longitudinal stress due to bending is along pipe axis.
Span Length: 12 m
Cross-sectional area of pipe, As: 0.011756468 m2 As=pi*t*(Do-t)
𝐷𝑜4 − 𝐷𝑖4
Moment of inertia, I: 0.000143127 m4 𝐸=𝜋
64
Loads on pipeline:
Submerged Pipe weight per unit length, w: 71.31404207 N/m
Current speed, V: 0 m/sec

Drag coefficient, CD: 0.7
Horizontal force due to drag, FD: 0 N/m 𝐹𝐷 = 0.5𝜌𝐶𝐷 𝐷𝑉 𝑉
Axial force, T: -1534332.106 N T=As x σ tc
T
k2: 5.10E-02 k2 =
EI
k: 2.26E-01
For stress calculations, use equations from Appendix A9.1.
Bending moment and stress calculations for pipe under its own weight:
w 1 
M max =  − 1
Bending moment, Mx1: 5.15E+03 N-m k 2  cos(kL / 2) 
Logitudinal stress, sigma-L1: 5.82E+06 N/m2
Do M x
5.82E+00 N/mm2 σL =
2 I
Bending moment and stress calculations for pipe under current load:
Bending moment, Mx2: 0.00E+00 N-m

Logitudinal stress, sigma-L2: 0.00E+00 N/m2
0.00E+00 N/mm2
Stress Check:
Total longitudina stress: -1.25E+08 N/m2 =sigma-tc+sigma-L1+sigma-L2

-1.25E+02 N/mm2
Equivalent stress, sigma-eq: 315777681.3 N/m2 σ eqv = (σ h2 − σ hσ L + σ L2 )

315.7776813 N/mm2
Design factor ke: 0.9

Allowable stress: 371.7 N/mm2
As sigma-eq is less than sigma-all, the pipe span is not overstressed

EXAMPLES ON CIRCUMFERENTIAL AND AXIAL COLLAPSE
EXAMPLE - CRITICAL CIRCUMFERENTIAL COLLAPSE PRESSURE OF PERFECT ROUND PIPE
The simple example given here is for illustration and is based on a perfectly circular cylinder. In practice,
how ever, a pipe w ill have some imperfection (ovality). The solution of the cubic equation, given in Notes, to determine the critical load is relatively more
difficult but should be used. Use of modern computers makes that easyto solve cubic.
0.762 m
0.02 m
Young's Modulus, E: 2.10E+11 n/m2
Poisson's ratio, v: 0.3
Seaw ater density, Rho-w : 1025 kg/m3
Gravitational acceleration,g: 9.81 m/sec
3
2E  t 
(1 − v 2 )  D 
Critial Circum ferential Collapse Pressure,Pec= The equation is from Timoshenko's book.
Pec: 8345127.4 N/m2
Critical Depth = Pec /( ρ w g ) This is the depth that would give rise to the critical pressure.
Critical w ater depth 829.92739 m
Note that the critical collapse pressure for a cylinder w ith imperfections w ill be less than that for a perfect cylinder
EXAMPLE - AXIAL COLLAPSE
Data:

Design w all thickness,t: 0.015 m
Internal pressure,Pi: 1.53E+07 N/m^2
Seaw ater density, Rho-w : 1025 kg/m^3
Gravitational acceleration,g: 9.81 m/sec^2
Young's Modulus, E: 2.10E+11 N/m^2
Specified minimum yield strength: 4.13E+08 N/m^2
Solution:
Internal area of pipe: 0.0678174 m^2

Steel cross-scetion area of pipe: 0.0145542 m^2
Internal pressure: 1.53E+07 N/m^2

External press: 100552.5 N/m^2 ρgh
Hoop stress: 164078036 N/m^2 ( pi − pe )Do

2t
Therm al stress: -98280000 N/m^2 − Eα∆T
( p i − p e ) Do
End cap stress: 82039018 N/m^2 σL = (Based on conventional formula)
4t
 ( p − p o ) Do  pi p ( Do − 2t ) 2
Axial force: -1.74E+06 N Fx = Fa − As  Eα∆T − ν i -
 2t  4
Critical Axial Collapse pressure : 6010890.1 N Fxc = p ( D0 − t nom )t nomσ y
This shows that the pipeline will not axially buckle with respect to the above criterion.
A slightly more accurate formula for end cap stress (for comparison only):
p ( Do − 2t ) 2
End cap stress: 70823981 N/m^2 ( pi − p e )
σL = 4
A
Note that conventional formula is more conservative.

EXAMPLES ON COLLAPSE BUCKLING

DnV OS F101 & BS PD 8010
Solution as per DnV OS F101
Note: (1) When the DnV solution method for cubic is used for collapse analysis as per BS 8010 , we shall take alph-fab =1; (2) For DnV based
design, alph-fab is selected as per DnV OS F101 (3) fy in DnV solution is same as sigma-y; pel is same as pe in PD 8010
Data:
Design Code (BS or DnV) BS
Following solution for cubic equation taken from DnV OS F101,

Wall Thickness - design, td 0.015 m Section 13; see Note.
Corrosion Allow ance, CA 0.003 m
Internal Pressure, Pi 0.00E+00 N/m^2
Water depth, d 100 m
Density of w ater, rho 1025 kg/m^3
Acceleration due to Gravity, g 9.81 m/sec^2
Young's Modulud,E 2.10E+11 N/m^2
Specified minimum yield strength, sigma-y 4.13E+08 N/m^2
Corroded
Ovalty, fo 5.00E-03
Design Case (Install, Hydro, Oper) Oper
Solution (based on DnV OS F-101, Section 13):
Corroded Wall Thickness - for analysis, t 0.012 mm
Critical Collapse Pressure (Elastic), pe 3513679.39 N/m2

Critical Collapse Pressure (Plastic), pp 1.62E+07 N/m2
(pe, pp as per equations 13.11 and 13.12 of DnV)
Coefficients for Cubic:
b= -3513679.39
c= -2.78547E+14
d= 9.28E+20
solution of Cubic:
u= -9.14773E+13
v= 2.99E+20
phi= 1.919739778
y= 2219938.111
1
Critical Pressure, pc 2219937.778 N/m 2 𝑝𝑐 = 𝑦 − 𝑏 see eq. 13.13 in DnV soulution, as above
3
2.219937778 N/m m 2
Water Depth for Collapse, w c 220.7740014 m eters =pc/(rho x g)
As computed water depth is greater than design water depth, the pipeline wall thickness is sufficient to resist collapse.

EXERCISE ON PROPAGATION PRESSURE
A pipeline of outside diameter of .712 m, nominal wall thickness 0.222, steel grade L450 is laid in a water depth of 325 m. The pipe has a corrosion
allowance of 0.0 m. Determine if the pipe is vulnurable to propagation buckle.
Selected Pipe Data:

Wall thickness, t: 0.0222 m
Corrosion allowance, tc: 0 m
Grade(API 5L): X-60
SMYS: 413 N/mm^2
Water depth, d: 200 m
Sea water density, rho-w: 1025 kg/m^3
We have to determine is the pipe has the susceptibility to propagation buckle.
Solution:
Corroded nominal wall thickness: 0.0222 m
1549635
9
Propagation pressure, Pp: N/m^2 Pp = 10.7σ y (t / D0 ) 4
Hydrostatic pressure, Po: 2011050 N/m^2 𝑃𝑜 = 𝜌𝑤 𝑔𝑑
Since the hydrostatic pressure is greater than the propagation pressure

the pipeline can suffer from propagation buckle.
Revisit Design: to design pipe without propagation buckle risk
There are two alternatives:

(a) Increase pipe strength, i.e., SMYS so that Pp is greater than Po
(b) Increase pipe thickness
(a) Increase pipe strength, i.e., SMYS

4
𝑡 −
9
SMYS required to resist the hydrostatic pressure for causing propagation buckle: 535973828.6 N/m^2 𝜎𝑦 = 𝑃𝑜 ∗ /10.7
𝐷𝑜
536 N/mm^2
536 Mpa
168.8556
Thus a pipe of grade L1170 or SMYS of 1169 MPa or API grade X170 will be required. This matrial is absolutely unknown and it may not be
feasible to produce this type of steel. Hence change of material grade is not feasible.
(b) Increase pipe thickness:
Propagation pressure is proprtional to at least square of wall thickness. New wall thckness
could be computed so that Pp>Po.
From equation for propagation pressure, wall thickness to resist a given propagation pressure is given as
4
𝑃𝑝 9
𝑡> ∗ 𝐷𝑜
10.7𝜎𝑦
Thus if Pp=Po in this equation, wall thcikness required to resist propagation pressure will be obtained.
Corroded nominal wall thickness to resist propagation, t-new is to be greater than 0.025 m
Nominal wall thickness must be grater than 0.025 m
From this it is concluded that it could be preferable to increase thickness rather than grade.

EXERCISES
1. Compute the thermal, Poisson’s and the Von Mises’ equivalent stress for a 36 inch
diameter pipeline with the following data:
OD. = 914 mm, wall thickness = 25.4, Pipe grade = API 5L X 70

Design pressure = 123 bar, Design temperature = 45o C, Ambient temperature = 4o C
Water depth = 95 metres, Corrosion allowance = 3 mm,
Fabrication tolerance (-ve) = 0
Compute hoop, thermal and equivalent stresses for the new pipeline and end of life
condition. Check if it satisfies BS8010 stress criteria.
Answer:in N/mm2; All stresses satisfy BD PD 8010 stress criteria
Hoop Thermal Equivalent

New 204.1 -100.7 226.5
End 231.5 -100.7 248.6
2. A 24 inch diameter pipeline is designed to operate at a pressure of 142 bar in a sea

with ambient temperature of 3oC. The pipe material grade is API 5L X-65; no
corrosion is anticipated. Determine the maximum design temperature at which the
pipeline can operate that would satisfy PD8010 criteria.
Answer: 110oC (for BS8010);
3. For the problem in exercise 1, determine the axial force for the restrained/partially-
restrained pipeline and check if the pipeline will buckle due to the axial loads.
Answer: No
Axial Force (New): -9.44E+06 N/m2 Critical buckling load: 34177236 N/m2
Axial force (corroded): -8.696E+06 N/m2 Critical buckling load: 30242312 N/m2
4. For the pipeline in exercise 1, determine

• critical water depth for circumferential collapse assuming an empty pipe if the
ovality is given to be 1.5%
• Propagation buckle depth.
Answer: For Un-corroded Pipe: critical depth=799.5 m; propagation depth=161.3m
Corroded Pipe: critical depth=563 m; propagation depth=121.5m

5. A pipeline of steel grade L415 with an outside diameter of 0.6096 m and wall
thickness of 20.0 mm is installed in 150 m water depth with a current speed of 1.2
m/sec. The pipeline operating pressure is 135 barg and temperature is 65o C with
ambient water temperature of 10o C. The pipeline is coated with 50 mm of concrete of
density 3040 kg/m3 and product density is 78 kg/m3. The pipe has corrosion
allowance of 3 mm and a fabrication tolerance of -1.0 mm, +2.0 mm. The allowable
hoop stress is 72% and allowable equivalent stress during operation is 96 of SMYS. A
span of 20 m is created during its operations. Check the wall thickness for hoop stress
and whether the pipeline will be overstressed. Assume end conditions to be simply
supported and drag coefficient of 0.7.
Answers: Hoop stress:228 N.mm2or 0.55SMYS; Axial Force: -5510240 N; Parameter k: 0.1373726;
Longitudinal stress due to pressure & temperature: -174 N/mm2; Bending stresses due to weight and
current: 85.2 N/mm2 and 17.6 N/mm2;Equivalent stress: 271 N/mm2; Hoop stress and equivalent
stresses are OK
6. A pipeline of outside diameter of .712 m, nominal wall thickness 0.222 and steel
grade L450 is laid in a water depth of 325 m. The pipe has a corrosion allowance of
0.004 m. Determine if the pipe is vulnerable to propagation buckle. If it is vulnerable,
check if a pipe with improved SMYS or a thicker pipe can possibly be used to
overcome the problem.
Answers: Propagation buckle pressure: 1257989 N/m2; pipe vulnerable to propagation buckle; SMYS
required: 169 MPa (not feasible); wall thickness required: 0.0.032 m (feasible)


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CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY

MODULE ON PIPELINE ENGINEERING

D-9: STRESS AND BUCKLING ANALYSIS

Cranfield Unviersity, Cranfield, England, Jan2016

APPENDIX A9.1: SOLUTION OF BEAM EQUATION

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2.1 Stresses in a Pipeline

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2.2.1 GENERAL STATE OF STRESS

Figure 9.1 – Principal Stresses in Cylindrical Shells (Pipe)

Cranfield Unviersity, Cranfield, England, Jan2016

2.2.2 HOOP STRESS

Hoop Stress Through Thickness for Thin Pipe

Points Through Thickness (ID to OD)

Points Through Thickness (ID to OD)

Cranfield Unviersity, Cranfield, England, Jan2016

2.2.3 LONGITUDINAL STRESS DUE TO PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE

End Cap Effect due to Pressure:

Longitudinally Constrained Pipeline due to Pressure:

Longitudinal stress in a constrained or partially constrained pipeline is developed both due

Longitudinal Stress due Temperature

Pipelines tend to expand longitudinally due to temperature of the product. If there is no

Cranfield Unviersity, Cranfield, England, Jan2016

2.3 Stresses Due to Other Loads in a Pipeline

Cranfield Unviersity, Cranfield, England, Jan2016

TABLE 9.1 – LOAD CONSIDERATIONS/COMBINATIONS

Phase Load ↓ Pressure Temperature Environmental Weight Applied3

2.4 Axial Force in a Pipeline Due to Pressure and Temperature

Cranfield Unviersity, Cranfield, England, Jan2016

2.5 Stress Evaluation Criteria

B. Combined stress and Equivalent Stress Checks:

2.5.1 VON MISES EQUIVALENT STRESS CRITERIA

TABLE 9.2 – DESIGN FACTORS

Hoop Stress Equivalent Stress1 Equivalent Stress2

1. Equivalent stress due to functional, environmental and accidental loads

2. Equivalent stress during construction and hydrotest

2.5.2 TRESCA STRESS CRITERIA

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Figure 9.4 – Co-ordinate System

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TABLE 9.3 – STRESS FACTORS ANSI B31.4 AND B31.8

LOAD COMBINATIONS ALLOWABLE STRESS FACTORS

Equivalent Tensile Stress σTE)

Expansion Stress (σE)

Hoop Stress (σh)

Shear Stress (σs)

Hydrotest X X 0.90 0.90

Operational X X X X 0.72 0.80 0.45

Additive Longitudinal X X 0.72 0.54 0.45

Equivalent Tensile X X X X X 0.72 1.0 0.90

Cranfield Unviersity, Cranfield, England, Jan2016

For carbon steel pipes, E = 2.07 x

TABLE 9.4 – MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE OPERATING TEMPERATURES

Steel Grade SMYS (N/mm2) Tmax (oC)

3.2 Strain-Based Deign

where εc is the critical strain.

Buckling is a sudden failure of a structural member caused by high compressive stress; it is

Cranfield Unviersity, Cranfield, England, Jan2016

4.2 Local Buckling

4.2.1 CIRCUMFERENTIAL COLLAPSE

The equations (9.14) are similar to those given in DnV OS F-101.

4.2.2 AXIAL COLLAPSE:

Figure 9.6: Axial Collapse of Cylinders