MODULE 1 - Syllabus

ME 463: AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

• Piston: - material for piston, clearances, piston rings, types, need for
two compression rings, oil control ring, piston pin, Piston for IC engine,
piston rings, piston pin, connecting rod, crank shaft, crank pin, cam
shaft, valves, fly wheel, fluctuation of energy and size of fly wheel, hub
and arms, stress in a fly wheel rim, simple problems.
• Petrol fuel injection systems: - comparison petrol injection and
carbureted fuel supply systems- comparison –multiport fuel injection
(MPFI) and common rail direct injection (CRDI) systems.
• Super charging systems: fundamentals, naturally aspirated engines and
supercharged engines– Turbo charger, turbo lag.
CIJIL B. JOHN
• Hybrid cars, safety overview -Formula-I engine technology: overview,
Asst. Professor
electrical technology, brakes, transmission technology.
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
Jyothi Engineering College

What is an ‘Automobile’?? Classification Of Automobiles

• A vehicle producing power within itself for its propulsion is known 1. Based on Purpose
as a Self propelled vehicle. 1. Passenger Vehicles – Car, Bus, Motorcycle
2. Goods Vehicles – Lorry, truck, Pick up
• Eg. Moped, Scooter, motorcycle, Car, jeep, truck, tractor, ships,
aircrafts, rocket etc. 2. Based on Capacity
• A self propelled vehicle used for transportation of goods & 1. Heavy Motor Vehicle (HMV) – large trucks, Buses, Tractor
2. Light Motor Vehicle (LMV) – Cars, Jeep, Motor cycles
passengers on the ground is called an Automobile.
3. Medium Vehicle – Small trucks, Minibus, Tempo
• Different from Aeronautical vehicles (planes, helicopters, rockets) &
marine vehicles (ships, boats, submarines)
 Classification Of Automobiles Classification Of Automobiles
3. Based on Fuel Source 5. Based on Make
1. Petrol Engine 2. Diesel Engine
3. Gas Vehicles 4. Solar Vehicles 1. MARUTI SUZUKI 2. HINDUSTAN MOTORS
5. Hydrogen Vehicles 6. Electric Vehicles 3. TATA MOTORS 4. MAHINDRA & MAHINDRA
7. Steam Engine vehicles
5. TVS MOTORS 6. HERO MOTOCORP
8. Hybrid Vehicles
9. Hybrid Electric Vehicles 7. ASHOK LEYLAND 8. EICHER MOTORS
4. Based on Type of Transmission 9. FORCE MOTORS 10. BAJAJ AUTO LTD

1. Automatic transmission vehicles – mostly American 11. ROYAL ENFIELD

2. Conventional transmission vehicles – Most Indian Vehicles 12.VOLVO, VOLKSWAGEN, MERC BENZ, BMW,
3. Semi - Automatic transmission vehicles – mostly British
CATERPILLAR, BENTLEY, AUDI etc.

Classification Of Automobiles Classification Of Automobiles

8. With respect to the Type of Engine

6. With respect to the drive
1. Reciprocating – Piston Engines
1. Left Hand Drive 2. Right Hand Drive
2. Rotary – Wankel Engine, Gas turbine
3. Fluid Drive 4. Front Wheel Drive
5. Rear Wheel Drive 6. All Wheel Drive (AWD or 4WD)
9. With respect to the body & doors
1. Sedan
7. With respect to the Suspension 2. Hatchback
1. Conventional – Leaf Spring 3. Station Wagon
2. Independent – Coil, Torsion bar, MacPherson Strut 4. Convertible
5. Sports utility vehicle
6. Multi Utility Vehicle (MUV or MPV)
7. Delivery Vans etc
 Classification Of Automobiles COMPONENTS OF AN AUTOMOBILE

10. Based on no. of wheels 1. The Basic structure

1. Two wheeler
2. The Engine
2. Three wheeler
3. Four 3. The Transmission system
4. Six 4. The Auxiliaries

5. The Controls

6. The Superstructure

COMPONENTS OF AN AUTOMOBILE

1. The Basic Structure:

It consists of the frame, the suspension system, axles, wheels

and tyres.

2. The Engine:

It provides the motive power for all various functions which ENGINE
the vehicle or any part of it, may be required to perform. The
engine for automotive use is IC type.
 COMPONENTS OF AN AUTOMOBILE Transmission System
3. The Transmission System:

It consists of a Clutch, a gear box giving four, five or even

more different ratios of torque output to torque input, a
propeller shaft to transmit the torque output from the gear box
to the rear axle and a differential gear to distribute the final
torque equally between the driving wheels.

COMPONENTS OF AN AUTOMOBILE Automobile Chassis

4. The Auxiliaries: • The power unit is connected with the transmission.

The Electrical systems. • The structural frame fitted to the axles through the suspension
system carries the power train.
5. The Controls:
• For an automobile to propel safely on the road, the engine, the
They consists of steering systems and brakes
transmission system, suspension, steering & brakes are included to
6. The Super Structure: the basic frame. These units combined together – Chassis.
In those cases where frameless construction is not • The body or Cabin is jointed to the cabin by means of bolts & nuts
adopted there must be super structure i.e, the body. or by welding.
 Automobile Chassis
• Chassis – French term used to denote the main structure of a vehicle

• It’s the backbone of the vehicle – made of steel.

• All moving parts are fitted to it.

• To give it extra strength it is provided with bolted, riveted or welded

cross pieces.

• All major units required to propel the vehicle, direct its motion,
stop it as well as permit to run smoothly over varying road surface
is known as chassis.

Automobile Engines Engine & Engine components

 Basic Engine Terminology
1. Bore: The inside diameter of the cylinder is called bore
2. Stroke: The linear distance along the cylinder axis between two
limiting position s is called stroke.
3. Top Dead Center ( T.D.C.) : The top most position of the piston
towards cover end side of the cylinder is called T.D.C.
4. Bottom dead Center ( B.D.C.) : The lowest position of the piston
towards the crank end side of the cylinder is called B.D.C.
5. Clearance Volume : The volume contained in the cylinder above
the top of the piston , when the piston is at top dead center , is
called the clearance volume.
6. Swept Volume: The volume swept through by the piston in moving
between T.D.C. and B.D.C, is called swept volume or piston
displacement.

Basic Engine Terminology Engine & Engine components

7. Compression Ratio: It is the ratio of Total cylinder volume to 1. Cylinder Block 2. Cylinder head
clearance volume 3. Crankcase 4. piston
Comp. Ratio 5. Piston rings 6. Piston pin
6:1 to 10:1 for Petrol engines 7. Connecting rod 8. Crank shaft
15:1 to 25:1 for Diesel engines 9. Flywheel
Comp. Temp. 10. Valves and valves mechanism
250*C for S.I.
11. Rocker arm 12. Camshaft
600*C for C.I.
13. Accessories: Air cleaner, oil filter, automatic chokes,
Comp. Pressure
automatic heat controls.
1 MPa for S.I.
other parts: Spark plug, ignition devices, carburetor
3.5 MPa for C.I.
 Engine components Engine components : 1.Cylinder block
1. Cylinder block
Cylinder block and crankcase form a single casting
It consists of three parts.
(monoblock). It gives a rigid structure and extra strength.
 The cylinder in which the pistons slide up and down.
The Cylinder block may also have a separate crankcase
 The passages for the flow of cooling water.
for the crankshaft.(Individual block)
 The bottom of the block supports the crankshaft, oil sump and
Advantages of Monoblock
camshaft.
No water leakage, more rigid
• Various engine accessories & clutch housing are bolted to it.
The Cylinder block is usually made from grey cast iron. Size is reduced, easy water circulation
Sometimes its made with addition of nickel or chromium, Aluminium Advantages of Individual block
and Compacted Graphite Iron(CGI) – heavy duty alloy. Easy for repairing, less replacement cost

2. Cylinder Head
Cylinder Block (Monoblock)
 The top of the cylinder is covered by a separate cast piece known as
the cylinder head. It is bolted to the cylinder block.
 It is usually made of grey iron or Aluminium alloy. Aluminium has
the advantage of light in weight and high heat conductivity.
 A flat piece of gasket is placed between the cylinder head and block
to retain compression in the cylinder and to provide a gas and water
tight seal.
 Gasket is made of Copper-asbestos-Copper.
• Camshafts, rockers & valves may be carried on the cylinder head.
• Water passages may also be provided to cool the valves, the head
and the spark plugs.
3.Piston
Piston helps to convert the chemical energy obtained by
the combustion of fuel into useful mechanical power.
The purpose of the piston is to provide a means of
conveying the expansion of the gases to the crankshaft through
the connecting rod.
It is provided with piston rings to provide a good seal
between the cylinder wall and piston. It has to withstand very
high temperatures of combustion.

Piston

Materials Used

Aluminium alloys, Cast steel,

Cast Iron or Chrome Nickel
 Engine components : Piston
Head or Crown: top of the piston
Ring grooves
Skirt: parts below the ring grooves
Lands: the portion that separates the grooves.
The piston must posses the following qualities
 Rigidity to withstand high pressure.
 Lightness to reduce weight and inertial forces.
 Good heat conductivity to reduce the risk of detonation
 Silence in operation
Piston Rings
4.Piston rings
Fine grained alloy cast iron used for the piston rings.
 Cast Iron plated with Chromium, Cadmium or Tin.
Functions:
 Prevent the escape of burnt gases from the combustion
chamber past the piston (Crank case blow by).
 Prevent the leakage of oil into the combustion space.
 Heat from the piston is transmitted to the cylinder via piston
rings.
4.Piston rings
a. Compression rings:
o Prevents the blow by or escape of burnt gases to the crank case.
o 2 or 3 compression rings are fitted into the top grooves.
o A gap is formed in the ring to impart the property of radial
expansion and compression.
o This gap is necessary for assembly and renewal of ring
o Made from Cast Iron plated with Chromium, Cadmium and Tin.
 4.Piston rings
Compression Ring
b. Oil Control rings:
o These rings scrap off excessive oil from the cylinder wall and
return it to the oil sump.
o The oil control ring is fitted into the lower groove of the
piston.
o Oil control grooves has a series of slots. These slots transfer
the excess oil through the holes in the piston groove to the
inside of the piston and to the sump
o Made from steel, outer edges of the rings chromium plated

5.Connecting rod
 The connecting rod usually has I-beam cross-section.

 Small end is connected to the piston pin and big end to the crank
pin

 The function of the connecting rod is to convert linear motion of the

piston into rotary motion of the crankshaft.

 The connecting rod carries the power thrust from piston to the
crank pin. So it must be strong, rigid and as light as possible.

 Always made from steel forgings, in few cases Aluminium alloy is

used.
 5. Connecting rod a) Plain Rod

• Cross section is an “H” or “I”

• Types include :

a) Plain Rod o Used on inline and opposed engines

b) Fork and blade rod o Small bushing at piston pin end is pressed in place and reamed to
final dimensions
c) Master and articulated
o Large end of rod includes a cap, bolts, nuts, and plain bearing
inserts

o Rods are numbered as to cylinder and for cap-to-rod alignment

b) Fork and Blade Connecting Rod Fork and Blade Type C Rod

• Used on “V” type engines

• One rod inside another allows cylinders to be aligned and to

share a common location on the crankshaft
 c) Master and Articulating Rod 6. Crank shaft

 It is the 1st part in the power transmission.

o Used on radial engines
 The reciprocating motion of the piston is converted into rotary
o Uses “knuckle pins” to retain articulated rods to master motion of the crankshaft with the help of connecting rod.
 It consists of crankpins, webs, balancing weights and main
journals.
 Big end of connecting rod is connected to the crankpin of the
crankshaft.
 The crank shaft is supported by the main bearings on the
main journals.
 Made of Casting or forging of heat treated alloy steel.

Crankshaft Engine components : 6.Crank shaft

 Valve Actuating Mechanisms Valves
 To admit the air-fuel mixture in the engine cylinder and to force the
• Usually made of Austenitic Stainless Steel which is a corrosion &
exhaust gases out at correct timings, some control system is
heat resisting material.
necessary, which is provided by the valves.
• Race engines use Beryllium-Copper alloy seats with Titanium
 The engine valves may be broadly divided into 3 main categories:
valves (21-4N) – 40% lighter than Steel.
1. Poppet valve

2. Sleeve valve

3. Rotary valve

A most common type of valve used at present is poppet valve.

Poppet Valve
• The valves are operated by cams mounted on a camshaft.

• According to the location of the valves,

the valve mechanisms are

a. Straight poppet valve mechanism

b. Overhead poppet valve mechanism

c. Overhead camshaft mechanism

 a. Straight (or side) poppet valve
. mechanism

• The valve mechanism to operate

the valve when it is in the
engine block(as in L,T and F-
head).

b. Overhead poppet valve mechanism Overhead Poppet Valve Mechanism

c • The valve mechanism to operate the
valve when it is in the cylinder head( as in
I and F head design).

• It requires two additional moving parts-

the push rod and the rocker arm. As the
cam rotates, it lifts the valve tappet.

• It actuates the push rod and thereby the

rocker arm end pushes the valve stem to
open the valve.
 c. Overhead camshaft mechanism
• In this type, the camshaft is
c
mounted above the valve in the
cylinder head.
• The cam on the cam shaft operates
the valve directly. A small clearance
is provided in between the cam and
valve cap.
• The clearance is adjusted by
providing small shims in the bottom
of the cap.

SOHC & DOHC

 Variable Valve Timing (VVT)

Module –II - Syllabus

MODULE –II
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM • Friction clutch:- fundamentals, driven plate inertia, driven plate
transmitted torque, driven plate wear –angular driven plate
cushioning and torsional damping, clutch friction materials, when
clutch is worn out.
• Pull type diaphragm clutch, multiple diaphragm clutch, multi-plate
hydraulically operated automatic transmission clutch, semi
centrifugal clutch, fully automatic centrifugal clutch, and integral
single plate diaphragm clutch.
• Need of gear box, resistance to vehicle motion, power to weight
CIJIL B. JOHN ratio, speed operating range-five speed and reverse sliding mesh,
Asst. Professor constant mesh, and synchromesh gear boxes:-gear synchronization
and engagement.
Dept. of ME/ JECC
• Over drives – hydrodynamic fluid couplings: - efficiency and
torque capacity – fluid friction coupling- torque converters.
 CLUTCH
A clutch is a device used in the transmission system to engage
and disengage the engine to the transmission.
CLUTCH
Function of clutch
 Clutch is used to disengage and engage the engine with rest of
the transmission systems
 Intermediate mechanism which transmits power from the engine
to gear box.
 To couple the engine when and then is needed and give
transmission to the gear box unit.
 To disengage & engage while starting the engine and while
changing gear ratio.
 It prevents jerky motion of the vehicle

 The purpose of clutch is: In normal condition, the clutch remains

CLUTCH
in the engaged position and allows flow of power from the engine
to the gear box. Requirement of clutch
 When we needs to slow down the vehicle or to stop the vehicle or  Transmit maximum torque of the engine.
during the gear changing period, clutch is disengaged; hence the  Engage gradually to avoid sudden jerks.
power to the gear box is cut-off.
 Dissipate maximum amount of heat.
 The clutch is operated by means of a foot operated clutch lever.
 Damp the vibrations and noise.
 When we applying clutch lever, the pressure plate attached to the
 Dynamically balanced.
clutch assembly is disengaged from the rotating flywheel and the
power transmission is cut off  As small as possible.

 Easy to operate.
 SINGLE PLATE CLUTCH
Types of clutch
1. Friction clutch
1. Single plate clutch
Direct engaging
2. Multi plate clutch clutches
3. Cone clutch
4. Dog and spline clutch

2. Centrifugal & Magnetic clutches

3 Hydraulic Clutch ( Fluid Coupling)
4. Torque converter
5. Diaphragm clutch

Single plate clutch Single plate clutch

Clutch plate is held b/w the flywheel and the pressure When the clutch pedal is pressed, the pressure plate is moved
to the right against the force of the springs. Thus friction plate is
plate. depending upon design, the springs are arranged
released and clutch is disengaged.
circumferentially. These springs will provide axial force to keep
ADVANTAGES
the clutch in engaged position. The friction plate is mounted on a
1. Gear changing is easier than with the cone clutch.
hub. The hub is splined from inside. So the hub is free to slide over
2. More reliable
the gearbox shaft. Friction lining is attached to the friction plate
DISADVANTAGES
on both sides. A pedal provided to pull pressure plate against the
1. The springs must be more stiff.
spring force whenever it is required to be disengaged.
2. Greater force is required by the driver while disengaging.
 Clutch Parts and Operation
Clutch Parts and Operation Pilot bushing or bearing in center
of flywheel or crankshaft, supports
the end of input shaft

• Clutch parts
(friction disk) splined to transmission
– Flywheel Input shaft

– Pressure plate (throw-out bearing

T/O bearing) allows
– Friction disc to push on rotating
clutch fingers
– Release mechanism
Bolted to Crank
• When Clutch disc pushed against flywheel with enough force;

– Disc will rotate with flywheel Bolted to flywheel - Applies

the spring force to clamp the (clutch fork) pushes
friction disk to the flywheel T/O bearing to release
12
rotating clutch

Clutch Unit Clutch Disc/

• Flywheel also acts as a driving
member
friction plate
• Pressure plate is connected to
clutch cover assembly.
• Clutch Cover assembly is bolted to
the flywheel.
• Characteristics
• Clutch springs placed between – Clutch hub: inner part of disc and has splines
Pressure plate & Cover plate, press – Torsional dampers: absorb shock
the Pressure plate against the – Clutch disc has facings made of friction material
clutch plate.
• Contain molded or woven asbestos
• Thus Clutch plate is squeezed – Facings riveted to both sides of cushion plate
between Flywheel & Pressure plate. • Cushion plate is riveted to disc plate
 Throw out Bearing (release bearing) Pressure Plate
• Slides on transmission input shaft bearing retainer
Releases friction disk
from flywheel

Moves pressure
Plate right

T/O bearing
Pivots

12/2001 VHS AUTO 16

Flywheels
Pressure Plate
• Add weight to crank for non-power strokes
• Pressure plate is a Cast Iron plate • Has ring-gear for cranking engine (usually replaceable)

– Part of cover assembly

• Cover assembly is bolted to the flywheel

– Clutch disc is wedged between pressure plate and flywheel
– Space between pressure plate and flywheel is less than
thickness of clutch disc
– Engine and transmission are physically connected when clutch
pedal released
 Single Plate Clutch - Applications Multi Plate Clutch
• Used where there is enough space to use the correct diameter plate • Advanced form of the Single plate clutch – no. of frictional &
to create the right amount of torque – Cars. pressure plates are increased.

• As the no. of frictional surfaces are increased, the torque

transmitting capacity will also increase.

• Also, the overall diameter of the clutch is reduced for the same
torque transmission compared to a Single plate clutch.

• Used in racing cars & heavy vehicles where high torque is to be

transmitted & in Scooters, motor cycles, auto rickshaws etc.

Pull type Diaphragm Clutch

Multi plate clutch
Single Plate Diaphragm Clutch Diaphragm V/s Plate Clutch
• Diaphragm clutch is similar to Single plate clutch

• The only difference is that in Diaphragm clutch, Diaphragm

Springs or Belleville Springs are used instead of ordinary springs
as in Single plate clutch.

Cone Clutch Cone Clutch

• Uses 2 conical surfaces to transmit torque by friction.
• Consists of a female cone & male cone mounted on the driving & driven
shaft respectively.
• A friction lining (asbestos, leather) is introduced b/w the male & female
cone. A spring provides the necessary axial force to the male cone to press
against the flywheel.
• Cone transmits higher torque than plate or disc clutch of the same size
due to the wedging action & increased surface area.
• The normal force acting on the friction surface is greater than the axial
force, as compared with other clutches.
 Cone Clutch Cone Clutch - Disadvantages

1. If the angle of Cone is made smaller than 20 deg., the cone

tends to bind with the flywheel & it becomes difficult to
disengage the clutch.

2. A small amount of wear on the cone surfaces result in a large

amount of axial movement of the male cone.

1. Racing Cars
2. Rally cars
3. Power boats
4. Extreme Off-road vehicles

• The weighted arms force these disks together and engage the clutch.
Centrifugal Clutch
• When the engine reaches a certain speed, the clutch activates,
• Uses centrifugal force to connect two concentric shafts, with the driving shaft
working somewhat like a continuously variable transmission.
nested inside the driven shaft. It engages more at higher speeds.

• The input of the clutch is connected to the engine crankshaft while the output to the • As the load increases, the speed drops, disengaging the clutch,
transmission shaft. letting the speed rise again and reengaging the clutch.
• As engine RPM increase, weighted arms in the clutch swing outward and force the • If tuned properly, the clutch will tend to keep the speed at or near
clutch to engage.
the torque peak of the engine
• The most common types have friction pads or shoes radially mounted that engage
the inside of the rim of a housing. On the center shaft there are an assorted number • Centrifugal clutches are often used in mopeds, underbones, lawn
of extension springs, which connect to a clutch shoe. mowers, go-karts, chainsaws, mini bikes, and
• When the central shaft spins fast enough, the springs extend causing the clutch some paramotors and boats.
shoes to engage the friction face. It can be compared to a drum brake in reverse.
 Centrifugal Clutch

Hydraulically Operated Clutch

• Used in heavy duty applications where the force required to
disengage the clutch becomes excessive.

• Suitable for vehicles where clutch pedal & the clutch are kept too far
from each other.

• The pedal operates the piston of a master cylinder.

• The hydraulic pressure thus produced is transmitted to a slave

cylinder connected to the pressure plate.

• This fluid under P moves the piston of the slave cylinder which
further operates the clutch release fork & gets disengaged.
 Hydraulically Operated Clutch - Advantages CLUTCH FRICTION MATERIALS
• Clutch friction linings are subjected to severe rubbing & heat
1. Complicated clutch linkages are eliminated.
generation for a relatively short time period.
2. Vibration & wear of linkages are eliminated.
• The desirable properties are;
3. Reduces driver’s effort (by assisting hydraulically).
 Relatively high coefficient of friction.
4. Long distance b/w pedal & clutch plate is possible without any
 Relatively high energy absorption capacity for short period.
mechanical linkage.
 Adequate shear stress to transmit engine torque.
5. Flexible turning of hydraulic line at any angle.
 Capability of maintaining friction properties.

 Capable of withstanding centrifugal forces during gear changing.

CLUTCH FRICTION MATERIALS REQUIREMENTS OF CLUTCH

• High degree of interface contamination tolerance without 1. Driven Plate Inertia

affecting its friction & gripping characteristics. - Driven plate must have minimum possible weight so that it
produces minimum amount of spin when the clutch is disengaged.
• High level of cyclic working endurance without deteriorating
- Clutch rotating parts should have minimum inertia.
its friction properties.
-For rapid slowing down of the driven plate, the diameter,
Centre of gravity & the weight of the plate is to be kept minimum.
 REQUIREMENTS OF CLUTCH REQUIREMENTS OF CLUTCH
2. Driven Plate Transmitted Torque 3. Heat Dissipation

- Clutch should be able to transmit the maximum torque of the
engine under all conditions.
- Torque capacity of a friction clutch increases with the
increase of Coefficient of friction of the rubbing materials, the diameter
& the spring thrust sandwiching the driven plate.
-Friction lining materials limit the coefficient of friction to the
order of 0.35.
- A large amount of heat is generated during clutch application.
- Rubbing surfaces should have sufficient surface area & mass
so that they can absorb the heat generated.
-Proper ventilation or cooling for adequate heat dissipation
must be ensured while clutch design.

REQUIREMENTS OF CLUTCH REQUIREMENTS OF CLUTCH

4. Gradual Engagement
7. Driven Plate Wear
- Clutch should positively take the drive gradually without
-Wear b/w 2 rubbing surfaces is directly related to the energy
occurrence of sudden jerks.
dissipation per unit area of contact surfaces,

6. Dynamic Balancing - The lining life can be improved by increasing the no. of pairs of
rubbing surfaces.
- Dynamic balancing is essential particularly in case of high
- By doubling the surface area as in a twin plate clutch, the energy
speed clutches.
input per unit lining area will be halved, which results in a 50% decrease in
6. Size of the Clutch facing wear.
- Must be as small as possible so that it should occupy a very - Small diameter multi plate clutches are usually preferred for high
less amount of space . performance cars.
 REQUIREMENTS OF CLUTCH
8. Angular driven plate cushioning and Torsional damping

- Axial cushioning of the lining provides better clutch engagement

control, thereby prolonging the life of the friction faces.

- Improved distribution of friction work over the lining faces reduces

the peak operating temperatures & prevent lining fade, with the resultant
reduction in coefficient of friction & clutch slip.

RESISTANCE TO VEHICLE MOTION 1. AIR RESISTANCE

• An engine must develop sufficient power to keep a vehicle moving • Aerodynamic drag
by overcoming the road resistances. • When a vehicle travels through a medium, the molecules of the
• Road resistance is called Tractive resistance. medium collide with the vehicle frontal area & absorbs some of its
• The propelling Thrust needed at the tyre to road interface to energy.
overcome the resistances – Tractive effort.
• Depends mainly on;
• Road resistance is made up of;
1. Density of the medium
1. Air/Wind resistance
2. Speed of the object
2. Gradient resistance
3. Frontal area of the vehicle.
3. Rolling resistance
 2. GRADIENT RESISTANCE 3. ROLLING RESISTANCE

• While rolling, a vehicle moves with its tyres in contact with the road
surface.

• Due to this relative motion b/w the surfaces, friction occurs which
opposes the vehicle motion.

When a vehicle travels uphill, a component of its weight will work in a direction
opposite to its motion.

POWER TO WEIGHT RATIO

𝑩𝒓𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒅

Power-to-weight ratio =
𝑳𝒂𝒅𝒆𝒏 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆

• Power-to-weight ratio (or specific power or power-to-mass

ratio) is a calculation commonly applied to engines & mobile
power sources to enable the comparison of one unit or design
to another.

• Power-to-weight ratio is a measurement of actual The 2016 F1 cars have a power-to-weight ratio of 1,400 hp/t (1.05
performance of any engine or power source. kW/kg). Theoretically this would allow the car to reach 100 km/h (62
mph) in less than 1 second.
Automotive Gears: Gears play an important role in trucks,
car, buses, motor bikes and even geared cycles. These gears
•Depending on the size of the
control speed and include gears like ring and pinion, spiral
vehicles, the size of the gears
gear, hypoid gear, hydraulic gears, reduction gearbox.
also varies.

• There are low gears covering a

shorter distance and are useful
when speed is low.

•There are high gears also with

larger number of teeth.
 Functions of Transmission

• To provide the high torque at the time of starting, hill climbing, • The transmission also provides a neutral position so that the
accelerating and pulling a load since high tractive effort is engine and the road wheels are disconnected even with the
needed clutch in the engaged position
• It permits engine crankshaft to revolve at high speed, while the • A means to back the car by reversing the direction of rotation of
wheels turn at slower speeds & vice versa.
the drive is also provided by the transmission
• Variable torque can be obtained by set of gears.
• Vehicle speed can be changed keeping engine speed same with
certain limit

Gear Ratio
 Types of Transmission Manual & Automatic Transmissions
 Manual Transmission • Manual transmissions – called ‘Gear boxes’
 Sliding Mesh Gear box • Mechanical efficiency in direct drive – 98%
 Constant Mesh Gear box • Simplicity, lower initial cost, requires less maintenance, increased fuel
 Synchromesh Gear box efficiency.

 Automatic Transmission
• Engaging & disengaging the clutch, along with changing gears while
o Over drive (semi-automatic) driving in traffic is quite tedious for the driver.
o Fluid drive or Fluid coupling • Also creates an interruption of torque when the driver declutches to
o Fully automatic change gears.
 Epi-cyclic gear box • To simplify the driving operations, modern vehicles employ automatic
 Free Wheeling unit transmission.
 Torque Convertor

Sliding mesh type of gear box

1. SLIDING MESH GEARBOX
• Driver has the choice of selection of gear ratio according to the
speed of the vehicle.

• Sliding mesh gear box uses ‘Spur gears’ for power transmission –
simplest type.

• 3 shafts are mounted for power transmission;

1. Primary / Clutch Shaft

2. Lay shaft

3. Main / Gear Shaft

 Sliding mesh type of gear box

Sliding mesh type gear box Sliding mesh type gear box

Velocity ratio : about 4:1

 Sliding mesh type of gear box Sliding mesh type gear box

Speed ratio : about 1:1

Velocity ratio: about
2.8:1

Sliding mesh type gear box Sliding mesh type gear box
 Constant mesh gear box
2. CONSTANT MESH GEARBOX
• Most commonly used in modern automobiles.
• Main shaft gear wheels & lay shaft gear wheels are always engaged
(meshed) with each other.
• Uses ‘Double Helical Gears’ for transmission b’cos of its quieter
(non-noisy) operation.
• The gears on the main shaft are on bearings which permit them to
rotate freely.
• The connection b/w any of the gear wheels & the main shaft is
obtained by ‘Dog Clutch members’.
 3. SYNCHROMESH GEARBOX

• Similar to Constant mesh gearbox- gear wheels on the main shaft

are always in mesh with the gear wheels on the lay shaft.

• In addition, here a Synchromesh device is used.

• The parts to be engaged ultimately are first brought into frictional

contact which equalizes their speed, after which they may be
engaged smoothly.

• Reduces wear on the gear, easy gear shifting & quieter operation.

• High initial cost & complex design.

Fluid flywheel or Hydraulic Coupling Fluid Coupling or Torque Convertor

A fluid coupling is a hydrodynamic device used to transmit

rotating mechanical power. It has been used in automobile
transmission as an alternative to a mechanical clutch
 Fluid coupling consists of three components, plus the hydraulic fluid:

 The housing, also known as the shell (which must have an oil tight
seal around the drive shafts), contains the fluid and turbines.

 Two turbines:

One connected to the input shaft; known as the pump or

impellor, primary wheel, input turbine, driving member

The other connected to the output shaft, known as the turbine,

output turbine, secondary wheel or runner or driven member

• The driving turbine, known as the 'pump', (or driving torus) is

rotated by the prime mover, which is typically an IC engine. The
impellor's motion imparts both outwards linear and rotational
motion to the fluid.
• The hydraulic fluid is directed by the 'pump' whose shape forces the
flow in the direction of the 'output turbine' (or driven torus). Here,
any difference in the angular velocities of 'input stage' and 'output
stage' result in a net force on the 'output turbine' causing a torque;
thus causing it to rotate in the same direction as the pump.
• The motion of the fluid is effectively torroidal - travelling in one
direction on paths that can be visualized as being on the surface of a
torus.
 HYDRODYNAMIC FLUID COUPLING HYDRODYNAMIC FLUID COUPLING
EFFICIENCY & TORQUE CAPACITY EFFICIENCY & TORQUE CAPACITY
• Coupling Efficiency: Ratio of power available at the turbine to the
amount of power supplied to the pump side. • Torque transmitting capacity varies with the fifth power of the

• Power lost by fluid shock, friction & heat = Difference b/w input & impeller internal diameter & the square of its speed.

output power = Relative slip. 𝝉 𝜶 𝑫𝟓 𝑵𝟐

(𝑁 −𝑛)
• D = Impeller diameter
Percentage Slip = x 100
𝑁
• N = Impeller speed (rev/min)
• N = Input speed

• n = output speed

TORQUE CONVERTER
TORQUE CONVERTER
• Torque Converter is a fluid coupling or Clutch that disengages when
the vehicle is stopped & transfers power as the e/n speed increases.
• Purpose is to transmit engine torque to the driving wheels.
• It also increases or decreases the torque to suit varying load & speed
conditions.
3 Components of a Torque Converter;
1. Impeller
2. Turbine
• A torque converter is a type of fluid coupling which transfers rotating power from an IC
Engine, to a rotating driven load. 3. Stator
• In an automatic transmission vehicle, the torque converter connects the power source to
the load. It is usually located between the engine's flywheel & the transmission.
• Impeller, Turbine & Stator have curved vanes & are assembled in a single
casing, which is filled up with an Oil.

• Impeller is keyed & attached to the Torque Converter casing & they rotate as a
single member.

• Impeller – acts like a Centrifugal pump – Fluid enters at the centre & leaves
radially outwards & then it enters the Stator & the Turbine.

• Turbine – has more vanes which are set radially inwards; Turbine has no
mechanical contact with the Casing.

• Fluid leaving the Impeller, rotates the Turbine thereby rotating the o/p shaft.

• There is a chance of fluid coming out of the Turbine flowing in the opposite
direction & thereby slowing down the Impeller.

• To avoid this, a Stator is installed b/w Turbine & Impeller.

 Difference b/w Fluid Coupling & Torque
Advantages of Torque Converter
Converter
• The key characteristic of a torque converter is its ability to multiply 1. Noise free operation.
torque when the output rotational speed is so low that it allows the
2. Fuel Consumption is reduced.
fluid coming off the curved vanes of the turbine to be deflected off
the stator while it is locked against its one-way clutch, thus 3. Simplified driving control.
providing the equivalent of a reduction gear. 4. Wear & tear is greatly reduced.
• This is a feature beyond that of the simple fluid coupling, which can 5. Shocks & vibrations are greatly reduced.
match rotational speed but does not multiply torque, thus reduces
power.

OVERDRIVES
• Transmission output shaft turns faster than the clutch, gear & engine
crankshaft.

• Overdrive – device used to step up gear ratio in automobiles.

TORQUE • Mounted in b/w the transmission & propeller shaft.

CONVERTER • It enables a high cruising speed to be attained with a comparatively

low engine speed (20-25% less) on long journeys.

• Less wear on engine parts, decreases noise & vibration, low

frictional losses & hence, increased fuel efficiency.
 Syllabus – Module III
• Steering:-basic principle of a steering system:- swinging beam system –
Ackermann –over steer and under steer – slip angle, camber, caster etc.
• Swivel axis inclination: centre point steering, camber, king pin inclination,
negative offset, caster, toe-in and toe-out
• Steering gear box: - fundamentals screw and nut steering gear mechanism-worm
and roller type steering gear box – Re-circulating ball nut and rocker lever, re-
circulating ball rack and sector steering gear box– need of power assisted steering
CIJIL B. JOHN
• External direct coupled and rack and pinion and integrated steering power
Asst. Professor
cylinder, power assisted steering lock limitations
Dept. of ME, JECC

Steering system Requirements of a good steering system

• Primary function: to achieve angular motion of the front wheels to negotiate a turn.
1. Steering system should be very accurate & easy to handle.
• This is achieved through linkages & steering gear which convert the rotary motion of the
2. Effort required to steer should be minimal & must not be tiresome
steering wheel into angular motion of the front road wheels.
to the driver.
• Secondary functions are;
3. Steering mechanism should provide directional stability.
1. Provide directional stability of the vehicle when going straight ahead.
4. The vehicle should have a tendency to return to its straight ahead
2. Provide perfect steering condition. i.e, perfect rolling of all wheels at all times.
position after turning.
3. Facilitate straight ahead recovery after completing a turn.
5. High rigidity.
4. To minimize tyre wear.
6. Low friction resulting in high efficiency.
5. Absorb most of the road shocks going to the steering wheel.
 STEERING SYSTEMS STEERING SYSTEM - COMPONENTS

• Both manual and power steering systems have common components.

1. Manual steering system – relies solely on the driver to provide
– Components
steering force • Steering gear
• Steering linkage
2. Power assist (power steering) – uses hydraulic or electric power to • Steering wheel
• Steering column
help the driver apply steering force.

STEERING SYSTEM COMPONENTS Steering Linkages

• Steering wheel
• Connects the steering gear box to steering knuckles & wheels.
o used by the driver to rotate a steering shaft
that passes through the steering column. • Steering linkage depends on the type of the vehicle, whether it’s a car which has
independent front suspension or a commercial vehicle having a rigid axle front
• Steering shaft
o Transfers turning motion from the steering suspension.
wheel to the steering gear box. 1. Steering linkage for vehicle with rigid axle suspension

• Steering Column 2. Steering linkage for vehicle with independent suspension.

o Supports the steering wheel & steering shaft
 Steering linkage for vehicle with rigid axle
suspension
Steering linkage for vehicle with rigid axle
suspension - Construction
• The drop arm (Pitman arm) is rigidly connected to the cross shaft of
the steering gear at its upper end, while its lower end is connected
to the link rod through a ball joint.
• The other end of the link rod is connected to the link rod arm
through a ball joint.
• Attached rigidly to the other end of the link rod arm is the stub axle
on which the wheel is mounted.
• The other ends of the track rod arms are connected to the track rod
by means of ball joints.
• An adjuster is also provided in the track rod to change its length for
adjusting wheel alignment.
Steering linkage for vehicle with rigid axle
suspension
Steering linkage for vehicle with rigid axle
suspension - Construction
• Only a small effort is required at the steering wheel to apply a much
larger force to the steering linkage.
• When the steering wheel is turned, the swinging action of the drop
arm imparts a near linear movement to the link rod.
• This movement is transmitted through the link rod arm to the stub
axle so as to turn the later about its pivot, which may be a king pin or
ball joints.
• The other wheel is steered through the track rod.
• Thus only one wheel is positively steered.
 Steering linkage for vehicle with Steering linkage for vehicle with
independent suspension independent suspension
• In the case of conventional rigid axle suspension, the main axle beam ensures the
movement of stub axle in the horizontal plane only.
• Therefore, there is no vertical deflection of the suspension & hence no change in
effective track rod length.

• In the case of independent suspension, the two stub axles can move up or down
independent of each other due to which, the distance b/w ball joint ends of the two
track arms is continuously varying.
• On account of this, a single track rod cannot be used for independent suspension
systems.

Steering linkage for vehicle with

independent suspension
• In this system, three piece track rod is used, the centre portion
being called the relay rod, which is connected at one end to an idler
arm supported on body structure & to the drop arm of the steering
gear at the other end through ball joints.
Front Axle
• Till recently, all vehicles were steered by turning the front wheels in the desired
directions, with the rear wheels following.
• Conventionally, the front axle was a dead axle, but these days, it’s true for heavy
vehicles only.
• For 4WD vehicles & most of the cars, front axle is a live axle.
• In case of a dead axle, the front axle beam is usually drop forged steel – 0.4% C or

• The relay rod is restricted to move in horizontal plane only. 1.3% Nickel steel – no more used in modern cars.
• Front axle has to take bending loads due to weight of the vehicle & torque loads
• Movement in vertical plane is provided by the outer portion, viz,
due to braking of the wheels. For this reason, front axle is made of I- section in the
the tie rods about the end ball joints. centre portion, while the ends are made circular or elliptical.
• A downward sweep is given to the centre portion to keep a low chassis height.
 Stub Axles
Front Axle
Kingpin
Stub Axle

Front Axle

Tie Rod

Main axle is connected to the stub axles by means of king pins. Reversed Elliot type- most common.
The front wheels are mounted on these stub axles. Stub axles; made of 3% Nickel steel & alloy steels containing Chromium & Molybdenum

Wheel Alignment Steering & Suspension

• Positioning the steered wheels in order to achieve the following is termed wheel
alignment.
 Directional stability during straight ahead position.
 Perfect rolling condition on steering
 Recovery after completing the turn.

• Three different types of alignments can be done.

1. The front-end alignment – front axle’s angles are measured & adjusted.
2. Thrust angle alignment – confirms that the rear tyres are positioned directly
behind the front tyres.
3. Four-wheel alignment
 Factors of wheel alignment Toe-in & Toe-out
• The term ‘wheel alignment’ is used in connection with the stability & control of the
vehicle while in motion.
• Wheel alignment means that while moving straight ahead, the wheels should be
parallel.
• If the wheels are pointing inward, they are said to be ‘toe-in’
• If the wheels are pointing outwards, they are said to be ‘toe-out’.

• Both these situations are undesirable because in either case while rolling forward,
each wheel will be simultaneously slipping laterally due top which a continuous
cross tread scrubbing takes place.
• Result of net toe-in & toe-out during running is excessive tread wear, heavy
steering & greater fuel consumption.
Toe-in Toe-out

• For good steering, handling & control, it’s also necessary that;
Factors which influence the stability & control
1. There should not be any set back, which is the distance b/w the placing of the
front tyres. Set back is a condition in which one wheel on an axle is in front or of the vehicle
behind the other wheel in relation to the chassis frame.
2. The thrust angle must be zero. Thrust angle is the angle made by the thrust line 1. Factors pertaining to wheels – Balance of wheels, Inflation of tyres, Brake
with the longitudinal centre line of the vehicle. If the thrust angle is not zero, the
adjustment.
vehicle will ‘dog track’ & the steering will not be centred. When the thrust angle
is zero, the rear wheels follow the front wheels properly. 2. Steering geometry – Camber, Castor, Kingpin inclination, Combined angle &
scrub angle, toe-in & toe-out, Toe-change or bump-steer.

3. Steering linkage

4. Suspension system
 Factors pertaining to wheels
1. Balance of wheels: If the wheels are not in dynamic balance, the wheel wobble
may result, which influences steering control.
2. Inflation of tyres: The steering s/m is designed for a particular rolling radius.
Variation of air pressure from the standard will change the rolling radius.
3. Brake adjustment: If the brake is dragging, it can pull the vehicle to one side
during braking.
Effect of Camber
• It is desirable that tyres should roll on ground vertically so that the wear is
uniform.
• If while running, the tyres are inclined from the vertical either inward or outward,
they will wear more on one side than the other.
• In case of positive camber, as the vehicle turns, the outside suspension tends to rise
on the wheel. When the wheel returns to straight ahead position, the weight of the
wheel presses down on the steering axis & this helps to straighten the wheel.
• Thus, positive camber aids steering wheel return after completing a turn.
• In positive camber, the tendency of the wheels would be to toe-out & the tyre will
wear more on the outer side.
• Initial positive camber is given to the wheels so that when the vehicle is loaded, they
automatically come to a vertical position.
Steering Geometry - Camber
• Camber is the tilt of the car wheels from the vertical. Camber is positive if the tilt is
outward at the top. Camber is also called ‘wheel rake’.
Effect of Camber (Contd..)
• Negative camber resists the tendency of the wheels to slip sideways during
cornering, but also increases the steering effort.
• Negative camber will cause the front wheels to toe-in & wear more on the inside.
• Tyre life will be maximum when the camber angle in running condition is zero.
• If the camber on the two front wheels is not equal, the vehicle will try to pull towards
the side where the camber is higher.
• When the vehicle with equal camber on both wheels is running on a highly curved
road, it has a tendency to pull away the vehicle to the side of the road.
• To compensate this, for Right Hand Drive vehicles (as in India), the right wheel is
given slightly higher camber than the left one.
• Similarly, for Left hand vehicles, higher camber may be provided on the left wheel.
 King pin Inclination (Steering axis inclination)

• Inclination of the king pin from the vertical is called King pin Inclination or king
pin rake.
• In modern cars, king pin has been replaced by ball joints. So, this term is renamed
as ‘Steering axis inclination’ & is defined as the inclination of ball joint axis from
the vertical.
• SAI is non-adjustable, since it would change only if the wheel spindle or steering
knuckle are bent.
• Effect: KPI or SAI helps the straight ahead recovery, thus providing directional
stability.
• When the vehicle takes a turn, the inclination of the kingpin causes the vehicle body
to move up, in relation to the wheels. So as soon as the steering wheel is left after the
turn, the weight of the vehicle tends to return the wheels to straight ahead position.
• Amount: Camber should not generally exceed 2 deg. However, the exact amount of camber
is specified taking into account the king pin inclination.

Castor
King pin Inclination (Steering axis inclination)

• The angle b/w the king pin centre line (or steering axis) & the vertical, in the plane
of the wheel is called the Castor angle.
• If the king pin meets the ground at a point ahead of the vertical wheel centre line,
it’s called positive castor while if it’s behind the vertical wheel centre line, it’s called
negative castor.
Permissible amount: about 7 to 8 degree
 Effect of Castor Effect of Castor (Contd..)
• Positive castor on the car wheels provides directional stability. i.e, straight line
• As the change of castor angle result in the change of the other angles of the
trackings is improved.
steering geometry, i.e, camber, king pin inclination, toe-in & toe-out, it’s very
• Positive castor is used in the case of furniture rollers & on the front wheels of important that this angle is adjusted first of all, while doing the adjustment job.
bicycles.
• However, positive castor increases the effort required to turn the steering wheel. • Amount: About 3 degree of castor give good results.
• In the case of negative castor, steering would be unstable. i.e, there would be poor
directional control, as the centre of the tyre print leads the steering axis.
• Extremely negative castor cause wheel shimmy & cupped wear on the front wheels.
• Positive castor is often used with SAI on automobiles with power steering to provide
the required returnability, since the higher effort required to steer the wheels is
provided by power steering.

Toe-in & Toe-out Toe-in & Toe-out (Contd..)

• Toe-in is the amount by which the front wheels are set closer together at the front
than at the rear, when the vehicle is stationary.
Toe-in = B – A
• On the other hand, the wheels may be set closer at the rear than at the front in
which case the difference of the distances b/w the front wheels at the front & at the
rear is called toe-out.
Toe-out = A- B
• In rear wheel drive vehicles, the rear axle pushes the front axle tyres as they roll
along the road. Tyre rolling resistance produces some drag which results in
rearward movement of the suspension arms against their bushings. Due to this,
most RWD vehicles are provided with some toe-in to compensate for the movement
so that the tyres run parallel to each other.
• The case of front wheel drive vehicles is just the opposite.
• The front axle pulls the vehicle through itself, resulting in forward movement of
the suspension arms against their bushings, to compensate which toe-out is
provided.
• Toe amount also affects the handling characteristics.
• Increase in toe-in would result in decreased oversteer & increased directional
stability at higher speeds, whereas increased toe-out would result in reduced
understeer & greater ease in steering during cornering.
• Amount: Toe-in generally provided does not exceed 3 mm.
 Toe-change or Bump-steer
• It occurs when the length of the tie rod is not correct or is installed at an incorrect
angle.
• The outer tie rod end moves up & down whenever the suspension extends &
compresses.
• If either the length or angle of the tie rod is incorrect, it will pull & push the steering
arm, which would turn the wheel in a new direction.
• This is felt prominently when the steering load jerks to one side as the vehicle goes
over a bump or ditch & is called Bump-steer or toe-change.
Slip Angle
SLIP ANGLE
• When a vehicle takes a turn, a centrifugal force acts on the vehicle
which produces a side thrust.
• The plane of the wheel must make some angle with the direction of
motion of the vehicle to sustain the thrust force – Slip angle.
• Attained by the distortion of the tyre which is flexible.
TURNING RADIUS
• Radius of the smallest circular turn that the vehicle is capable of making.
 UNDER STEER & OVER STEER
• Related to the sensitivity of the vehicle to its steering system.
• Over steering means the vehicle turns more than the amount needed for turning,
causing the vehicle to spin.
• Under steering means the vehicle turns less than the requirement which makes it
to leave away from the road.

CORRECT STEERING ANGLE

• Perfect steering is achieved when all the 4 wheels are rolling perfectly under all
conditions of running.
• While taking turns, the condition of perfect rolling is satisfied if the axes of the
front wheels when produced meet the rear wheel axis at one point.
• This point is the instantaneous centre of the vehicle.
• It’s seen that the inside wheel is required to turn through a greater angle than the
outer wheel. The larger the steering angle, the smaller the turning circle.
• It’s been found that the maximum value of the steering angle of the inner wheel is
44 deg. The extreme positions on either sides are called ‘lock’ positions.
• The diameter of the smallest circle which the outer wheel of the car can traverse &
obtained when the wheels are at their extreme positions is known as Turning
circle.
 STEERING MECHANISMS ACKERMANN STEERING MECHANISM

• For perfect steering, we must always have an instantaneous centre about which the
wheels must rotate.
• For this purpose, the inner wheel has to turn more than the outer wheel.
• To achieve this condition, two types of mechanisms, have been devised.
1. Davis steering mechanism
2. Ackermann Steering mechanism

• Ackermann mechanism is almost universally employed because of its simplicity.

ACKERMANN STEERING MECHANISM

ACKERMANN STEERING MECHANISM
• The mechanism gives correct steering for only 3 positions.
1. When θ = 0
θ 2. Corresponding to extreme left position
φ
3. Corresponding to extreme right position
α
α

• For other angles also, it gives a close approximation to the ideal condition.
• It employs pivots & not sliding constraints & so, maintenance is easier.
l= length of the track rod, AB
r = Length of links RA & SB • Universally employed.

Sin (α + θ) = (d + x) / r
Sin (α - φ) = (d - x) / r
Sin (α + θ) + Sin (α - φ) = 2d/r = 2 sin α
 STEERING GEARS 1. Worm & Worm Wheel Steering Gear
• The steering gear changes the rotary motion of the steering wheel into linear motion
of the steering linkage.
• It also provides necessary leverage so that the driver is able to steer the vehicle
without fatigue.
• Important types of Steering gears are;
1. Worm & worm wheel steering gear
2. Cam & double roller steering gear
3. Worm & nut steering gear
4. Recirculating Ball type steering gear
5. Rack & Pinion steering gear.
6. Screw & nut Steering gear

2. Recirculating Ball Rack & Sector Steering

1. Worm & Worm Wheel Steering Gear Gear
• The movement of the steering wheel turns the worm, which in turn drives the
worm wheel.

• Attached to the wheel spindle rigidly is drop arm, so that a rotation of the
steering wheel corresponds to a linear motion of the drop arm end, which is
connected to the link rod.

• In place of worm wheel, a sector is sometimes used, but the complete wheel has an
advantage over the later as the back lash due to wearing out of teeth on the worm
& wheel can be easily adjusted.
2. Recirculating Ball Rack & Sector Steering
2. Recirculating Ball Rack & Sector Steering Gear
Gear

• It consists of a worm at the steering rod. • When the steering wheel is turned, the balls in the worm roll in the grooves &

• A nut is mounted on the worm with two sets of balls in the grooves of the worm, in cause the nut to travel along the length of the worm.

b/w the nut & the worm. • The balls, which are in 2 sets, are recirculated through the guides as shown in the

• The balls reduces friction during the movement of the nut & the worm. figure.

• The nut has a no. of teeth on the outside, which mesh with the teeth sector, on • The movement of the nut causes the wheel sector to turn at an angle & actuate the

which is further mounted the drop arm, which steers the road wheels through the link rod through the drop arm, resulting in the desired steering of the wheels.

link rod & the steering arms.

3. Rack & Pinion Steering gear

Rack & Pinion Steering gear

• Steering wheel & shaft are connected to a small pinion gear.

• This gear is in mesh with teeth on top of a long bar called rack.

• Turning the steering wheel turns the pinion gear, which moves the
rack back & forth.

• The rack is connected to the steering linkage that turns the wheels.

• Takes very little space, suitable for compact vehicles.

 4. Worm & Nut Steering Gear Worm & Nut Steering

• Steering shaft ends in a square cut screw thread.

• A nut is made to work on these threads.

• Turning the Steering wheel moves the nut along the steering rod screw thread &
the nut activates a bell-crank lever, pivoted in the steering box casing.

• Steering gear drop arm forms the other arm of the bell-crank.

• Turning the steering wheel moves the nut on the screw thread, activates the bell-
crank lever causing the drop arm & the linkages to move.

5. Worm & Roller Steering Gear Worm & Roller Steering Gear

• A Single or double roller is mounted b/w two arms integral with the inner end of
the cross shaft, & the roller is meshed with the worm.
• The roller is free to turn on its shaft & moves in an arc, the correct mesh being
obtained throughout its movement by the hour-glass shape of the worm.
• The worm is supported & located by 2 ball or taper roller bearings mounted in the
case.
• The roller shaft is eccentric & may be turned to compensate for wear b/w roller &
the worm.
 6. Screw & Nut Steering Gear Screw & Nut Steering Gear

• A screw threaded screw formed on the lower end of the steering shaft engages with
the nut provided in trunnions, which work in blocks sliding in a short slotted arm,
connected with the remainder of the steering system.

7. Recirculating ball Nut & rocker lever CENTRE POINT STEERING

• If the centre line of the wheel meets the imaginary king pin axis at the road
surface, this condition is called Centre point steering.

• With a standard axle, the point of intersection of the king pin axis with ground is
different from centre point steering.

• This results in heavy steering & larger bending stress on the stub axles & king pin

• In order to avoid this, the wheel & the king pin are arranged to reduce the king
pin offset – Centre point Steering – reduces steering effort.
 Power Steering

Need of Power Steering Power Steering

• Power steering (power assisted steering (PAS) ) helps drivers steer by augmenting
Drawbacks of Manual Steering steering effort of the steering wheel.
• Hydraulic or electric actuators add controlled energy to the steering mechanism,
• More effort is needed at low speeds, in tight turns & while parking.
so the driver can provide less effort to turn the steered wheels when driving at
• Doesn’t work well for large/heavy vehicles. typical speeds, and reduce considerably the physical effort necessary to turn the
wheels when a vehicle is stopped or moving slowly.
• Can make a car more unsafe. • Usual power steering systems for cars augment steering effort via an actuator, a
hydraulic cylinder that is part of a servo system. These systems have a direct
mechanical connection between the steering wheel and the linkage that steers the
Power Steering helps drivers to steer vehicles with less effort by providing wheels.
• This means that power-steering system failure (to augment effort) still permits the
steering comfort. vehicle to be steered using manual effort alone.
 Power Steering 1. Hydraulic Power Steering
• Other power steering systems (such as those in the largest off-road construction
vehicles) have no direct mechanical connection to the steering linkage; they require
electrical power.
• Systems of this kind, with no mechanical connection, are sometimes called "drive
by wire" or "steer by wire“. In this context, "wire" refers to electrical cables that
carry power and data, not thin-wire-rope mechanical control cables.
• In other power steering systems, electric motors provide the assistance instead of
hydraulic systems. As with hydraulic types, power to the actuator (motor, in this
case) is controlled by the rest of the power-steering system.

Hydraulic Power Steering System

• Hydraulic power steering systems work by using a hydraulic system to multiply
force applied to the steering wheel inputs to the vehicle's steered (usually front) road
wheels.

• The hydraulic pressure typically comes from a rotary vane pump driven by the
Power Steering Fluid
vehicle's engine. A double-acting hydraulic cylinder applies a force to the steering Reservoir & Pulley Driven
gear, which in turn steers the road wheels. Pump

• The steering wheel operates valves to control flow to the cylinder. The more torque
the driver applies to the steering wheel and column, the more fluid the valves allow
through to the cylinder, and so the more force is applied to steer the wheels.
• Since the hydraulic pumps are positive-displacement type, the flow rate they
deliver is directly proportional to the speed of the engine.
• This means that at high engine speeds, the steering would naturally operate faster
than at low engine speeds. Because this would be undesirable, a restricting orifice
and flow-control valve direct some of the pump's output back to the hydraulic
reservoir at high engine speeds.
• A steering booster is arranged so that should the booster fail, the steering will
continue to work (although the wheel will feel heavier).
• The working liquid, also called "hydraulic fluid" or "oil", is the medium by which
pressure is transmitted. Common working liquids are based on mineral oil.
• Some modern systems also include an electronic control valve to reduce the
hydraulic supply pressure as the vehicle's speed increases; this is variable-assist
power steering.
3. Electronic Power Steering
2. Electro-Hydraulic Power Steering
• Electro-hydraulic power steering systems, sometimes abbreviated EHPS, and also
sometimes called "hybrid" systems, use the same hydraulic assist technology as
standard systems, but the hydraulic pressure comes from a pump driven by an
electric motor instead of a drive belt at the engine.
• This means that the power steering would still operate while the engine was stopped
by the computer to save fuel.
• Electro-hydraulic systems can be found in some cars by Ford, Volkswagen, Audi,
Peugeot, Citroen, SEAT, Škoda, Suzuki, Opel, MINI, Toyota, Honda, and Mazda.
Electronic Power Steering
• Electric power assisted steering (EPS/EPAS) uses an electric motor to assist the
driver of a vehicle. Sensors detect the position and torque of the steering column,
and a computer module applies assistive torque via the motor, which connects to
either the steering gear or steering column.
• A mechanical linkage between the steering wheel and the steering gear is retained
in EPAS. In the event of component failure or power failure that causes a failure to
provide assistance, the mechanical linkage serves as a back-up.
• When EPAS fails, the driver encounters a situation where heavy effort is required
to steer. This heavy effort is similar to that of an inoperative hydraulic steering
assist system.
• Electric systems have an advantage in fuel efficiency because there is no belt-
driven hydraulic pump constantly running, whether assistance is required or not,
and this is a major reason for their introduction.
• Another major advantage is the elimination of a belt-driven engine accessory, and
several high-pressure hydraulic hoses between the hydraulic pump, mounted on
the engine, and the steering gear, mounted on the chassis. This greatly simplifies
manufacturing and maintenance.
• The first electric power steering system appeared on the Suzuki Cervo in 1988. The
system has been applied by various automobile manufacturers
CIJIL B. JOHN
Asst. Professor
Dept. of ME, JECC
Limitations of Power Steering
• Parasitic loss to the engine. (However, it is nearly negligible in
most cases.)
• Tends to be oversensitive (follows ruts in road, false inputs
from harsh bumps)
• Depending on suspension settings, power steering can make
the car feel light, particularly at high speeds.
• Added weight and complexity.
Syllabus – Module IV
• Suspension: - suspension geometry, terminology- Macpherson strut
friction and spring offset - suspension roll centers:-roll centers, roll axis,
roll centre height, short swing and long arm suspension, transverse double
wishbone, parallel trailing double arm and vertical pill strut suspension,
Macpherson strut suspension, semi-trailing arm rear suspension,
telescopic suspension.
• High load beam axle leaf spring, sprung body roll stability. Rear axle beam
suspension- body roll stability analysis:- body roll couple, body roll
stiffness, body over turning couple
• Body weight transfer, body direct weight transfer couple, body roll couple
distribution, body roll weight transfer, lateral force distribution.
• Anti roll bars and roll stiffness:- anti roll bar function, operating principle, SUSPENSION SYSTEM
anti roll bar action caused by the body rolling, single wheel lift -rubber
spring bumper:-bump stop function and characteristics, axis inclination. • The automobile chassis is mounted on the axles, not directly but
• Rear suspension: - live rigid axle suspension, non drive rear suspension- through some form of springs.
swing arm rear wheel drive independent suspension, Low pivot split axle
• This is done to isolate the vehicle body from road shocks which may
coil spring wheel drive independent suspension, trailing and semi trailing
be in the form of pitch, bounce, roll or sway.
arm rear wheel drive independent suspension, Transverse double link arm
• These tendencies give rise to an uncomfortable ride & also cause
rear wheel drive independent suspension, De Dion axle rear wheel
suspension additional stress in the frame & body.

• Hydrogen suspension, hydro-pneumatic automatic height correction • All the parts which perform the function of isolating the automobile
suspension from the road shocks – Suspension System.

OBJECTIVES OF SUSPENSION SYSTEM OBJECTIVES OF SUSPENSION SYSTEM

1. Protects the passengers from road shocks & provide a comfortable ride. • Suspension system maximizes the friction between road
2. Prevents the vehicle body from tipping while traveling over rough ground or
when turning. This helps to minimize the tendency of rolling, pitching, or vertical surface & the tyres during acceleration, cruising & braking.
movement.
3. Provides cushioning effect. Thus, minimizes the effects of stress on vehicle
components and mechanisms.
4. Maintains the vehicle body at a perfect level while traveling over rough, uneven
ground. This enables the up and down movement of the wheels relative to the
body.
5. Insulates the vehicle structure from shocks and vibrations due to irregularities of
the road surface without affecting its stability.
6. Provides required height to the body structure as well as bears the torque and
braking reactions.
 SUSPENSION GEOMETRY SUSPENSION TERMINOLOGY
• King pins (or) Swivel Joints: It’s the main part in the steering
mechanism of a vehicle.

• Pivot Centre: It’s the point where the king pin axis projects &
intersects the ground.

• Contact Patch: The flattened crown area of a tyre which contacts

the ground.

• Track: Distance b/w both steering wheel contact centres.

McPherson Strut friction & Spring Offset Wheel Camber Angle

• Camber is the tilt of the car wheels from the vertical. Camber is positive if the tilt is
outward at the top. Camber is also called ‘wheel rake’.
 Effect of Camber
• It is desirable that tyres should roll on ground vertically so that the wear is
uniform.
• If while running, the tyres are inclined from the vertical either inward or outward,
they will wear more on one side than the other.
• In case of positive camber, as the vehicle turns, the outside suspension tends to rise
on the wheel. When the wheel returns to straight ahead position, the weight of the
wheel presses down on the steering axis & this helps to straighten the wheel.
• Thus, positive camber aids steering wheel return after completing a turn.
• In positive camber, the tendency of the wheels would be to toe-out & the tyre will
wear more on the outer side.
• Initial positive camber is given to the wheels so that when the vehicle is loaded, they
automatically come to a vertical position.
Castor Angle
• The angle b/w the king pin centre line (or steering axis) & the vertical, in the plane
of the wheel is called the Castor angle.
• If the king pin meets the ground at a point ahead of the vertical wheel centre line,
it’s called positive castor while if it’s behind the vertical wheel centre line, it’s called
negative castor.
Effect of Camber (Contd..)
• Negative camber resists the tendency of the wheels to slip sideways during
cornering, but also increases the steering effort.
• Negative camber will cause the front wheels to toe-in & wear more on the inside.
• Tyre life will be maximum when the camber angle in running condition is zero.
• If the camber on the two front wheels is not equal, the vehicle will try to pull towards
the side where the camber is higher.
• When the vehicle with equal camber on both wheels is running on a highly curved
road, it has a tendency to pull away the vehicle to the side of the road.
• To compensate this, for Right Hand Drive vehicles (as in India), the right wheel is
given slightly higher camber than the left one.
• Similarly, for Left hand vehicles, higher camber may be provided on the left wheel.
Effect of Castor
• Positive castor on the car wheels provides directional stability. i.e, straight line
trackings is improved.
• Positive castor is used in the case of furniture rollers & on the front wheels of
bicycles.
• However, positive castor increases the effort required to turn the steering wheel.
• In the case of negative castor, steering would be unstable. i.e, there would be poor
directional control, as the centre of the tyre print leads the steering axis.
• Extremely negative castor cause wheel shimmy & cupped wear on the front wheels.
• Positive castor is often used with SAI on automobiles with power steering to provide
the required returnability, since the higher effort required to steer the wheels is
provided by power steering.
 Effect of Castor (Contd..)
• As the change of castor angle result in the change of the other angles of the
steering geometry, i.e, camber, king pin inclination, toe-in & toe-out, it’s very
important that this angle is adjusted first of all, while doing the adjustment job.

• Amount: About 3 degree of castor give good results.

Swivel / King pin Inclination (Steering axis

King pin Inclination (Steering axis inclination)
inclination)
• Inclination of the king pin from the vertical is called King pin Inclination or king
pin rake.
• In modern cars, king pin has been replaced by ball joints. So, this term is renamed
as ‘Steering axis inclination’ & is defined as the inclination of ball joint axis from
the vertical.
• SAI is non-adjustable, since it would change only if the wheel spindle or steering
knuckle are bent.
• Effect: KPI or SAI helps the straight ahead recovery, thus providing directional
stability.
• When the vehicle takes a turn, the inclination of the kingpin causes the vehicle body
to move up, in relation to the wheels. So as soon as the steering wheel is left after the
turn, the weight of the vehicle tends to return the wheels to straight ahead position.

Permissible amount: about 7 to 8 degree

 SUSPENSION ROLL CENTRES
• Roll Centres:
• It refers to the centre relative to the ground about which the body
will instantaneously rotate.
• Roll axis:
• It’s the line joining the roll centres of the front & rear suspension.
• Normally, front suspension has lower roll centre than at the rear.
• The inclination of roll axis depends on;
1. Centre of gravity height
2. Weight distribution b/w the front & rear axles.

Suspension System – Principle factors • If the body is suspended b/w 2 pairs of wheels & if it’s capable of
rolling on the ground, then there must be 3 Instantaneous
• The suspension system of a vehicle has 3 principle factors; Centres.
1. The suspended body (B) 1. IBG – Instantaneous Centre of body relative to the ground (Roll
2. The supporting wheels (W) Centre)

3. The ground (G) (it provides the reaction to the downward load 2. IWB – Instantaneous Centre of wheel relative to the body
of the vehicle). 3. IWG – Instantaneous Centre of wheel relative to the ground.

 Roll Centre height determination is explained using the 3

Instantaneous Centre method applied to Swing axle Suspension.
SHORT SWING ARM SUSPENSION SHORT SWING ARM SUSPENSION

• When cornering, an overturning moment is produced & it

makes the body roll outwards from the centre of the turn.

• The immediate response is that the inner & outer swing arm
rise & dip respectively at their pivoted ends.

Short Swing Arm Suspension Roll Centre Height

• The roll centre height for a short swing arm suspension is derived as:

𝒉 𝒓
=
𝒕/𝟐 𝒍

𝒕∗𝒓
Therefore, 𝒉=
𝟐𝒍
h = roll centre height
r = wheel radius
l = swing arm length
t = track width
 Short Swing Arm Suspension -
Disadvantages
LONG SWING ARM SUSPENSION

• There is too much Camber change with body roll. • Similar to short swing arm arrangement.

• There is a tendency for the axle arms to jack the body up • But in this type, the arms are extended to the opposite side of the

during cornering. body relative to its wheels.

• The roll centre is obtained by joining the tyre contact centre &
swing arm pivot centre by a straight line for each suspension.

• The point where these lines intersect is called the Body Roll Centre
& its distance above the ground is called Roll Centre height.

LONG SWING ARM SUSPENSION LONG SWING ARM SUSPENSION

Parallel Trailing Double Suspension Vertical Pillar Strut Suspension

Semi-trailing Arm Suspension Body roll

• On wheeled vehicles, body roll is a reference to the load transfer of a

vehicle towards the outside of a turn.
• When a vehicle is fitted with a suspension package, it works to
keep the wheels or tracks in contact with the road, providing grip
for the driver of the vehicle to control its direction.

• The suspension is compliant to some degree, allowing the vehicle body,

which sits upon the suspension, to lean in the direction of the perceived
centrifugal force acting upon the car.
 Sprung mass & Unsprung mass
MacPherson Strut Suspension
• In a ground vehicle with a suspension, the Unsprung mass (or
the Unsprung weight) is the mass of the suspension, wheels
• The MacPherson strut is a type of automotive suspension
or tracks & other components directly connected to them.
system that uses the top of a telescopic damper as the upper
• Unsprung mass includes -> mass of components such as the
steering pivot.
wheel axles, wheel bearings, wheel hubs, tyres & a portion of the
weight of driveshafts, springs, shock absorbers, and suspension • Widely used in the front suspension of modern vehicles and is
links. If the vehicle's brakes are mounted outboard (i.e., within named for American automotive engineer Earle S.
the wheel), their mass (weight) is also considered part of the MacPherson, who originally invented and developed the
Unsprung mass.
design.
• The mass of the body and other components supported by
the suspension is the Sprung mass.

MacPherson Strut Suspension MacPherson Strut Suspension

• Only lower wishbones are used. • Upper green: Vehicle body/strut
interface
• A strut is mounted b/w the stub axle & the frame. Wheel is mounted • Red: Steering knuckle or hub carrier
on the stub axle. • Blue: Lower control arm or track control
arm
• The Strut contains shock absorber & the spring. • Light blue: Steering gear tie rod or track
rod
• The wish bone is hinged to the cross member & positions the wheel. • Lower purple: Radius rod
• The Camber changes when the wheel moves up & down. • Upper purple: Coil spring
• Yellow: Tubular housing containing
• Commonly used on Front Wheel Drive vehicles. shock absorber or damper
• Lower green: Vehicle frame or unibody
member
 MacPherson Strut Suspension MacPherson Strut - Advantages

1. Simple in construction & light in weight.

2. Provides increased road safety & improves the ride comfort.

3. Gives a light & self stabilizing steering – car continues in its

chosen line of travel when the brakes are applied even though the
road surfaces may vary.

4. Gives maximum room in the engine compartment.

5. Less maintenance for the suspension system

6. Simplicity in the design & low cost

MacPherson Strut - Disadvantages Double Wishbone Suspension

• A double wishbone suspension is an independent suspension design using
1. Wheel occupies a camber angle and do not go vertically
two (occasionally parallel) wishbone-shaped arms to locate the wheel.
up when the tyre is moving on a hump.
• Each wishbone or arm has two mounting points to the chassis and one joint
2. Special noise reduction and isolation mechanism is
at the knuckle.
required, since the vehicle transmit noise and vibration
• The shock absorber and coil spring mount to the wishbones to control
from the rod to the body shell. vertical movement.

• Allows to carefully control the motion of the wheel throughout suspension

travel, controlling such parameters as camber angle, caster angle, toe
pattern, roll center height, scrub radius, scuff and more.
 Double Wishbone Suspension
Double Wishbone Suspension Double Wishbone Suspension
Advantages
• Easy to work out the effect of moving
each joint, so the kinematics of the
suspension can be tuned easily and
wheel motion can be optimized.
• It is also easy to work out the loads
that different parts will be subjected
to which allows more optimized
lightweight parts to be designed.
Disadvantages
• Takes up more space and are more
complex, and thus more expensive,
than other systems.
• Due to the increased number of
components within the suspension
setup, it takes much longer to
service and is heavier than an
equivalent MacPherson design.
 Telescopic Suspension
• Most motorcycles today use telescopic forks for the front suspension.
• The forks can be most easily understood as simply large hydraulic shock
absorbers with internal coil springs.
• They allow the front wheel to react to imperfections in the road while
isolating the rest of the motorcycle from that motion.
• The top of the forks are connected to the motorcycle's frame in a triple
tree clamp, which allows the forks to be turned in order to steer the
motorcycle.
• The bottom of the forks is connected to the front wheel's axle.
Telescopic V/s Upside Down
Telescopic Suspension
• On conventional telescopic forks, the lower portion or fork bodies
(fork sliders), slide up and down the fork tubes. The fork tubes must
be mirror-smooth to seal the fork oil inside the fork.
• "Upside-down" (USD) forks, also known as inverted forks, are
installed inverted compared to conventional telescopic forks. The
slider bodies are at the top, fixed in the triple clamps, & the fork
tubes at the bottom.
Telescopic Suspension
 Telescopic Suspension - Working
• The shock absorber lengthens & shortens as the wheels meet
bumps & pot holes.

• When this happens, a piston inside a cylinder of the shock absorber

moves up or down. The cylinder is filled with a fluid.

• There are valve openings in the piston & also at the bottom of the
cylinder tube. There is a reservoir tube full of the fluid.

• When the shock absorber is compressed, the fluid in the cylinder

passes upwards through the restricted valves of the piston.

• At the same time, the fluid passes down through a small valve of the
cylinder tube.

• By this arrangement, the piston is able to move against the Telescopic Suspension - Advantages
resistance of the fluid.

• Thus, the shock on the vehicle is absorbed by the fluid.

• More resistance to shock.
• When the shock absorber lengthens, the liquid from the top portion
of the piston is forced downward through the piston valves.
• Better durability.

• At the same time, the fluid from the reservoir tube enters through a • No need for readjustment.
valve at the bottom of the cylinder tube.
• Instantaneous response to sudden shocks & vibrations.
• By this arrangement, the process of the shock absorber being
lengthened becomes very slow. This takes place after overcoming
the resistance of the fluid.
 • An anti-roll bar (roll bar, anti-sway bar, sway bar, stabilizer
Anti-roll bar bar) is a part of many automobile suspensions that helps
reduce the body roll of a vehicle during fast cornering or over
road irregularities. It connects opposite (left/right) wheels
together through short lever arms linked by a torsion spring. A
sway bar increases the suspension's roll stiffness—its
resistance to roll in turns, independent of its spring rate in the
vertical direction.
• From the 1950s on, production cars were more commonly
fitted with anti-roll bars, especially those vehicles with softer
coil spring suspension.

Anti-roll bar Anti-roll bar

• Anti- roll bar is fitted into the suspension of a vehicle with low rate
soft springs.

• It also provides a more comfortable ride under normal driving.

• Anti-roll bar becomes effective if one wheel is raised higher than

the other as the vehicle passes over a hump in the road.

• Usually made up of Carbon steel circular sectioned rod which is

positioned transversely & parallel to the track.
 Anti-roll bar action caused by Single
Anti-roll bar action caused by body rolling
wheel lift

Anti-roll bar

An SUV, with anti roll bars removed, shows how one wheel can be much lower than the
opposite side, as the body rolls (tilts) more without anti roll bars.
 • An axle beam suspension s/m is formed in a manner that both
RIGID AXLE BEAM SUSPENSION wheel stub axles are rigidly supported by a common transverse axle
bean member.

• A beam axle, rigid axle or solid axle is a dependent suspension

design, in which a set of wheels is connected laterally by a single
beam or shaft.

• Beam axles were once commonly used at the rear wheels of a

vehicle, but historically they have also been used as front axles in
rear-wheel-drive vehicles.

• In most automobiles, beam axles have been replaced by front and

rear independent suspensions.

BEAM SUSPENSION RIGID AXLE BEAM SUSPENSION

There cannot be any independent movement of the two stub axles in a rigid axle
beam suspension.

With a beam axle, the camber angle between the wheels is the same no matter
where it is in the travel of the suspension.
 RIGID AXLE BEAM SUSPENSION
ADVANTAGES
• The principal advantage is its
simplicity.
• Very space-efficient and relatively cheap
to manufacture.
• Provide better vehicle articulation and
durability in a high load environment
• They are universally used in buses and
heavy-duty trucks.
• Most light and medium duty pickup
trucks, SUVs, and vans also use a beam
axle, at least in the rear.
LIVE RIGID AXLE REAR SUSPENSION
DISADVANTAGES
• It does not allow each wheel to move
independently in response to bumps.
• Mass of the beam is part of the
Unsprung weight of the vehicle,
which can further reduce ride
quality.
• Also the cornering ability is typically
worse than other suspension designs.
• Can cause a side-to-side oscillation of
steering at certain speeds (typically
40-50 mph).
REAR SUSPENSION
1. LIVE AXLE REAR SUSPENSION
• Wheel Camber angle is zero even if the vehicle is stationary or moving
on the road.
• If one wheel travels over a dip in the road, then the axis will tilt.
• Wheel track remains constant under all driving conditions.
• The Unsprung weight is very high.
• The live rigid axle is attached to the body by either leaf or coil springs.
The body will tilt about its imaginary roll centre.
• Poor road holding & steering response.
REAR SUSPENSION
2. NON DRIVE REAR SUSPENSION
• Also known as DEAD AXLE.
• Doesn’t have the drawback of large Unsprung weight.
• Maintains both wheels parallel at all times.
• The suspension linkage is used to provide a vertically up &
down motion of the axle relative to the body.
• It also prevents longitudinal & lateral axle misalignment due
to braking thrust, cross winds or centrifugal side force.
 NON DRIVE REAR SUSPENSION REAR SUSPENSION
3. SWING ARM REAR WHEEL DRIVE INDEPENDENT SUSPENSION

• A pair of triangular transverse swing arm members are

situated on either side of final drive.

• Coil springs are located vertically on top of swing arm

members near the outer ends.

• Wheels are supported on drive hubs.

• When the body rolls during cornering, the inner & outer
wheels become cambered negatively & positively resp.

• With a change in static weight of the vehicle, both swing arms

4. LOW PIVOT SPLIT AXLE COIL SPRING REAR
pivot & dip an equal amount that decreases the wheel track
width. WHEEL DRIVE INDEPENDENT SUSPENSION
• Both wheels will remain parallel at all times as there is no
change in toe-in or toe-out.
 4. LOW PIVOT SPLIT AXLE COIL SPRING REAR 5. TRAILING ARM REAR WHEEL DRIVE
WHEEL DRIVE INDEPENDENT SUSPENSION INDEPENDENT SUSPENSION

• The axle is split into two, with the adjacent half axles hinged to a
common pivot axis below the final drive housing.
• A vertical strut supports the final drive assembly.
• At its upper end, it is mounted on rubber discs & at its lower end, it
is anchored to a pin joint situated on the hinged side of the final
drive housing.
• The left hand side half axle consists of a drive shaft, crown wheel &
differential unit.
• A single universal joint is located inside the casing so that it aligns
with the axles pivot axis.
• A horizontal arm forms a link b/w the pivot axis & body structure. It
controls any lateral movement of the body relative to the axles.

5. TRAILING ARM REAR WHEEL DRIVE INDEPENDENT

SUSPENSION
• Consists of both right & left hand arms (as shown in fig.) hinged on axis at
right angles to the vehicle centre line.

• Each arm is attached to two widely spaced pivot points mounted on the
car’s rear frame.

• The trailing arms transfer the drive thrust from the wheel & axle to the
body.

• They restrain transverse movement when the vehicle is subjected to

lateral forces.

• The rear ends of the arm supports the live wheel hub.

• The drive is transmitted from final drive to each wheel via drive shafts.
 5. TRAILING ARM REAR WHEEL DRIVE 6. SEMI TRAILING ARM REAR WHEEL DRIVE
INDEPENDENT SUSPENSION INDEPENDENT SUSPENSION
• Both wheels remain perpendicular to the ground when the
springs deflect due to change in gross weight.

• When the body rolls on a bend, the inner wheel will be

negatively cambered & outside wheel positively cambered.

• Spring deflection due to increase in gross weight does not

change the wheel track toe-in or toe-out.

• The body roll will give rise to the wheel track to widen slightly.

6. SEMI TRAILING ARM REAR WHEEL DRIVE

INDEPENDENT SUSPENSION
 6. SEMI TRAILING ARM REAR WHEEL DRIVE 6. SEMI TRAILING ARM REAR WHEEL DRIVE
INDEPENDENT SUSPENSION INDEPENDENT SUSPENSION

• Each arm pivots on axis is inclined 50 to 70 deg. to the car’s centre • A small amount of toe is produced on both inner & outer
line axis. wheels for both bump & rebound arm movement.
• Inclining the pivot axis of the semi trailing arm suspension partially
Disadvantages
neutralizes the inherent tendencies during cornering.
• When the wheels move up & down, Camber angle changes.
• Therefore, the wheels remain perpendicular to the ground when the
car is subjected to body roll. • Under cornering & bumpy road condition, more shocks &
• Due to long swing arm length of semi trailing arm, only a small noises are transferred to the vehicle body.
change to negative camber on bump & positive camber on rebound
occurs when both arms deflect together.

7. TRANSVERSE DOUBLE LINK ARM REAR WHEEL

DRIVE INDEPENDENT SUSPENSION
7. TRANSVERSE DOUBLE LINK ARM REAR WHEEL
8. DE. DION REAR WHEEL DRIVE SUSPENSION
DRIVE INDEPENDENT SUSPENSION
• A De Dion tube is an automobile suspension technology. It is a
• It has upper & lower wishbone arm linking the wheel hub carrier to
sophisticated form of non-independent suspension.
the body structure via pivot joints provided at either end of the
• The de Dion tube was named after Jules-Albert de Dion, founder of
arms.
French automobile manufacturer De Dion- Bouton.
• The drive shafts transfer torque from the final drive unit to wheel
• De Dion suspension uses universal joints at both the wheel hubs
hub through universal joints placed at inner &outer ends of the
and differential, and uses a solid tubular beam to hold the
shafts.
opposite wheels in parallel.
• The transverse double link arm suspensions are designed to ensure • Unlike an anti-roll bar, a de Dion tube is not directly connected to
that the outer wheel should remain as close to the vertical as the chassis nor is it intended to flex. In suspension geometry it is a
possible during cornering. beam axle suspension.

DE. DION REAR WHEEL DRIVE SUSPENSION

• The De Dion axle is a tube sectioned axle beam with cranked ends rigidly
attached on either side to each wheel hub.

• It is mounted independently on the underside of the body structure

• A sliding joint is used in the axle tube to allow wheel track variation
during suspension movement.

• The internal space b/w the inner & outer axle tube is filled about two
thirds full of oil.

• When the body rolls, one hub carrier tends to rotate relative to the
other, which is permitted by sliding joint in the axle tube.
DE. DION REAR WHEEL DRIVE SUSPENSION De-Dion axle
• A De Dion axle layout decreases the Unsprung suspension weight
for a rear wheel drive car.

• It helps to keep both road wheels parallel to each other under all
driving conditions.

1 1 12/7/2018 2

MODULE V - Syllabus
• Brakes:- mechanical and hydraulic brakes (review only) – properties
of friction lining and pad materials, efficiency, stopping distance,
MODULE V theory of internal shoe brake, equations –effect of expanding
mechanism of shoes on total braking torque, equations.
AUTOMOBILE BRAKING SYSTEM • Braking vehicles:- brakes applied on rear, front and all four wheels,
equations –calculation of mean lining pressure and heat generation
during braking operation, equations. – braking of vehicle moving on
curved path, simple problems.
• Anti Lock Braking system (ABS):- need and advantages of ABS –
hydro-mechanical ABS - hydro-electric ABS - air-electric ABS.
• Brake servos: - operating principle, vacuum servo - direct acting
suspended vacuum assisted brake servo unit operation - hydraulic
CIJIL B. JOHN servo assisted brake systems.
• Pneumatic operated disc brakes – air operated brake systems: - air
Asst. Professor over hydraulic brake system - Three line brake system-– electronic-
pneumatic brakes.
Dept. of ME, JECC
 12/7/2018 3

Brake System
Seminar topics
 Stopping of the vehicle is as necessary as its starting.
1. Hydro-mechanical ABS – Roll No. 79
2. Hydro-electric ABS – Roll No. 81  Brakes are applied on the wheels to stop the vehicle.
3. Air-electric ABS – Roll No. 117  Before applying the brakes, the accelerator is released to stop the
fuel supply.
Second Assignment Topics (All others)
 Clutch is also disengaged which disconnects the engine from the
1. Brake servos: - operating principle
2. Vacuum assisted servo transmission system.

1. direct acting suspended vacuum assisted brake servo unit  Thus, when the vehicle is standing, the engine is still running at

operation idling.

2. hydraulic servo assisted brake systems.

4 12/7/2018

Braking System - Functions

1. To stop or slow down the vehicle in the shortest possible distance

in emergencies.

2. The control of the vehicle to be retained while descending a hill.

A device used for slowing down or stopping the motion of a vehicle

by means of contact friction is called ‘Braking System’

5 12/7/2018 6 12/7/2018
Purpose of Braking
Classification of Brakes
 To stop the vehicle at the desired position. 1. With respect to application
 To ensure safety in driving.  Foot brake
 To keep the vehicle under control.  Hand brake
II. With respect to the no. of wheels

Factors affecting Braking  Two wheel brakes

 No. of wheels on the vehicle.  Four wheel brakes

 Weight of the vehicle. III. With respect to the method of braking contact

 Size of the brake drum/disc.  Internal expanding brakes

 Road surface  External contracting brakes

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Classification of Brakes Classification of Brakes

IV. With respect to the method of applying braking force VI. With respect to the brake gear
 Single acting brakes  Mechanical brakes
 Double acting brakes  Power brakes
V. With respect to the nature of power employed VII. With respect to power transmission
 Vacuum brakes  Direct acting brakes
 Air brakes  Geared brakes
 Hydraulic brakes VIII. With respect to power unit
 Hydrostatic brakes  Cylinder brakes
 Electric brakes  Diaphragm brakes

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 Classification of Brakes
IX. Based on brake location

 Wheel brakes

 Transmission brakes

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 1. Mechanical Braking system Internal Expanding Shoe Brake - Drum
 The brake shoes (2 shoes) with friction linings (on outer surfaces) are
a) Internal Expanding Shoe type
made to contact an auxiliary wheel called a drum.
 The car wheel is attached to the drum.
 Each brake shoe is hinged at one end by an anchor pin.
 The other end is operated by means of a Cam or a toggle lever.
 When the cam is turned, the shoes are forced towards the drum.
 Brake lining increases the coefficient of friction & prevents wearing
of the material.
 Retracting spring keeps the brake shoes into position when brakes
are not applied.
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External Contracting Shoe (Drum) Brake

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 2. Hydraulic Braking System Hydraulic Braking System
 Consists of two main components – master cylinder & wheel
cylinder.

 Master cylinder – connected by tubing to the wheel cylinder.

 System is filled with liquid under light P when the brakes are not
in operation – Brake fluid – mixture of glycerin & alcohol or
caster oil

 Each wheel brake consists of a cylinder brake drum.

 Drum is mounted on the inner side of the wheel & revolves with it.

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 Two brake shoes, fitted with brake linings, are mounted inside the
brake drums. Hydraulic braking system
 Brake pedal is connected to the master cylinder by means of a
piston rod. When the brake pedal is pressed, piston is forced into
the master cylinder & increases the P of the fluid in the entire
hydraulic system.
 This P forces the wheel cylinder pistons outwards & the pistons
force the brake shoe out against the brake drums. Thus the brakes
are applied on all the wheels.
 When the driver releases the brake pedal, the master cylinder
piston returns to its original position & the fluid P in the entire s/m
drops to its original low value. Thus, the brakes are released.

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 Hydraulic braking system
Advantages
 Simple construction
 Equal braking effort to all
wheels
 Flexibility in braking lines
 Lower wear rate
 High mechanical advantages
 Mostly self lubricating
Bleeding of hydraulic brakes
Disadvantages
 Care must be taken that not even small quantities of air enter into
 Even slight leakage of air into the braking system.
the braking system makes it  Air being compressible, gets compressed when the brake pedal is
useless. pressed.
 Suitable only for applying  The result is that, fluid pressure is not transmitted to the brakes
brakes intermittently. which, as a consequence are not actuated.
 Separate mechanical linkages  The procedure of driving the air out of the braking system is called
are to be used for parking bleeding. A special bleeding valve is provided for this purpose on
the shoe expander or the disc caliper.
purposes

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PROPERTIES OF FRICTION LINING & PAD

Properties of Brake fluid (hydraulic) MATERIALS
 Low freezing point. 1. Friction level
 It must have high boiling point to avoid vaporizing in the lines.  In modern friction materials, the average Coeff. of friction lies b/w
0.3 & 0.5.
 It should be corrosion resistant.
 Coeff. of friction should be adequately high so that it can reduce the
 It should maintain a constant viscosity under a wide range of T’s.
brake pedal effort.
 It must maintain low level of compressibility, even with varying T’s.
 It should not be so high to produce grab & in extreme case cause
locking, so that the rotation of drum becomes impossible.

 Suitable grade of friction materials must be used to avoid the above

said difficulties.

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2. Resistance to Fade
 It’s the ability of the material to retain its Coeff. of friction even at
4. Resistance to wear
very high rubbing T’s.  At high T’s, the lining or pad material becomes weak.

 A good quality material should retain its friction level throughout the  There is an increase in the shear & tear action at the friction

working T of the drum & shoes (or) disc & pads. interface resulting in a higher wear rate.

3. Recovery from fade 5. Recovery to rubbing speed

 It’s a measure of the ability of a friction material to return to its  The intensity of speed tends to slightly reduce the friction level,

original friction level upon cooling after brake lining temp. fade has specially at higher operating T’s.

taken place.  Suitable materials must be selected to get rid of reduction of friction

 For a good quality material, the frictional characteristics will return properties at high speeds.

on cooling.
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6. Resistance to the intensity of pressure Braking Efficiency

 With some developed friction materials –which are generally
 It’s defined as the braking force produced as a percentage of the
compounds held together with resin binders, Pressure b/w the
total weight of the vehicle.
rubbing surfaces decreases the friction properties.
𝑩𝒓𝒂𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑩𝒓𝒂𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = * 100
7. Resistance to water contamination 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒆𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆

 All friction materials are affected by water contamination to a certain

extent.  When braking force = weight of the vehicle, then the braking
efficiency becomes 100%. Practically, it’s impossible due to
8. Resistance to moisture sensitivity
insufficient road adhesion.
 Moisture sensitive materials should not be used as friction materials.

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 Coefficient of friction Brake Stopping Distance
 It doesn’t give the accurate stopping distance value but some close
estimation of the same.
 It’s defined as the ratio of the frictional force to the normal load b/w
 Assuming the brakes are 100% efficient,
the rubbing surfaces & it’s similar to the braking efficiency.
We have, 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑼𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝑺
𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑭
𝑪𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏(𝝁) = = =η After applying brake, the vehicle will finally come to rest. Thus, the
𝑵𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑵
final velocity, V =0.
0 = 𝑈2 + 2𝑔𝑆

𝑼𝟐 𝑼𝟐 𝑼𝟐
𝑺= = ≈
𝟐𝒈 𝟐 ∗ 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 𝟐𝟎
S = Stopping distance of the vehicle, U = initial braking speed, g = retardation due
to gravity.
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Anti lock Braking System (ABS) Anti lock Braking System (ABS)
 ABS is an automobile safety system that allows the wheels on a
motor vehicle to maintain tractive contact with the road surface
according to driver inputs while braking, preventing the wheels
from locking up (ceasing rotation) and avoiding uncontrolled
skidding.

 ABS generally offers improved vehicle control and decreases

stopping distances on dry and slippery surfaces; however, on loose
gravel or snow-covered surfaces, ABS can significantly increase
braking distance, although still improving vehicle control.

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 Anti lock Braking System (ABS)

 By preventing the wheels from locking, it enables the driver to

maintain steering control & to stop in the shortest possible
distance under emergency situations.

 During normal braking, the ABS & non-ABS pedal feel will be
the same.

 During ABS operation, a pulsation can be felt in the brake

pedal accompanied by a fall & rise in the brake pedal height & a
clicking sound.

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History of ABS
 ABS was first developed for aircraft use in 1929 by the French
automobile and aircraft pioneer Gabriel Voisin.

 The first fully electronic anti lock system was developed in the late

Without ABS 60s for the CONCORDE aircraft.

 In 1970, FORD added an antilock braking system called "Sure-track"

to the rear wheels of Lincoln Continentals.

 CHRYSLER, together with the Bendix Corporation, introduced a

computerized, three-channel, four-sensor all-wheel ABS called "Sure
Brake" for its 1971 Imperial.
With Anti lock Braking System
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 In 1988, BMW introduced the first motorcycle with an electronic-
hydraulic ABS: the BMW K100.
 In 2007, SUZUKI launched its GSF1200SA (Bandit) with an ABS.
 In 2005, HARLEY-DAVIDSON began offering an ABS option on
police bikes.
 In 1993, LINCOLN was the first automobile company to provide
standard four-wheel anti-lock brakes on all of their vehicles
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ABS – Operation
 Typically ABS includes a central electronic control unit (ECU), four
wheel speed sensors, and at least two hydraulic valves within the
brake hydraulics.
 The ECU constantly monitors the rotational speed of each wheel; if it
detects a wheel rotating significantly slower than the others (a
condition indicative of impending wheel lock), it actuates the valves
to reduce hydraulic pressure to the brake at the affected wheel, thus
reducing the braking force on that wheel; the wheel then turns faster.
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ABS - Operation (Contd..)
 Conversely, if the ECU detects a wheel turning significantly faster
than the others, brake hydraulic pressure to the wheel is increased so
the braking force is reapplied, slowing down the wheel.
 This process is repeated continuously and can be detected by the
driver via brake pedal pulsation. Some anti-lock systems can apply
or release braking pressure 15 times per second.
 Because of this, the wheels of cars equipped with ABS are
practically impossible to lock even during panic braking in extreme
conditions.
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 ABS - Operation (Contd..)
 If a fault develops in any part of the ABS, a warning light will
usually be illuminated on the vehicle instrument panel, and the ABS
will be disabled until the fault is rectified.

 Modern ABS applies individual brake pressure to all four wheels

through a control system of hub-mounted sensors and a dedicated
micro-controller.

 ABS is offered or comes standard on most road vehicles produced

today and is the foundation for electronic stability control systems.

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Wheel Speed Sensor used in ABS

ABS Warning lamp

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 ABS - Components
ABS - Components
 There are four main components of ABS: Valves

1. wheel speed sensors  There is a valve in the brake line of each brake controlled by the
ABS. On some systems, the valve has three positions:
2. Valves
i. In position one, the valve is open; pressure from the master
3. Pump
cylinder is passed right through to the brake.
4. Controller (ECU)
ii. In position two, the valve blocks the line, isolating that brake from
Wheel Speed sensors
the master cylinder. This prevents the pressure from rising further
A speed sensor is used to determine the acceleration or deceleration
should the driver push the brake pedal harder.
of the wheel. These sensors use a magnet and a Hall effect sensor, or a
iii. In position three, the valve releases some of the pressure from the
toothed wheel and an electromagnetic coil to generate a signal.
brake.
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ABS - Components ABS – Brake types

Pump
 The pump in the ABS is used to restore the pressure to the
hydraulic brakes after the valves have released it. A signal from the
controller will release the valve at the detection of wheel slip. After
a valve release the pressure supplied from the user, the pump is
used to restore a desired amount of pressure to the braking system.
The controller will modulate the pumps status in order to provide
the desired amount of pressure and reduce slipping.
Controller
 The controller is an ECU type unit in the car which receives
information from each individual wheel speed sensor, in turn if a
wheel loses traction the signal is sent to the controller, the
controller will then limit the brake force (EBD) and activate the ABS
modulator which actuates the braking valves on and off.
Four-channel, four-sensor ABS
 There is a speed sensor on all four wheels and a separate valve for all four
wheels. With this setup, the controller monitors each wheel individually to
make sure it is achieving maximum braking force.
Three-channel, four-sensor ABS
 There is a speed sensor on all four wheels and a separate valve for each of
the front wheels, but only one valve for both of the rear wheels.
 Older vehicles with four-wheel ABS usually use this type.
Three-channel, three-sensor ABS
 Commonly found on pickup trucks with four-wheel ABS, has a speed
sensor and a valve for each of the front wheels, with one valve and one
sensor for both rear wheels.
 The speed sensor for the rear wheels is located in the rear axle. This
system provides individual control of the front wheels, so they can both
achieve maximum braking force. The rear wheels, however, are monitored
together; they both have to start to lock up before the ABS will activate on
the rear.

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 ABS – Brake types
Two-channel, four sensor ABS
 This system, uses a speed sensor at each wheel, with one control valve
each for the front and rear wheels as a pair.
 If the speed sensor detect lock up at any individual wheel, the control
module pulses the valve for both wheels on that end of the car.

One-channel, one-sensor ABS

 This system is commonly found on pickup trucks, SUVs, and vans with rear-
wheel ABS.
 It has one valve, which controls both rear wheels, and one speed sensor,
located in the rear axle.
 This system operates the same as the rear end of a three-channel system.
The rear wheels are monitored together and they both have to start to
lock up before the ABS kicks in.

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Advantages of ABS Disadvantages of ABS

 ABS guarantees stable braking characteristics on all road surfaces, hence
 Initial cost for Anti-lock braking system (ABS) vehicle is high.
avoids overturning of the vehicle.
 ABS reduces friction on wheels and road, thus increases the efficiency of  Maintenance issues arise as the whole braking system is controlled
tires (up to 30%). by engine control unit.
 The Vehicle with ABS can be stopped at a lesser distance than a non ABS  On concrete roads, the ABS vehicle stopping distance might be
vehicle.
needed more.
 Steering control is effective, i.e., the vehicle can be steered smoothly while
braking. Thus minimizes the accidents.
 A driver without experience can drive ABS vehicle effectively, than an
experienced driver on the non ABS vehicle.

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 PNEUMATIC OPERATED (AIR) DISC
BRAKE SERVOS
BRAKES
 If the force applied by the driver is not sufficient to stop the
vehicle, then some form of assistance is needed.
 The boosting force applied to improve the driver’s effort is
called ‘Servo assistance’.
 Servo assistance is given by either pneumatic or hydraulic
means.
1. Vacuum assistance – Medium cars
2. Hydraulic assistance – Heavy cars
3. Compressed air assistance – light trucks & minibuses.
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Floating caliper with integral half

AIR DISC BRAKES eccentric lever arm
 Heavy duty applications does not rely on hydraulic actuation.
Instead, it relies on compressed air to provide the power
source through a diaphragm operated air chamber actuator.

1. Floating caliper with integral half eccentric lever arm

2. Eccentric shaft & lever with gear driven mechanism

3. Half eccentric shaft & lever with gear driven mechanism

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 Floating caliper with integral half
eccentric lever arm Working – Continued..
 When the brake pedal is pressed, the actuator chamber  This force is transmitted to the opposite friction pad so that
diaphragm is pushed by air pressure to the left hand side. both pads press firmly with the disc with equal force.
 It also tilts the actuator lever about the two half needle roller
 Thus, the caliper floats due to this effect. This brings the
bearing pivots.
friction pads together. Therefore, both pads apply equal
 Therefore, the right hand friction pad is pushed by the
pressure against their respective face of disc.
eccentric bearing pin towards the disc’s right hand side
through the bridge block.
 As the right hand friction pad presses against the disc’s RHS, a
reaction force imposes on the caliper
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AIR OPERATED BRAKE SYSTEM Air brakes

 An air brake or, more formally, a compressed air brake  Operation is similar to that of hydraulic brakes except that in this
case, compressed air is used to apply brakes instead of hydraulic
system, is a type of friction brake for vehicles in which
pressure.
compressed air pressing on a piston is used to apply the
 Commonly used on heavy vehicles like trucks, buses etc.
pressure to the brake pad needed to stop the vehicle.

 Air brakes are used in large heavy vehicles such as trucks,

buses, trailers and semi-trailers.

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 Air Braking System

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Air brakes - Working Air brakes - Working

 The compressor takes air from the atmosphere through the filter.  When the brakes are applied, the air pressure in the reservoir

 Compressed air is sent to the reservoir through the unloader valve, decreases.

which gets lifted at a predetermined reservoir P (about 900 kPa) &  When the P drops to approx. 700 kPa, the governor again operates
releases the compressor of load. the compressor to raise the system pressure.

 From the reservoir, the air goes to various accessories & also to the  In case the air system pressure drops below 400 kPa, a warning
brake chambers also called the diaphragm units at each wheel, usually in the form of a buzzer, is sounded.
through the brake valve.

 The control of the brake valve is with the driver who can control
the intensity of braking according to the requirements.

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 Air brakes - Advantages Air Over Hydraulic Brake System
 The supply of air is unlimited, so the brake system can never  This type of braking system is a combination of parts of an air brake
run out of its operating fluid, as hydraulic brakes can. Minor
leaks do not result in brake failures. system & a hydraulic brake system.
 Air line couplings are easier to attach and detach than  It uses both air and hydraulic compression to operate the brakes.
hydraulic lines. Air brake circuits on trailers can be easily
attached and removed.  This type of braking system was created with the hopes of
 Air not only serves as a fluid for transmission of force, but also
increasing the braking power compared to the power in a hydraulic
stores potential energy, so it can serve to control the force
applied. Air brake systems include an air tank that stores braking system.
sufficient energy to stop the vehicle if the compressor fails.
 This system is not the most common, but it can often be found in
 Air brakes are effective even with considerable leakage, so an
air brake system can be designed with sufficient "fail-safe" trucks, trailers, cranes, and other industrial equipments.
capacity to stop the vehicle safely even when leaking.

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 The air-over-hydraulic brake system has an air-over-hydraulic

power cylinder that contains an air cylinder and a hydraulic AIR OVER HYDRAULIC BRAKE SYSTEM
cylinder in tandem.
 Each cylinder is fitted with a piston and a common rod. The air
piston is of greater diameter than the hydraulic piston. This
difference in the two pistons results in much greater hydraulic
pressure than air pressure admitted to the air cylinder.
 Valve action varies with the amount of pressure applied to the
brake pedal.
 When heavy brake pedal pressure is applied by the operator for
hard braking, the hydraulic pressure in the master cylinder
(which operates the valves) causes greater valve movement. As
a result, the valve admits more air pressure into the air-over-
hydraulic power cylinder and this higher air pressure causes a
stronger braking action.
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 ELECTRO – PNEUMATIC BRAKES
 The electro-pneumatic (EP) brake was introduced in the early
years of the 20th century in an attempt to over come the lag
in the operation of the pure air brake.
 Its main advantage over the air brake is its speed of control
and quick on-vehicle reaction times, giving instantaneous
control of the whole train to the driver.
 Its speed of operation makes it ideal for automatic train
operation (ATO).
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ELECTRONIC – PNEUMATIC BRAKE
 Electronically controlled pneumatic brakes (ECP) are a
development of the late 20th Century to deal with very long
and heavy freight trains.
 Here, the Compressed air brake operation is controlled
electrically by the driver.
 Enables a quicker and more sensitive response to the driver’s
operation of brake controls.
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Need for Electro-Pneumatic brakes
 Even the most modern, purely air brake systems rely on the
transmission of an air signal along the brake pipe.
 This is initiated from the front of the train and has to be sent to all
vehicles along the train.
 There will always be a time lapse (called the propagation rate)
between the reaction of the leading vehicle and the reaction of one
at the rear. It causes the braking of vehicles to happen at different
times along the train so that while some cars are slowing down,
others are still trying to push, unbraked, from the rear. When
releasing, the front of the train is pulling the rear, which is still
braking, and causes stress to the couplers.
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 With ECP, a power and control line is installed from wagon to
wagon from the front of the train to the rear.
 Electrical control signals are propagated effectively
instantaneously, as opposed to changes in air pressure which
propagate at a rather slow speed limited in practice by the
resistance to air flow of the pipework, so that the brakes on all
wagons can be applied simultaneously.
 This results in reduced stopping distance and less equipment
wear.
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 ELECTRO – PNEUMATIC BRAKES

HYDROELECTRIC ABS

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Speed Sensors and Excitors

 The speed sensor works on variable reluctance magnetic
sensing principle.
Hydroelectric Antilock Braking System
consists of three main components:  In this, there will be a cylindrical permanent magnetic core

1. Speed Sensor and Excitor around which a coil is being wound and thus arrangement is
mounted on a stationary hub carrier.
2. Electronic Control Unit
 The excitor is fitted to a rotating wheel hub and is of slot ring
3. Hydro/ Electric Modulator
type.
 A number of teeth or slots are arranged radially on the excitor
which determine the frequency of signal transmitted to ECU.
• As the wheel and excitor revolve, the teeth of excitor passes
through the sensor’s magnetic field.
• The coil on the cylindrical core detects the change in
intensity of magnetic field, and alternating voltage is
produced whose intensity is proportional to speed of rotation
of the wheel.
• The speed sensors thus sense the road wheel speed and gives
wheel acceleration or wheel deceleration signals to the ECU
whenever the road wheels are rotating.
Electronic Control Unit
 The ECU is used to receive, amplify , process, compute
and energize individual solenoid control valves.
 It calculates the minimum wheel deceleration and
maximum wheel acceleration required for optimal
breaking based on which It provides energising current
to individual solenoid control valves.

Hydro/Electric Modulators

 The hydro/electric modulator merges the individual

solenoid control valves, an accumulator and a twin
cylinder return flow pump.

(a) Normal Braking
Condition
• Under this condition the
solenoid is disengaged.
• The fluid flows freely from
the master cylinder to the
wheel cylinders through
solenoid piston type
armature valve passage
when the brakes are applied.
• This continues till a required
pressure is built up against
the brake disc so as to
decelerate the road wheels.
(c) Pressure Increasing
Position
• In this position, sensor passes
signal to control unit to switch off
the solenoid Valve current supply.
• The return springs suddenly brings
the solenoid valve into its lowest
position.
• This causes the fluid flow between
the master cylinder and the wheel
calliper pipe to be re-established
causing the brakes to be applied.
(b) Pressure Reducing
Position
• In this position, the wheel sensors
transmits rapid speed reduction
signals which might cause the
wheels to lock.
• So the control unit maximises the
supply of current to solenoid coil,
causing the armature valve to lift
to a position which causes the
return flow passage to open.
• The hold line pressure falls
instantly and the highly
pressurised fluid is drawn into the
pressure reducer accumulator.
• Simultaneously, surplus fluid is
drawn into return flow pump
through inlet valve from the
accumulator, which then pumped
back to master cylinder through
HYDRO-MECHANICAL ABS
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INTRODUCTION CONSTRUCTION

Hydro-mechanical ABS is a modulation of conventional ABS system of

an Automobile. This principle of modulation was early on developed to
superimpose an anti-lock facility on a conventional hydraulic brake
system, and interest in it has just now been revived. A necessary feature
of this type of system is the introduction of a cylinder and plunger
modulator into each brake line between the master cylinder and the
wheel cylinders.

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WORKING
•By moving the plunger up and down within its cylinder it becomes
feasible to vary the volume of a particular brake line and therefore
adapt the line pressure and hence braking force generated at that
wheel.
• Except under conditions of imminent wheel locking, the plunger is
maintained at its lowest position in the cylinder by fluid at high
pressure directed above it from an independently driven pump and
storage accumulator, while a descending projecting pin from the
plunger holds open an isolating valve that allows the free passage of
fluid between the master cylinder and wheel cylinder (Figure a).
• Normal braking up to maximum pressure is therefore
accomplished with the smallest amount volume of brake line,
because there is always sufficient pressure acting over the plunger
to restrain it from rising against master cylinder pressure acting
below it.
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CONTD… CONTD…
• However, if a wheel begins to lock the electronic control unit
commands the appropriate solenoid valve in the component to shut
off the fluid supplied under pressure to the plunger. Line pressure is of course restored to the wheel cylinder when the
• As a result the plunger rises in its cylinder, the effect of which is two electronic control unit commands the solenoid valve to open, so that
fold: fluid at a higher pressure be able to force the plunger down its
1. It allows the isolating valve for the master cylinder to close, so cylinder to reduce the volume of the brake line and re-establish a
that no additional increase in wheel cylinder pressure is possible connection among the master cylinder and the wheel cylinder, via the
no matter how much effort the driver exerts on the pedal; and now open isolating valve.
2. It increases the volume and therefore relieves the pressure in the
line to the wheel cylinder, which momentarily releases the braked
wheel (Figure b).

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APPLICATION

Lucas Girling stop control system (SCS):

The SCS is entirely mechanical and only costs about a
third of the price of ABS.
The hydraulic control units are driven by belts from the front
drive shafts and use inertia sensors to calculate deceleration
rates.
The control units incorporate simple plunger pumps to enable
brake pressure to be reapplied once the wheel has been
prevented from locking.

93 12/7/2018 94 12/7/2018
 1 1 12/7/2018 2

MODULE VI MODULE VI - Syllabus

VEHICLE AERODYNAMICS • Aerodynamic drag: pressure drag, air resistance opposing motion of a
vehicle, equations, after flow wake, drag coefficients, various body
shapes, base drag, vortices, trailing vortex drag, attached transverse
vortices.
• Aerodynamic lift:-lift coefficients, vehicle lift, underbody floor height
versus aerodynamic lift and drag, aerofoil lift and drag, front end nose
shape.
• Car body drag reduction:-profile edge chamfering, bonnet slope and
wind screen rake, roof and side panel chamfering, rear side panel
taper, underbody rear end upward taper, rear end tail extension,
underbody roughness.
• Aerodynamic lift control:- underbody dams, exposed wheel air flow
pattern, partial enclosed wheel air flow pattern, rear end spoiler,
negative lift aerofoil wings.
CIJIL B. JOHN • After body drag: - square back drag, fast back drag, hatch back drag,
Asst. Professor notch back drag.

Dept. of ME, JECC

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AERODYNAMICS AERODYNAMIC IMPROVEMENTS IN THE CAR THAT WE OWN

• Study of forces generated by motion of air over a moving body. • Keep your vehicle washed & waxed.

• Replace/remove mud flaps behind wheels.

• Why do we need to improve Aerodynamics in Cars? • Place license plate out of air flow.

1. Better the aerodynamics, higher will be the speeds. • Avoid roof-racks or carriers.

2. Less work for the engine which means greater fuel efficiency. • Close windows & sun-roofs.

3. Provides comfortable driving conditions (less mud deposition, less

noise & vibrations)

4. Better stability, handling & road safety.

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Forces acting on a vehicle AERODYNAMIC DRAG

• Pressure Drag
• It is caused by the air particles being more compressed (pushed

together) on the front-facing surfaces and more spaced out on the

back surfaces.

• Also called form drag.

• Contributes to about 55 - 60% in the vehicle.

• Pressure drag can be minimized by streamlining any solid form

exposed to the air flow.

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Air resistance opposing the motion of a

Pressure drag on a flat plate vehicle

It’s created by the Pressure

Differential b/w the front
& rear surfaces of the car
when it passes through air.
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Air resistance opposing the motion of a

Momentum lost by air/sec (mv) = ρ A*v * v = ρ Av2
vehicle
• Assume a flat plate body held against a flow of air & that the air
From Newton’s Second law,
particles are inelastic & simply drop away from the perpendicular flat
surface. Force on the plate = Rate of change of momentum

• Let, m = mass (kg) • It can be seen that actual experimental force (F) is proportional to Av2

Q = Volume (m3) 𝑭 ∝ Av2

ρ = density of air (kg/m3) Air resistance, 𝑭 = 𝑪𝑫Av2
A = Frontal area of plate (m2)
v = velocity of air striking per sec (m/s)
• CD = Coefficient of drag (no unit)
Volume of air striking/sec, Q = Av (m3)
• It mainly depends on the shape of the body exposed to the air stream.
Mass of air striking/sec, m = ρ*Q = ρAv

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After flow wake Drag Coefficient

• It’s the turbulent volume of air created at the rear end of a • It’s a measure of the effectiveness of a streamline aerodynamic body

forward moving car. shape in minimizing the air resistance to forward motion of a

Wake Cross sectional area = area of the rear vertical boot panel + vehicle.

the rearward projected area

• A low drag coefficient makes the vehicle body to move easily with reduced

resistance.

• The poor Streamlining of the body causes a high Drag Coefficient.

Therefore, there’s a high air resistance when the vehicle is in motion.

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Drag Coefficients of various body shapes

• Drag coefficient of various types of vehicles:
• Circular Plate

Vehicle type Drag Coefficient • Air flow is head on, there’s an immediate pressure difference.

• High drag coefficient of 1.15.

Light Van 0.3 - 0.5
• Cube
Sports Car 0.28 – 0.4
• Air flow is head on but a boundary layer around the side delays the

Saloon Car 0.2 - 0.4 flow separation. High coefficient of drag of 1.05.

• Sixty degree Cone

Buses & Coaches 0.4 - 0.8
• Air flows towards the cone apex & spreads outwards parallel to the

cone surface. Drag coefficient is 0.5.

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Drag Coefficients of various body shapes

• Sphere

• Air flow towards the sphere & then it’s diverted.

• Coefficient of drag (0.47) is lesser than Cone.

• Tear drop

• The streamline shape can maintain a boundary layer before flow

separation occurs almost to the end of its tail.

• Very low Coefficient of drag (0.05).

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Base Drag
• Base drag is a component of aerodynamic drag caused by a

partial vacuum in the vehicle's tail area.

• The negative vortex pressure generated at the tail area is

called Base drag.

• Hence, the tail shape of car body also influence the pressure

drag.
• While designing a car, a taper slightly towards the rear end is
followed.
• Therefore, the flow separation occurs beyond the rear axle

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VORTICES
• When the vehicle is in motion, the vortices are formed around

various regions.

• Vortices can be described as a swirling air mass with an annular

cylindrical shape.

• At the periphery, the rotary speed is minimum.

• But it increases gradually and is maximum when it reaches the

center.

• The pressure within the vortex is below the atmospheric pressure.

• ie, in the inner region, the pressure is lower but higher pressure is

found at the outer region.

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• Trailing vortices drag can be seen in aerofoil shaped car.

TRAILING VORTEX DRAG • The air moves between the space under the body and the ground
and the upper body profile surfaces.
• The air pressure is higher in the under body air stream and is
lower at the top surface air stream.
• The air moves from the high pressure region to low pressure
region.
• The lower and upper air streams interact along the side-to-top profile
edges on the opposite sides of the body to form an inward rotary air
motion.
• This continues to whirl for some distance beyond the rear end of
the forward moving car.
• A negative pressure is created in the wake of trailing vortices at
the rear of the car.
• It attempts to draw it back in the opposite direction of the forward
propelling force & is called the “Trailing vortex drag”.

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ATTACHED TRANSVERSE VORTICES

ATTACHED TRANSVERSE VORTICES

• Attached transverse vortices are generated between the

bonnet and front wind screen, the rear screen and boot lid
and the boot and rear light panel.
• The front attached vortices move their way around the „A‟
pillar. Then, they stretch along the side windows of the car‟s
rear and beyond.
• Any over spill from the attached vortices in the rear window
and light panel regions combines and strengthens the side
panel vortices.
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1. Profile Edge Rounding (or) Chamfering

CAR BODY DRAG REDUCTION
• If the edge radius (or) chamfer increases, the aerodynamic

drag & lift decreases.

• It can be seen that the drag coefficient reduces from 0.43 to 0.4

in the rounded & chamfered edge nose.

• For larger radius, the minimum value of drag coefficient (CD) is

obtained.

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2. Bonnet Slope & Wind Screen Rake Angle

• By increasing the bonnet slope angle (α), the drag coefficient

CD is reduced to a minimum value (0.39 to 0.32).

• Also, It can be seen that the drag coefficient is minimized

drastically for larger wind screen rake angle(ϒ) (CD 0.38 to0.3).
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3. Roof & Side panel Cambering

• The drag coefficient (CD ) is reduced by cambering the roof &

the side panels.

• The change in drag coefficient Vs roof camber (h/l) gives ‘U’

shaped curve.

• The reduction in drag coefficient with small amounts of side

panel cambering is noted.

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Effect of Roof Camber Effect of Side panel Camber

CD CD
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4. Rear Side panel Taper

• The drag coefficient (CD ) is reduced by tapering inwards the

rear side panel.

• A marked reduction in drag coefficient CD with both 50mm &

125mm rear end contraction on either side of the car are seen.

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5. Under body rear end Upward Taper

• By varying the diffuser angle ( in degrees), the drag coefficient

CD can be reduced.

• Selecting the ratio of length of taper to overall car length &

diffuser angle () are very important for obtaining best results.

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6. Rear & Tail Extension

• For larger tail extension (5720mm), the coefficient of drag value

obtained is minimum (CD = 0.11).

• For smaller tail extension (700mm), the CD value is not reduced

(CD = 0.3).

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7. Underbody roughness

• The Underbody roughness is defined as the centre line

average peak to valley height. For an average car, it’s

around +150mm.

• For smaller ground clearance, if the roughness value

increases, then the drag coefficient will be increased.

• For larger ground clearance value, minimum drag coefficient is

obtained.
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AERODYNAMIC LIFT LIFT COEFFICIENT

• Aerodynamic list coefficient is represented as CL.

• It’s a measure of the variation in pressure created above & below a

vehicle body.

• Hence, a resultant upward (or) downward thrust may be produced.

• It mainly depends upon the body shape.

• A positive lift reduces the tyre to ground grip while a negative lift

increases the tyre’s road holding.

A fluid flowing past the surface of a body exerts a force on it. Lift is the component
of this force that is perpendicular to the oncoming flow direction

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VEHICLE LIFT
• When a car travels along the road, the air stream moving over the

upper surface of the body from front to rear has to move a greater
distance than the underside stream.
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Underbody floor height V/s Aerodynamic Lift

• The slower moving underside & the faster moving top side air stream & Drag
generates a high pressure underneath the car than over it. • The car body is subjected to a slight negative (-) lift force with a large

• The resultant vertical pressure force generated b/w the upper & under floor to ground clearance.
under surfaces – Up thrust / Lift. • i.e., for large ground clearance, negative lift down thrust is produced.

• It tends to increase with square of vehicle speed.

• As a result, there will be a reduction in the tyre to ground grip. • As the under floor surface moves nearer to the ground, the under floor

• Uncontrolled lift decreases the vehicle’s road holding & steer air space acts like a Venturi – it causes air to move faster under the
ability. body.

• Thus, for small ground clearance, positive lift up thrust is generated.

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Front End Nose Shape

• By changing the front end nose shape, the lift coefficient can be

reduced.

• In a downward nose profile, larger mass of air moves over the upper

side but only a small amount of air flows below the lower side of the
vehicle body.

• In a central nose profile, the air mass movement on upper & lower

surfaces are approx. equal.

• In an upturned nose profile, larger air mass movement is on the

lower side & only a small amount of air flows over the upper side.

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AERODYNAMIC LIFT CONTROL

• Underbody dams
• Using the rear end under floor air dam, the increase of under floor air

pressure raises the aerodynamic up-thrust. Hence, a positive lift is

produced.

• Using the front end under floor air dam, the under floor air flow

pressure is reduced. Hence, a negative lift is generated.

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• Exposed wheel air flow pattern

• When a wheel rotates on the ground,

air due to its viscosity attaches itself
to the tread. This in turn induces
some of the surrounding air to be
dragged around with it.
• In the lower region of the wheel, the
flow of air will be stagnant but
majority of air stream will flow against
the wheel rotation.
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• Partially enclosed wheel air flow pattern

• The air entrapped in the wheel arch cavity circulates towards the

upper front of wheel due to a slight pressure build up.

• Then it’s expelled through the front end wheel to the mudguard gap.

• The effect of underside ground clearance on both lift & drag

coefficient is shown in the following figure.

• Increasing the h/D ratio, the wheel drag & lift coefficients are reduced

gradually.

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• Rear end Spoiler

• A lip (or) small aerofoil spoiler is attached to the car boot’s rear end.
• It interrupts the smooth streamline air flow thereby slowing down the air flow
& increasing the upper surface local air pressure which effectively raises the
downward force known as negative lift.
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Negative lift aerofoil wings

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AFTER BODY DRAG

1. Square back Drag:
• The rear end slope surface angle of a car ranging from 90° to 50°
is generally called as a square back style.
• There is no variation in the afterbody drag.
• The base pressured is lowered by tapering the rear quarter side
and roof of the body.
2. FASTBACK DRAG
• The fastback style is obtained when the rear slope angle is
reduced to 25° or less.
• The air flow stream flows over the roof and rear downward
sloping surface.
• The negative pressure is obtained on base wake area.
• In fast back, as the inclined angle at the rear end decreases, the drag
coefficient CD also decreases.
• The side vortex and trailing vortex and trailing vortex cone
are noted.
• It can be seen that Lower pressure region exists in the rear
3.HATCHBACK DRAG
• The rear slopping surface of the cars ranging from 25° to 50°
are generally called as Hatchback drag.
• The air flows over the roof and begins to follow the contour of
the rear inclined surface.
• Due to the steepness of the slope, the airflow breaks away from
the surface.
• The hatchback transverse and trailing vortex cone are shown in
the figure.
4. NOTCHBACK DRAG
• A notchback car style has a stepped rear end body profile.
• In this, passenger compartment rear window is inclined
downward to meet the horizontal rear extending boot lid.
4.NOTCHBACK DRAG
• The after body drag is determined by the angle made
between the horizontal inclined the touching both the rear
edges of the roof and boot.
• Drag coefficient increases, as the slope angle is increased up
to 25°.