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All Auto Mod PDF
All Auto Mod PDF
• A vehicle producing power within itself for its propulsion is known 1. Based on Purpose
as a Self propelled vehicle. 1. Passenger Vehicles – Car, Bus, Motorcycle
2. Goods Vehicles – Lorry, truck, Pick up
• Eg. Moped, Scooter, motorcycle, Car, jeep, truck, tractor, ships,
aircrafts, rocket etc. 2. Based on Capacity
• A self propelled vehicle used for transportation of goods & 1. Heavy Motor Vehicle (HMV) – large trucks, Buses, Tractor
2. Light Motor Vehicle (LMV) – Cars, Jeep, Motor cycles
passengers on the ground is called an Automobile.
3. Medium Vehicle – Small trucks, Minibus, Tempo
• Different from Aeronautical vehicles (planes, helicopters, rockets) &
marine vehicles (ships, boats, submarines)
Classification Of Automobiles Classification Of Automobiles
3. Based on Fuel Source 5. Based on Make
1. Petrol Engine 2. Diesel Engine
3. Gas Vehicles 4. Solar Vehicles 1. MARUTI SUZUKI 2. HINDUSTAN MOTORS
5. Hydrogen Vehicles 6. Electric Vehicles 3. TATA MOTORS 4. MAHINDRA & MAHINDRA
7. Steam Engine vehicles
5. TVS MOTORS 6. HERO MOTOCORP
8. Hybrid Vehicles
9. Hybrid Electric Vehicles 7. ASHOK LEYLAND 8. EICHER MOTORS
4. Based on Type of Transmission 9. FORCE MOTORS 10. BAJAJ AUTO LTD
5. The Controls
6. The Superstructure
COMPONENTS OF AN AUTOMOBILE
2. The Engine:
It provides the motive power for all various functions which ENGINE
the vehicle or any part of it, may be required to perform. The
engine for automotive use is IC type.
COMPONENTS OF AN AUTOMOBILE Transmission System
3. The Transmission System:
The Electrical systems. • The structural frame fitted to the axles through the suspension
system carries the power train.
5. The Controls:
• For an automobile to propel safely on the road, the engine, the
They consists of steering systems and brakes
transmission system, suspension, steering & brakes are included to
6. The Super Structure: the basic frame. These units combined together – Chassis.
In those cases where frameless construction is not • The body or Cabin is jointed to the cabin by means of bolts & nuts
adopted there must be super structure i.e, the body. or by welding.
Automobile Chassis
• Chassis – French term used to denote the main structure of a vehicle
• All major units required to propel the vehicle, direct its motion,
stop it as well as permit to run smoothly over varying road surface
is known as chassis.
2. Cylinder Head
Cylinder Block (Monoblock)
The top of the cylinder is covered by a separate cast piece known as
the cylinder head. It is bolted to the cylinder block.
It is usually made of grey iron or Aluminium alloy. Aluminium has
the advantage of light in weight and high heat conductivity.
A flat piece of gasket is placed between the cylinder head and block
to retain compression in the cylinder and to provide a gas and water
tight seal.
Gasket is made of Copper-asbestos-Copper.
• Camshafts, rockers & valves may be carried on the cylinder head.
• Water passages may also be provided to cool the valves, the head
and the spark plugs.
3.Piston
Piston helps to convert the chemical energy obtained by
the combustion of fuel into useful mechanical power.
The purpose of the piston is to provide a means of
conveying the expansion of the gases to the crankshaft through
the connecting rod.
It is provided with piston rings to provide a good seal
between the cylinder wall and piston. It has to withstand very
high temperatures of combustion.
Piston
Materials Used
Skirt: parts below the ring grooves Cast Iron plated with Chromium, Cadmium or Tin.
4.Piston rings
Piston Rings
a. Compression rings:
o Prevents the blow by or escape of burnt gases to the crank case.
o Made from Cast Iron plated with Chromium, Cadmium and Tin.
4.Piston rings
Compression Ring
b. Oil Control rings:
o These rings scrap off excessive oil from the cylinder wall and
return it to the oil sump.
o The oil control ring is fitted into the lower groove of the
piston.
o Oil control grooves has a series of slots. These slots transfer
the excess oil through the holes in the piston groove to the
inside of the piston and to the sump
o Made from steel, outer edges of the rings chromium plated
5.Connecting rod
The connecting rod usually has I-beam cross-section.
Small end is connected to the piston pin and big end to the crank
pin
The connecting rod carries the power thrust from piston to the
crank pin. So it must be strong, rigid and as light as possible.
• Types include :
b) Fork and blade rod o Small bushing at piston pin end is pressed in place and reamed to
final dimensions
c) Master and articulated
o Large end of rod includes a cap, bolts, nuts, and plain bearing
inserts
b) Fork and Blade Connecting Rod Fork and Blade Type C Rod
2. Sleeve valve
3. Rotary valve
Poppet Valve
• The valves are operated by cams mounted on a camshaft.
Easy to operate.
SINGLE PLATE CLUTCH
Types of clutch
1. Friction clutch
1. Single plate clutch
Direct engaging
2. Multi plate clutch clutches
3. Cone clutch
4. Dog and spline clutch
• Clutch parts
(friction disk) splined to transmission
– Flywheel Input shaft
Moves pressure
Plate right
T/O bearing
Pivots
Flywheels
Pressure Plate
• Add weight to crank for non-power strokes
• Pressure plate is a Cast Iron plate • Has ring-gear for cranking engine (usually replaceable)
• Also, the overall diameter of the clutch is reduced for the same
torque transmission compared to a Single plate clutch.
1. Racing Cars
2. Rally cars
3. Power boats
4. Extreme Off-road vehicles
• The weighted arms force these disks together and engage the clutch.
Centrifugal Clutch
• When the engine reaches a certain speed, the clutch activates,
• Uses centrifugal force to connect two concentric shafts, with the driving shaft
working somewhat like a continuously variable transmission.
nested inside the driven shaft. It engages more at higher speeds.
• The input of the clutch is connected to the engine crankshaft while the output to the • As the load increases, the speed drops, disengaging the clutch,
transmission shaft. letting the speed rise again and reengaging the clutch.
• As engine RPM increase, weighted arms in the clutch swing outward and force the • If tuned properly, the clutch will tend to keep the speed at or near
clutch to engage.
the torque peak of the engine
• The most common types have friction pads or shoes radially mounted that engage
the inside of the rim of a housing. On the center shaft there are an assorted number • Centrifugal clutches are often used in mopeds, underbones, lawn
of extension springs, which connect to a clutch shoe. mowers, go-karts, chainsaws, mini bikes, and
• When the central shaft spins fast enough, the springs extend causing the clutch some paramotors and boats.
shoes to engage the friction face. It can be compared to a drum brake in reverse.
Centrifugal Clutch
• Suitable for vehicles where clutch pedal & the clutch are kept too far
from each other.
• This fluid under P moves the piston of the slave cylinder which
further operates the clutch release fork & gets disengaged.
Hydraulically Operated Clutch - Advantages CLUTCH FRICTION MATERIALS
• Clutch friction linings are subjected to severe rubbing & heat
1. Complicated clutch linkages are eliminated.
generation for a relatively short time period.
2. Vibration & wear of linkages are eliminated.
• The desirable properties are;
3. Reduces driver’s effort (by assisting hydraulically).
Relatively high coefficient of friction.
4. Long distance b/w pedal & clutch plate is possible without any
Relatively high energy absorption capacity for short period.
mechanical linkage.
Adequate shear stress to transmit engine torque.
5. Flexible turning of hydraulic line at any angle.
Capability of maintaining friction properties.
affecting its friction & gripping characteristics. - Driven plate must have minimum possible weight so that it
produces minimum amount of spin when the clutch is disengaged.
• High level of cyclic working endurance without deteriorating
- Clutch rotating parts should have minimum inertia.
its friction properties.
-For rapid slowing down of the driven plate, the diameter,
Centre of gravity & the weight of the plate is to be kept minimum.
REQUIREMENTS OF CLUTCH REQUIREMENTS OF CLUTCH
2. Driven Plate Transmitted Torque 3. Heat Dissipation
- Clutch should be able to transmit the maximum torque of the - A large amount of heat is generated during clutch application.
engine under all conditions. - Rubbing surfaces should have sufficient surface area & mass
- Torque capacity of a friction clutch increases with the so that they can absorb the heat generated.
increase of Coefficient of friction of the rubbing materials, the diameter -Proper ventilation or cooling for adequate heat dissipation
& the spring thrust sandwiching the driven plate. must be ensured while clutch design.
-Friction lining materials limit the coefficient of friction to the
order of 0.35.
6. Dynamic Balancing - The lining life can be improved by increasing the no. of pairs of
rubbing surfaces.
- Dynamic balancing is essential particularly in case of high
- By doubling the surface area as in a twin plate clutch, the energy
speed clutches.
input per unit lining area will be halved, which results in a 50% decrease in
6. Size of the Clutch facing wear.
- Must be as small as possible so that it should occupy a very - Small diameter multi plate clutches are usually preferred for high
less amount of space . performance cars.
REQUIREMENTS OF CLUTCH
8. Angular driven plate cushioning and Torsional damping
• While rolling, a vehicle moves with its tyres in contact with the road
surface.
• Due to this relative motion b/w the surfaces, friction occurs which
opposes the vehicle motion.
When a vehicle travels uphill, a component of its weight will work in a direction
opposite to its motion.
• Power-to-weight ratio is a measurement of actual The 2016 F1 cars have a power-to-weight ratio of 1,400 hp/t (1.05
performance of any engine or power source. kW/kg). Theoretically this would allow the car to reach 100 km/h (62
mph) in less than 1 second.
Automotive Gears: Gears play an important role in trucks,
car, buses, motor bikes and even geared cycles. These gears
•Depending on the size of the
control speed and include gears like ring and pinion, spiral
vehicles, the size of the gears
gear, hypoid gear, hydraulic gears, reduction gearbox.
also varies.
• To provide the high torque at the time of starting, hill climbing, • The transmission also provides a neutral position so that the
accelerating and pulling a load since high tractive effort is engine and the road wheels are disconnected even with the
needed clutch in the engaged position
• It permits engine crankshaft to revolve at high speed, while the • A means to back the car by reversing the direction of rotation of
wheels turn at slower speeds & vice versa.
the drive is also provided by the transmission
• Variable torque can be obtained by set of gears.
• Vehicle speed can be changed keeping engine speed same with
certain limit
Gear Ratio
Types of Transmission Manual & Automatic Transmissions
Manual Transmission • Manual transmissions – called ‘Gear boxes’
Sliding Mesh Gear box • Mechanical efficiency in direct drive – 98%
Constant Mesh Gear box • Simplicity, lower initial cost, requires less maintenance, increased fuel
Synchromesh Gear box efficiency.
Automatic Transmission
• Engaging & disengaging the clutch, along with changing gears while
o Over drive (semi-automatic) driving in traffic is quite tedious for the driver.
o Fluid drive or Fluid coupling • Also creates an interruption of torque when the driver declutches to
o Fully automatic change gears.
Epi-cyclic gear box • To simplify the driving operations, modern vehicles employ automatic
Free Wheeling unit transmission.
Torque Convertor
• Sliding mesh gear box uses ‘Spur gears’ for power transmission –
simplest type.
2. Lay shaft
Sliding mesh type gear box Sliding mesh type gear box
Sliding mesh type gear box Sliding mesh type gear box
Constant mesh gear box
2. CONSTANT MESH GEARBOX
• Most commonly used in modern automobiles.
• Main shaft gear wheels & lay shaft gear wheels are always engaged
(meshed) with each other.
• Uses ‘Double Helical Gears’ for transmission b’cos of its quieter
(non-noisy) operation.
• The gears on the main shaft are on bearings which permit them to
rotate freely.
• The connection b/w any of the gear wheels & the main shaft is
obtained by ‘Dog Clutch members’.
3. SYNCHROMESH GEARBOX
• Reduces wear on the gear, easy gear shifting & quieter operation.
The housing, also known as the shell (which must have an oil tight
seal around the drive shafts), contains the fluid and turbines.
Two turbines:
• Power lost by fluid shock, friction & heat = Difference b/w input & impeller internal diameter & the square of its speed.
(𝑁 −𝑛)
• D = Impeller diameter
Percentage Slip = x 100
𝑁
• N = Impeller speed (rev/min)
• N = Input speed
• n = output speed
TORQUE CONVERTER
TORQUE CONVERTER
• Torque Converter is a fluid coupling or Clutch that disengages when
the vehicle is stopped & transfers power as the e/n speed increases.
• Purpose is to transmit engine torque to the driving wheels.
• It also increases or decreases the torque to suit varying load & speed
conditions.
3 Components of a Torque Converter;
1. Impeller
2. Turbine
• A torque converter is a type of fluid coupling which transfers rotating power from an IC
Engine, to a rotating driven load. 3. Stator
• In an automatic transmission vehicle, the torque converter connects the power source to
the load. It is usually located between the engine's flywheel & the transmission.
• Impeller, Turbine & Stator have curved vanes & are assembled in a single
casing, which is filled up with an Oil.
• Impeller is keyed & attached to the Torque Converter casing & they rotate as a
single member.
• Impeller – acts like a Centrifugal pump – Fluid enters at the centre & leaves
radially outwards & then it enters the Stator & the Turbine.
• Turbine – has more vanes which are set radially inwards; Turbine has no
mechanical contact with the Casing.
• Fluid leaving the Impeller, rotates the Turbine thereby rotating the o/p shaft.
• There is a chance of fluid coming out of the Turbine flowing in the opposite
direction & thereby slowing down the Impeller.
OVERDRIVES
• Transmission output shaft turns faster than the clutch, gear & engine
crankshaft.
Steering linkage for vehicle with rigid axle Steering linkage for vehicle with rigid axle
suspension - Construction suspension - Construction
• The drop arm (Pitman arm) is rigidly connected to the cross shaft of • Only a small effort is required at the steering wheel to apply a much
the steering gear at its upper end, while its lower end is connected
larger force to the steering linkage.
to the link rod through a ball joint.
• The other end of the link rod is connected to the link rod arm • When the steering wheel is turned, the swinging action of the drop
through a ball joint. arm imparts a near linear movement to the link rod.
• Attached rigidly to the other end of the link rod arm is the stub axle
on which the wheel is mounted. • This movement is transmitted through the link rod arm to the stub
• The other ends of the track rod arms are connected to the track rod axle so as to turn the later about its pivot, which may be a king pin or
by means of ball joints. ball joints.
• An adjuster is also provided in the track rod to change its length for
adjusting wheel alignment. • The other wheel is steered through the track rod.
• Thus only one wheel is positively steered.
Steering linkage for vehicle with Steering linkage for vehicle with
independent suspension independent suspension
• In the case of conventional rigid axle suspension, the main axle beam ensures the
movement of stub axle in the horizontal plane only.
• Therefore, there is no vertical deflection of the suspension & hence no change in
effective track rod length.
• In the case of independent suspension, the two stub axles can move up or down
independent of each other due to which, the distance b/w ball joint ends of the two
track arms is continuously varying.
• On account of this, a single track rod cannot be used for independent suspension
systems.
• The relay rod is restricted to move in horizontal plane only. 1.3% Nickel steel – no more used in modern cars.
• Front axle has to take bending loads due to weight of the vehicle & torque loads
• Movement in vertical plane is provided by the outer portion, viz,
due to braking of the wheels. For this reason, front axle is made of I- section in the
the tie rods about the end ball joints. centre portion, while the ends are made circular or elliptical.
• A downward sweep is given to the centre portion to keep a low chassis height.
Stub Axles
Front Axle
Kingpin
Stub Axle
Front Axle
Tie Rod
Main axle is connected to the stub axles by means of king pins. Reversed Elliot type- most common.
The front wheels are mounted on these stub axles. Stub axles; made of 3% Nickel steel & alloy steels containing Chromium & Molybdenum
• Both these situations are undesirable because in either case while rolling forward,
each wheel will be simultaneously slipping laterally due top which a continuous
cross tread scrubbing takes place.
• Result of net toe-in & toe-out during running is excessive tread wear, heavy
steering & greater fuel consumption.
Toe-in Toe-out
• For good steering, handling & control, it’s also necessary that;
Factors which influence the stability & control
1. There should not be any set back, which is the distance b/w the placing of the
front tyres. Set back is a condition in which one wheel on an axle is in front or of the vehicle
behind the other wheel in relation to the chassis frame.
2. The thrust angle must be zero. Thrust angle is the angle made by the thrust line 1. Factors pertaining to wheels – Balance of wheels, Inflation of tyres, Brake
with the longitudinal centre line of the vehicle. If the thrust angle is not zero, the
adjustment.
vehicle will ‘dog track’ & the steering will not be centred. When the thrust angle
is zero, the rear wheels follow the front wheels properly. 2. Steering geometry – Camber, Castor, Kingpin inclination, Combined angle &
scrub angle, toe-in & toe-out, Toe-change or bump-steer.
3. Steering linkage
4. Suspension system
Factors pertaining to wheels Steering Geometry - Camber
• Camber is the tilt of the car wheels from the vertical. Camber is positive if the tilt is
1. Balance of wheels: If the wheels are not in dynamic balance, the wheel wobble
may result, which influences steering control.
outward at the top. Camber is also called ‘wheel rake’.
2. Inflation of tyres: The steering s/m is designed for a particular rolling radius.
Variation of air pressure from the standard will change the rolling radius.
3. Brake adjustment: If the brake is dragging, it can pull the vehicle to one side
during braking.
• Inclination of the king pin from the vertical is called King pin Inclination or king
pin rake.
• In modern cars, king pin has been replaced by ball joints. So, this term is renamed
as ‘Steering axis inclination’ & is defined as the inclination of ball joint axis from
the vertical.
• SAI is non-adjustable, since it would change only if the wheel spindle or steering
knuckle are bent.
• Effect: KPI or SAI helps the straight ahead recovery, thus providing directional
stability.
• When the vehicle takes a turn, the inclination of the kingpin causes the vehicle body
to move up, in relation to the wheels. So as soon as the steering wheel is left after the
turn, the weight of the vehicle tends to return the wheels to straight ahead position.
• Amount: Camber should not generally exceed 2 deg. However, the exact amount of camber
is specified taking into account the king pin inclination.
Castor
King pin Inclination (Steering axis inclination)
• The angle b/w the king pin centre line (or steering axis) & the vertical, in the plane
of the wheel is called the Castor angle.
• If the king pin meets the ground at a point ahead of the vertical wheel centre line,
it’s called positive castor while if it’s behind the vertical wheel centre line, it’s called
negative castor.
Permissible amount: about 7 to 8 degree
Effect of Castor Effect of Castor (Contd..)
• Positive castor on the car wheels provides directional stability. i.e, straight line
• As the change of castor angle result in the change of the other angles of the
trackings is improved.
steering geometry, i.e, camber, king pin inclination, toe-in & toe-out, it’s very
• Positive castor is used in the case of furniture rollers & on the front wheels of important that this angle is adjusted first of all, while doing the adjustment job.
bicycles.
• However, positive castor increases the effort required to turn the steering wheel. • Amount: About 3 degree of castor give good results.
• In the case of negative castor, steering would be unstable. i.e, there would be poor
directional control, as the centre of the tyre print leads the steering axis.
• Extremely negative castor cause wheel shimmy & cupped wear on the front wheels.
• Positive castor is often used with SAI on automobiles with power steering to provide
the required returnability, since the higher effort required to steer the wheels is
provided by power steering.
• The plane of the wheel must make some angle with the direction of
• If either the length or angle of the tie rod is incorrect, it will pull & push the steering
arm, which would turn the wheel in a new direction. motion of the vehicle to sustain the thrust force – Slip angle.
• This is felt prominently when the steering load jerks to one side as the vehicle goes
over a bump or ditch & is called Bump-steer or toe-change. • Attained by the distortion of the tyre which is flexible.
• For perfect steering, we must always have an instantaneous centre about which the
wheels must rotate.
• For this purpose, the inner wheel has to turn more than the outer wheel.
• To achieve this condition, two types of mechanisms, have been devised.
1. Davis steering mechanism
2. Ackermann Steering mechanism
• For other angles also, it gives a close approximation to the ideal condition.
• It employs pivots & not sliding constraints & so, maintenance is easier.
l= length of the track rod, AB
r = Length of links RA & SB • Universally employed.
Sin (α + θ) = (d + x) / r
Sin (α - φ) = (d - x) / r
Sin (α + θ) + Sin (α - φ) = 2d/r = 2 sin α
STEERING GEARS 1. Worm & Worm Wheel Steering Gear
• The steering gear changes the rotary motion of the steering wheel into linear motion
of the steering linkage.
• It also provides necessary leverage so that the driver is able to steer the vehicle
without fatigue.
• Important types of Steering gears are;
1. Worm & worm wheel steering gear
2. Cam & double roller steering gear
3. Worm & nut steering gear
4. Recirculating Ball type steering gear
5. Rack & Pinion steering gear.
6. Screw & nut Steering gear
• Attached to the wheel spindle rigidly is drop arm, so that a rotation of the
steering wheel corresponds to a linear motion of the drop arm end, which is
connected to the link rod.
• In place of worm wheel, a sector is sometimes used, but the complete wheel has an
advantage over the later as the back lash due to wearing out of teeth on the worm
& wheel can be easily adjusted.
2. Recirculating Ball Rack & Sector Steering
2. Recirculating Ball Rack & Sector Steering Gear
Gear
• It consists of a worm at the steering rod. • When the steering wheel is turned, the balls in the worm roll in the grooves &
• A nut is mounted on the worm with two sets of balls in the grooves of the worm, in cause the nut to travel along the length of the worm.
b/w the nut & the worm. • The balls, which are in 2 sets, are recirculated through the guides as shown in the
• The balls reduces friction during the movement of the nut & the worm. figure.
• The nut has a no. of teeth on the outside, which mesh with the teeth sector, on • The movement of the nut causes the wheel sector to turn at an angle & actuate the
which is further mounted the drop arm, which steers the road wheels through the link rod through the drop arm, resulting in the desired steering of the wheels.
• This gear is in mesh with teeth on top of a long bar called rack.
• Turning the steering wheel turns the pinion gear, which moves the
rack back & forth.
• The rack is connected to the steering linkage that turns the wheels.
• Turning the Steering wheel moves the nut along the steering rod screw thread &
the nut activates a bell-crank lever, pivoted in the steering box casing.
• Steering gear drop arm forms the other arm of the bell-crank.
• Turning the steering wheel moves the nut on the screw thread, activates the bell-
crank lever causing the drop arm & the linkages to move.
5. Worm & Roller Steering Gear Worm & Roller Steering Gear
• A Single or double roller is mounted b/w two arms integral with the inner end of
the cross shaft, & the roller is meshed with the worm.
• The roller is free to turn on its shaft & moves in an arc, the correct mesh being
obtained throughout its movement by the hour-glass shape of the worm.
• The worm is supported & located by 2 ball or taper roller bearings mounted in the
case.
• The roller shaft is eccentric & may be turned to compensate for wear b/w roller &
the worm.
6. Screw & Nut Steering Gear Screw & Nut Steering Gear
• A screw threaded screw formed on the lower end of the steering shaft engages with
the nut provided in trunnions, which work in blocks sliding in a short slotted arm,
connected with the remainder of the steering system.
• With a standard axle, the point of intersection of the king pin axis with ground is
different from centre point steering.
• This results in heavy steering & larger bending stress on the stub axles & king pin
• In order to avoid this, the wheel & the king pin are arranged to reduce the king
pin offset – Centre point Steering – reduces steering effort.
Power Steering
• The hydraulic pressure typically comes from a rotary vane pump driven by the
Power Steering Fluid
vehicle's engine. A double-acting hydraulic cylinder applies a force to the steering Reservoir & Pulley Driven
gear, which in turn steers the road wheels. Pump
• The steering wheel operates valves to control flow to the cylinder. The more torque
the driver applies to the steering wheel and column, the more fluid the valves allow
through to the cylinder, and so the more force is applied to steer the wheels.
• Since the hydraulic pumps are positive-displacement type, the flow rate they 2. Electro-Hydraulic Power Steering
deliver is directly proportional to the speed of the engine.
• This means that at high engine speeds, the steering would naturally operate faster • Electro-hydraulic power steering systems, sometimes abbreviated EHPS, and also
than at low engine speeds. Because this would be undesirable, a restricting orifice
and flow-control valve direct some of the pump's output back to the hydraulic sometimes called "hybrid" systems, use the same hydraulic assist technology as
reservoir at high engine speeds. standard systems, but the hydraulic pressure comes from a pump driven by an
• A steering booster is arranged so that should the booster fail, the steering will electric motor instead of a drive belt at the engine.
continue to work (although the wheel will feel heavier).
• The working liquid, also called "hydraulic fluid" or "oil", is the medium by which • This means that the power steering would still operate while the engine was stopped
pressure is transmitted. Common working liquids are based on mineral oil. by the computer to save fuel.
• Some modern systems also include an electronic control valve to reduce the
• Electro-hydraulic systems can be found in some cars by Ford, Volkswagen, Audi,
hydraulic supply pressure as the vehicle's speed increases; this is variable-assist
power steering. Peugeot, Citroen, SEAT, Škoda, Suzuki, Opel, MINI, Toyota, Honda, and Mazda.
the engine, and the steering gear, mounted on the chassis. This greatly simplifies from harsh bumps)
manufacturing and maintenance. • Depending on suspension settings, power steering can make
• The first electric power steering system appeared on the Suzuki Cervo in 1988. The the car feel light, particularly at high speeds.
system has been applied by various automobile manufacturers • Added weight and complexity.
Syllabus – Module IV
• Suspension: - suspension geometry, terminology- Macpherson strut
friction and spring offset - suspension roll centers:-roll centers, roll axis,
roll centre height, short swing and long arm suspension, transverse double
wishbone, parallel trailing double arm and vertical pill strut suspension,
Macpherson strut suspension, semi-trailing arm rear suspension,
telescopic suspension.
• High load beam axle leaf spring, sprung body roll stability. Rear axle beam
suspension- body roll stability analysis:- body roll couple, body roll
stiffness, body over turning couple
CIJIL B. JOHN
• Body weight transfer, body direct weight transfer couple, body roll couple
Asst. Professor
distribution, body roll weight transfer, lateral force distribution.
Dept. of ME, JECC
• Anti roll bars and roll stiffness:- anti roll bar function, operating principle, SUSPENSION SYSTEM
anti roll bar action caused by the body rolling, single wheel lift -rubber
spring bumper:-bump stop function and characteristics, axis inclination. • The automobile chassis is mounted on the axles, not directly but
• Rear suspension: - live rigid axle suspension, non drive rear suspension- through some form of springs.
swing arm rear wheel drive independent suspension, Low pivot split axle
• This is done to isolate the vehicle body from road shocks which may
coil spring wheel drive independent suspension, trailing and semi trailing
be in the form of pitch, bounce, roll or sway.
arm rear wheel drive independent suspension, Transverse double link arm
• These tendencies give rise to an uncomfortable ride & also cause
rear wheel drive independent suspension, De Dion axle rear wheel
suspension additional stress in the frame & body.
• Hydrogen suspension, hydro-pneumatic automatic height correction • All the parts which perform the function of isolating the automobile
suspension from the road shocks – Suspension System.
• Pivot Centre: It’s the point where the king pin axis projects &
intersects the ground.
• Camber is the tilt of the car wheels from the vertical. Camber is positive if the tilt is
outward at the top. Camber is also called ‘wheel rake’.
Effect of Camber Effect of Camber (Contd..)
• It is desirable that tyres should roll on ground vertically so that the wear is • Negative camber resists the tendency of the wheels to slip sideways during
uniform. cornering, but also increases the steering effort.
• If while running, the tyres are inclined from the vertical either inward or outward, • Negative camber will cause the front wheels to toe-in & wear more on the inside.
they will wear more on one side than the other.
• Tyre life will be maximum when the camber angle in running condition is zero.
• In case of positive camber, as the vehicle turns, the outside suspension tends to rise
on the wheel. When the wheel returns to straight ahead position, the weight of the • If the camber on the two front wheels is not equal, the vehicle will try to pull towards
wheel presses down on the steering axis & this helps to straighten the wheel. the side where the camber is higher.
• Thus, positive camber aids steering wheel return after completing a turn. • When the vehicle with equal camber on both wheels is running on a highly curved
road, it has a tendency to pull away the vehicle to the side of the road.
• In positive camber, the tendency of the wheels would be to toe-out & the tyre will
wear more on the outer side. • To compensate this, for Right Hand Drive vehicles (as in India), the right wheel is
given slightly higher camber than the left one.
• Initial positive camber is given to the wheels so that when the vehicle is loaded, they
automatically come to a vertical position. • Similarly, for Left hand vehicles, higher camber may be provided on the left wheel.
Castor Angle
Effect of Castor
• Positive castor on the car wheels provides directional stability. i.e, straight line
trackings is improved.
• Positive castor is used in the case of furniture rollers & on the front wheels of
bicycles.
• However, positive castor increases the effort required to turn the steering wheel.
• In the case of negative castor, steering would be unstable. i.e, there would be poor
directional control, as the centre of the tyre print leads the steering axis.
• Extremely negative castor cause wheel shimmy & cupped wear on the front wheels.
• The angle b/w the king pin centre line (or steering axis) & the vertical, in the plane
of the wheel is called the Castor angle. • Positive castor is often used with SAI on automobiles with power steering to provide
the required returnability, since the higher effort required to steer the wheels is
• If the king pin meets the ground at a point ahead of the vertical wheel centre line,
it’s called positive castor while if it’s behind the vertical wheel centre line, it’s called provided by power steering.
negative castor.
Effect of Castor (Contd..)
• As the change of castor angle result in the change of the other angles of the
steering geometry, i.e, camber, king pin inclination, toe-in & toe-out, it’s very
important that this angle is adjusted first of all, while doing the adjustment job.
Suspension System – Principle factors • If the body is suspended b/w 2 pairs of wheels & if it’s capable of
rolling on the ground, then there must be 3 Instantaneous
• The suspension system of a vehicle has 3 principle factors; Centres.
1. The suspended body (B) 1. IBG – Instantaneous Centre of body relative to the ground (Roll
2. The supporting wheels (W) Centre)
3. The ground (G) (it provides the reaction to the downward load 2. IWB – Instantaneous Centre of wheel relative to the body
of the vehicle). 3. IWG – Instantaneous Centre of wheel relative to the ground.
• The immediate response is that the inner & outer swing arm
rise & dip respectively at their pivoted ends.
𝒉 𝒓
=
𝒕/𝟐 𝒍
𝒕∗𝒓
Therefore, 𝒉=
𝟐𝒍
h = roll centre height
r = wheel radius
l = swing arm length
t = track width
Short Swing Arm Suspension -
Disadvantages
LONG SWING ARM SUSPENSION
• There is too much Camber change with body roll. • Similar to short swing arm arrangement.
• There is a tendency for the axle arms to jack the body up • But in this type, the arms are extended to the opposite side of the
• The roll centre is obtained by joining the tyre contact centre &
swing arm pivot centre by a straight line for each suspension.
• The point where these lines intersect is called the Body Roll Centre
& its distance above the ground is called Roll Centre height.
• Easy to work out the effect of moving • Takes up more space and are more
each joint, so the kinematics of the complex, and thus more expensive,
suspension can be tuned easily and than other systems.
wheel motion can be optimized.
• Due to the increased number of
• It is also easy to work out the loads components within the suspension
that different parts will be subjected setup, it takes much longer to
to which allows more optimized service and is heavier than an
lightweight parts to be designed. equivalent MacPherson design.
Telescopic Suspension Telescopic Suspension
• Most motorcycles today use telescopic forks for the front suspension.
• On conventional telescopic forks, the lower portion or fork bodies
• The forks can be most easily understood as simply large hydraulic shock
absorbers with internal coil springs.
(fork sliders), slide up and down the fork tubes. The fork tubes must
be mirror-smooth to seal the fork oil inside the fork.
• They allow the front wheel to react to imperfections in the road while
isolating the rest of the motorcycle from that motion. • "Upside-down" (USD) forks, also known as inverted forks, are
• The top of the forks are connected to the motorcycle's frame in a triple installed inverted compared to conventional telescopic forks. The
tree clamp, which allows the forks to be turned in order to steer the slider bodies are at the top, fixed in the triple clamps, & the fork
motorcycle. tubes at the bottom.
• The bottom of the forks is connected to the front wheel's axle.
• There are valve openings in the piston & also at the bottom of the
cylinder tube. There is a reservoir tube full of the fluid.
• At the same time, the fluid passes down through a small valve of the
cylinder tube.
• By this arrangement, the piston is able to move against the Telescopic Suspension - Advantages
resistance of the fluid.
• At the same time, the fluid from the reservoir tube enters through a • No need for readjustment.
valve at the bottom of the cylinder tube.
• Instantaneous response to sudden shocks & vibrations.
• By this arrangement, the process of the shock absorber being
lengthened becomes very slow. This takes place after overcoming
the resistance of the fluid.
• An anti-roll bar (roll bar, anti-sway bar, sway bar, stabilizer
Anti-roll bar bar) is a part of many automobile suspensions that helps
reduce the body roll of a vehicle during fast cornering or over
road irregularities. It connects opposite (left/right) wheels
together through short lever arms linked by a torsion spring. A
sway bar increases the suspension's roll stiffness—its
resistance to roll in turns, independent of its spring rate in the
vertical direction.
• From the 1950s on, production cars were more commonly
fitted with anti-roll bars, especially those vehicles with softer
coil spring suspension.
Anti-roll bar
An SUV, with anti roll bars removed, shows how one wheel can be much lower than the
opposite side, as the body rolls (tilts) more without anti roll bars.
• An axle beam suspension s/m is formed in a manner that both
RIGID AXLE BEAM SUSPENSION wheel stub axles are rigidly supported by a common transverse axle
bean member.
With a beam axle, the camber angle between the wheels is the same no matter
where it is in the travel of the suspension.
RIGID AXLE BEAM SUSPENSION REAR SUSPENSION
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES 1. LIVE AXLE REAR SUSPENSION
• The principal advantage is its • Wheel Camber angle is zero even if the vehicle is stationary or moving
• It does not allow each wheel to move
simplicity. independently in response to bumps. on the road.
• Very space-efficient and relatively cheap • Mass of the beam is part of the • If one wheel travels over a dip in the road, then the axis will tilt.
to manufacture. Unsprung weight of the vehicle, • Wheel track remains constant under all driving conditions.
• Provide better vehicle articulation and which can further reduce ride
durability in a high load environment quality. • The Unsprung weight is very high.
• They are universally used in buses and • Also the cornering ability is typically • The live rigid axle is attached to the body by either leaf or coil springs.
heavy-duty trucks. worse than other suspension designs. The body will tilt about its imaginary roll centre.
• Most light and medium duty pickup • Can cause a side-to-side oscillation of
• Poor road holding & steering response.
trucks, SUVs, and vans also use a beam steering at certain speeds (typically
axle, at least in the rear. 40-50 mph).
REAR SUSPENSION
LIVE RIGID AXLE REAR SUSPENSION
2. NON DRIVE REAR SUSPENSION
• When the body rolls during cornering, the inner & outer
wheels become cambered negatively & positively resp.
• The axle is split into two, with the adjacent half axles hinged to a
common pivot axis below the final drive housing.
• A vertical strut supports the final drive assembly.
• At its upper end, it is mounted on rubber discs & at its lower end, it
is anchored to a pin joint situated on the hinged side of the final
drive housing.
• The left hand side half axle consists of a drive shaft, crown wheel &
differential unit.
• A single universal joint is located inside the casing so that it aligns
with the axles pivot axis.
• A horizontal arm forms a link b/w the pivot axis & body structure. It
controls any lateral movement of the body relative to the axles.
• Each arm is attached to two widely spaced pivot points mounted on the
car’s rear frame.
• The trailing arms transfer the drive thrust from the wheel & axle to the
body.
• The rear ends of the arm supports the live wheel hub.
• The drive is transmitted from final drive to each wheel via drive shafts.
5. TRAILING ARM REAR WHEEL DRIVE 6. SEMI TRAILING ARM REAR WHEEL DRIVE
INDEPENDENT SUSPENSION INDEPENDENT SUSPENSION
• Both wheels remain perpendicular to the ground when the
springs deflect due to change in gross weight.
• The body roll will give rise to the wheel track to widen slightly.
• Each arm pivots on axis is inclined 50 to 70 deg. to the car’s centre • A small amount of toe is produced on both inner & outer
line axis. wheels for both bump & rebound arm movement.
• Inclining the pivot axis of the semi trailing arm suspension partially
Disadvantages
neutralizes the inherent tendencies during cornering.
• When the wheels move up & down, Camber angle changes.
• Therefore, the wheels remain perpendicular to the ground when the
car is subjected to body roll. • Under cornering & bumpy road condition, more shocks &
• Due to long swing arm length of semi trailing arm, only a small noises are transferred to the vehicle body.
change to negative camber on bump & positive camber on rebound
occurs when both arms deflect together.
• The De Dion axle is a tube sectioned axle beam with cranked ends rigidly
attached on either side to each wheel hub.
• A sliding joint is used in the axle tube to allow wheel track variation
during suspension movement.
• The internal space b/w the inner & outer axle tube is filled about two
thirds full of oil.
• When the body rolls, one hub carrier tends to rotate relative to the
other, which is permitted by sliding joint in the axle tube.
DE. DION REAR WHEEL DRIVE SUSPENSION De-Dion axle
• A De Dion axle layout decreases the Unsprung suspension weight
for a rear wheel drive car.
• It helps to keep both road wheels parallel to each other under all
driving conditions.
1 1 12/7/2018 2
MODULE V - Syllabus
• Brakes:- mechanical and hydraulic brakes (review only) – properties
of friction lining and pad materials, efficiency, stopping distance,
MODULE V theory of internal shoe brake, equations –effect of expanding
mechanism of shoes on total braking torque, equations.
AUTOMOBILE BRAKING SYSTEM • Braking vehicles:- brakes applied on rear, front and all four wheels,
equations –calculation of mean lining pressure and heat generation
during braking operation, equations. – braking of vehicle moving on
curved path, simple problems.
• Anti Lock Braking system (ABS):- need and advantages of ABS –
hydro-mechanical ABS - hydro-electric ABS - air-electric ABS.
• Brake servos: - operating principle, vacuum servo - direct acting
suspended vacuum assisted brake servo unit operation - hydraulic
CIJIL B. JOHN servo assisted brake systems.
• Pneumatic operated disc brakes – air operated brake systems: - air
Asst. Professor over hydraulic brake system - Three line brake system-– electronic-
pneumatic brakes.
Dept. of ME, JECC
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Brake System
Seminar topics
Stopping of the vehicle is as necessary as its starting.
1. Hydro-mechanical ABS – Roll No. 79
2. Hydro-electric ABS – Roll No. 81 Brakes are applied on the wheels to stop the vehicle.
3. Air-electric ABS – Roll No. 117 Before applying the brakes, the accelerator is released to stop the
fuel supply.
Second Assignment Topics (All others)
Clutch is also disengaged which disconnects the engine from the
1. Brake servos: - operating principle
2. Vacuum assisted servo transmission system.
1. direct acting suspended vacuum assisted brake servo unit Thus, when the vehicle is standing, the engine is still running at
operation idling.
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Purpose of Braking
Classification of Brakes
To stop the vehicle at the desired position. 1. With respect to application
To ensure safety in driving. Foot brake
To keep the vehicle under control. Hand brake
II. With respect to the no. of wheels
Weight of the vehicle. III. With respect to the method of braking contact
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Classification of Brakes
IX. Based on brake location
Wheel brakes
Transmission brakes
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1. Mechanical Braking system Internal Expanding Shoe Brake - Drum
The brake shoes (2 shoes) with friction linings (on outer surfaces) are
a) Internal Expanding Shoe type
made to contact an auxiliary wheel called a drum.
The car wheel is attached to the drum.
Each brake shoe is hinged at one end by an anchor pin.
The other end is operated by means of a Cam or a toggle lever.
When the cam is turned, the shoes are forced towards the drum.
Brake lining increases the coefficient of friction & prevents wearing
of the material.
Retracting spring keeps the brake shoes into position when brakes
are not applied.
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2. Hydraulic Braking System Hydraulic Braking System
Consists of two main components – master cylinder & wheel
cylinder.
System is filled with liquid under light P when the brakes are not
in operation – Brake fluid – mixture of glycerin & alcohol or
caster oil
Drum is mounted on the inner side of the wheel & revolves with it.
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Two brake shoes, fitted with brake linings, are mounted inside the
brake drums. Hydraulic braking system
Brake pedal is connected to the master cylinder by means of a
piston rod. When the brake pedal is pressed, piston is forced into
the master cylinder & increases the P of the fluid in the entire
hydraulic system.
This P forces the wheel cylinder pistons outwards & the pistons
force the brake shoe out against the brake drums. Thus the brakes
are applied on all the wheels.
When the driver releases the brake pedal, the master cylinder
piston returns to its original position & the fluid P in the entire s/m
drops to its original low value. Thus, the brakes are released.
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Hydraulic braking system Bleeding of hydraulic brakes
Advantages Disadvantages
Care must be taken that not even small quantities of air enter into
Simple construction Even slight leakage of air into the braking system.
the braking system makes it Air being compressible, gets compressed when the brake pedal is
Equal braking effort to all
useless. pressed.
wheels
Suitable only for applying The result is that, fluid pressure is not transmitted to the brakes
Flexibility in braking lines
brakes intermittently. which, as a consequence are not actuated.
Lower wear rate
Separate mechanical linkages The procedure of driving the air out of the braking system is called
High mechanical advantages
are to be used for parking bleeding. A special bleeding valve is provided for this purpose on
Mostly self lubricating the shoe expander or the disc caliper.
purposes
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2. Resistance to Fade
It’s the ability of the material to retain its Coeff. of friction even at
4. Resistance to wear
very high rubbing T’s. At high T’s, the lining or pad material becomes weak.
A good quality material should retain its friction level throughout the There is an increase in the shear & tear action at the friction
working T of the drum & shoes (or) disc & pads. interface resulting in a higher wear rate.
It’s a measure of the ability of a friction material to return to its The intensity of speed tends to slightly reduce the friction level,
original friction level upon cooling after brake lining temp. fade has specially at higher operating T’s.
taken place. Suitable materials must be selected to get rid of reduction of friction
For a good quality material, the frictional characteristics will return properties at high speeds.
on cooling.
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Coefficient of friction Brake Stopping Distance
It doesn’t give the accurate stopping distance value but some close
estimation of the same.
It’s defined as the ratio of the frictional force to the normal load b/w
Assuming the brakes are 100% efficient,
the rubbing surfaces & it’s similar to the braking efficiency.
We have, 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑼𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝑺
𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑭
𝑪𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏(𝝁) = = =η After applying brake, the vehicle will finally come to rest. Thus, the
𝑵𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑵
final velocity, V =0.
0 = 𝑈2 + 2𝑔𝑆
𝑼𝟐 𝑼𝟐 𝑼𝟐
𝑺= = ≈
𝟐𝒈 𝟐 ∗ 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 𝟐𝟎
S = Stopping distance of the vehicle, U = initial braking speed, g = retardation due
to gravity.
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Anti lock Braking System (ABS) Anti lock Braking System (ABS)
ABS is an automobile safety system that allows the wheels on a
motor vehicle to maintain tractive contact with the road surface
according to driver inputs while braking, preventing the wheels
from locking up (ceasing rotation) and avoiding uncontrolled
skidding.
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Anti lock Braking System (ABS)
During normal braking, the ABS & non-ABS pedal feel will be
the same.
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History of ABS
ABS was first developed for aircraft use in 1929 by the French
automobile and aircraft pioneer Gabriel Voisin.
The first fully electronic anti lock system was developed in the late
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The ECU constantly monitors the rotational speed of each wheel; if it This process is repeated continuously and can be detected by the
detects a wheel rotating significantly slower than the others (a driver via brake pedal pulsation. Some anti-lock systems can apply
condition indicative of impending wheel lock), it actuates the valves or release braking pressure 15 times per second.
to reduce hydraulic pressure to the brake at the affected wheel, thus Because of this, the wheels of cars equipped with ABS are
reducing the braking force on that wheel; the wheel then turns faster. practically impossible to lock even during panic braking in extreme
conditions.
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ABS - Operation (Contd..)
If a fault develops in any part of the ABS, a warning light will
usually be illuminated on the vehicle instrument panel, and the ABS
will be disabled until the fault is rectified.
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1. wheel speed sensors There is a valve in the brake line of each brake controlled by the
ABS. On some systems, the valve has three positions:
2. Valves
i. In position one, the valve is open; pressure from the master
3. Pump
cylinder is passed right through to the brake.
4. Controller (ECU)
ii. In position two, the valve blocks the line, isolating that brake from
Wheel Speed sensors
the master cylinder. This prevents the pressure from rising further
A speed sensor is used to determine the acceleration or deceleration
should the driver push the brake pedal harder.
of the wheel. These sensors use a magnet and a Hall effect sensor, or a
iii. In position three, the valve releases some of the pressure from the
toothed wheel and an electromagnetic coil to generate a signal.
brake.
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ABS – Brake types
Two-channel, four sensor ABS
This system, uses a speed sensor at each wheel, with one control valve
each for the front and rear wheels as a pair.
If the speed sensor detect lock up at any individual wheel, the control
module pulses the valve for both wheels on that end of the car.
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PNEUMATIC OPERATED (AIR) DISC
BRAKE SERVOS
BRAKES
If the force applied by the driver is not sufficient to stop the
vehicle, then some form of assistance is needed.
The boosting force applied to improve the driver’s effort is
called ‘Servo assistance’.
Servo assistance is given by either pneumatic or hydraulic
means.
1. Vacuum assistance – Medium cars
2. Hydraulic assistance – Heavy cars
3. Compressed air assistance – light trucks & minibuses.
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Floating caliper with integral half
eccentric lever arm Working – Continued..
When the brake pedal is pressed, the actuator chamber This force is transmitted to the opposite friction pad so that
diaphragm is pushed by air pressure to the left hand side. both pads press firmly with the disc with equal force.
It also tilts the actuator lever about the two half needle roller
Thus, the caliper floats due to this effect. This brings the
bearing pivots.
friction pads together. Therefore, both pads apply equal
Therefore, the right hand friction pad is pushed by the
pressure against their respective face of disc.
eccentric bearing pin towards the disc’s right hand side
through the bridge block.
As the right hand friction pad presses against the disc’s RHS, a
reaction force imposes on the caliper
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Air Braking System
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Compressed air is sent to the reservoir through the unloader valve, decreases.
which gets lifted at a predetermined reservoir P (about 900 kPa) & When the P drops to approx. 700 kPa, the governor again operates
releases the compressor of load. the compressor to raise the system pressure.
From the reservoir, the air goes to various accessories & also to the In case the air system pressure drops below 400 kPa, a warning
brake chambers also called the diaphragm units at each wheel, usually in the form of a buzzer, is sounded.
through the brake valve.
The control of the brake valve is with the driver who can control
the intensity of braking according to the requirements.
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Air brakes - Advantages Air Over Hydraulic Brake System
The supply of air is unlimited, so the brake system can never This type of braking system is a combination of parts of an air brake
run out of its operating fluid, as hydraulic brakes can. Minor
leaks do not result in brake failures. system & a hydraulic brake system.
Air line couplings are easier to attach and detach than It uses both air and hydraulic compression to operate the brakes.
hydraulic lines. Air brake circuits on trailers can be easily
attached and removed. This type of braking system was created with the hopes of
Air not only serves as a fluid for transmission of force, but also
increasing the braking power compared to the power in a hydraulic
stores potential energy, so it can serve to control the force
applied. Air brake systems include an air tank that stores braking system.
sufficient energy to stop the vehicle if the compressor fails.
This system is not the most common, but it can often be found in
Air brakes are effective even with considerable leakage, so an
air brake system can be designed with sufficient "fail-safe" trucks, trailers, cranes, and other industrial equipments.
capacity to stop the vehicle safely even when leaking.
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control of the whole train to the driver. at the rear. It causes the braking of vehicles to happen at different
times along the train so that while some cars are slowing down,
Its speed of operation makes it ideal for automatic train others are still trying to push, unbraked, from the rear. When
operation (ATO). releasing, the front of the train is pulling the rear, which is still
braking, and causes stress to the couplers.
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ELECTRONIC – PNEUMATIC BRAKE With ECP, a power and control line is installed from wagon to
Electronically controlled pneumatic brakes (ECP) are a wagon from the front of the train to the rear.
development of the late 20th Century to deal with very long Electrical control signals are propagated effectively
and heavy freight trains. instantaneously, as opposed to changes in air pressure which
Here, the Compressed air brake operation is controlled propagate at a rather slow speed limited in practice by the
electrically by the driver. resistance to air flow of the pipework, so that the brakes on all
wagons can be applied simultaneously.
Enables a quicker and more sensitive response to the driver’s
operation of brake controls. This results in reduced stopping distance and less equipment
wear.
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ELECTRO – PNEUMATIC BRAKES
HYDROELECTRIC ABS
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1. Speed Sensor and Excitor around which a coil is being wound and thus arrangement is
mounted on a stationary hub carrier.
2. Electronic Control Unit
The excitor is fitted to a rotating wheel hub and is of slot ring
3. Hydro/ Electric Modulator
type.
A number of teeth or slots are arranged radially on the excitor
which determine the frequency of signal transmitted to ECU.
• As the wheel and excitor revolve, the teeth of excitor passes
through the sensor’s magnetic field. Electronic Control Unit
• The coil on the cylindrical core detects the change in The ECU is used to receive, amplify , process, compute
intensity of magnetic field, and alternating voltage is and energize individual solenoid control valves.
produced whose intensity is proportional to speed of rotation
of the wheel. It calculates the minimum wheel deceleration and
• The speed sensors thus sense the road wheel speed and gives maximum wheel acceleration required for optimal
wheel acceleration or wheel deceleration signals to the ECU breaking based on which It provides energising current
whenever the road wheels are rotating. to individual solenoid control valves.
Hydro/Electric Modulators
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INTRODUCTION CONSTRUCTION
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WORKING
•By moving the plunger up and down within its cylinder it becomes
feasible to vary the volume of a particular brake line and therefore
adapt the line pressure and hence braking force generated at that
wheel.
• Except under conditions of imminent wheel locking, the plunger is
maintained at its lowest position in the cylinder by fluid at high
pressure directed above it from an independently driven pump and
storage accumulator, while a descending projecting pin from the
plunger holds open an isolating valve that allows the free passage of
fluid between the master cylinder and wheel cylinder (Figure a).
• Normal braking up to maximum pressure is therefore
accomplished with the smallest amount volume of brake line,
because there is always sufficient pressure acting over the plunger
to restrain it from rising against master cylinder pressure acting
below it.
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CONTD… CONTD…
• However, if a wheel begins to lock the electronic control unit
commands the appropriate solenoid valve in the component to shut
off the fluid supplied under pressure to the plunger. Line pressure is of course restored to the wheel cylinder when the
• As a result the plunger rises in its cylinder, the effect of which is two electronic control unit commands the solenoid valve to open, so that
fold: fluid at a higher pressure be able to force the plunger down its
1. It allows the isolating valve for the master cylinder to close, so cylinder to reduce the volume of the brake line and re-establish a
that no additional increase in wheel cylinder pressure is possible connection among the master cylinder and the wheel cylinder, via the
no matter how much effort the driver exerts on the pedal; and now open isolating valve.
2. It increases the volume and therefore relieves the pressure in the
line to the wheel cylinder, which momentarily releases the braked
wheel (Figure b).
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APPLICATION
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• Study of forces generated by motion of air over a moving body. • Keep your vehicle washed & waxed.
• Why do we need to improve Aerodynamics in Cars? • Place license plate out of air flow.
1. Better the aerodynamics, higher will be the speeds. • Avoid roof-racks or carriers.
2. Less work for the engine which means greater fuel efficiency. • Close windows & sun-roofs.
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• Let, m = mass (kg) • It can be seen that actual experimental force (F) is proportional to Av2
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forward moving car. shape in minimizing the air resistance to forward motion of a
Wake Cross sectional area = area of the rear vertical boot panel + vehicle.
resistance.
Vehicle type Drag Coefficient • Air flow is head on, there’s an immediate pressure difference.
Saloon Car 0.2 - 0.4 flow separation. High coefficient of drag of 1.05.
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• Sphere
• Tear drop
Base Drag
• Base drag is a component of aerodynamic drag caused by a
• Hence, the tail shape of car body also influence the pressure
drag.
• While designing a car, a taper slightly towards the rear end is
followed.
• Therefore, the flow separation occurs beyond the rear axle
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VORTICES
• When the vehicle is in motion, the vortices are formed around
various regions.
cylindrical shape.
center.
• ie, in the inner region, the pressure is lower but higher pressure is
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• It can be seen that the drag coefficient reduces from 0.43 to 0.4
obtained.
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drastically for larger wind screen rake angle(ϒ) (CD 0.38 to0.3).
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shaped curve.
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CD CD
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125mm rear end contraction on either side of the car are seen.
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CD can be reduced.
(CD = 0.3).
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7. Underbody roughness
obtained.
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vehicle body.
• A positive lift reduces the tyre to ground grip while a negative lift
A fluid flowing past the surface of a body exerts a force on it. Lift is the component
of this force that is perpendicular to the oncoming flow direction
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VEHICLE LIFT
• When a car travels along the road, the air stream moving over the
upper surface of the body from front to rear has to move a greater
distance than the underside stream.
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• The resultant vertical pressure force generated b/w the upper & under floor to ground clearance.
under surfaces – Up thrust / Lift. • i.e., for large ground clearance, negative lift down thrust is produced.
• As a result, there will be a reduction in the tyre to ground grip. • As the under floor surface moves nearer to the ground, the under floor
• Uncontrolled lift decreases the vehicle’s road holding & steer air space acts like a Venturi – it causes air to move faster under the
ability. body.
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• By changing the front end nose shape, the lift coefficient can be
reduced.
• In a downward nose profile, larger mass of air moves over the upper
side but only a small amount of air flows below the lower side of the
vehicle body.
• In a central nose profile, the air mass movement on upper & lower
lower side & only a small amount of air flows over the upper side.
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• Using the front end under floor air dam, the under floor air flow
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• The air entrapped in the wheel arch cavity circulates towards the
• Then it’s expelled through the front end wheel to the mudguard gap.
• Increasing the h/D ratio, the wheel drag & lift coefficients are reduced
gradually.
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• A lip (or) small aerofoil spoiler is attached to the car boot’s rear end.
• It interrupts the smooth streamline air flow thereby slowing down the air flow
& increasing the upper surface local air pressure which effectively raises the
downward force known as negative lift.
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• The side vortex and trailing vortex and trailing vortex cone 4. NOTCHBACK DRAG
are noted. • A notchback car style has a stepped rear end body profile.
• It can be seen that Lower pressure region exists in the rear
• In this, passenger compartment rear window is inclined
downward to meet the horizontal rear extending boot lid.
4.NOTCHBACK DRAG
• The after body drag is determined by the angle made
between the horizontal inclined the touching both the rear
edges of the roof and boot.
• Drag coefficient increases, as the slope angle is increased up
to 25°.