THE HIGHWAY AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

BRIEF HISTORY OF ROADS

Mesopotamians, Hayans, Aztecs and Incas

- As early as 3,500 B.C., roads with hard surfaces were found in the land of Mesopotamia,
Mediterranean Island of Crete and Central South Africa.
- The early road systems were constructed primarily for the following purposes:
1. For the movement of armies in their conquest and for defense against invasion
2. For transport of food and trade of goods between neighboring towns and cities
Romans
- Romans who discovered cement, expanded their vast empire through extensive road networks
radiating in many directions from the capital city of Rome.
- Many of the roads built by the Romans still exist even after 2,000 years.
- Characteristically, Roman roads were laid on three courses:
1. A layer of small broken stones
2. A layer of small stones mixed with mortar then compacted firmly
3. Wearing course of massive stone blocks properly set and bedded with cement mortar
Jerome Tresaguet (1716 – 1796)
- He is a famous French engineer who introduced new methods of construction and maintenance of
stone roads during the 17th century.
- He improved the crown, the drainage, and the grade of the road, including the stone foundation by
reducing the depth of broken stones to 25 centimeters.
- He made it possible for Napoleon the Great to build massive highways for France. Tresaguet was
accredited the “Father of modern road building.”
Thomas Telford (1757 – 1834)
- He is a Scottish Engineer born in Westminster, Abbey.
- He is the president and founder of the Institute of Civil Engineer who introduced some improvements
in the construction methods of Jerome Tresaguet.
- His road foundation course was made of stones having 3 inches minimum thickness, 5 inches breadth
and 7 inches height.
- Smaller stones were driven by mauls on top voids and trued the surfaces by breaking the projecting
points.
- He employed a flat sub-grade, providing slight crown using stones of varying sizes.
John Louden Mac Adam (1755 – 1836)
- He is a famous Scottish engineer road builder and a contemporary of Telford. He developed the
Macadam Road Concept.
- McAdam’s method was simpler, yet more effective at protecting roadways: he discovered that massive
foundations of rock upon rock were unnecessary, and asserted that native soil alone would support
the road and traffic upon it, as long as it was covered by a road crust that would protect the soil
underneath from water and wear.
Eli Blake
- He invented the first stone crusher in Europe in 1858.
Aveling and Porter
- A company who introduced the steam road roller weighing 30 tons in France.

EARLY LAWS THAT REGULATES ROADWAYS

 The early Saxon Laws imposes three mandatory duties for the people to perform, namely:
 To repair the roads and bridges
 To repair the castles and the garrisons
 To aid repel invasions
After the Norman Conquest of England, it was decreed that:
 The King’s highway is sacred. Anybody who occupies any portion thereof, by exceeding the
boundaries of his land, is considered to have encroached on the King himself. Roads are for public use.
All persons who wants want to use them may do so.
 Property owners adjoining the roads were required to drain the road, clip any bordering hedges, and
refrain from plowing and planting trees, shrubs, or bushes closer than the specified distance from the
center of the road.
It was made clear that the government concept towards the use of roads includes upholding the right of
the public to use them without interference. Since the road is intended for the benefit of the people, in return,
it becomes their duty to protect and maintain the roadway.

HIGHWAYS IN THE PHILIPPINES

1900 - Transportations largely depend on trails, waterways, railroad, earth roads and partially graveled
roads
American Era – Americans initiated the development of roadways, connecting towns, cities and provinces. The
Macadam road type was introduced and it was widely accepted due to the abundant supply of stones and
gravel.
World War II – Continued rehabilitation and construction of roads and bridges, through the reparations and
war damages paid by the Japanese government and other financial aids and grants received from the US
government.
Five years after world war – Major highways and expressways were constructed through the financial
assistance and loans from foreign banks.
1960 to early part of 1980 – Considered as the automobile age wherein cars were no longer regarded as a
luxury item but as a necessity in transporting people and goods, a necessity for survival. “The Nation is on
Wheels.”

PLANNING DIFFICULTIES
 Financial
- The present economic condition is related to the government budgetary expenditures for payment of
foreign debt amortization amounting to billions of pesos a month
- Appropriations for funds for road constructions and maintenance, meet severe difficulties that
sometimes, highway development plans are shelves temporarily for lack of funds.
 Political
- Comprehensive road development plans that are carefully studied by technical experts are twisted, or
flexed down by political muscles, to suit political interests.
- Roads and highways plan were either deferred, amended or realigned for political reasons.
- As a consequence, different laws with conflicting purposes and procedures impede or obstruct
implementations causing delay or no action at all.
- Politicians now control DPWH projects as their source of political funds. Highway district engineer’s
qualification is simply subservience to the politician.
- “Do what I say or get out of my district.”
- Listing of projects given to the district engineer has the corresponding name of favored contractors –
the willing victims giving SOP in cash advances.
- Rational planning is no longer the objective process, based on training, and expertise concerning the
actual needs of the people, but rather, it is a political decision.

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 - Not even the Secretary of DPWH could say no because politics is the power that controls
appropriations, budget and appointments of the president’s cabinet members.
 Technical
- Public confidence tremendously eroded, not only in the government’s ability to abate these problems,
but also in the proficiency of the technical men to offer solutions.
- Planners are now operating in a world of rapid change, and uncertainty, in the political atmosphere
where decisions by magic, oracles, carry more weight than those based on professional training,
expertise and experiences.
- Indeed, our professionals more particularly the technical men, seems to have lost confidence in
thyself, or even the solutions that they offer.

HIGHWAY PROGRAMMING
There are three inseparable sets of inputs involved in highway programming:
 Economic – the questions of resources
 Financial – the questions of who pays, who spends, how much and where
 Political and Administration – involves decision making
In highway programming, projects are prioritized. Those that are most economically viable were selected,
if they fit into the financial capability and of course political criteria. Projects that failed on either financial or
political criteria are abandoned, modified for substitute, or an alternative but shall pass rigorous tests.

HIGHWAY PROGRAMMING APPROACHES

 Financial resources are either short or long-ranged implementation by the agencies functions like
construction, operation and maintenance
 Recognition of the legislative and administrative desire and constraint
 Tentative priorities based on economic analysis, critical situations, present and future expected level
of traffic, and claims based on political subdivisions
 Providing continuity of route system and coordination with other transportation mode
 Selection of projects based on availability of labor and materials, including climactic conditions
 Scheduling the project implementation in coordination with other agencies, acquiring right of way and
making final plan and specifications
 Budgetary reserve to cover emergencies like floods and other natural disasters

THE PLANNER
 The planner appoints coordinators or catalysts, to work out in exchanging information as to the needs,
goals, and alternative solutions of those who are affected, and to incorporate them into the planning
and decision making
 Their role is to:
1. To provide technical and organizational support
2. To receive input or information on the needs and goals of affected persons group or agencies
3. Incorporate the above for planning and making decision

FUNCTIONS OF THE PLANNERS

1. To prepare preliminary design, scoop of study and the initial work program. Know the basic needs,
plan and objectives of affected persons
2. Exploration of alternatives. Data gathering by contacting the representatives of other agencies
involved
3. Detailed analysis. Prepare detailed plans for appropriate community interaction

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 4. Secure formal ratification from the local officials and have the results documented. If nothing goes
wrong, this step is considered final.

TYPES OF HIGHWAYS
- The traffic characteristic which has the greatest effect on highway design is the volume of traffic.
- The design element which is the most affected by the volume of traffic is the number of traffic lanes.
- In modern practice, single-lane and 3-lane highways are considered inappropriate as parts of an
improved highway system.
- From the standpoint of engineering design and construction, at least 2-traffic lanes should be
considered in any proposed highway no matter how low the traffic volume may be.
1. 2-Lane Highways
- constitute the majority of the total length of highways, varying from gravel or other loose
surface roads to high type pavement
- Lane widths vary from 3.0m to 3.65m depending upon the traffic volume, design speed,
character of terrain and economic considerations
2. Multi-Lane Undivided Highways
- each traffic lane is intended to be used by traffic in one direction and passing is
accomplished on lanes not subject to use by opposing traffic
- The ability to pass without travelling in the lane of opposing traffic, results in a smoother
operation and a large increase in highway capacity
- Speed limit should be limited to 60kph or less and should feature prominent road marking
to separate opposing streams
3. Multi-Lane Divided Highways
- With separated roadways for traffic in opposite directions
- Has at least two full lanes for each direction of travel and a median of 1.2m or more in
width constructed in a manner to preclude its use by vehicles except in emergencies

CLASSIFICATION OF HIGHWAYS ACCORDING TO SYSTEM

MIN ROAD MIN WIDTH MAX ALLOWABLE

TYPE OF ROAD DEFINITION RIGHT OF OF TRAVELLED GRADE
WAY WAY
National Roads Public roads declared by 20.00m 6.70m 6.0%
the President of the
Philippines upon
recommendation of
DPWH Secretary.
Classified as primary or
secondary

Provincial Roads Roads connecting one 15.00m 6.10m 6.0%

municipality to another,
with the terminal to be
the public plaza; plus
roads extending from one
municipality or from a
provincial or national
roads to a public wharf or
railway station

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 City Roads Roads / Streets within the 15.00m 6.10m 6.0%
urban area of a city not
classified as provincial or
national road
Municipal Roads Roads / streets within the 15.00m 6.10m 6.0%
poblacion area of a
municipality not classified
as provincial or national
roads
Baranggay Roads Roads located outside the 10.00m 4.00m 10.0%
poblacion area of a
municipality or urban area
of a city and those outside
industrial, commercial or
residential subdivision
(access roads to
subdivisions are not
barangay roads), and
which act as a feeder from
farm-to-market road, and
are not otherwise
classified as national,
provincial, city or
municipal roads
Tourism Road Road which marketed as 2.10m 6.10m 6.0%
particularly suited for
tourist.
May be formed when an
existing road is promoted
with traffic sign and
advertising material
Farm-to-Market Roads linking the 6.00m 4.00m 10.0%
Road agriculture and fisheries
production sites, coastal
landing points and post-
harvest facilities to the
market and arterial roads
and highways

ROAD CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PRIMARY FUNCTION

1. Expressways
- Divided arterial highways for through traffic, with full or partial control of access and
generally with grade separations at major intersections
2. Parkways
- Arterial highways for non-commercial traffic with full or partial control of access, usually
located within a park or a ribbon of park-like development

COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT

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 In a democratic government, the public has the right to hear and be heard. Much more to participate
in public hearing where planning and decision making will be conducted before major decisions are made.
 It is a common practice to call public hearing after all major decisions were made and approved.
Indeed, public hearing is no more than information forum for the public to know what the administration wants
for them, rather than, what the people wants from them. Public hearing should involve the public from the
start to give them chance to participate in the discussions and involve them in:
1. Solicit the cooperation and support of public officials, non-government organizations, influential
persons and conservative group of the community
2. Create special staff to carry out this function
3. Community leadership opportunity to participate continuously in the planning stage
4. Organize and develop skilled persons to conduct group meeting, workshops, hearing and other related
activities

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 DESIGN DATA
FIELD SURVEY INFORMATION
- Topography is a major factor in determining the physical location, alignment gradients, sight distance, cross
sections and other design elements of a highway
- Hills, valleys, steep slopes, rivers and lakes often impose limitations upon location and design
- In the case of flat-land areas, topography in itself may exercise little if at all control on location but it may
cause difficulties in some design elements such as drainage or grade separation.

Highway Location
- concerned with the gathering of pertinent data for more effective highway planning, design, construction and
operation.
1. Reconnaissance
 carried out in order to plan the best possible horizontal and vertical alignments.
 Rock cuts, agricultural farms, steep side slopes, slides and other controls are identified
 Bridge crossings, expensive buildings and structures are also noted
 It is substantiated by the study of available maps, and stereoscopic examination of the site on
foot, all of which aid in the elimination of costly locations to limit the choice to one or two possible
routes
2. Preliminary Survey
 the topography of the strip or strips flagged is obtained and from which a topographic map will be
prepared to be utilized as the basic framework for projection of the line in the office
 The required preliminary borings shall include review of all available topographic and geologic
information, plus aerial photographs, in addition to site examination.
3. Utility Service Records
- sanitary sewers; water supply lines; oil, gas and petroleum product pipelines; overhead &
underground power and communication lines including fiber optic cables; cable television lines;
wireless communication tower; drainage and irrigation lines-special tunnels for buildings connections
- Utility service providers should be consulted and records obtained for all services in a project area,
including exact locations and depths.
- Obtaining utility service records benefit both highway agencies and the impacted utilities in the
following ways: unnecessary utility relocations are avoided, unexpected conflicts with utilities are
reduced, and safety is enhanced
4. Office Projection
 highway line is projected on the topographic map which is fitted as close as possible into the
terrain within the desired standards.
 Many lines should be tried so as to obtain the most economical line without increasing the cost of
surveys
 This is a trial and error process to obtaining the best line, in consideration of constraints such as
alignment, grades, sight distances and compensation
5. Final Location Survey
 done to transfer the office projection of the best line to the actual site in the field
 Whenever possible, video logs of a site with chainages are a useful tool to assist the process of
designing upgrading and rehabilitation schemes

FIELD INVESTIGATION
Proposed Sites for Stream Crossings

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  Hydrologic and hydraulic considerations are different when crossing near the confluence of two
streams as compared to a single stream
 Higher backwaters may be better tolerated in rural areas than in urban locations
 Tidal areas present a list of entirely different hydraulic considerations
 Whether the structure is a bridge or a culvert can make a difference in the hydraulic study
Road Alignment
 Consists of a variety of design elements that combine with the aim of creating a facility that serves
traffic safely and efficiently, consistent with the facility’s intended function
1. Horizontal Alignment – combination of circular curves, transition curves, and tangents
2. Vertical Alignment – consists of a series of gradients connected by vertical curves
Three terrain classifications: level or flat, rolling, mountainous
Existing Utility Services
 Records obtained from utility service providers should be verified in the field and not simply
assumed to be correct
Soil Investigations
1. Subsurface Investigations – includes investigation of the area below the subgrade level
2. Subgrade Investigation – involves detailed investigation of the soil surface on which the
pavement is constructed
3. Widening of Existing Pavements – Borings and test pits should be located in the area of
widening usually below that of the existing pavement, as any pavement widening should have
a design depth of at least as thick as that of the existing pavement
4. Sampling and Testing
In Situ (on-site testing, )
Laboratory Tests (Mechanical Analysis, Specific gravity, atterberg limits, moisture-density
relationship, CBR – California Bearing Ratio, Natural moisture content)

EXISTING PAVEMENT EVALUATION

1. Visual Inspection / Surface Defects
a. Wear and Polishing – may appear from traffic wearing off the surface mortar and skid resistant texture.
Extensive wear may cause slight ruts where water can collect and cause hydroplaning. Traffic may also
polish aggregates smooth causing the surface to be slippery
b. Map Cracking – a pattern of fine cracks usually spaced within several inches. It usually develops into
square or other geometrical patterns. This can be caused by improper cure or overworking the surface
during finishing
c. Pop-Outs – individual pieces of aggregates that may pop out of the surface. It is often caused by chert
or other absorbent aggregates that deteriorate under freeze-thaw conditions
d. Scaling – loss of fine aggregates and mortar
e. Shallow Reinforcing – if the steel reinforcing bar or mesh is placed too close to the concrete surface
f. Spalling – loss of a piece of the concrete pavement from the surface or along the edges of cracks and
joints
2. Joints
a. Longitudinal Joints – constructed to be narrow in width and usually well sealed. As pavements age and
materials deteriorate, joints may open and further deteriorate
b. Transverse Joints – constructed in concrete pavements to permit movement of the concrete slabs
3. Pavement Cracks
a. Transverse Slab Cracks – may appear parallel to joints and can be caused by thermal stresses, poor
subgrade support or heavy loadings. They are sometimes related to slabs having joints spaced too
widely
b. D-Cracks – develop when the aggregate is able to absorb moisture. This causes the aggregate to break
apart under freeze-thaw action which leads to deterioration

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 c. Corner Cracks – diagonal cracks near the corner of a concrete slab, forming a triangle with a
longitudinal and transverse joint
d. Meander Cracks – pavement cracks that wander randomly. They may cross a slab diagonally or
meander like a serpent. It may be caused by settlement due to unstable subsoil or drainage problems,
or by utility trench settlement
4. Pavement Deformations
a. Blow Ups – concrete slabs may push or be crushed at a transverse joint. The cause is expansion of the
concrete where incompressible materials (such as sand) have infiltrated into poorly sealed joints
b. Faulting – caused by pumping of subgrade soils and creation of voids
c. Pavement Settling or Heave – Pavement settlement after construction due to unstable or poorly drained
subgrade soils
d. Utility Repairs, Patches and Potholes – cuts in the pavement due to replacement or repair of utilities
e. Manhole and Inlet Cracks – adjacent to a manhole or storm sewer inlet due to normal pavement
movement from changes in temperature
f. Curb or Shoulder Deformation – separation of concrete curb and gutter with the pavement

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DRAINAGE RECOMMENDATIONS
Objectives of drainage design:
1. Maintain all parts of the highway in a competent drainage condition
2. Prevent traffic congestion and slip accidents caused by the flooding of water on a road surface

Classification of Highway Drainage

1. Surface Drainage – drainage of surface water produced by rainfall on a roadway and from areas other
than the right of way
* Cross slope of 1.5% or 2.5% for cement concrete or asphalt concrete
* Cross slope of 3% to 4% for gravel roads
* Longitudinal Slope of 0.50%
Levels of Service – characterizes the operating conditions on the facility in terms of traffic performance
measures related to speed and travel time, freedom to maneuver, traffic interruptions and comfort
and convenience
Level of Service General Operating Conditions

A Free flow
B Reasonably flow
C Stable flow
D Approaching unstable flow
E Unstable flow
F Forced or breakdown flow
*For urban areas, max longitudinal slope is 0.35%. Max spacing for curb inlet and manhole is 20m
*For longitudinal slope greater than 4%, the corresponding side ditch / canal and shoulder should be
paved on both sides so as to prevent the scouring effect of the increased water velocity.

2. Subsurface Drainage – intended to reduce the groundwater level and to intercept and drain water
infiltrating from the adjoining areas and road surface or rising from the subgrade.
3. Slope Drainage – constructed to protect slopes from erosion or stability decline which is caused by
surface water on the cuts, fills and natural slopes or by groundwater oozing to the slope surface

Design Controls
1. Anticipated Traffic Volume – indicates the service for which the improvement is being made and
directly affects the geometric features of design. A road should be designed so that it will
accommodate or can be readily changed to accommodate the design volume (number of vehicles
which is estimated to pass it towards the end of its life)
Design volume – 10 to 15 years for a flexible pavement, 20 years for rigid pavements
AADT - Annual Average Daily Traffic; traffic volume or flow on a highway as measured by the number
of vehicles passing a partial station during a given interval of time
DHV – Design Hourly Volume; representative of the future year chosen for design; equal to 30th highest
hourly volume for most highways
ADT – Average Daily Traffic
* Design Traffic Data should include the following:
1. ADT – current average daily traffic, year specified
2. ADT – future average daily traffic, year specified
3. DHV – future design hourly volume, 2-way unless specified (usually 30HV)
4. K – ratio of DHV to ADT; generally 12% to 18% for rural and 8% to 12% for urban

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 5. D – directional distribution of DHV, one-way volume in predominant direction of travel
expressed as a percentage of total; usually varies from 50% to 80% of two-way DHV with an
average of 67%
6. T – trucks, exclusive of light delivery trucks, expressed as a percentage of DHV. As an average
on main rural highways, T is 7%-9% of DHV and 13% of ADT; where weekend peak governs, the
average may be 5% to 8% of DHV

2. Character of Traffic
 All roads should be designed to accommodate trucks, buses, passenger vehicles, handcarts, cyclists
and pedestrians with safety and convenience.
 The vehicle which should be used in design for normal operation is the largest one which represents a
significant percentage of traffic for the design year
3. Design Speed - speed determined for design and correlation of the physical features of a highway that
influence vehicle operation
 Maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a specified section of the highway when conditions
are so favorable that the design favorable that the design features of the highway govern.
4. Design Traffic (Vehicles)
 Vehicle types, dimensions, turning radii and off-tracking, resistance to motion, power requirements,
acceleration performance, deceleration performance
Types of Vehicles
a. Passenger Cars (Light, Medium, Heavy)
b. Utility Vehicles
c. Sports Utility Vehicles
d. Motorcycles
e. Trucks and Truck Buses
f. Trailers
5. Highway Capacity
Roadway Factors
a. Number of lanes
b. The type of facility and its development environment
c. Lane widths
d. Shoulder widths
e. Design speed
f. Horizontal and vertical alignments
g. Axle loads
h. Availability of exclusive turn lanes at intersection
6. Classification of Highway
7. Accident Information – to determine appropriate safety enhancement (location, type, severity,
contributing circumstances, environmental conditions, time periods, etc.)

REQUIREMENTS FOR A SPEEDY PLAN PREPARATION

1. Plans (Scale 1:1000m)
 Shall show the centerline of the project road, width of the roadway and shoulders and the right of way
 Azimuth, distance, elements of curve, coordinates, superelevation and widening of every curve, design
speed
 Each sheet shall have a north arrow indicator and lines representing coordinates
 Contours shall be plotted at 1.00m interval or 5.00 if contour lines are too close. The minimum extent
of contour line should be within the road right of way

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  Elevation of bench marks with accurate descriptions, reference points and controlling points with
azimuth and distance
 Information and data regarding existing roads, intersections and railways, existing rivers and
waterways, existing houses and structures, public utilities, land classification, etc
 All existing proposed structures (bridges, box culverts, pipes,, etc,,,)
 Typical roadway section
 Existing road right of way limit
2. Profile (Scale 1:1000m horizontal, 1:100m vertical; 1:200 for mountainous areas)
 Elements of every parabolic curve
 Percent grades (plus and minus sign)
 Finished grade and existing ground elevations for every full station
 Station number in km including invert elevations
 Maximum flood elevation in flooded areas; ordinary and highest water elevations of river, creek and
canals
 Side ditch profiles indicating gradient, invert elevations and outfall
3. Detailed Cross Section (at every 20m full station, at intermediate breaks on the ground at bridge
approaches and drainage structures; scale 1:100m horizontal and vertical)
 Existing ground profile and template roadway section
 General manner of treating slopes in cut and fills
 Manner of superelevating and widening in curves
 Coordinates of the existing ground and template roadway section
 Finished grade and natural ground elevations of roadway centerline
 Area of cut and fill
 Drainage structures inc side ditches
 Slope protection
4. Detailed Drainage Cross Section (cross section of every pipe and box culvert on a scale of 1:100m
horizontal and vertical)
 Existing ground profile and template roadway section
 General manner of treating slopes in cut and fills
 Manner of superelevating and widening in curves
 Coordinates of the existing ground and template roadway section
 Finished grade and natural ground elevations of roadway centerline
 Drainage structures
 Quantities involved for drainage and other corresponding structures
 Maximum flood level
5. Geotechnical Drawings
 Complete soil survey data for the project
 Approved sources of borrow, aggregate, sub base, aggregate base, concrete aggregates and asphalt
aggregates

Cross Section Elements

1. Pavement – the running surface excluding shoulders
 Traffic Lane – portion of the pavement allotted for the use of a single line of vehicles
 Types of surface
a. High – for high volume traffic which requires that the road surface be smooth, possess non-skid
qualities, and could adequately support the expected volume and weights of vehicles without
fatigue

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 b. Intermediate – slightly less in cost and somewhat less in strength than customary high type
pavement
c. Low – range from surface treated earth, such as earth, shell and gravel
 Cross slope or cross fall – slope of the surface of a pavement measured at right angles to the horizontal
alignment
2. Lane Widths – depends on the width and size of the vehicles, speed of travel, the annual average daily traffic
and the width of shoulders
 Desirable lane width is 3.65m which allows large vehicles to pass without either vehicle having to move
sideways toward the edge of the pavement
 Commercial vehicles are commonly on the full legal width of 2.50 m
3. Shoulders – used with modifying adjectives to describe certain functional or physical characteristics
 Characteristics
a. “Graded” width of shoulder – measured from the edge of the through traffic lane to the
intersection of shoulder slope and the side slope planes
b. “Surfaced” width of shoulder – constructed to provide a better all-weather support than
afforded by the native soil
c. “Usable” width of shoulder – actual width than can be used when a driver makes an emergency
or parking stop
 Functions
a. Structural support to pavement
b. Space for pedestrian and bicycle use; for bus stops, for mail delivery vehicles and for detouring
of traffic during construction
c. Space away from the travelled way for vehicles to stop because of mechanical difficulties, flat
tires, or other emergencies
d. Space for motorists to stop occasionally to consult road maps or for other reasons
e. Space for evasive maneuvers to avoid potential crashes or reduce their severity
f. Improved sight distance in cut sections, thereby improving safety
g. Improved highway capacity because uniform speed is encouraged
h. Lateral clearance for signs and guardrails
i. Stormwater discharge further from the travelled way
j. Space for temporary maintenance operations such as repair work and storage
k. The sense of openness created by shoulders of adequate width contributing to driving ease and
reduced stress
l. Enhancement of highway aesthetics
 Minimum width – 1.m
 Minimum width of 1.5m for AADR greater than 1,250
 There must be no difference in level between the surface of the shoulder and the surface of the
pavement
4. Horizontal Clearance to Obstruction
5. Curb – incorporates some raised or vertical element
 Purposes
a. Drainage control
b. Roadway edge delineation
c. Right of way reduction
d. Aesthetics
e. Delineation of pedestrian walkways
f. Reduction of maintenance operations
g. Assistance in orderly roadside development
6. Sidewalks – for pedestrians
 Sidewalks in lower speed residential areas may vary from 1.2 to 2.4m

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  Sidewalks used for pedestrian access to schools, parks, shopping areas, and transit stops, and
sidewalks in commercial areas should be provided along both sides of the streets
 For higher speed roadways, a barrier type rail of adequate height may be used to separate the walkway
from the traveled way
7. Drainage Channels and Side Slopes
 Drainage Channels – perform the important functions of collecting and conveying surface water
from the highway right of way
 The most economical method of constructing a roadside channel usually entails the formation of
open-channel ditches by cutting into the natural roadside terrain
 Side Slopes should be designed to enhance roadway stability and to provide a reasonable
opportunity for recovery for an out-of-control vehicle.
8. Traffic Barriers – used to prevent vehicles that leave the traveled way from colliding with objects that have
greater crash severity potential and the barrier itself
 Options available for treatment of roadside obstacles
a. Remove or redesign the obstacle so it can be safely traversed
b. Relocate the obstacle to a point where it is less likely to be struck
c. Reduce impact severity by using an appropriate breakaway device
d. Redirect a vehicle by shielding the obstacle with a traffic barrier
e. Delineate the obstacle if the above alternatives are not appropriate
f. Take no action
 Longitudinal Roadside Barriers – located along the roadside and in medians, and with three types:
a. Flexible – undergo a dynamic deflection upon impact and generally impose lower impact forces
on the vehicle than semi-rigid systems. They are designed primarily to contain rather than
redirect the vehicle and need more lateral clearance from fixed objects; restraint and
redirection of errant vehicles
b. Semi-Rigid – achieve resistance through combined flexure and tensile strength of the rail, with
posts near the point of impact being designed to break away; for protection of vehicles from
large drop or from embankment along split level street
c. Rigid – does not deflect substantially upon impact, and energy is dissipated by raising and
lowering of the vehicle and deformation of the vehicle body; for prevention of vehicles crossing
over into incoming traffic
 Median Barrier – longitudinal system used to minimize the possibility of an errant vehicle crossing
into the path of traffic travelling in the opposite direction
 Crash Cushions – function is to decelerate errant vehicles to a safe stop

9. Medians – portion of a highway separating opposing directions of the traveled way and are highly desirable
on arterials carrying four or more lanes
 Types
a. Depressed – preferred on expressways for efficient drainage
b. Raised – commonly used on arterial streets where it is desirable to regulate left-turn
movements
c. Flush – normally used on urban arterials, but when used on expressways, a median barrier is
included
10. Frontage Roads – roads used to control access to nearby arterial highways, while also functioning as a street
facility serving adjoining properties, and maintaining traffic circulation on each side of the arterial;
segregates local traffic to higher speed traffic
11. Noise Control
 Noise barriers are being used to an increasing extent in recognition of the adverse effect that noise
can have on people living on, working on, or otherwise using land adjacent to highways
12. Roadside Control

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13. Tunnels
14. Pedestrian Crossings
15. Curb-Cut Ramps
16. Bicycle Facilities
17. Bus Turn-outs
18. Park and Ride Facilities

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