service d'Etudes

Setra techniques des

routes et
autoroutes
october 2006

Technical guide

Footbridges ...............................................................
Assessment of vibrational behaviour of footbridges under pedestrian loading

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The Technical Department forTotiri^me
itTransport,
de la Mir Roads and Bridges Engineering and Road Safety (Service
d'etudes techniques des routes et autoroutes - Setra) is a technical department within the Ministry of
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 Technical guide

Footbridges
Assessment of vibrational behaviour of footbridges under pedestrian
loading
■■■■■■ Published by the SOtra, realized within a Setra/Afgc (French association of civil engineering) working group
This document is the translation of the work "Passerelles pietonnes - Evaluation du comportement vibratoire sous l'action
des pietons", published in under the reference 0611

Association Frangaise de Genie Civil

Regie par la loi du 1er juillet 1901
28 rue des Saints-Peres - 75007 Paris - France
telephone : (33) 01 44 58 24 70 - telecopie : (33) 01 44 58 24 79 mel : afgc@enpc.fr
— internet : http://www.afgc.asso.fr

Contents

MAIN NOTATIONS ............................................................................................................... 3

INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 4
FOREWORD ........................................................................................................................ 6
1 FOOTBRIDGE DYNAMICS ......................................................................................... 7
1.1 STRUCTURE AND FOOTBRIDGE DYNAMICS ................................................................................... 7
1.2 PEDESTRIAN LOADING ...................................................................................................................... 10
1.3 PARAMETERS THAT AFFECT DIMENSIONING: FREQUENCY, COMFORT THRESHOLD,
COMFORT CRITERION, ETC. .................................................................................................. 25
1.4 IMPROVEMENT OF DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR .................................................................................. 27
2 FOOTBRIDGE DYNAMIC ANALYSIS METHODOLOGY .................................. 30
2.1 STAGE 1: DETERMINATION OF FOOTBRIDGE CLASS ................................................................. 31
2.2 STAGE 2: CHOICE OF COMFORT LEVEL BY THE OWNER ........................................................ 31
2.3 STAGE 3: DETERMINATION OF FREQUENCIES AND OF THE NEED TO PERFORM DYNAMIC
LOAD CASE CALCULATIONS OR NOT ............................................................................................................ 32
2.4 STAGE 4 IF NECESSARY: CALCULATION WITH DYNAMIC LOAD CASES. ..................... 34
2.5 STAGE 5: MODIFICATION OF THE PROJECT OR OF THE FOOTBRIDGE .................................37
2.6 STRUCTURAL CHECKS UNDER DYNAMIC LOADS ...................................................................... 40
3 CHAPTER 3: PRACTICAL DESIGN METHODS .................................................. 43
3.1 PRACTICAL DESIGN METHODS ....................................................................................................... 43
3.2 DYNAMIC CALCULATION APPLIED TO FOOTBRIDGES ............................................................. 44
4 CHAPTER 4: DESIGN AND WORKS SPECIFICATION, TESTING ................. 54
4.1 EXAMPLES OF ITEMS FOR A FOOTBRIDGE DYNAMIC DESIGN SPECIFICATION ................. 54
4.2 EXAMPLES OF ITEMS TO BE INSERTED IN THE PARTICULAR WORKS TECHNICAL
SPECIFICATION FOR A FOOTBRIDGE ............................................................................................................. 54
4.3 DYNAMIC TESTS OR TESTS ON FOOTBRIDGES ............................................................................ 54
1 APPENDIX 1: REMINDERS OF THE DYNAMICS OF CONSTRUCTIONS 58
1.1 A SIMPLE OSCILLATOR ....................................................................................................................... 58
1.2 LINEAR SYSTEMS AT N DOF .................................................................................... 67
1.3 CONTINUOUS ELASTIC SYSTEMS ................................................................................................... 76
1.4 DISCRETISATION OF THE CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS .................................................................... 82
2 APPENDIX 2: MODELLING OF THE PEDESTRIAN LOAD .............................. 86
2.1 WALKING ................................................................................................................................................ 87
2.2 RUNNING ................................................................................................................................................ 91
3 APPENDIX 3: DAMPING SYSTEMS ....................................................................... 94
3.1 VISCO-ELASTIC DAMPERS .............................................................................................................. 94
3.2 VISCOUS DAMPERS .......................................................................................................................... 95
3.3 TUNED MASS DAMPERS (TMD) .............................................................................. 97
3.4 TUNED LIQUID DAMPERS ............................................................................................................... 100
3.5 COMPARATIVE TABLE .................................................................................................................... 101
4 APPENDIX 4: EXAMPLES OF FOOTBRIDGES ................................................... 103
4.1 WARREN-TYPE LATERAL BEAMS: CAVAILLON FOOTBRIDGE ............................................ 103
4.2 STEEL BOX-GIRDER: STADE DE FRANCE FOOTBRIDGE ........................................................ 103
4.3 RIBBED SLAB: NOISY-LE-GRAND FOOTBRIDGE ..................................................................... 104
4.4 BOW-STRING ARCH： MONTIGNY-L 左 S-CORMEILLES FOOTBRIDGE ........................... 105
 4.5 SUSPENDED CONSTRUCTION: FOOTBRIDGE OVER THE AISNE AT SOISSONS ................. 106
4.6 sTEEL ARCH: soLFERiNo FooTBRiDGE .......................................................................................... 106
4.7 CABLE-sTAYED CoNsTRUCTioN: PAs-DU-LAC FooTBRiDGE AT sT QUENTiN .................... 108
4.8 MiXED CoNsTRUCTioN BEAM: MoNT-sAiNT-MARTiN FooTBRiDGE .................................... 109
5 APPENDIX 5: EXAMPLES OF CALCULATIONS OF FOOTBRIDGES. ......... 110
5.1 EXAMPLEs oF CoMPLETE CALCULATioNs oF FooTBRiDGEs ..................................................... 110
5.2 sENsiTiViTY sTUDY oF TYPiCAL FooTBRiDGEs ............................................................................ 119
6 ANNEXE 6: BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................. 124
6.1 GENERALLY ........................................................................................................................................ 124
6.2 REGULATioNs ...................................................................................................................................... 124
6.3 DAMPERs .............................................................................................................................................. 124
6.4 BEHAVioUR ANALYsis ...................................................................................................................... 124
6.5 CALCULATioN METHoDs .................................................................................................................. 126
6.6 ARTiCLEs oN EiTHER ViBRATiNG oR iNsTRUMENTED FooTBRiDGEs .................................... 126
6.7 sPECiFiC FooTBRiDGEs....................................................................................................................... 126
6.8 ADDiTioNAL BiBLioGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... 126
1. Main notations
A(^): dynamic amplification
[C]: damping matrix
Ci: damping No. i in a system with n degrees of freedom (N/(m/s))
E: Young's modulus (N/m2)
F(t): dynamic excitation (N)
[F(t)]: dynamic load vector
F0: amplitude of a harmonic force (N)
[F0 ]: amplitude vector of a harmonic force (N)
Hr, e (0):transfer function input e and the response r
I: inertia of a beam (m4)
J: torsional inertia of a beam (m4)
[K]: stiffness matrix
Ki: stiffness No. i in a system with n degrees of freedom (N/m)
L: length of a beam (m)
[M]: mass matrix
Mi: mass No. i in a system with n degrees of freedom (kg)
S: cross-sectional area of a beam (m2)
[X]: vector of the degrees of freedom
Ci: generalised damping of mode i
f0: 简单振荡器的固有频率(Hz)
fi: ith natural frequency of an oscillator with n degrees of freedom (Hz)
f: frequency
Ki: generalised stiffness of mode i
Mi: generalised mass of mode i
n: number of pedestrians
[p(t)]: modal participation vector
[q(t)]: modal variable vector
t: 可变指定时间(s)
u(t), v(t), w(t): displacements (m)
x(t): position of a simple oscillator referenced to its balance position (m)
Q: reduced pulsation
5: 对数递减
& : ith critical damping ratio of an oscillator with n degrees of freedom (no unit)
p: density (kg/m3)
[0]: ith eigen vector
° (0): argument of Hr, e - phase angle between entrance and exit (rad)
00 : 简单振荡器的自然脉动(rad/s): 00 =2 n f
0i : ith natural pulsation of an oscillator with n degrees of freedom (rad/s): 0i =2 nfi 0:
pulsation (rad/s)
2. Introduction
这些准则是在由帕斯卡尔·查尔斯(法兰西岛区域设施局，然后是塞特拉)和瓦苏德夫·胡尔
帕(OTUA，然后是 MIO)领导的塞特拉/AFGC“人行桥动态行为”工作组的框架内制定的。

These guidelines were drafted by:

Valerie BONIFACE (RFR)

Vu BUI (Setra)
Philippe BRESSOLETTE (CUST - LERMES)
Pascal CHARLES Xavier (DREIF and then Setra)
CESPEDES Francois (Setec-TPI)
CONSIGNY Christian (RFR and then ADP)
CREMONA Claire (LCPC)
DELAVAUD (DREIF)
Luc DIELEMAN (SNCF)
Thierry DUCLOS (Sodeteg and then Arcadis-EEGSimecsol)
Wasoodev HOORPAH (OTUA and then MIO)
Eric JACQUELIN (University of Lyon 1 - L2M)
Pierre MAITRE Raphael (Socotec)
MENARD Serge (OTH)
MONTENS (Systra) (Setphenomenaa)
Philippe VION

行人在人行桥上施加的作用可能导致振动现象。一般来说，这些现象不会对结构产生不
利影响，尽管使用者可能会感到一些不适。

这些指引总结了行人天桥在行人荷载下的动态行为的最新知识。还提出了一种分析方法
和建议，以指导新人行桥的设计者考虑由此产生的动态效应。

该方法基于人行桥分类概念(作为交通水平的函数)和所需的舒适度，并依赖于对在
Solferino 人行桥和实验平台上进行的测试结果的解释。这些测试由公路管理局资助，由
塞特拉管理，并得到法国“设备、运输、领土管理、旅游和海洋部”特别是 DREIF(巴黎西
部艺术和隧道及实验室区域司)建立的科学技术网络的支持。

本文档涵盖以下主题:

- 描述人行桥特有的动态现象，并确定对这种结构的尺寸有影响的参数；

- 根据交通水平分类的人行桥动态分析方法；

- 介绍计算固有频率和模态以及结构对载荷响应的实用方法；

- 起草设计和施工文件的建议。

指南附录中还提供了补充的理论数据(结构动力学提醒、行人荷载模型)和实践数据(阻尼
系统、最近人行桥的示例、典型计算)。
Foreword
本文件基于目前在法国和国外获得的科学技术知识。法国的法规没有提供任何关于人行
桥的动态和振动现象的指示，而欧洲的法规揭示了在最近的工作中突出的缺点。
位于巴黎市中心和伦敦市中心的两条人行桥在落成后不久就关闭了:它们在承载人群时阻
碍了横向振动；这导致需要彻底调查和研究它们在行人荷载下的行为。这些研究涉及现
场测试，并证实了一种现象的存在，这种现象以前已经观察到，但科学和技术界仍然不
熟悉。这种被称为“强制同步”或“锁定”的现象导致这些人行桥经受高振幅的横向振动。
为了向设计者提供必要的信息和手段以避免再次发生这种事件，发布概述影响人行桥的
动态问题的指南被认为是有用的。
这些指南涉及到舒适标准的人行桥的正常使用，并考虑到结构强度的破坏行为。当人行
桥是马拉松比赛、示威、舞会、游行、就职典礼等特殊事件的剧院时，这些指南并不意
味着保证舒适。
本文件不包括风荷载作用下人行桥的动态特性。动态分析方法与基于交通水平的人行桥
分类相关。这意味着城市环境中的人行桥不像开放国家中的人行桥那样被对待。
人行桥业主扮演的角色至关重要:他们选择人行桥的舒适标准，这直接影响结构设计。最
大舒适度不容许任何人行桥振动；因此，该结构要么坚固，可能难看，要么细长，但装
有阻尼器，从而使该结构更加昂贵，需要复杂的维护。最低舒适度允许适度和可控的人
行桥振动；在这种情况下，该结构将更加细长，即总体上设计得更加美观，并且可能装
有阻尼器。
本文件是一份指南:提议的任何规定和安排都将被视为咨询建议，没有任何强制性内容。
3. Footbridge dynamics
本章列出了当前影响人行桥的动态现象的知识清单。它还介绍了所进行的各种测试和导
致下一章所述的建议的研究。

3.1 - Structure and footbridge dynamics

3.1.1 - General
根据定义，静态载荷是恒定的或几乎不随时间变化的(准静态)载荷。另一方面，动态负载
与时间相关，可以分为四类:

-谐波或纯正弦负载；

-周期性重复荷载，以称为周期的规则时间间隔整体重复；

-显示时间、强度、方向任意变化的随机载荷...；

-脉冲负载对应于非常短的负载。

一般来说，行人荷载是时变的，可以归类为“周期性荷载”类别。行人动态负载的主要特
征之一是其低强度。施加在非常坚硬和巨大的结构上，这种载荷很难使它们显著振动。
然而，美学、技术和工艺的发展导致越来越纤细和灵活的结构，人行桥遵循这一总趋势，
它们目前的设计和建造对应变更敏感。因此，他们更经常需要彻底的动态分析。

对简单振荡器这一基本模型的研究阐明了动态分析原理，并强调了过程中不同结构参数
的作用。这里只提到对设计者直接有用的主要结果。这些指南的附录 1 更详细地介绍了
这些结果，并讨论了它们在复杂模型中的一般应用。

3.1.2 - Simple oscillator

The simple oscillator consists of mass m, connected to a support by a linear spring of stiffness k
and a linear damper of viscosity c, impacted by an external force F(t) (figure 1.1). This oscillator
is supposed to move only by translation in a single direction and therefore has only one degree of
freedom (herein noted "dof") defined by position x(t) of its mass. Detailed calculations are
provided in Appendix 1.
 Figure 1.1: Simple oscillator

The dynamic parameters specific to this oscillator are the following:

=2 nfo： natural pulsation (rad/s), fo being the natural frequency (Hz). Since m
①0
is a mass, its S.I. unit is therefore expressed in kilograms.
• 彳= c : critical damping ratio (dimensionless) or critical damping percentage. In 2y[km
practice, ghas a value that is always less than 1. It should be noted that until experimental
tests have been carried out, the critical damping ratio can only be assessed. Damping has
various origins: it depends on materials (steel, concrete, timber) whether the concrete is
cracked (reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete), the steel jointing method (bolting,
welding).
The resonance phenomenon is particularly clear when the simple oscillator is excited by a
harmonic (or sinusoidal) under the form Fo sin (① t).
If, by definition, its static response obtained with a constant force equal to F0 is:
x
=且=Fo /m
statique
k讥
the dynamic response may be amplified by a factor A(O)and is equal to:
x = (O)
max xstatique A
max statique
where o = — is the reduced (or relative) pulsation and
Qo
A(O)二 丄 is the dynamic amplification.
J(1- O ) + 4 J o
2 2 2

Dynamic amplification is obtained as a function of O and g. It may be represented by a set of

curves parameterised by g. Some of these curves are provided in figure 1.2 for a few specific
values of the critical damping ratio. These curves show a peak for the value of o R = J1 - 2 了
characterising the resonance and therefore corresponding to the resonance pulsation
6}R = ® J1 _苛 and to the resonance frequency fR =
0 . In this case the response is
 2n
higher (or even much higher) than the static response.
it should be noted that resonance does not occur for — = —0 but for —= —R . Admitting that
structural damping is weak in practice, we may consider that resonance occurs for — = —0 and
that amplification equals:

基于动态载荷的结构尺寸不能仅使用载荷冲击的最大强度来确定。因此，例如，如果该
第二负载的频率更接近结构的谐振频率，则负载 F(t) = F0 sin (w1 t)可以产生比负载 F(t)=
F0/10 sin(w2 t)低得多的位移或应力，然而负载 F(t)= F0/10 sin(w2 t)具有弱 10 倍的振幅。

共振放大与阻尼直接相关，因此有必要正确估计该参数，以便获得适当的动态尺寸。应
该注意的是，简单的振荡器研究依赖于线性阻尼(粘性，阻尼力与速度成比例)的假设，线
性阻尼是其中的一种阻尼类型。然而，这是大多数人行桥设计师和工程师选择的假设。

3.1.3 - Complex systems

对实际结构的研究，通常是具有重要自由度的连续而复杂的系统，可以认为是对一组 n
个简单振子的研究，每个振子描述系统的特征振动。附录 1 详细说明了允许这种转换的
近似方法。关于简单振荡器的新项目是由系统的频率和振动形状(—0)构成的对定义的自
然振动模式。自然振动模式的计算相对复杂，但是现在的设计者有很好的软件包来获得
它们，只要他们在系统建模时采取模型分析应用所需的所有预防措施。第三章讨论了固
有振动模式的实际应用。

应该强调的是，在某些情况下，这个问题甚至可以用一个简单的振荡器来解决。无论如
何，简单振荡器研究得出的主要结论可以推广到复杂系统。
3.2 - Pedestrian loading

3.2.1 - Effects of pedestrian walking

行人荷载，无论是步行还是跑步，已经进行了相当彻底的研究(见附录 2)，并转化为施加
在支架上的点力，作为时间和行人位置的函数。注意 x 是相对于人行桥中心线的行人位
置，因此以恒定速度 v 移动的行人的负载可以由空间分量 S(x - vt)表示为时间分量 F(t)的
乘积，5 是狄拉克算子，即:

P(x,t) = F(t)5(x -vt)

几个参数也可能影响和改变这种负荷(步态、生理特征和服装、地面粗糙度等)，但是所进
行的实验测量表明它是周期性的，其特征在于一个基本参数:频率，即每秒的步数。表 1.1
提供了估计的频率值。

Designation Specific features Frequency range (Hz)

Walking Continuous contact with the ground 1.6 to 2.4
Running Discontinuous contact 2 to 3.5
Table 1.1

通常，对于正常行走(无障碍)，频率可以用高斯分布来描述，平均为 2 Hz，标准偏差约为
0.20 Hz(根据作者的不同，从 0.175 到 0.22)。最近的研究和从最近的测试中得出的结论揭
示了更低的平均频率，大约 1.8 赫兹- 1.9 赫兹。

因此，周期函数 F(t)可以分解成傅立叶级数，即由谐波力的无限和增加的常数部分。该总
和项的所有单位贡献的总和返回周期性动作的总效果。

) + sin n n
F(t = G 0 G 1 2 f mt G, sin(2 i m -卩)
f t

i=2
with G0 : static force (pedestrian weight for the vertical component),
G1 : first harmonic amplitude,
Gi : i-th harmonic amplitude,
fm : walking frequency,
(Pi : phase angle of the i-th harmonic in relation to the first one,
n : number of harmonics taken into account.

一个行人的体重 G0 可以取 700 牛顿的平均值。

在平均频率约为 2 Hz (fm = 2 Hz)的垂直作用下，F(t)的傅立叶分解系数值如下(限于前三
项，即 n = 3，较高项的系数小于 0.1 G0):
Gi = 0.4 Go； G2 = G3 ~ 0.1 Go；
P2 = P3 Q n/2.
通过将力分解成三个分量，即垂直分量和两个水平分量(一个在位移的纵向方向上，一个
垂直于横向或横向位移)，可以选择这些分量的以下值来确定尺寸(实际上限于第一个谐
波):
单行人负载的垂直分量:
) 0,4 sin(2 )
Fv (t = Go + Go nm
f t
单行人荷载的横向水平分量:
) o,o 2n
ht(t
F = 5 o sin]
G

单行人荷载的纵向水平分量:
) o,2 )
hl(t
F = G o sin(2 n fm
t

应该注意的是，对于同一次行走，横向载荷频率等于垂直和纵向载荷频率的一半。这是
因为负载周期等于垂直和纵向负载的两个连续步骤之间的时间，因为这两个步骤在相同
的方向上施加力，而这个持续时间对应于两个直的和连续的右脚步，或者在横向负载的
情况下对应于两个连续的左脚步，因为左脚步和右脚步在相反的方向上施加负载。结果，
横向载荷周期比垂直和纵向载荷高两倍，因此频率低两倍。

3.2.2 - Effects of pedestrian running

附录 2 展示了行人跑步的效果。这种载荷情况本质上可能非常大，不应系统地保留。行
人天桥上慢跑者的穿越持续时间通常相对较短，不会为共振现象留下太多时间来解决，
此外，这在很短的时间内会惹恼其他行人。此外，这种负荷情况不包括必须单独研究的
特殊事件，如马拉松比赛。因此，在这些指南中不应考虑跑步效果。

3.2.3 - Random effects of several pedestrians and crowd

实际上，人行桥需要几个人同时操作，这使得相应的动力更加复杂。事实上，每一个行
人都有自己的特点(重量、频率、速度)，根据桥上的人数，行人一方面会产生或多或少相
互同步的负载，另一方面可能会产生与人行桥同步的负载。此外，由于每个人进入人行
桥的时刻不同，行人之间会出现初始相移。

此外，由人类智能行为引发的问题是，除其他外，面对不同于他预期的情况，行人会以
几种方式改变他的自然和正常步态；这种行为很难提交给软件处理。

因此，很难完全模拟人群的实际行为。基于行人行为研究，人们可以仅仅提出合理和简
化的假设，然后假设人群效应是通过将一个行人的基本效应乘以负因子而获得的。关于
群体效应，存在着各种各样的观点，它们早于索尔费里诺和千禧事件。这些概念将在以
下段落中与更全面的统计研究一起介绍，该研究将作为这些指南中建议的载荷的基础。

3.2.3.1 Random type pedestrian flow. Conventional model

对于以到达速度 J1(以人/秒表示)进入桥的大量独立行人(即，没有任何特定的同步)，通过
将单个行人的影响乘以系数 k = JT，获得人行桥给定点处提交给该行人流的平均动态响应，
T 是行人穿过人行桥所花费的时间(也可以用 T = L/v 表示，其中 L 表示人行桥长度，v 表
示行人速度)。事实上，该产品 AT 显示了在给定时间桥梁上的行人数量。实际上，这意
味着人行桥上的 n 名行人相当于 T1N 名，他们都是同步的。这一结果可以通过考虑一群
人来证明，这些人的频率都是相同的，相位分布是随机的。

这个结果考虑到了行人之间由于他们不同的进入时间而产生的相移，但是它有一个缺点，
因为它是在假设所有行人都以相同的频率移动的情况下工作的。

3.2.3.2 Experimental measurements on pedestrians flows

几个研究人员已经研究了由一群人发起的力和力矩，使用在小型行人群体移动的仪表平
台上进行的测量。
易卜拉欣普尔公司。(参考[24])在傅立叶表示的第一项上提出了稀疏人群负荷模型，其系
数 ai 取决于平台上的人数 Np(对于 2 Hz 行走频率):
ai = 0.34 — 0.09 log(np) for Np <10
ai = 0.25 for Np > 10
不幸的是，这个模型没有涵盖累积的随机效应。

3.2.3.3 Comprehensive simulation model of pedestrian flows

直到最近，人行桥的动态尺寸设计主要是基于理论模型载荷情况，其中一个行人由关于
人行桥刚度和固有频率楼层值的相当粗略的要求完成。显然，这些要求是非常不够的，
特别是它们没有涵盖因在城市地区使用行人天桥而引起的主要问题，这些天桥受到或多
或少密集的行人群体和人群的影响。即使上面提到的虚拟网络模型也有一些缺陷。
人们对人群行为的了解似乎很有限，这使得实际尺寸测量的可用性变得更加迫切。最好
建议随后要改进的简单元素，而不是停留在当前的知识空白中。
因此，使用概率计算和统计处理开发了几个人群负荷情况，以深化随机人群问题。最终
选择的模型包括以随机频率和相位处理行人的移动，在呈现不同模式的人行桥上，以及
每次评估行人的等效数量，当行人均匀分布在人行桥上时，或者在人行桥的同相和自然
频率下，行人的等效数量将产生与随机行人相同的效果。
 densite de probabilite pour les frequences :Loi normale ; moyenne 2Hz ; d'ecart-type
Random pedestrians circulating at speed v = 1.5m/s on the footbridge o,175 Hz

random frequencies (see the distribution law opposite) and

f r e q u e n c e s a l e a to ir es (voir loi de distribution ci-contre) et
to t a ll y r a n d o m p h a se s

这些测试在固定数量的行人、固定阻尼和固定数量的模式波腹下重复 50 次；则特征值，例如
95%的样本给出的值低于该特征值(95%特征值、95%百分位数或 95%分位数)。图 1.4 解释了这
个概念:

通过改变阻尼、行人数量、模式波腹的数量，可以推断出等效行人数量的规律，该规律最接近
所执行的测试结果。

保留以下两项法律:

稀疏或密集人群:高斯分布的随机相位和频率:Neq = 10，8 JN&amp;其中 N 是人行桥上的行人

数量(密度 x 表面积)和临界阻尼比。

非常密集的人群:随机相位和所有行人频率相同:氮% = 1，85 TN。

这个模型在计算中被大大简化了。我们只需将 Neq 行人分布在桥上，向这些行人施加一个力，

振幅符号与振型符号相同，并将该力视为结构的固有频率，并计算相应共振时获得的最大加速
度。第 3 章解释了如何考虑这种负载。

3.2.4 - Lock-in of a pedestrian crowd

锁定表示这样一种现象，即频率随机分布在平均值附近且相移随机的行人人群将以共同频率
(人行桥的频率)逐渐协调，并与人行桥的运动同相。

到目前为止，已知的人群锁定情况仅限于横向人行桥振动。最近的两个案例，现在很有名，是
索费里诺人行桥和千禧人行桥，它们都经过了彻底的现场测试。这些测试再次证实，当行人感
知到人行桥的横向运动并开始干扰他时，他改变了行走速度，这种现象可以通过行人的反应得
到清楚的解释。为了补偿他最初的不平衡，他本能地跟随人行桥的运动频率。因此，他直接引
发了共鸣现象，由于所有的行人都经历过这种现象，问题进一步扩大，理论上整个人群可能会
同步。幸运的是，一方面，实际的同步性要弱得多，另一方面，当人行桥的运动使得行人不能
再向前迈最好的一步时，他们不得不停止行走，这种现象也不能再发展了。

3.2.4.1 Pedestrian flows measured on a real footbridge structure

富士野公司(参考[30)使用一座主跨度为 5.25 米 x 134m 米的大型人行桥，该桥可承受非常密集
的人群(最多约 2 人/平方米)，观察到上述因素的应用低估了实际观察到的横向振动幅度的约 1
至 10 倍。他们提出了人群同步行走的假设，并与人行桥的横向模态频率同步，以解释这一现
象，从而能够证明在这种情况下获得的测量值。这就是我们所说的“锁定”现象，下面提供了一
个详细的演示。

对于这种结构，通过只保留行人诱导载荷的傅立叶分解的第一项，这些作者提出了一个 0.2N
乘法因子来表示任何载荷，该因子将等同于一群 N 个人的载荷，允许他们检索有效测量位移
的大小(0.01 米)。

3.2.4.2 Theory formulated for the Millenium footbridge

奥雅纳的团队发布了一篇非常详细的文章，介绍了这项研究以及在千禧人行桥上进行的测试所
获得的结果(参考[38)。这里只提到这项研究的主要结论。
为千禧人行桥研究提出的模型如下:假设行人施加的力(单位为牛顿)与人行桥速度有关。
f1 行人=千伏(x，t)，其中 K 是比例因子(单位为 Ns/m)，V 是所讨论的 x 点和 t 点的人行桥速度
这样看来，行人负载可以理解为负阻尼。假设人行桥有粘性阻尼，行人引起的负阻尼力直接从
该阻尼力中扣除。锁定的结果是由更多行人的参与引起的负阻尼力的增加。临界数的便利概念
就是这样出现的:临界数是行人的数量，超过临界数，他们累积的负阻尼力就会高于人行桥的
固有阻尼；这种情况将类似于不稳定振荡器的情况:小扰动可能会产生无限放大的运动...
对于正弦水平振动模式的特定情况(考虑到最大单位位移，该模式的最大振幅归一化为 1，fi
代表第一横向固有频率，mi 代表该模式中的广义质量)，并且假设行人分布不均匀，则临界数
值可以写成:
N =呢叫 f

-K
k 是比例因子，千年人行桥的值为 300 Ns/m。

然后，我们可以注意到，低阻尼、低质量或低频率会转化为一个较小的临界数值，因此锁定风
险较高。因此，为了增加临界数量，有必要对这三个参数采取行动。

应当注意，系数 K 的值不能先验地推广到任何结构，因此它的使用增加了标准应用的不确定
性。

3.2.4.3 Laboratory tests on platform

为了量化行人的水平载荷和横向运动下的行人锁定效应，通过使用尺寸分析重新创建相对简单
的人行桥设计(单一水平模式)的主要条件，在简化的人行桥模型上进行了一些测试。
该原理包括将 7 米长、2 米宽的平板放置在 4 个横向移动的柔性叶片上，并安装入口和出口坡
道以及保持行走连续性的环(照片 1.1 和 1.2)。为了保持这种连续性，环路上当然需要大量行人；

这个数字明显高于在给定时间出现在人行桥上的行人数量。
HEB COUPE TRANS
VERSALE (avec la latne de
70 cm} Photographs 1.1 and 1.2: Description of the model
Echelle
U25
通过从测量的位移中重新产生瞬时力(先前过滤以减弱高频的影响)(F(t) = m&amp;x&amp;(t) +
cx&amp;(t) + kx(t))。图 1.5 显示，在第一步中，无论速度幅度如何，对于单个行人来说，行人
力的幅度保持恒定，大约为 50 N，并且在任何情况下都低于 100N。在第二步，我们观察到力
的振幅增加到 150 牛顿，但是这些最后的振动不应该被认为是测试的结束。

CROSS-SECTION VIEW (with blade 70 cm)

Scale 1/25
Detail A
Detail B
Detail C
Flexible blade (thickness 8 mm)
Detail D
Attachment axis to the slab
Detail E
 speed (m/s)
F pedestrians (N)
Time
Exciting force (N)
Figure 1.5: Force and speed at forced resonant rate
我们的峰值不超过 100 牛顿，平均约为 50 牛顿，该信号的一次谐波约为 35 牛顿
下图(图 1.6 和图 1.7)在同一张图上表示一组行人的时间加速度(右侧粉色曲线和刻度以
m/s2 表示，从 0.1 到 0.75 m/s2 变化)和有效力(瞬时力乘以速度符号，在一个周期内取平
均值，因此当能量注入系统时为正，相反情况下为负)(蓝色曲线，左侧刻度以 N 表示)。

Figure 1.6: Acceleration (m/s2) and efficient force (N) with 6 random pedestrians on the footbridge

(m/s2)
 2
(m/s )

Figure 1.7: Acceleration (m/s?) and efficient force (N) with io random pedestrians on the footbridge
我们观察到，从给定值来看，行人施加的力明显更有效，并且存在一些初始同步。该阈值约为
0.15 米/秒 2(随机速率区和初始同步区之间的直线)。然而，只有很少的同步(最大值为 100-150
牛顿，即 10 名行人影响的 0.2-0.3 倍)，但这足以产生非常不舒服的振动(&gt; 0.6m/s2)。

3.2.4.4 Experience gained from the Solferino footbridge test results

索尔费里诺人行桥关闭几年后，开展了几项测试活动，从一开始，这些测试旨在确定问题
并制定纠正措施；然后，他们需要检查所采取措施的效率，最后，吸取对科技界有用
的经验教训。

索尔费里诺人行桥试验得出的主要结论如下:

-锁定现象有效地发生在第一种横向摆动模式中，其频率的两倍位于行人正常行走频率的范
围内。

-另一方面，似乎不会出现同时出现垂直和水平运动的扭转模式，即使试验人群以引起共振
的频率行走。强烈的垂直运动干扰和扰乱了行人的行走，似乎不利于将其保持在为测
试选择的共振频率。然后注意到高水平加速度水平，它们的影响似乎被垂直加速度掩
盖了。

-临界行人数量的概念完全是相对的:低于某一阈值的锁定是不可能发生的，然而，另一方
面，超过已被证明的阈值，各种特定条件可以防止其发生。

-锁定似乎更容易从初始行人行走频率开始和发展，其值的一半低于结构的水平摆动风险固
有频率。在相反的情况下，也就是说，当行走的人群具有更快的初始步速时，一些测
试已经有效地表明它没有发生。这一点值得深入研究，但已经有可能解释说，行人相
当快地感受到水平加速度的影响不仅不同，这是肯定的，而且不太明显，这仍有待证
实。

-显然锁定发生在特定阈值之外。这个阈值可以用人行桥上足够数量的行人来解释(Arup 团
队采用的结论)，但也可以用行人感受到的加速度值来解释，这对于定义验证标准更为
 实际。

下图(图 1.8 至 1.13)总结了在索尔费里诺人行桥上进行的试验。加速度随时间的变化以绿色显

示，同时显示相关或同步率、行人等效数量与人行桥上行人数量之间的比率。从瞬时模态力可
以推导出行人的等效数量。行人的数量，有规律地分布在建筑物上，同相并以相同的频率向系
统中注入相同的能量。

Passerelle de Solferino: Essai 1 A: Foule aleatoire / Marche circulaire avec augmentation des pietons
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Temps (s)

—— Acceleration (m/s?)—Taux de corrQIation (%)|

Solferino footbridge: Test 1 A: Random crowd/Walking in circles with increasing numbers of pedestrians
Acceleration (m/s)
Correlation rate (%)
Time (s)
..... Acceleration (m/s2)------- Correlation rate (%)
Figure 1.8: 1A Solferino footbridge random test: a crowd is made to circulate endlessly on the footbridge with
the number of pedestrians being progressively increased (69 一 138 一 207).

在图 1.8 所示的测试中，可以看出，低于 0.12 米/秒 2 时，行为完全随机，从 0.15 米/秒 2 开始，

行为部分同步，当加速度幅度已经很高(0.45 米/秒 2)时，同步达到 30-35%。速率变化临界阈
值(从随机速率转变为部分同步速率)的概念变得明显。

各种“环路”对应于行人不规则地分布在人行桥上的事实，他们集中成组。因此，当最大的行人
群靠近人行桥的中心(凹陷顶部)，或者更确切地说是人行桥的末端(凹陷槽)时，这是很明显的。

还可以看出，在加速度水平增加(0.3m/s2，然后是 0.4m/s2，最后是 0.5m/s2)时出现的三个加速

度上升下降具有相同的当量
每次行人的数量。这清楚地表明了这样一个事实:当一群行人到达人行桥的尽头时，加速度上
升了两次。
在下面的测试中，如图 1.9 所示，行人的数量逐渐增加。.
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Acceleration (m/s)
Correlation rate (%)
Time (s)
.. Acceleration (m/s2) --------- Correlation rate (%)
Figure 1.9: 1B Solferino footbridge random test: a crowd is made to circulate endlessly on the footbridge with
the number of pedestrians being more progressively increased (115 138 161 92 一 184 一 202).

这一次，速率变化阈值似乎位于 0.15 - 0.20 米/秒 2 左右。最大同步率不超过 30%。

AccGI©「ation (m/sj —faux de coirGlation (%)|
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Figure 1.1o: 1C Solferino footbridge random test

测试 1C，如图 1.10 所示，让我们得出同样的结论:阈值在 0.10 到 0.15 米/秒之间变化，然

后更明显的同步达到 35%-40%。
Solferino footbridge: Test 2 A1: Random crowd/Walking grouped together in a straight line 229p
Acceleration (m/s) Passerelle de Solferino: Essai 2 A1: Foule aleatoire / Marche lineaire groupee 229p
Correlation rate 1,00
(%)
0,90
Time (s) 0,80
…… Acceleration 0,70(m/s2) ---- Correlation rate (%)
0,60 Figure 1.11: 2A1 Solferino footbridge random test

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0,20
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应该指出，一方面，振动水平更高(0.9m/s2 而不是 0.5m/s2)，另一方面，人群相当紧凑，
这有利于行人之间的同步现象。

Temps (s)

—Acceleration (m/s?)—Taux de corrOlation (%)|

 Passerelle de Solferino: Essai 2 A2: Foule aleatoire / Marche lineaire groupee lente 160p

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Correlation rate (%)
Time (s)
.. Acceleration (m/s2) --------- Correlation rate (%)
Figure 1.12: 2A2 Solferino footbridge random test

在图 1.12 所示的测试中，只有 160 人仍在从人行桥的一端慢慢走到另一端。这一次，同

Passerelle de Solferino: Essai 2 B: Foule aleatoire! Marche lineaire groupee rapide 160p

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Temps (s)

— Acceleration (m/s2)—Taux de correlation (%)

Solferino footbridge: Test 2 B: Random crowd/Rapid walking in straight line 160p Acceleration (m/s)
Correlation rate (%)
Time (s)
.. Acceleration (m/s2) --------- Correlation rate (%)

Figure 1.13: 2B Solferino footbridge random test

最后一次测试(图 1.13)与前一次相同，只是这次行人走得很快。尽管人群拥挤，只有 160

人，但没有观察到行人同步现象。这清楚地表明，当行人行走频率离自然频率太远时，
同步不会发生。

这些测试表明，相对于随机速率，在大约 0.10-0.15 米/秒 2 处，显然存在速率变化阈值。

一旦超过这个阈值，加速度就会大幅上升，但仍然有限。当测试停止时，同步率达到 30%
到 50%的数量级。当人群拥挤时，这个值可以上升到 60%，甚至更高。

为了标注尺寸，应注意 0.10 m/s2 的值。低于这个阈值，行人的行为可以被定性为随机行

为。然后可以使用上述等效的随机行人荷载，这将导致同步率达到 5%到 10%的数量级。
一旦超过这个阈值，同步率可以上升到 60%以上。因此，加速度相对突然地从 0.10 米/
秒升至 0.60 米/秒以上。加速度因此系统地变得不舒服。因此，0.10 米/秒 2 的速率变化阈
值成为不被超过的阈值。

3.2.4.5 Conclusions on lock-in

各种研究提出的结论看似不同，但实际上在几个方面是一致的。

一旦运动的幅度变得可察觉，人群行为就不再是随机的，一种同步性就产生了。有几种
型号可供选择(力是速度的函数，人群同步率高)，但它们都会导致加速度大大超过公认的
舒适阈值。

从固定支架上的随机速率到移动支架上的同步速率的过渡发生在超过特定阈值时，该阈
值以临界加速度或临界行人数量为特征。应该注意的是，临界行人数量的概念和临界加
速度的概念可以联系起来。临界加速度可以解释为临界数量的行人产生的加速度，尽管
在此之后它们不再是随机的。

虽然在两座人行桥上观察到的主要原理和行为变化是一致的，但是模型和数量上的差异
仍然会导致阻尼器尺寸的相当不同。

临界加速度的概念似乎比临界数量的行人更相关。加速度实际上对应于行人的感受，而
临界数量的行人取决于行人在人行桥上的组织和定位方式。因此，这些指南将讨论这个
临界加速度阈值，行人的组织方式取决于人行桥上的交通水平(见下文)。
3.3 - Parameters that affect dimensioning: frequency,
comfort threshold, comfort criterion, etc.
最近在人行桥上遇到的问题与众所周知的共振现象相呼应，这种共振现象是由行人脚步
的激励频率和人行桥模式的自然频率相匹配而产生的。由于它们被放大，人行桥的明显
移动随之而来，其结果是行人感到不舒服，妨碍了他们的前进。

因此，有必要审查对共振现象至关重要的结构参数，这些参数由自然振动模式(自然模式
和自然频率)以及与每种模式相关的结构临界阻尼比值表示。实际上，即使是设计简单的
人行桥，也会有无限的固有振动模式、频率和与之相关的临界阻尼比(见附录 1)。然而，
在大多数情况下，研究几个第一模式就足够了。

与此同时，有必要考虑行人步行频率，因为他们因人而异，以及步行条件和许多其他因
素。因此，有必要记住一系列的频率，而不是单一的频率。

防止共振风险的第一个简单方法是避免在行人行走频率范围内有一个或几个人行桥固有
频率。这就引出了要避免的一系列风险频率的概念。

3.3.1 - risk frequencies noted in the literature and in current

regulations
各种条款和法规中给出的频率范围值的汇编产生了下表，该表是针对垂直振动而编制的:

Eurocode 2 ( Ref. [4]) 1.6 Hz and 2.4 Hz and, where specified, between 2.5 Hz and 5 Hz.
Eurocode 5 ( Ref. [5]) Between 0 and 5 Hz
Appendix 2 of Eurocode 0 <5 Hz
BS 5400 ( Ref. [6]) <5 Hz
Regulations in Japan ( Ref. [30]) 1.5 Hz - 2.3 Hz
ISO/DIS standard 10137 ( Ref. [28]) 1.7 Hz - 2.3 Hz
CEB 209 Bulletin 1.65 - 2.35 Hz
Bachmann ( Ref. [59]) 1.6 — 2.4 Hz
Table 1 .2

关于横向振动，由于行走的特殊性质，上述范围将被分为两部分:右脚和左脚在垂直方向
的作用是相等的，但在水平方向的作用是相反的，这意味着横向力的施加频率是脚步频
率的一半。

然而，在千禧人行桥上，人们注意到即使在水平模式下也出现了锁定现象，其频率大大
低于目前普遍接受的正常步行频率的下限。因此，对于水平振动模式，建议进一步降低
风险频率范围的下限。

尽管风险频率范围是众所周知的，而且定义明确，但在施工实践中，不诉诸不切实际的
刚度或质量值，就很难避免风险频率范围。在不可能避免共振的地方，有必要通过作用
于剩余参数来限制其不利影响:结构阻尼；显然，必须有可用的标准来确定共振的可接受
极限。

3.3.2 - Comfort thresholds

在进一步讨论之前，应该明确舒适的概念。显然，这个概念非常主观。特别是:
• 从一个人到下一个人，同样的振动不会以同样的方式被感知。
• 对于特定的个体，可以定义几个阈值。第一个是振动感知阈值。接下来是一秒钟，
可能与不同程度的干扰或不适有关(短期内可以忍受，干扰，不可接受)。最后，可以根据
振动可能带来的后果来确定第三个阈值:失去平衡，甚至健康问题。
• 此外，根据他是站着、坐着、移动还是静止，特定的人对振动的反应可能不同。
• 众所周知，建筑物的振动和行人实际感受到的振动之间存在差异。例如，他接触
振动的持续时间会影响行人的感受。然而，这一领域的知识仍然不精确和不足。
因此，尽管非常需要，但是很明显，为了用于人行桥的尺寸确定，确定与行人感知的舒
适性相关的阈值是一项特别困难的任务。事实上，在松本和其他人(参考[16)给出的垂直
加速度上限为 1m/s2 的情况下，惠勒和蒂莉等人(参考[18)和参考[20)的数值或低或高相互
矛盾。此外，到目前为止，只有几个关于横向运动的建议。

因此，就项目而言，有必要将推荐值视为数量级，并且依赖易于计算或测量的参数会更
方便；以这种方式，行人感知的阈值被人行桥产生的可测量量同化，并且通常是被称为
结构的临界加速度 acrit 的峰值加速度值被保留；要遵守的舒适标准由不应超过的这个值
表示。显然，为了确定加速度，有必要定义适用于结构的适当载荷情况。这种验证被认
为是服务限制状态。

3.3.3 - Acceleration comfort criteria noted in the literature and

regulations
文献和各种法规提出了临界加速度 acrit 的各种值。这些值是为垂直加速度提供的，如下
图 1.14 所示:

Figure 1.14: Vertical critical accelerations (in m/s2) as a function of the natural frequency for various regulations:
some depend on the frequency of the structure, others do not.

对于频率约为 2 赫兹(标准行走频率)的垂直振动，0.5 至 0.8m/S2 的范围显然是一致的。应

该记住，这些值主要与单个行人的理论负荷有关。
对于频率约为 1 Hz 的横向振动，附录 2 的欧洲规范建议正常使用时水平临界加速度为
0.2m/S2，特殊情况下(即人群)为 0.4m/S2。不幸的是，文本没有提供人群负荷。
还需要记住的是，由于加速度、速度和位移是相关的，加速度阈值可以被转换为位移阈
值(这对设计者来说更有意义)，甚至是速度阈值。
• Acceleration = ( frequency of 2Hz) movement 2
 • Acceleration = ( frequency of 2Hz) speed
For instance,
for a frequency of 2 Hz:
acceleration of o.5m/s2 corresponds to a displacement of 3.2mm, a speed of o.o4m/s acceleration
of 1m/s2 corresponds to a displacement of 6.3 mm, a speed of o.o8 m/s but for a frequency of 1
Hz:
acceleration of o.5m/s2 corresponds to a displacement of 12.7mm, a speed of o.o8m/s
acceleration of 1m/s2 corresponds to a displacement of 25,3mm, a speed of o.16 m/s

3.4 - Improvement of dynamic behaviour

当人行桥加速不符合舒适标准时，该怎么办？
有必要区分设计阶段的人行桥和现有的人行桥。
就设计阶段的人行桥而言，尝试修改其固有频率振动是合乎逻辑的。如果不可能对其进
行修改，使其超出与行人激励相关的共振风险范围，则应尝试增加结构阻尼。
就现有的人行桥，也可以尝试改变其固有频率振动。然而，经验表明，增加阻尼通常更
便宜。
3.4.1 - Modification of vibration natural frequencies
振动固有频率总是与刚度的平方根成正比，与质量的平方根成反比。总的目标是试图增
加振动频率。因此，需要增加结构的刚度。然而，实践表明刚度的增加通常伴随着质量
的增加，这产生了相反的结果，这是一个难以解决的问题。

3.4.2 - Increasing structural damping

3.4.2.1 Natural structural damping of the structures

临界阻尼比不是材料固有的事实。大多数实验结果表明，耗散力实际上与频率无关，而
是取决于运动幅度。当振幅增加时，临界阻尼比也增加。它还取决于可能或多或少消耗
能量的结构细节(例如，就钢而言，螺栓连接和焊接之间的差异)。

应该注意到，尽管各种结构元件的质量和刚度可以以合理的精度建模，但是阻尼特性要
更难表征。研究通常使用 0.1%至 2.0%的临界阻尼系数，为了避免尺寸标注不足，最好不
要高估结构阻尼。

CEB 信息公报第 209 号(参考文献。[7])，这是一份处理结构振动一般问题的重要总结文

件，提供了以下值供项目使用:

Type of deck Critical damping ratio

Minimum value Average value
Reinforced concrete 0.8% 1.3%
Prestressed concrete 0.5% 1.0%
Metal 0.2% 0.4%
Mixed 0.3% 0.6%
Timber 1.5% 3.0%
Table 1.3
关于木材，欧洲法规 5 根据机械接头的存在或其他情况，推荐 1%或 1.5%的值。
在振幅较高的地方，如地震，临界阻尼比相当高，需要进行 SLS 检查。例如，《AFPS 92
桥梁抗震保护指南》(第 4.2.3 条)规定如下:

Material Critical damping ratio

Welded steel 2%
Bolted steel 4%
Prestressed concrete 2%
Non-reinforced concrete 3%
Reinforced concrete 5%
Reinforced elastomer 7%
Table 1.4
最后，应该指出，实际结构阻尼的估计只能通过对成品结构进行测量来实现。也就是说，
可以从设计阶段获得增加的阻尼，例如通过使用金属丝网结构，或者在张力带人行桥(应
力带)的情况下，通过插入分布在构成甲板的预制混凝土板之间的弹性体板。

3.4.2.2 Damper implementation

使用减震器是减少振动的另一种有效解决方案。 附录 3 描述了可以使用的不同类型的阻
尼器，并描述了某些阻尼器的操作和尺寸设计原理。 下表示例显示了这是对该问题的一
种经过实践检验的解决方案：

Country Name Mass kg Total Critical damping Critical damping Structure

effective Damper ratio of the ratio of the frequency
mass critical structure without structure with Hz
% damping ratio dampers dampers
France Passerelle du Stade de 2400 per 1.6 0.075 0.2% to 0.3% 4.3% to 5.3% 1.95 (vertical)
France (Football span
stadium footbridge)
(Saint-Denis)
France Solferino footbridge 15000 4.7 0.4% 3.5% 0.812
(Paris) (horizontal)
Ditto Ditto 10000 2.6 0.5% 3% 1.94 (vertical)
Ditto Ditto 7600 2.6 0.5% 2% 2.22 (vertical)
England Millenium footbridge 2500 0.6% to 0.8% 2% 0.49 (horizontal)
(London)
Ditto Ditto 1000 to 0.6% to 0.8% 0.5 (vertical)
2500
Japan 1 0.2% 2.2% 1.8 (vertical)
USA Las Vegas (Bellagio- 0.5% 8%
Bally)
South Korea Seonyu footbridge 0.6% 3.6% 0.75 (horizontal)
Ditto Ditto 0.4% 3.4% 2.03 (vertical)
Table 1.5: Examples of the use of tuned dynamic dampers
注意:在千禧人行桥和自动驾驶仪的情况下，还安装了粘性阻尼器来抑制水平运动。
4. Footbridge dynamic analysis methodology
为了业主，主要承包商和设计师的目的，本章提出了一种方法和建议，以考虑行人交通
对人行桥造成的动态影响。
这些建议一方面是附录 1 至 4 中描述的清单的结果，另一方面是负责这些准则的
Setra-AFGC 小组的工作的结果。因此，它们是对现有知识的总结，并介绍了小组所做的
选择。
所提出的方法使得可以限制由行人脚步引起的结构共振的风险。但是，必须记住，共振
相距很远，很轻的人行桥可能会发生振动现象。
从根本上说，所有者在决定采用哪种方法时，需要根据行人天桥的等级来定义行人天桥
的等级，并确定要满足的舒适度。
行人天桥等级决定是否需要确定结构的固有频率。在计算它们时，这些固有频率导致根
据频率值范围选择一个或多个动态载荷工况。定义这些工况以代表行人交通的各种可能
影响。载荷工况的处理提供了结构所经历的加速度值。可以通过包含这些值的范围来限
定获得的舒适度。
该方法总结在下面的组织图中。

Figure 2.1: Methodology organisation chart

本章还包括要进行的特定验证（SLS 和 ULS），以考虑行人荷载下人行天桥的动态行为
（请参见 2.6）。 显然，标准验证（SLS 和 ULS）应按照现行法规进行； 它们不属于这
些准则。
4.1 - Stage 1: determination of footbridge class
人行桥等级可以确定其能够承受的交通水平:

第四类:很少使用的人行桥，用于连接人口稀少的地区，或确保高速公路或快速车道区域
行人路的连续性。

第三类:标准用途的人行桥，偶尔会有一大群人穿过，但绝不会在整个承重区域承重。

第二类:连接人口密集地区的城市人行桥，交通繁忙，偶尔会在整个承载区内承重。

第一类:连接高行人密度区域(例如，附近有铁路或地铁站)的城市人行桥，或经常被交通非
常拥挤的人群(示威、游客等)使用的城市人行桥。

业主应根据上述信息确定人行桥等级，并考虑交通水平随时间可能发生的变化。

他的选择也可能受到他决定考虑的其他标准的影响。例如，考虑到媒体的高期望，可以
选择更高的等级来提高防振水平。另一方面，为了限制建筑成本或确保建筑设计的更大
自由度，可以接受较低的等级，同时要记住，选择较低等级的相关风险应仅限于以下可
能性:有时，当结构承受交通和强度超过当前值的负荷时，有些人可能会感到不舒服。

四级人行桥被认为不需要任何计算来检查动态性能。对于非常轻的人行桥，最好至少选
择三级，以确保风险控制的最低程度。事实上，非常轻的人行桥可以呈现高加速度，而
不一定有任何共振。

4.2 - Stage 2: Choice of comfort level by the Owner

4.2.1 - Definition of the comfort level

业主决定人行桥的舒适度。

最大的舒适性:使用者几乎察觉不到结构所承受的加速度。

平均舒适度:使用者只能感觉到结构的加速度。

最低舒适度:在很少发生的负载配置下，用户可以感觉到结构所承受的加速度，但不会变
得无法忍受。

应该注意的是，上述信息不能形成绝对的标准:舒适的概念是高度主观的，特定的加速度
水平将根据个人的不同而有所不同。此外，除了行人功能外，这些指引并没有涉及一些
行人天桥可能承受的大面积或永久占用处所的舒适性。

舒适度的选择通常受使用人行桥的人群及其重要性的影响。代表特别敏感的用户(学童、
老人或残疾人)可能会要求更高，在人行桥较短(交通时间较短)的情况下可能会更宽容。

如果在计算结构固有频率后共振的风险被认为可以忽略不计，舒适度自动被认为是足够
的。

4.2.2 - Acceleration ranges associated with comfort levels

通过参考结构在不同的动态载荷情况下通过计算得出的加速度来评估所达到的舒适度。
因此，这不是直接由结构使用者感知到的加速度的问题。

考虑到舒适度概念的主观性质，我们认为在范围而不是阈值方面，推理比推理更可取。表
2.1 和 2.2 定义了分别用于垂直和水平加速度的 4 个值范围，分别记为 1、2、3 和 4。 按
照升序排列，前 3 个对应于上一段中描述的最大，平均和最小舒适度。 第四范围对应于
不可接受的不舒适的加速水平。

Acceleration ranges
0 0.5 1 2.5
Range 1 Max
-
Range 2 Mean
Range 3 Min
Range 4
Table 2.1: Acceleration ranges (in m/s2) for vertical vibrations

Acceleration ranges 0 0.1 0.15 0.3 0.8

Range 1 Ma x
Range 2 Mean
Range 3 Min

Range 4
Table 2.2: Acceleration ranges (in m/s2) for horizontal vibrations
加速度在任何情况下都被限制在 0.10 米/秒 2，以避免“锁定”效应

4.3 - Stage 3: Determination of frequencies and of the need to

perform dynamic load case calculations or not
对于 I 至 III 类人行天桥，有必要确定结构的固有振动频率。 这些频率涉及三个方向上的
振动：垂直，横向水平和纵向水平。 它们是根据 2 个质量假设确定的：空的行人天桥和
在整个承载区域加载的行人天桥，相当于每平方米 700 N 行人（70 kg / m2）。

这些频率所处的范围使得评估行人交通引起的共振风险成为可能，并据此评估要研究的
动态载荷情况，以验证舒适性标准。

4.3.1 - Frequency range classification

在垂直和水平方向上，有四个频率范围，对应于共振风险的降低:

范围 1:共振的最大风险。

范围 2:中等共振风险。
范围 3:标准负载情况下共振的低风险。

范围 4:共振的风险可以忽略不计。

表 2.3 定义了垂直振动和纵向水平振动的频率范围。表 2.4 涉及横向水平振动。

Frequency o1 1.7 2.1 2.6 5

Range 1
Range 2
Range 3
Range 4
Table 2.3: Frequency ranges (Hz) of the vertical and longitudinal vibrations

Frequency o o.3 o.5 1.1 1.3 2.5

Range 1
Range 2
Range 3
Range 4
Table 2.4: Frequency ranges (Hz) of the transverse horizontal vibrations

4.3.2 - Definition of the required dynamic calculations

Depending on footbridge class and on the ranges within which its natural frequencies are
situated, it is necessary to carry out dynamic structure calculations for all or part of a set of 3 load
cases:
Case 1: sparse and dense crowd
Case 2: very dense crowd
Case 3: complement for an evenly distributed crowd (2nd harmonic effect) Table 2.5 clearly
defines the calculations to be performed in each case.
 Load cases to select for acceleration checks
Natural frequency range
Traffic Class
1 2 3
Nil Nil
Sparse iii
Case1
Dense ii Case 1 Case 3

Very i Case 2 Case 2 Case 3

dense
Case No. 1: Sparse and dense crowd Case No. 3: Crowd complement (2nd harmonic)
Case No. 2: Very dense crowd
Table 2.5: Verifications 一 load case under consideration：

4.4 - Stage 4 if necessary: calculation with dynamic load

cases.
如果前一阶段得出需要动态计算的结论，这些计算应能够:

• 在工作条件下，在下文定义的动态载荷情况下，检查业主要求的段落 ii.2 中的舒

适度标准。

• 传统的 SLS 和 ULS 型检查，包括动态载荷情况。

4.4.1 - Dynamic load cases

下文定义的荷载情况已被设定为以简化和可行的方式表示人行桥上较少或较多行人的影
响。它们是为每种自然振动模式构建的，其频率已在共振风险范围内确定。下一章给出了
考虑这些载荷并将其纳入结构计算软件的方式，以及构造建模的方式。

Case 1: sparse and dense crowds

此情况仅适用于第三类(稀疏人群)和第二类(密集人群)人行桥。行人人群的密度 d 将根据
人行桥的等级进行考虑: ______________________________
Class Density d of the crowd
III 0.5 pedestrians/m2
II 0.8 pedestrians/m2

人群被认为是均匀分布在人行桥的总面积上
因此，涉及的行人数量为:N = S×d。
等效行人的数量，换句话说，频率和相位都相同的行人的数量将产生与随机行人相同的效
果，频率和相位为:10，8 x ( x N)(见第 1 章)。
要考虑的载荷由负因子 f1 修正，该因子考虑到这样一个事实，即人行桥中共振的风险越
远离垂直加速度的 1.7 赫兹- 2.1 赫兹范围，水平加速度的 0.5 赫兹- 1.1 赫兹范围越小。当
人行桥频率对于垂直动作小于 1 赫兹，对于水平动作小于 0.3 赫兹时，该系数降至 0。同
样地，垂直动作的频率超过 2.6 赫兹，水平动作的频率超过 1.3 赫兹，该系数会自动抵消。
然而，在这种情况下，必须检查行人行走的二次谐波。
 Figure 2.3 : Factor 屮 in the case of walking, for vertical and longitudinal vibrations on the left, and for lateral
vibrations on the right.
下表总结了对垂直和纵向模式感兴趣的任何随机人群在每个振动方向上施加的单位面积
载荷。s1 代表临界阻尼比(无单位)，n 代表人行桥上的行人数量(d×S)。

Direction Load per m?

Vertical (v) d x (280N) x cos(2nfvt) x 10.8 x (§ /n)1/2 x 屮
Longitudinal (l) d x (140N) x cos(2nflt) x 10.8 x (点/n)1/2 x i//
Transversal (t) d x (35N) x cos(2nfvt) x 10.8 x (§ /n)1/2 x /

载荷将施加到整个人行桥上，并且必须在任何点选择振幅的符号以产生最大效果:因此载
荷的施加方向必须与模式形状的方向相同，并且必须在每次模式形状改变方向时反转，例
如当通过节点时(更多细节参见第三章)。

注释 1：为了获得这些值，使用公式 10.8 x（§xn）1/2 计算等效行人的数量，然后除以负

载面积 S，然后将其替换为 n / d（注意 n = S xd），即 dx 10.8 x（§/ n），乘以这些等效行
人的个体作用（Fo cos（^ t））并乘以负因子 f1。

注释 2：很明显，这些荷载工况不能同时应用。将垂直载荷工况应用于有风险的每种垂直
模式，将纵向载荷工况应用于有风险的每种纵向模式，并在每种情况下将载荷的频率调整
为相关的固有频率。

注释 3：上面的荷载工况未显示行人动作的静态部分 G0。该组件对加速度没有影响；但
是，应该记住，每个行人的重量必须包含在行人天桥的重量之内。

注释 4：将施加这些载荷，直到获得共振的最大加速度。请记住，构造等效行人的数量是
为了将真实行人与具有完美共鸣的虚构行人进行比较。有关更多详细信息，请参见第 3
章。
Case 2: very dense crowd
这种荷载情况仅适用于一级人行桥。

要考虑的行人人群密度设定为每平方米 1 人。如前所述，该人群被认为均匀分布在区域 S
上。

人们认为行人的频率相同，相位随机。在这种情况下，所有同相行人的数量相当于随机相
行人的数量(n)为 1.85 Tn(见第 1 章)。

第二个负因子 f1，由于人群产生的应力频率和结构的固有频率之间的不确定性，由图 2.3

根据所考虑模式的固有频率定义，一方面是垂直和纵向振动，另一方面是横向振动。

下表总结了每个振动方向单位面积上施加的载荷。评论与前一段相同:

Direction Load per m2

Vertical (v) 1.o x (28oN) x cos(2nfvt) x 1.85 (1/n)1/2 x 屮
Longitudinal (l) 1.o x (14oN) x cos(2nfvt) x 1.85 (1/n)1/2 x 屮
Transversal (t) 1.o x (35N) x cos(2n/yt) x 1.85 (1/n)1/2 x 屮

Case 3: effect of the second harmonic of the crowd

这种情况类似于情况 1 和情况 2，但考虑了行人行走引起的应力的二次谐波，平均位于一
次谐波频率的两倍。仅适用于第一类和第二类人行桥。
第二类的行人密度为每平方米 0.8 人，第一类为每平方米 1 人
这群人被认为是均匀分布的。行人施加的单个力垂直减小到 70N，横向减小到 7N，纵向
减小到 35N。
对于第二类人行桥，考虑到频率和行人相位的随机特性，如 1 号荷载情况。
就第一类行人天桥而言，只考虑行人相位的随机特性，如第二类负载情况。
第二个负因子 f1，由于人群产生的应力频率和结构的固有频率之间的不确定性，由图 2.4

根据所考虑模式的固有频率给出，一方面是垂直和纵向振动，另一方面是横向振动。

4.4.2 - Damping of the construction

The dynamic calculations are made, taking into account the following structural damping:
Type Critical damping ratio
Reinforced concrete 1.3%

Figure 2.4: Factor 屮 for the vertical vibrations on the left and the lateral vibrations on the right
Pre-stressed concrete 1%
Mixed 0.6%
Steel 0.4%
Timber 1%
Table 2.6: Critical damping ratio to be taken into account
在结合几种材料的不同结构的情况下，要考虑的临界阻尼比可以作为各种材料的临界阻尼
比的平均值，这些材料通过它们在所考虑的模式中的整体刚度中各自的贡献来加权:

fmodei = --- in which km4 is the contribution of material m to the overall rigidity in
/ km,i
material m
mode i.
在实践中，km,i 刚度的确定是困难的。对于截面几乎不变的传统人行桥，可以使用以下
公式方法:
Y^mEIm
氨 ode = maten
^ in which EIm is the contribution of the material m to the overall rigidity EI
Y EIm
material m
of the section, in comparison to the mechanical centre of that section. (such that
YEIm=EI)
material m

4.5 - Stage 5: Modification of the project or of the footbridge

如果上述计算没有提供足够的证据，如果涉及新的人行桥，项目将重新启动；如果涉及现
有人行桥，项目将采取步骤(安装或不安装阻尼器)。本段给出了减少人行桥动态影响的建
议。这些建议的重要性越来越小。

4.5.1 - Modification of the natural frequencies

修改固有频率是解决建筑振动问题最明智的方法。然而，为了显著地改变结构的固有频率，
经常需要进行广泛的结构修改以增加结构的刚度。

大多数情况下，我们会寻求一种增加固有频率的方法，这样第一种模式，以及所有以下模
式，都在风险范围之外。在某些情况下，当第一模式的频率较低，但是在风险范围内，并
且第二模式的频率足够高时，如果第二模式保持在该范围之上，则降低频率以使第一模式
低于风险范围可能是有利的。然而，这并不十分令人满意。此外，通过降低结构的刚性，
它变得更加灵活并且静态偏转增加。

在增加行人天桥固有频率的方法中，可引述如下:

4.5.1.1 Vertical vibrations

例如，让我们考虑由钢箱梁形成的桥面的垂直振动情况。如果箱梁的深度可以增加，那么
它的刚度就可以增加，而不会增加质量。保持顶部和底部凸缘的厚度，并与腹板深度的增
加成比例地减小腹板厚度就足够了。但是，在很多情况下，由于功能(人行桥下通道的高
度)或建筑原因，不可能增加箱梁的深度，或者增加不够。如果箱形梁的凸缘和腹板的厚
度增加，惯性会与厚度成比例增加，但自重也会增加，这会降低整体效果。在这种情况下，
除了修改结构的静态图之外，没有增加固有频率的解决方案:在桥墩中创建凹槽，添加拉
索等。

对于具有实心钢-混凝土混合梁的桥面，增加底部钢凸缘的厚度在增加振动频率方面更有
效。由于混凝土板的质量没有增加，自重没有增加得那么快，因为它包括主要部分。

在格子甲板的情况下，惯性根据深度的平方而变化，而法兰的截面(因此法兰的质量)与深
度成反比。因此，增加深度以增加振动频率是有利的。

在混凝土桥面的情况下，混凝土强度的增加能够增加其模量，从而增加桥面的刚度，而不
增加其质量，而是减小其比例，因为模量仅根据抗压强度的立方根增加。另一种在不增加
质量的情况下增加刚度的传统方法是用工字形截面代替矩形截面。因此，由箱梁形成的桥
面将比由矩形梁形成的相同厚度的桥面具有更高的振动频率。

普通混凝土也可以用轻质混凝土代替，以减少质量(刚度略有降低)，从而增加振动频率。

在斜拉桥桥面的情况下，拉索截面的增加通常允许刚度增加，而质量不会增加太多。这种
解决方案是有效的，但并不经济，因为必须增加拉索的数量，而且不能抵消。拉索的扇形
排列比竖琴排列更坚硬。更高的塔架也导致刚度的增加而不增加质量，从而导致振动频率
的增加。

在悬挂甲板的情况下，振动频率根据缆绳张力的平方根除以缆绳和甲板的线密度而增加。
因此，简单地增加电缆的截面没有任何好处。尤其是必须减少它们的偏转。

甲板的垂直刚度也可以通过栏杆参与刚度来增加。

4.5.1.2 Torsional vibrations

甲板的扭转振动使其垂直移动，远离结构的纵轴。因此，在研究行人感受到的垂直振动时，
还必须考虑桥面扭转振动频率的值。扭转振动的频率与扭转刚度的平方根成正比，与甲板
极性密度的平方根成反比。因此，设计一个扭转刚性的甲板是非常有利的。

有几种方法可以提高甲板扭转振动的频率。其中之一当然是增加扭转惯性。因此，箱形梁
甲板比由侧梁形成的甲板具有更大的扭转惯性。通过增加箱形梁的横截面积，扭转惯量可
以增加更多。在由横向梁支撑的填充托梁形成的甲板上增加连接两个梁的底部凸缘的底部
水平网格风撑，也将允许抗扭刚度增加，但是增加的量小于箱梁。

对于具有横向悬挂的斜拉桥，其桥面由两个横向梁构成，将拉索锚固在结构的轴向平面内
(在轴向塔架上或倒 Y 形或倒 V 形塔架的顶部)，而不是两个独立的横向塔架内，将允许
扭转频率增加接近 1.3 倍(参考[52)。里昂司法宫的人行桥就是这样做的。

4.5.1.3 Horizontal vibrations

水平振动频率与水平刚度的平方根成正比，与甲板质量的平方根成反比。

增加水平刚度的一个明显方法是增加甲板的宽度。但代价同样明显。

在给定的宽度下，增加水平刚度的一种方法包括在甲板边缘提供抗力元件:例如，可以使
用两个 S 形截面侧梁，而不是在甲板下等距间隔的四个 S/2 形截面梁。
对于跨度非常窄的斜拉式或悬挂式人行桥，可以使用横向缆索来加固结构。切尔河上图尔
悬挂式人行桥就是这种情况。

4.5.2 - Structural reduction of accelerations

如果无法充分增加频率，或者增加导致无法进行项目的设计，或者桥梁过旧，无法对其进
行实质性修改，则必须尝试降低频率。加速度（而不直接影响阻尼）。为此，可以通过使
用“重型”甲板（沥青，混凝土等）来增加建筑质量。这对加速度有直接影响（应该记住，
它们与质量成反比）。另外，如果该面板连接到结构，则频率不会降低太多，并且由面板
提供的阻尼可能对总阻尼有相当大的贡献。降低加速度的另一种方法是使用自然阻尼的材
料。但是，应该意识到，为了使这些材料减震，它们必须在整体刚度中起作用。可以例如
通过使用格子栏杆来增加阻尼。在“应力带”人行天桥的情况下，可将弹性体板放置在预制
混凝土板之间，从该预制板形成甲板以增加阻尼。

4.5.3 - Installation of dampers

作为最后的选择，如果先前的解决方案不起作用，则可以安装阻尼系统，该系统通常是调
谐质量阻尼器（这些是最容易安装的：为了正常工作，粘性阻尼器通常需要构造复杂的设
备才能重新制造大差速运动）。调谐质量阻尼器由质量组成，该质量通过弹簧连接到结构，
阻尼器平行放置。 该设备可以在周期性激励下，以给定的振动模式大量减少建筑物中的
振动，该频率的激励接近该建筑物振动模式的固有频率（参见附件 3§3.3）。 。
这仅应视为万不得已，因为尽管这些解决方案具有明显的吸引力（以低成本大幅增加了阻
尼），但仍存在缺点。 如果使用调谐质量阻尼器，这是最典型的情况：
• 风险频率越高，需要的阻尼器越多。对于具有多种风险模式(弯曲、扭转、垂直、
横向、纵向模式等)的复杂人行桥，实施起来可能非常麻烦；

• 阻尼器必须以随时间变化(延迟现象)或根据行人数量(质量变化)的建筑频率设置
(在大约 2-3%范围内)。有效性的降低是明显的；

• 阻尼器的增加使所考虑的固有频率退化，并因此加倍:这使得整体动态特性以及固
有频率的测量变得复杂；

• 尽管制造商声称减震器有很长的使用寿命，但他们确实需要最低水平的日常维护:
车主必须意识到这一点；

• 由于增加的重量(约为所考虑的模式的模式质量的 3%至 5%)，该解决方案仅在现

有人行桥具有足够的备用设计容量的情况下有效。在拟建的人行桥上，设计师可能需要调
整结构尺寸；

• 优选地，将实现 3%的保证阻尼:在非常轻的结构上(激振力除以质量的比率很高)，
这可能是不够的。

4.6 - Structural checks under dynamic loads

4.6.1 - SLS type checks specific to the dynamic behaviour

除了按照相关法规的规定对服务限制状态进行常规检查外，还应通过以下方式建立行人动
态负载的特定服务组合:
• 通过应用与确定舒适性相同的方法， 由动态载荷情况 1 至 4 之一产生的影响(应力、
位移等)。因此，当必须计算加速度时，也必须计算相应的力，以检查它们是否仍
然是允许的。如果该方法不要求计算加速度，则无需进行该检查；
• 与所考虑的动态情况相关的静态载荷的影响，一方面对应于永久载荷，另一方面
对应于行人的重量，每名行人使用 700 牛顿的载荷。
请注意，静态和动态振动形状是结合在一起的，因此，使用计算软件时必须采取预防措施。

4.6.2 - ULS type checks specific to the dynamic behaviour

由于这些包括检查结构强度，使用假定接近材料弹性极限的应力水平(否则，显然不会有
强度问题)，必须使用下表 2.7 中给出的结构阻尼进行动态计算:

Types of construction Dampi ng

welded steel 2%
bolted steel 4%
reinforced concrete 5%
pre-stressed concrete 2%
Table 2.7
与服务限制状态相同，除了相关法规规定的传统 ULSs 之外，还应执行此处规定的最终限
制状态。应形成一个偶然的类型组合，以模拟故意破坏或人行桥上异常大的公众示威。一
旦对危险范围内的自然频率进行了舒适性检查，就要进行检查。要考虑的荷载情况类似于
先前定义的 1 号荷载情况(见 2.3.2)，无论人行桥的类别如何，但有以下修改:

• 人群密度为每平方米 1 人；

• 除人行桥上的永久荷载外，必须考虑人群施加的静荷载，其取值为 700 牛顿/平方

米；

• 行人的个体效应被直接组合，没有负因子(nequivalent = n 和 f1=1)。

这种负载情况极其悲观，因为它假设了一大群行人的完美协调。然而，它可能发生在非常
特殊的情况下(有节奏的示威、比赛、游行等)或锁定的情况下。

经验表明，仅在特定情况下可能存在强度问题，因为不要忘记，这种载荷情况代表偶然的
ULS，永久载荷的加权可以不同于基本 ULS，或者可以对材料的极限更宽容。

无论如何，在某些特定的情况下，如果结构得到优化，并且所有东西的尺寸都精确，可能
会缺乏强度。如果是这种情况，并且如果对尺寸的影响很大(不应该是这种情况，因为在
有和没有动态载荷的情况下尺寸的差异很小)，那么寻找这样计算的最大动态力对应的加
速度可能是好的做法。如果加速度太大，可以给出一个比重力加速度小的合理值(在 0.5 g
和 1.0 g 之间)，超过这个值就认为行走是不可能的。

在横向上，结构的强度不太可能成为问题，因为:
• 行人的横向作用比垂直作用弱得多(35 N 而不是 280N)；

• 假设极端风力情况和人行桥上的大量人群没有结合在一起，由于人行桥的风力大
 小，对大小的影响可以忽略不计；

• 行人无法保持平衡的横向加速度比垂直加速度小得多。例如，它可以被限制在 0.1
g 和 0.3 g 之间的值。

因此，异常的行人人群不太可能对行人天桥的尺寸或强度造成问题，但应首先进行检查。

最后，应该注意的是，在这些检查中，由于这些异常的公众示威，在加速度过大的情况下，
行人的个人安全没有包括在内。因此，本指南建议业主不要允许在行人天桥上举行特殊的
公众示威，而应在行人天桥的尺寸设计中考虑到这些示威，因为在行人天桥的整个使用寿
命期间，很难防止这些示威发生。
5. Chapter 3: Practical design methods

5.1 - Practical design methods

对于连续结构和系统的动态设计，可以使用两种主要方法：直接积分设计和模态设计。

5.1.1 - Direct integration

该方法包括在施加载荷的情况下直接积分动力学方程。它在实践中很少用于人行桥的振
动，因为影响它们的现象是共振现象，这意味着要预测它们，必须知道结构的固有频率。
它更多地用于抗震设计，在抗震设计中，激励是已知的(例如，外加地震加速度图)
然而，直接积分法在分析时间上比模态计算更昂贵，在下列情况下可能是必要的:
• 当模态叠加方法不能用于减少的模态数时；
• 当阻尼不成比例或集中时(例如粘性阻尼器)；
• 当问题不是线性的。
后两点可能会在某些人行桥振动问题中遇到(使用有限元、阻尼器、非线性结构)。然而，
确实存在接近模态方法的方法，即使如此，为了能够设置产生最大效果的动态载荷，确
定正常振动的“表观频率”通常是有利的。

5.1.2 - Modal calculation

模态方法总是分两个阶段进行，即最初确定固有振动模式，以及根据这些固有振动模式
形成的实际响应(如有必要)进行计算。

这种方法的优点是固有振动模式是建筑的固有振动模式。因此，它们代表了最有可能的
结构振动模式。

第二个优点是它们形成了一个基础，因此实际的解决方案是这些模式的线性组合。自由
度的数量因此大大减少，并且获得非链接方程。

最后，第三个优点是，当结构在其固有频率之一被激励时，并且仅在这种情况下，产生
共振现象。其中一种模式的响应比其他模式大得多。因此，具有几个自由度的问题被限
制为具有一个自由度的问题，因此容易解决。因此，问题中只有一个未知，那就是共振
的振幅。了解这些共振频率对于分析动力学问题至关重要。
5.2 - Dynamic calculation applied to footbridges

5.2.1 - Calculation of natural frequencies and natural vibration

modes
在实践中，自然振动模式的计算是通过使用用于复杂结构的软件进行的（在实践中，只
要有多个梁等，就可以实现）。 但是，可以通过分析确定某些情况。 即使在复杂的结构
中，通常也可能具有几个数量级的固有频率。

5.2.1.1 Simply-supported beam

对于恒定特性的简支梁，可以进行分析计算（请参见表 3.1）。

Mode Natural pulsation Natural frequency Mode shape

Simple bending to n n 2n2 1 El
(Q = ------ ------- f n 2n
() sin
.(nnx) n = ［
sags
L ］p S n EI VP S v x

〒 1

Tension-compression nn py f 二丄 Jn
to n sags Qn
= ~T\ p ES P n
u (x) = sin］罕］
S
2L\
Torsion to n sags
nn GJ GJ &n(x) = sin］罕］
Q
= ~］l P r I
f = 仁 2 L# Pr
n

Table 3.1: analytical modes for a simply-supported beam

pS 是结构的线密度(包括永久载荷和变化载荷)，pIr 是结构的惯性矩，ES 是拉压刚度，

EI 是弯曲刚度，GJ 是扭转刚度。
实际上，对于不是很宽(与跨度相比宽度较低)和扭转刚性(闭合轮廓)的人行桥，扭转模
式和拉压模式一样都是高频。在这种情况下，只有弯曲模式的分析是相关的。如果截面
在扭转时是柔性的(开口轮廓的情况)，必须考虑扭转模式。如果截面较宽(例如平板或双
梁)，还必须考虑差异弯曲或横向弯曲模式。(见图 3.1)。在这种情况下，“板壳”型模
型可能是必要的。

Figure 3.1: Torsion mode (on the left) and differential bending mode (on the right) to be taken into account when
the profiles are open (on the left), or when the sections are wide (on the right), or even in both cases.
下图 3.2 显示了宽度为跨度五分之一的人行桥上遇到的弯曲和扭转模式。

Mode 1: Bending 1 sag Mode 2: Bending 2 sags

Mode 3: Torsion 1 sag Mode 4: Bending 3 sags

Mode 5: Torsion 2 sags Mode 6: Bending 4 sags

Mode 7: Torsion 3 sags Mode 8: Bending 5 sags

 Mode 9: Torsion 4 sags
Figure 3.2 Mode shape of a wide simply-supported footbridge

5.2.1.2 Simple beam with various boundary conditions

对于任何支撑上连续的梁，在不同的边界条件下，自然脉动总是以 wn 的形式出现，它可
以分解成一个因素取决梁 r1n 的形状，一个因素取决于材料 Ep，一个因素取决于截面 IS，
也称为转弯半径。

下表取自 CECM 89 规则(参考[8)，根据支持条件给出了 r1n 系数的值:

r=1 r二 2 r =3 I r=5 r>5

200 0.9 2 8
0.6 44

I
z 0.500 0*868
[(27 y I2

X - 3,32 1 ■ =.<2
X - 61,7 lz 21,0 入二 2D0,0
0.50
0.5 0 0 0.2 5 I 0.75 0,20 040 O^BO®*®0
0.333 016 67
[r
XZ 158
X： XZ 3 9.5
12 8 a, t

0.4 0 9 Q7 7 3
0.5 QO

kz =2,*
I—M X Z 61.7
0,33 9 0.6 4 1 i—f

k 二 12 1
0.5 0 0 FR
X - 200 1 » 29 B
[(2r+t) 1 ]2

0-09 < 0,6 £4 0.2 7 7 0,135

1 0.3 5 6 I 0.9 0 6 aO6Q d：0 9 0；T73
0.2 2 4 Q.T7 6 0.132 0,5 0 0 0.860 ao7 3 | 0.500 I 0.9 27
aiai a.5 91 as4 0
-
-
「俗+唱］2
1 ： T 2« Xw200
X - 29 8

0.5 2 9 Q4 asio
0.5 60
和 0.3 B 4 0.6 9 2 黑 0.2 3o| 0.519 1
『
A 二咛 1 X z 5 0,0 X21o4 '
X=17e
0-4 7 1 0.9 2 2
X s 275
[(4r+%

0.616 as B l Q7 6 3
0.7 3 6 0-4* 0 0,95 3 a309 I a893 0.2 3 5 0.7 0 7 0.1 301 0^91 CL93F

[(“+吩]$
XZt04 X=17»
A - 1 5( 4 X - 5 Q.0

Table 3.2: Influence of the boundary conditions on the natural vibration modes
5.2.1.3 Commonplace constructions
在对人行桥的动力学进行任何数字计算之前，无论是针对使用频率和加速度计算公式的
简单情况，还是针对在特定计算程序上更复杂结构的建模，都应首先就计算假设和正在
创建的模型提出一定数量的问题。
以下列表旨在列出成功完成建模必须仔细观察的要点。这些点涵盖了动态计算本身。显
然，所有通常的静态结构建模假设和技术都应该执行。例如，这涉及到有限元网格的相
关性，以及考虑钢结构连接的建模等。
建模人员在开始建筑的数字建模之前，必须特别注意以下方面和问题:
5.2.1.3.1 Structure of the deck
甲板顶层是否参与？如果不是，只有它的质量是相关的，如果是，它将另外提供刚性和
阻尼，刚性将直接影响频率，阻尼将直接影响整体结构阻尼。
必须描述和考虑各种元件之间的连接:旋转接头、凹槽、中间连接将对频率产生直接影响。
焊接或螺栓连接导致不同的阻尼。
5.2.1.3.2 Supports
应特别注意基础。人行桥桥面结构的动力特性经常被考虑，但其支座的动力特性没有被
考虑。在大多数典型情况下，这种简化是允许的，因为支撑通常比人行桥面板更刚性，
并提供更多阻尼。但情况并非总是如此。
在支架的底部，有地基，在桩上或条形基础上。这个基础与地面有一定的柔度。一般来
说，由于地面和建筑之间的摩擦，它还提供了高水平的阻尼。在某些情况下，可以考虑

其水平和/或垂直分量。
然后是桩。如果这个桩很高，它的柔度就变得很重要，并且可能会影响整个结构的固有
频率。

Figure 3.3 On strip footings or piles, a foundation has a certain rigidity ksol
 Figure 3.4: Very high pier: The rigidity of this type of support, held at its base and free at its top may be
evaluated as kpile = 3EI/h in which h is the height, I the inertia and E the elastic modulus.
3

最后，不能忘记支撑配件，也不能忘记它们对结构整体刚度和整体阻尼的影响。
对于尺寸为 a×a、一层厚度为 e、剪切模量为 G、n 层的增强弹性体支撑配件，水平刚度
为:
= G a2 / n e
所有这些中间元件可以改变人行桥的固有频率及其相关阻尼。理论模型和简化图可以如
下所示:
Ground
Pier and foundation Support Structure

Figure 3.5: "Simplified" diagram of the construction down to the foundations

在连续系统的情况下，上述每个元素不一定只有单个刚度。这样就需要一个完整的模型，
通常是数字模型。
5.2.1.3.3 Making allowance for the mass
某些动态计算软件对于允许质量仍然感到困惑。这是软件必须通过与自重的静态影响区
分开来适当处理的重要因素。例如，必须注意不要混淆旋转惯量（对计算惯性矩有用）
和扭转惯性（对计算扭转刚度有用）。
另外，由于质量对模式频率有直接影响，因此应考虑静止或在人行桥上行走的行人的质
量。因此，对于每种模式，所讨论的模式的频率都位于两个极限频率 f1 和 f2 之间的变化
范围内，一个极限频率是根据建筑物和行人的质量（f1）计算的，而另一个仅根据建筑的
质量（f2）计算的。。对于非常轻便的人行天桥，这两个频率可能相距一定距离。
因此，应同时计算它们。同样，在计算加速度时，必须在所执行的载荷工况与所考虑的
质量之间保持一致性（并在必要时进行多次计算）。
5.2.1.3.4 Making allowance for dampers
动态计算可以在考虑调谐质量阻尼器的情况下进行(在必须通过增加阻尼器来升级现有人
行桥的重新计算的情况下，或者在设计不允许通过使用阻尼器来节省的人行桥的情况下)。
如果数字模型允许对这些阻尼器建模，则可以将它们直接集成到数字模型中。因为，在
大多数情况下，这是一个增加质量，弹簧，阻尼器系统的问题，设计软件通常允许这很
容易做到。
如果人行桥的频率已知，其模态质量和模态刚度也已知，则可以逐模式进行分析计算。
在这种情况下，可以为每种模式计算以下系统的固有频率:
C C
footbridge damper
 ■—EF-i 严
M
damper

K K
footbridge damper
M
footbridge
Figure 3.6: Schematic representation of a Construction 一 Damper system

Mfootbridge is the generalised mass of the mode of the footbridge under consideration, Kfootbridge the
generalised stiffness of the footbridge mode under consideration and Cfootbridge its generalised
damping. Annexe 3 gives the analytical solution of the dynamic amplification in accordance
with the relationship between the exciting frequency and the initial frequency of the footbridge.
This graph reveals the two natural vibration modes thus degenerated and their associated
amplifications (thus the damping).
5.2.1.3.5 Particular features
最后，应考虑可能修改人行桥动态模型的以下几点:

• 存在影响固有频率的初始约束(预应力混凝土中的预应力、拉索或拉杆中的预应力、
拱的推力等)。)；

• 由于电缆或扎带、材料、大位移、摆锤效应等造成的非线性。；

• 局部模式(例如人行桥上平板单元的振动，对一群行人没有危险)和全局模式之间
的区别；

• 要考虑的材料的动态特性(混凝土、地面刚度等)。)。

5.2.2 - Practical calculation of the loading response

5.2.2.1 Principle
记住带模态阻尼的控制模态 I 行为的方程(见附件 1):

q&&i (t)+2§i Qi q&i (t)+Qi qi (t)= pi (t)=

2

这些响应 qi 中的每一个都与其他响应分开计算，然后通过重新组合模式来推导全局响应。
如果函数[F（t）]是谐波（[F（t）] = [F0] sin（Qt）），则在一种模式（例如模式 j）的
频率下，该模式会产生共振 。模式 j 的响应 qj 远大于其他响应，并且经过短暂的时间后，
全局响应接近：
[X(t )] = £0 ]qt ( )
t - 0
j ]qj( )
t

i=1

瞬态后，动态响应 qj(t)的幅度是通过将静态响应(该静态响应是在负载恒定且等于 F0 的
情况下获得的，换句话说:wq=fF/m)乘以动态放大系数 1/2S 而获得的，

因此，得到的响应是:

Displacement: qj(t)=_2? Q 0 書 ° cos(Qjt) + transitory response [0][F ] t

Acceleration: qj(t)= 2? 0 書 0 cosjt) + transitory response

可以看出，与激励相比，位移和加速度相差四分之一的自然周期。速度与激励同相。全
局位移响应可以写成:

[X(t)]=[X]static+qj(t) [0j]
对于加速度:

[X&&(t)]= q&& (t) [0 ]

j j

请记住，本指南中列出的各种计算是基于等效行人数量的概念，即在人行桥的自然频率
下，所有人都是同相的，有规律地间隔开，其作用方向与每个点的模式形状相同，特别
是在最大共振时，换句话说，处于稳定状态。因此，瞬态响应并不有趣，只有 1/2s 的永
久响应幅度有趣，mj=fmf。

5.2.2.2 Positioning of the load

如前一章所述，载荷必须使力的振幅与振型符号相同。

在纵向或横向有几个凹陷的模式下，这意味着力的振幅必须具有图 3.7 所示的形状:

对于带有多个下陷的扭转模式，力的振幅必须具有图 3.8 所示的形状。

 Mode shape
D eforme e ciumocle

Figure 3.7: Sign of the amplitude of the load in the case of a mode with several sags

Figure 3.8: Sign of the amplitude of the load in the case of a torsion mode with several sags. Noted in red are the
zones in which the amplitude of the load is positive, and in blue the zones in which the amplitude of the load is
negative.

5.2.2.3 Practical calculation in the general case

在一般情况下，必须使用动态计算软件来评估固有频率，以及各种载荷下获得的加速度。
有几个程序可以将动态计算考虑在内。虽然它们中的大多数允许计算固有振动模式和固
有频率，但允许在变化载荷下临时计算加速度的却很少。这是因为这些动态计算的程序
实际上特别适用于地震计算，而且在这种计算中，通常足以计算自然振动模式，并应用
标准化的响应谱，避免了任何实际动态计算的需要。
就行人天桥而言，这些旨在抗震设计的项目不一定相关。但是，它们提供的结果可以用
于计算最大加速度，如下所述:
5.2.2.3.1 Programs calculating only the natural vibration modes and modal characteristics.
使用这种类型的程序，应恢复风险范围内每个自然振动模式的模态信息:模式任意点的振
动形状、自然频率、模态阻尼(如果可能)、广义质量。必须注意广义质量的概念，它不同
于通常由程序给出的模态质量。广义质量是在动力学模态方程中使用的 m=fmf 值，它取
决于所选择的标准化(然而，它的最终结果是独立的)，而模态质量(其表达式为 fmfA2/fmf)
是地震计算中通常使用的一个值，用于评估要考虑的模态数量，以正确表示对地震应力
的响应。实际上，它能够消除低模态质量相对于结构质量的固有振动模式。但是模态质
量与模态的广义质量没有物理关系，广义质量是根据所选标准在所考虑的模态中振动质
量的适当表示。
实际上，对于所考虑的模式 j，必须要求程序为模型的每个网格 I 提供模式形状 Vij 的位
移值以及固有频率值。广义质量可以由 m=MV2 形成，其中 M1 是网格 I 的质量。
然后通过写 fj =FVj 形成模态载荷，即载荷在模态上的投影，其中 Fi 代表网格 I 上的力的
值，写为 Fi = Ficos(wt)。由于梁的加载模式，Fi 具有与 Vij 相同的符号。它的值在第二章
给出。然后将模态方程的第二个成员写成 fj/mj。谐振时加速度响应的幅度简单地写在网
格 k 的位置:(数值独立于为模式选择的标准)。事实上，如果每个 Vij 乘以相同的常数，结
果不会改变)。
5.2.2.3.2 Programs enabling temporal dynamic calculations.
有了支持时间动态计算的程序，就没有必要使用上面列出的技巧。
可以定义一个随时间变化的载荷，其形式为 qcos(ét)，之前已经精确地确定了固有频率，
频带在足够长的时间结束时观察动态响应(实际上，在该时间结束时加速度的幅度变得几
乎恒定)。另一方面，必须确保荷载频率与结构的固有频率完全相等，这是计算的风险。
第二种方法更容易实现，风险也更小，包括仅选择所考虑的模式进行动态计算(必须有可
能停用其他模式)，然后对其施加与先前相同的负载，但假定为常数(因此仅 q，没有时间
部分)，这更容易定义。然后，确定在足够长的时间结束时获得的位移(换句话说，当振动
已经消除时)，并乘以 w2/2s，以便给出考虑点共振时的加速度。
5.2.2.4 Theoretical calculation for a simply supported beam
对于在两个支架上具有恒定惯性的人行桥，人行桥的特征值可以容易地计算出来，如表
3.3 所示。

Type of value Literal expression

阿p
22
Natural pulsations
Qn
n n = L\

Natural frequencies f n 2n = 2L }
f 2

P
1 1 4FL
Maximum deflection v max = “ 4 EI §
2§n n Ein
” 1 1 4 FL2
Maximum moment M max = “ 2 3
2? n2 n
” 1 1 4FL
Maximum shear force V max = * 2
2 2
§n n n
1 4
Accelerationmax = F

Maximum acceleration
2? npS
Table 3.3: 简支梁在人行桥上承受载荷的模态值，取决于具有 n 个垂度的模态。 F 表示每
单位长度的力的振幅。 可以注意到，如果激励频率 É 与自然频率 Én 不完全相等，则用动
态放大系数 A（q）（用©=É/Én）代替项 1 / 2s。
6. Chapter 4: Design and works specification,
testing

6.1 - Examples of items for a footbridge dynamic design

specification
规范应说明人行桥的结构设计应根据 SETRA/AFGC 指南中关于人行桥动态特性的建议进
行。
然而，业主应具体说明:
• 人行桥的类别(一至四)

• 可接受的舒适度(最高、中等、最低)

6.2 - Examples of items to be inserted in the particular works

technical specification for a footbridge
建议将本指南作为人行桥技术“工程”规范的附件，并声明工程设计必须遵循本指南中的建
议。因此，应再次说明以下内容:
• 人行桥的类别(一至四)

• 可接受的舒适度(最高、中等、最低)

此外，如果研究表明只能通过使用阻尼器来确保动态性能，或者有（但不能保证）较大
的阻尼假设，则必须进行动态测试（请参阅下一段） 以便验证这些假设或阻尼器。

6.3 - Dynamic tests or tests on footbridges

在新的人行桥上进行动态测试，或在现有人行桥上进行测试，是一项重大的、非常昂贵
的操作，只应在非常特殊的情况下考虑，并且只应由该领域熟练的承包商进行。

当设计工作未能成功证明该结构完全满足之前的标准时，当设计要求使用必须验证的阻
尼器时，或者当使用大于本指南中推荐的阻尼假设(但可能是必需的)来确保动态性能时，
应考虑对新人行桥进行这种操作。如果在没有阻尼器的情况下可以保证动态性能，并且
与本指南中的建议一致，不一定要进行测试。

如果从一开始就规定了阻尼器，强烈建议在阻尼器最终尺寸确定之前测量完工人行桥的
频率和阻尼，以便在适用的情况下调整尺寸。建设计划必须考虑到这一点。

在现有的人行桥上，如果该建筑在其存在期间有一些振动问题，则可以对一系列测试进
行编程，并且需要进行改进。

以下各段为成功完成一系列测试提供了建议。 根据构造的大小，遇到的现象的程度以及
需要测量的内容，可以对这些建议进行调整。
就设备而言，应提供以下系统：
• 安装动态传感器（加速度计或运动测量仪）以及数据采集单元和记录系统。 必须
有足够数量的加速度计，位于理论模式的下垂位置。
• 安装人行天桥的视觉监控系统，以便能够将动态测量结果连接到人行天桥的图像。
该系统必须与数据采集单元同步。
• 可能使用机械激励器（例如，不平衡类型的激励器），以便能够精确表征人行天
桥的固有振动模式，固有频率，模态质量和模态阻尼。 该系统必须以可编程的频
率（至少覆盖 0.5 Hz / 3 Hz）允许可靠和受控的水平和/或垂直激励（取决于人行
桥）。
测试应按以下方式进行：

6.3.1 - Stage 1: Characterisation of the natural vibration modes

如果测量值要求高精度，应使用动态励磁机进行该阶段。在没有动态激励器的情况下，
可以在正常使用中测量人行桥的振动，并且使用合适的计算机工具，从它们推断自然频
率以及自然振动形状。在这种情况下，某些模式可能会被遗忘。此外，可以使用对数减
量法测量阻尼，但不能测量广义质量，除非使用动态激励器。动态分析仍然是可能的，
但不太准确。

6.3.2 - Stage 2: Crowd tests.

应当对人群测试进行编程，因为它们可以验证阻尼器的动态性能和有效性。 行人的数量
应根据人行天桥的大小，其理论特征以及人群管理的复杂性来确定。 代表性的测试将需
要数十名行人。
测试可能包括以下元素：
• 随意行走，在人行桥上转圈，或者连续行走，甚至从一端走到另一端。
• 步调一致，以人行桥的自然频率行进。
• 步调一致，突然停下来，以便测量人行桥的阻尼。
• 跑步、跳跃、跪着，以便在极端压力下测试人行桥。
应准备好测试，以确定明显的警报级别，超过该级别，必须停止测试。
如果有阻尼器，试验应在阻尼器工作的情况下进行，然后作为第二阶段，锁定到位，以
确定其实际有效性。
如果在不同步人群通过时感觉到的振动导致业主可接受的振动，同步人群可接受的振动，
以及异常负载测试(跳跃、奔跑、跪着、故意破坏等)时不太不可容忍的振动，则测试将通
过。在所有情况下，决定权在业主，业主必须根据自己的要求判断人行桥的舒适度。
 APPENDIX

Appendix 1: Reminders of the dynamics of

constructions

Appendix 2: Modelling of the pedestrian load

Appendix 3: Damping systems

Appendix 4: Examples of footbridges

Appendix 5: Examples of the structural design of

footbridges

Appendix 6: Bibliography
1. Appendix 1: Reminders of the dynamics of
constructions

1.1 - A simple oscillator

1.1.1 - Introduction
A simple oscillator is the basic element of the mechanics of vibrations. Its study enables the
characteristic phenomena of dynamic analysis to be understood. In addition, it can be seen that
the dynamic analysis of constructions reduces them to simple oscillators.
A simple oscillator comprises a mass m, connected to a fixed point via a linear spring of stiffness
k, and a linear viscosity damper c (figure 1.1).
This oscillator is fully determined when its position x(t) is known; a single parameter being
enough to describe it, it is said to have 1 degree of freedom (1 DOF): it is also called an oscillator
at 1 DOF. The mass may be subjected to a dynamic excitation F(t).
We will still assume that the oscillator carries out small movements around its balance
configuration: x(t) designates its position around this balance configuration.
An exhaustive study is carried out on this oscillator:
• free damped / non-damped oscillation,
• forced damped / non-damped oscillation.
The "non-damped" case is that with a damping value of zero. It is then said that the system is
conservative.
The "free" case is that of zero excitation.
The resonance phenomenon can also be shown: the natural pulsation of a system will be defined.
Finally, a brief description of damping will be given.

1.1.2 - Formation of the equations

The mass m (figure 1.1) is subjected to
• the return force of the spring - k x: if the stiffness k is negative, the spring will travel in the
严）
direction of movement: this will lead to buckling,
 • the viscous dissipation force - c x: if the viscosity c is negative, the construction is unable
to dissipate energy: this will lead to dynamic instability,
• the external force F(t).
The fundamental relationship of the dynamics is therefore written:
m &x& =F - cx& -k x (Eq. 1.1)
which is rewritten in the form:
m &x& + c x& +k x =F (Eq. 1.2)
In order to solve such an equation, the initial conditions must, obviously, be available:
x(0) = x0
x&(0) = x& 0

There is, therefore, a differential equation with constant coefficients and one entry, the force F(t).
From a practical point of view, the system being linear, the study of this oscillator can be
separated into two rates:
• the natural or free rate: the system is excited only by non-zero initial conditions: the free
vibrations of the system are then obtained,
• the forced rate: only the force F(t) is non-zero; this force may be sinusoidal, periodic,
random or commonplace,
It is typical and practical to divide the equation (1.2) by m. We thus get:

j0 = k = 2nf : natural pulsation of the oscillator (rad/s); f being the natural m0

frequency of the oscillator (in Hz).

The equation (1.2) becomes:

&x& +2?j x& +j 0 0
2 (Eq. 1.3)

1.1.3 - Free oscillation

The system is set to vibrate only by non-zero initial conditions:
&x& + 2?j x& +j x = 0 0 0

x(0) = x0
x&(0) = x& 0

The solution of this differential equation with constant coefficients is of the type:
(rt)
x(t) = A e
with r checking the characteristic equation:
r2 + 2 ? j r + j 2 = 00 0

1)
in which the reduced discriminant equals: / = ? 2 —
It is assumed that ? is positive (dissipative system) or zero. Thus, different rates are obtained
depending on whether ? is less than, equal to, or greater than 1 (figure 1.2). We will study here
only the case that is typical in practice: ? is strictly smaller than 1.
1.1.3.1 Damping J = 0: the system is non-damped (or conservative)
The solution is therefore:
x(t) = A sin(o0 t) + B cos(o0 t)
A and B are two constants to be determined with the help of the initial conditions: x(0) - x - 0

B
x&(0) - x& - Ao
0 0

It should be noted that the solution can also be written in the form:
x(t) = A cos(o0 t + 0)
The integration constants are now A and the phase 0, which are also obtained with the help of the
initial conditions.

1.1.3.2 Damping J is strictly between 0 and 1

This is the most interesting case in practice. The solutions of the characteristic equation are:
ri,2 = - J oo 土 i Oo J] - J
The general solution of the movement equation is written according to one of the three following
forms:
Jo
x(t) - A] ) + A e(— °
t - t

-B] e~Jo°t cos(Oo

^1-J21) + B2 e"Jo°t sin(o° Jl—J? t)
(
-Ci e~jo °t cos(o° Jl-J? t +0)
The pulsation oa is known as the natural pulsation of the damped system or pseudo-pulsation:
o o 1 J
a= ° J -
The constants are obviously determined thanks to the initial conditions.

Comment: It should be noted that, if the damping J was negative, there would be a solution that
would become divergent: the oscillations would have an amplitude that would increase
exponentially. This problem is encountered in wind-excited constructions: the wind can induce a
force proportional to its speed and in the same direction; it is then possible to obtain
negative damping, as soon as this proportionality factor becomes greater than the damping of the
construction.

1.1.4 - Forced vibration

1.1.4.1 Description of the problem

The objective is to resolve the equation (1.3). Various cases can be examined for F(t): F may be
harmonic, periodic, random or commonplace.
From a mathematical point of view, the general solution of (1.3) is the sum of the general
solution of the equation without a second member (transitory movement or rate) and of a
particular solution of the full equation (permanent movement or rate) xSP(t). It can therefore be
written in the following form:
x(t) = A eT^4 cos(0at _。) + XSP(t) (Eq. 1.4)
The constants are determined with the initial conditions.
The transitory rate is associated with the free movement: its influence quickly becomes
negligible (in fact, by the end of a few normal periods it has already been cancelled out). During
the study with harmonic or periodic excitation, it is not taken into account.

With the help of the harmonic excitation, the notion of transfer function will be introduced. This
notion is fundamental to the mechanics of the vibrations.

1.1.4.2 Harmonic excitation

A harmonic excitation is a sinusoidal function:
F(t) = Fo cos(® t)=阿 0 e'如
A particularly interesting solution is in the form:
x(t) = A cos@0 t + 0)
In order to carry out the calculations more simply and more quickly, complex numbers are used.
A solution is therefore sought in the form:
~ (t) = )e'的 w (Eq. 1.5)
with X@) e R+.
The solution sought is therefore the actual part of ~ (t): x(t)=田(~ (t)).
(1.5) is injected into the equation (1.3). After simplification by the factor e " t, we get: e10 (-^2
X(0) + 2 苛 d X(0)+ 亦 X(0))=生
m
The transfer function is then defined, also known as the frequency response, Hx,F(0 ), between
the excitation and the response (here in movement) by the ratio:
X(0)e 0
-i

Hx,F(0)= (Eq. 1.6)

F0 /m
This function characterises the dynamics of the system under study. If Q = 0 /00 is placed, the
dynamic amplification is defined by:
X(Q)e— 0 =X(Q)e^0 =
i
1
A(Q)=00 Hx,F(Q)=
2 (Eq. 1.7)
F0 /k static
x
1—Q +2igQ2
xstatic is the value of the displacement that would be obtained if a static force F0 was exerted on
the oscillator, with a rigidity of k: it is important to note that this value is taken by X(j) at zero
frequency. Thus the intercept ordinate of the function Hx,F is determined with a static calculation:
this value is often called static flexibility. This function A(Q) shows that, at a given F0, the
maximum response of the oscillator will depend effectively on the frequency (figure 1.3): for
certain frequencies, this response is greater (or even much greater) than the static response.
eijt

j 2 -j2 + 2 i?j j
0 0

Figure 1.3: resonance phenomenon

~
The complex solution is therefore: ~F x(t)= 0 m
A study of A(Q) shows that, if ? is between 0 and 1/72, the resonance phenomenon is obtained
(figure 1.3): |A(Q )| allows a maximum for Q = QR = J1 一 2 ?2 which equals:
It can be seen that, the lower the damping (i.e. the more ? tends towards 0), the higher the
amplification to the level of resonance, which tends towards : thus, for ? = 0.5 %, it can 2?
be seen from figure 1.3 an amplification in the order of 100.

Comment 1: Using this oscillator at 1 DOF, illustrates immediately the difference between
"static" and "dynamic". In static, only the amplitude of the excitation affects the amplitude of the
response; in dynamic, frequency also has to be taken into account: exciting a construction to its
resonance may produce (especially if the construction does not have much damping) major
displacements, and thus a high level of stresses in the construction. This is why it is so important
to determine the resonance frequencies of a construction as soon as there is dynamic excitation.

Comment 2: It can be seen that resonance is reached at a pulsation value that is less than the
natural pulsation of the system j0. However, for systems without much damping, the
displacement resonance pulsation is combined with the natural pulsation of the system. As far as
the phase is concerned, resonance is reached when it equals n/2.
Comment 3: in the above, no allowance has been made for initial or transitory conditions, as, as
has been commented previously, this component of the solution quickly becomes negligible, as
can be seen in figure 1.4. However, it is clear that, the higher the damping, the quicker the
transitory component becomes negligible.

response transitory response transitory permanent

Figure 1.4: transitory and damping

1.1.4.3 Periodic excitation of period T

We return to the previous case. The load function can be developed as a Fourier series:
+s 2n
() eX ( )
F t - 工 C n p i ~T
nt

p-° T

Thus, by determining the solution xp(t) for each harmonic p (previous paragraph), we get the
solution by superposing (summing) the xp(t).

1.1.4.4 Commonplace excitation

F (o)/m -HX,F (o) x 皿

o -o
°
2 2
+ 2 i Joo °
m
Taking the Fourier transform of the equation (1.3), we get the frequential equation:
in which X(o ) and F(o ) are the Fourier transforms of x(t) and of F(t). By inverse Fourier
transform, we then infer x(t), which is expressed using Duhamel's integral:
1 (T) sin(o 1-
x(t)-
O
°J -J
；F °
m 1
J
(t - T))dT e J
(Eq. 1.8)

In practice, we carry out a digital integration of the differential equation of the movement (1.3),
using a computer program.

1.1.4.5 Random excitation

We assume that the excitation F is modelised by a stochastic process. The response x of the
system at 1 DOF is also a stochastic process: it can, therefore, only be understood by the use of
values characterising this process (average, standard deviation, autocorrelation function, spectral
power density, etc.).
However, the study of random vibrations exceeds the objective of this annexe, and the reader is
referred to the reference works.
1.1.4.6 Base excitation
A movement u(t) is now imposed on the support: F(t) and the initial conditions are therefore
assumed to be zero.
NB: x(t) and u(t) designate displacements within an absolute reference.
We are only interested in the harmonic movement of the support:
u(t) = U ei j t
We are looking once again for a solution in the form: X(j) ei (j t - 0). By injecting these two
expressions into the equation (1.3):
&x& +2?j x& +j 2 x = 2?j u& +j 2 u
0 0 0 0

We can infer the transfer function between the base displacement and the mass displacement m:
X(Q)e 0 1 + 2 i?Q
-i

Hx,u(Q)= (Eq. 1.9)

1 — Q2 + 2 i
The modulus of this function is plotted in figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5: FRF in movement, compared with a base excitation

It is interesting to observe the existence of a fixed point:
v ?, |H,u(T2)| = 1 Because of this, during a base excitation a
compromise must be found in order to optimise the damping: if high ? limit displacements up to
近 Q0, after this value low values of ? are preferred.

The base excitation is a much more common excitation than could be expected at first glance:
indeed, it is seismic excitation (therefore rare) that first comes to mind as a priority to illustrate a
base excitation. However, all systems are excited by their support. This is the reason why we try
and "isolate" them (elastic bases, Sandow shock cords).
If a system is excited, it transmits a signal (displacement) to its support: this then produces a
wave that is transmitted (ground, wall, air, etc.) and causes the displacement of the support of
another system.
If the base excitation is periodic or commonplace, an identical study is carried out to that for the
forced excitation.
1.1.5 - Damping

1.1.5.1 Generally
We have seen it: the resonance phenomenon causes displacements in constructions and, thus,
stresses (very) much higher than would be obtained by a static calculation. In addition, the
maximum amplification is directly linked to the damping. It is therefore essential for this
parameter to be estimated properly in order to achieve correct dynamic sizing.
The most common sources of damping are:
• the internal damping linked with the material itself; its value is linked to temperature and
the frequency of excitation
• damping by friction (Coulomb): it is linked to the joints between elements of the
construction; it is induced by the relative displacement of two parts in contact.
Experimentally, it can be seen that the critical damping ratio does not generally depend on
frequency: the damping is then called structural damping:
g n= g
Traditionally, this damping is modelised by viscous damping: this is interpreted as a force that
opposes the speed of the construction. It is interesting to know that, sometimes, there exist
exciting forces that "agree" with the speed (certain modellings of pedestrian behaviour): this
generates "negative damping", which leads to oscillations of the construction that become greater

and greater. Instability then exists (see figure 1.6), which can lead to the collapse of the
construction.
1.1.5.2 Experimental determination of g and 00: relaxation tests
When an actual system is studied (g is apparently less than 1), modelised by a simple oscillator, it
becomes essential to identify its characteristic mechanical parameters, 00 and g. This can be done
by means of a free vibration test: initial conditions are imposed on the system and its temporal
response measured. The following are then measured (see figure 1.7):
• the period Ta between two successive maxima located at t1 and t2 (Ta = t2— t1): we then get:
o J1-J2 = (2 n )/(Ta),
°

the value x(t1) and x(t2) of two successive maxima: their logarithmic decrement S can
then be inferred:

response
Figure 1.6: Divergence induced by "negative damping"
 eXp(S)=
册兰
eXp(JO
° G =汎若
I.e.: S = Log (x(t1) / (x©)) = (2 n J) /Q1- J

Therefore, if J << 1 (which is typical), J = S/ (2 n)

Thus the measurements of Ta and of the logarithmic decrement S enable the mechanical
characteristics of a simple oscillator to be determined.

1.1.5.3 Experimental determination of o0 and J : peak method

Definition: What is known as the bandwidth AQ, at -3 decibels, is the difference between Q1 and
Q 2 such that:
A(°1,2)|-AQ*
It can be shown that the bandwidth is linked to the damping by the relationship:
AQ = Q 2 - Qi = 2 J J1 - J?〜2 J (if the damping is low)
The more this bandwidth tends towards °, the sharper the resonance and, therefore, the lower the
damping (figure 1.8). As a result, to determine QR (and therefore o°) and J, |A(Q )| is plotted
experimentally, by carrying out a swept sine test. The pulsation corresponding to the maximum
of the graph gives QR. In addition, this graph enables the bandwidth to be obtained and,
therefore, J .
1.1.5.4 Hysteretic damping
The damping used in our model is viscous damping: the damping force is proportional to the
speed. This model is very widely used to represent damping. However, in actual fact, there are
very few constructions that are subject to this type of damping: its use is due to its simplicity.
During harmonic stresses, this damping model indicates that the energy dissipated in each cycle,
at a given amplitude of displacement, depends on the exciting frequency: experimentally, it can
be seen that this is not the case. Other models must be determined to overcome this problem.
When the stress is harmonic, one simple advantageous model is the hysteretic damping model.
This model consists of using a spring unit, the rigidity ks of which is complex:
ks = k (1 + i n)
in which n is known as the structural damping factor. If the dynamic balance of the mass m is
then written:
m &x& + ks x = F(t)
Under harmonic excitation, a g equivalent to n can be defined in such a way as to conserve the
energy dissipated per cycle: Wd = n k n x02 = n 0 c x02
Which leads to: n = 2 g —
0
0

1.2 - Linear systems at n DOF

Having described the simple oscillator, the discrete systems at n DOF can be studied directly, as,
from 2 DOF onwards, the methods of understanding vibratory phenomena are the same,
whatever the DOF value n.

However, studying systems at 2 DOF enables the calculations to be carried out up to the end: that
is why, without loss of generality when the calculations are made, they are carried out on systems
at 2 DOF.
The general method consists of:
• writing the dynamic equations in a matrix form: the matrices of mass, stiffness and
damping are then defined,
• studying the non-damped system: the natural vibration modes and the modal base of the
system are then defined,
 • if necessary, determining the temporal solution (by going into the modal base, for
example).
Thus, in this chapter we will deal with the notions of mass, stiffness and damping matrices, the
notions of natural vibration modes of a construction, and of linking between the DOF.

1.2.1 - Formation of the equations

Systems at n DOF are formed of n masses connected together by springs and dampers (figure
1.9): if this is not the case, n simple oscillators have to be used. Thus, the displacement of a mass
is dependant on the displacement of another mass: it is said that the n masses are coupled by
means of the springs and the dampers.

Fi F2

AAAAA
mi
AAAAA AzAAAA
Cl C2

力2
Figure 1.9: System at 2 DOF

Obviously, the n DOFs are the positions xi(t)i = 1,...,n of the n masses.
For the system represented in figure 1.9, the dynamic equations are written:
( () () ( () ) () () + ( )
M 1 x1 t ) + (G + C 2) 1 -C 2 x t x 2 t + 1+ K2
K )1
x t — K 2 2(/ = 1
x F t M x
2 2
t C
2
+
C3
() - () ( () () () (Eq. 1.10)
C 1 / + + 3)
x
2
t ― 旺 =
2
x K
2
K x
2
t K
2
t F
2
t

This system may easily be written in matrix form:

M1 0 ) C1 + C 2 - C2
x (t
) x (t
K + K2 - K 2
x
) F1 (t)
1 1 1 (t
0 M3 _ ( ) + 44 4+4 + ()
_亡 -K K 2 + K3_
1 4 _2 _ 14442 4443 x t 2
3 _2 _ x t F2 (t)
[C ]
14 M] () [K] [F(t)]
2 _ t

(Eq. 1.11)

Which is therefore written:

[M][X&&(t)]+[C][X&(t)]+[K][X(t)]=[F(t)] (Eq. 1.12)

This matrix equation recalls the equation governing the oscillator at 1 DOF. The following
names are used:
• [X]: vector of the DOFs,
• [M]: mass matrix,
• [C]: viscous damping matrix,
• [K]: stiffness matrix,
• [F]: vector of external forces.
The mass and stiffness matrices may be found using energy considerations:
• The mass matrix is a matrix associated with the kinetic energy T of the system, which is
the sum of the kinetic energies of each mass:
 T = % Mi x 12 + % M2 x 22 = % 1X ] [M] [ J& ]
• The stiffness matrix is a matrix associated with the strain energy J of the system, i.e. with
the elastic potential energy of each spring:
J = % K1 x12 + % K2 (x2—x1)2 + % K3 x22 = % t[X] [K] [X]
These matrices are, therefore, symmetrical matrices associated with levels of energy.

1.2.2 - Non-damped system

It is assumed here that the damping matrix is zero.

1.2.2.1 Free movement

This particular case ([C] and [F] zero) is fundamental to the study of dynamic systems: it
demonstrates the notion of natural vibration modes. The matrix equation (1.11) thus becomes:
[M][ X&& ] + [K][X] = [0] (Eq. 1.13)
The initial conditions are therefore not zero, otherwise the system would obviously remain at
rest. Solutions are sought in the form:
[X] = [00] er t
By injecting into the above equation, the homogenous system at 00 i is obtained, according to:
[K + r2 M] [00] = [0]
I.e., for the system at 2 DOF in figure 1.9:
「 K + K + r2 M
2 1 -K 2 一 001 o
_ —
K2 2 3
2
K + K + r M 2 _002 0
_
This system permits the zero solution that cannot be satisfactory as soon as there are non-zero
initial conditions. To obtain an advantageous solution, the determinant of the system must be
zero. We can therefore infer from it the following equation in r:
Det ([K + r2 M]) = 0 (Eq. 1.14)
I.e. for the system at 2 DOF above, we get:
((K1+K2)+r 2 M1) ((K2+K3)+r 2 M2) — K22 = 0
For a system at n DOFs this typical equation has 2 n solutions: ± i 0 k = 1,...n. With each index
k, there is an associated natural vector 0k, solution of the system:
[K — 0k2 M] [0k] = [0]
l. e. for the system at 2 DOFs:
K + K2-0k 2M1 -K 2 一 01 「0
_「
_ —K2 K
2
+K -0 M
3 k 2_ _0k2 _ 0
_
_ _

The pulsations 0k are known as the natural pulsations of the system. The natural vectors [0k] are
the modal vectors of the system. The solution is then written in the form:
[X (t )]=工 0 \(ake—0 kt
Pke'0 )
+ kt

k =1,..., n

in which the a and the 0k are determined by the initial conditions.

The components of the vector 0k are obviously linked. A modal vector is defined to within one
multiplicative constant: a standard therefore has to be chosen for these vectors. The most
frequent choices are the following:
• one of the components is made equal to 1.
• each mode is unitary: ||0i|| = 1,
• a standard is set according to the mass matrix: t[0i] [M][0i] = 1
「1 一
If we select the first normalisation: [0 ]-

It is now possible to express the general solution of the system at 2 DOF, non-damped, under free
excitation:
-io t io t -io t io t
(t) -a】e +a e +a e +04 e
1
2
1
3
2 2

<
-io t io t -io t io t
x (t) -021 (a e +a e ) + 0 (03 e +04 e )
2
1
2
1
22
2 2

These expressions are real: x1 and x2 can be expressed in trigonometric form:

£ (t)-坷 cos(O] t)+a sin(O] t)+cos(o 1)+仪厶 sin(o 1)
2 2 2

<
x (t) -021 (冏 cos(O] t)+a sin(O1 t))+0 a cos(o 1)+a4 sin(o 1))
2 2 22 2 2

The constants are determined using the initial conditions.

In summary, a mode of a linear system is one particular solution of the free, non-damped
problem, in such a way that all the components of the vector of the DOFs are synchronous (they
reach their maxima and their minima at the same time):
[Xmode°]- [0° ] e
o i °t

The natural pulsations oi are the square roots of the natural positive values of the matrix [M]-1
[K]. The natural forms of a discrete system are the natural vectors 0i associated with it. The
couple (oi , 0i) is called a natural vibration mode.
The modes are sought directly by writing:
• natural pulsation oi: this is all of the solutions to the equation:
det([K - oi2 M]) = °
• natural vector [0i]:
[K - oi2 M] [0i] = [°]

1.2.2.2 Orthogonality of the modes

The natural vibration modes are orthogonal in relation to the mass matrix and in relation to the
stiffness matrix:
V i,j t[0i] [M][如=m S,
v i,j t[0i] [K] [0] = ki Si
in which Sij is the Kronecker symbol and mi and ki are the mass and the generalised stiffness
associated with the mode i: these values will depend on the standard of the natural vectors
selected.

1.2.2.3 Harmonic excitation

Once again, before passing to a general forced excitation, we are interested in the harmonic
excitation: it is thus that the notion of transfer function is generalised.
It is considered, therefore, that the construction is excited by a force vector of which each
component is harmonic and in phase with the other components:
[F(t)] = eio t [F0]
It is assumed therefore that the solution is in the form:
[X(t)] = eio t [X°]
The matrix equation of the dynamic therefore becomes:
([K] -o 2 [M]) [X0] eio t = eio t [F0]
From which:
师]=([K]-j 2
[M]) 1 [Fo] = [a (j ] [Fo]
-

the matrix [a] is called admittance matrix or dynamic influence factor matrix: this is a response
matrix at a frequency between the forced excitation [F] and the response [X(t)].
We can demonstrate the resonance phenomenon: if it is excited at a natural frequency, the
response becomes infinite.
The general term of this matrix, aij, interprets the influence of the component j of the force on the
component i of the displacement; if all the components of [F0] are zero except the
x
component j, we have: ag) =
0j
F

This is not forgetting the transfer function of a system at 1 DOF between the excitation F0 j and
the response x0 i. We repeat that aij is the transfer function between F0 j and x0 i, or even its
frequency response function (FRF).
Comment: There is a resonance peak for each natural frequency of the system. In theory, this
peak is infinite. This arises from the (unrealistic) assumption that the system is not damped.

1.2.2.4 Commonplace excitation

Remember the equation to be solved:
[M][X&&(t)]+[K][X(t)]=[F(t)]
In order to determine the components of [X(t)], it is always possible to carry out a temporal
(digital) integration of the equations. This also requires the inverse of the mass matrix to be
determined (high digital cost if the number of DOFs is high). This leads to a differential system
of linked equations. If the equations to be solved were not linked, that would simplify their
solution: there would be n differential equations of second order to solve (see previous chapter).
That is why it is standard practice to act in a different way: a modal method is used that unlinks
the equations.
The principle is to be positioned in modal base: the solution [X(t)] is therefore expressed using a
combination of the natural vectors, that form a base. The change of reference is therefore carried
out using the transformation:

[X(t)]=mq(t)] = £[0] qt(t) (Eq. 1.15)

i=1

where:
• [0] = [01 02 … 0n]: is a square matrix in which the columns are the natural vectors;
• [q(t)] is the vector of new variables, known as modal variables.
If [X(t)] is replaced by its expression (Eq. 1.15), in the matrix equation of the dynamic, and if this
equation is pre-multiplied by t[0], we get:
t
[0][M][0][q&&(t)]+ [0][K][0][q(t)]= [0][F(t)]
t t

O0 0
0 0 ( 0 [q(t)]= 0][F(t)]
[ )]+ 0
t
m i q t k

00 O 0 0
In view of the orthogonality of the modes in respect of the mass and stiffness matrices, we have:
Thus, as the two matrices t[0][M][0] and t[0][K][0] are diagonal, we get a system of unlinked
differential equations of the type:
 2
t
[0i ][F(t)]
) +0 ) (
q (t
t qt (t = - = P, ) t (Eq. 1.16)
m i

The vector [p(t)] is the vector of the modal contribution factors of the force [F(t)]: it is the
component per unit of generalised mass of [F(t)] in the modal base.
We thus have to refer to the chapter on the oscillator at 1 DOF: Duhamel's integral allows each
qi(t) to be obtained. Its vector [X] can then be inferred by modal superposition, in accordance with
equation (1.15).
Using the principle of modal superposition, the study turns from a system with n DOFs to a study
of n simple oscillators.
Particular case: For a harmonic excitation, we have:
qi(t) = qi0 cos(0 t) with:
i0
q
Pi 0
0; —02
From which
[ ]
X = 1 ]0—^cos( )
0 0t

This expression clearly demonstrates the resonance phenomenon for each natural pulsation.

1.2.3 - Damped systems

In order to simplify the study, only the viscous damping is considered. The equation of the
problem is thus the equation (1.12) already described:
[M][ X&&] + [C][X&] + [K][X] = [F]

Here again, it is possible to integrate the equations directly. We will even see that this might be
essential to make allowance for dissipation effects.
However, we will apply the modal method to our system: we will then have to discuss its validity.
In the following, the couple (0i, [0i]) designates the mode i of the equivalent non-damped system.
We will break down the equation (1.12) on the basis of natural vectors, following the same route
as in the previous paragraph:
[0][M][0] [q&&(t)]+ [0][C][0][q&(t)]+ [0][K] [0][q(t)]= [0] [F(t)]
t t t t

Although the matrices t[0][M][0] and t[0][K][0] are, obviously, still diagonal, the same does not
necessarily apply to the matrix t[0][C][0]; the modal vectors would appear not to be orthogonal
in respect of the damping matrix:
Yij = T0i][C][0]丰 constant x 5ij
Thus, the projection on the basis of natural vibration modes does not unlink the equations from
the damped system: the modal method seems to lose a lot of its attraction for determining a
digital solution of [X].

1.2.3.1 Modal damping assumption

If the linking due to damping was zero, the modal method would become more attractive. This is
only realistic if the distribution of the damping is similar to that of the mass and of the rigidity:
such an assumption does not appear to be justifiable.
In practice, very little is known about the distribution of the damping. However, if the
construction is not very dissipative and the natural frequencies are clearly separated, it can be
shown that the diagonal damping assumption is reasonable: this is known as the modal damping
assumption.
Caughey has shown that the natural vibration modes are orthogonal at any damping matrix that is
expressed in the general form:

[C] = E ak [M] (] 1[K] ) 1 - k-

k-1

In the particular case where N equals 2, proportional damping can be found: the damping matrix
is expressed according to a linear combination of [K] and [M]; it is then clear that, in this
particular case, the natural vibration modes of the system are orthogonal in respect of the
damping matrix.
Damping is often low if it is well spread out. In this case, it can also be shown that the natural
vibration modes of the non-damped construction are fairly close to the modes of the construction.
Once again, therefore, the principle of modal superposition is applied, using the modes of the
non-damped construction.

2o
i 叫
Thus, if we take:
we find once more a system of uncoupled equations:
t[0 ][F]
q&&i (t)+2Ji oi q&i (t)+oi2 qi (t)- pi (t)- i m
(Eq. 1.17)

Each represents the equation of the movement of a simple damped oscillator under a forced
excitation.
In practice, each critical damping ratio Ji must be recalibrated experimentally. In fact it is very
rare to find a construction with damping that needs simple modelling.
It is normal to consider that the value of the critical damping ratio does not depend on the mode
under consideration: Ji = J. This constant J is then fixed by experiment or by the regulations.

1.2.3.2 Harmonic excitation 一 case of systems with low dissipation

The natural modes are therefore assumed to be orthogonal in respect of the damping matrix.
A resolution is carried out by modal superposition: we are looking for [X], the solution to the
problem, using modal variables:
[X] = [0] [q]
Each modal variable qi is then subjected to the equation (1.17). The solution sought and the
excitation are, traditionally, in the form:
[q] - [q ]e o
°
i t

[p] - [p ]e o
°
i t (Eq. 1.18)
[p] always being the vector of the factors of

p— ][ ]
modal contribution to the force [F]: 0 F -3-p”
i
i t
[0i ][M][0i ] m

The solution is therefore: n

- 0= p°i [0i ] t ---2 0 + i 20 ]o- [F ]
m o -o + i 2J o o
t t
i i i i
i -1 i
[
X°] q
°i [ i] 2 2+•2J

o -o + J o o
i -1 i -1 i i2
i i i -1 m i

o
i
It can then be recognised that each term of this sum is the response of an oscillator at 1 DOF
under harmonic excitation. The response of an oscillator at n DOF is therefore expressed
according to the response of n oscillators at 1 DOF.

1.2.3.3 Commonplace excitation

Thanks to the modal superposition method, we are led to the study of a system at a DOF under a
commonplace excitation. The solution is then given by Duhamel's integral:
1 ) j ( T) 1- ( T))
qi (t)=
j
J
； Pi (/ % sin( j
e -t-
dT J £ t

which leads to the determination of the solution, by modal superposition:

[X ] = £ 0 ] qt (t)
i=1

1.2.4 - Modal truncation

A complex construction may be modelised by n DOF, where n is very large. Also, it is normal to
represent the physical DOFs by a linear combination of the first N modes (they are assumed to be
ranged in increasing order of frequency), where N is less, or even much less, than n.
Such an operation must be carried out with certain precautions: a reliable criterion must be
defined to justify this modal truncation.
This approach will depend on the spectrum of the excitation: if it is restricted to a range of
pulsation less than jN, it may be justified. However, for more thoroughness and accuracy, it is
essential to make allowance for these neglected modes. If it is thought that these modes have an
almost-static response, it can be shown that is possible to express the neglected modes according
to the modes retained:
工 qt(t)[0 ]+[± 0]M]'
N
[X ]- 2 [F]
i=1 j
N
…i 1
、i=N +1 i=N+ m i i 丿
「 ( 二 0 ]10 ]、
1 N
]
工 qi=t 1(t)0 ] + [K] 1-工 ® ] ®
- [F]
Matrices with residual stiffness are known as Kres and residual flexibility Sres such that:
]
[Sres ] = [Kres ] 1 = [K] 1 -
- - f 0 V[0

mi ji2 i=1

It is very important to note that this matrix depends only on static characteristics ([K]) and on the
first N modes: the neglected modes are thus taken into account without having to calculate them!

Comment: The above expression comes from the modal decomposition of the inverse of the
stiffness matrix:
[K] 1=f辿=f- [0i ] [0i ] t

i=1 2 i
(Eq. 1.19) k
mi ji i=1

If the system is loaded statically, the modal equations (1.17) become 2 0 ][F] 1

j qt =-
m i
and then the modal response is:
 t
[0i ][F] [0 ] [0 ])
t

i
[X] = [0 ]qt = E [0 ] 0i2 mi
[F]=[K] 1[F]
-

i=1 i=1

By identification, we find once more equation (1.19).

1.2.5 - Rayleigh-Ritz method

1.2.5.1 Rayleigh method

We propose an energy approach in order to determine an estimate of the first natural frequency of
a construction: this is the Rayleigh method.
This method is based on a principle of approximation of the field of displacement of the system
being studied: we suggest the shape of the construction, i.e., here, a displacement vector [X ]: 0

[X~(t)]=[X~ ]d(t) 0

This vector must be kinematically permissible.

The strain and kinematic energies associated with this shape are then calculated. The first natural
pulsation is then estimated by the ratio:

0i2 = [壬°][ K][ X°] [ X°][M ][ (Eq. 1.20)

t t

If the vector [X ] is the first natural vector, then the solution obtained is the first natural pulsation.
0

The closer one gets to the natural vector, the better the estimate.
The whole problem is to select a "good" vector [X ], in other words to have an idea of the natural
0

vector. In general, the displacement vector obtained under a static load proportional to the value
of the masses is a vector close to the first natural vector.

1.2.5.2 Rayleigh-Ritz method

This is, to a certain extent, a generalisation of the Rayleigh method: it enables not only an
estimate of the first N natural frequencies to be obtained (often N is much lower than n), but also
a close estimate of the natural vectors. The principle is the same: we propose N vectors {[X0i ] }i
= i…N that are independent, kinematically permissible: the displacement vector [X(t)] is then
approached by:
(t)
〜 〜〜 d 1
~~ N

[X (t)]心戊(t)] =戊 01 …X°N ] M 吕兄]仏( )=13“( )] t t

_dN(t)
We then get an estimate of the first N natural frequencies by solving the following problem:
~ ~ 2 ~ ~
1 [X4 04][2K4][4X 30]-0i 1 [X4 04][2M4][4X 30]=0 1442443
t t

1442443
NxN NxN

If we suggest:
[K~] = [X~ ][K][X~ ] t
0 0

[M~] = [X~ ][M][X~ ] we therefore come to determine the values and natural vectors associated
t
0 0

with the problem:

~ ~
[K ]-o2 [M ]-°
This problem is more advantageous to solve than the original problem, to the extent that N is
(much) less than n.
 ~
Thus, the o i obtained are approximations of the first N natural pulsations o i of the system.
There is a natural vector that matches each of these natural values:
亿1
亿M -

_y~iN _
We then get an approximation of the natural vector i by:
~~~~ ~ N

0 ]-戊°1…X°N][亿]-戊°]回]- 戊°」必 t j-1

1.2.6 - Conclusion
To represent a system at n DOF by n simple oscillators: this is the fundamental idea of this
chapter and of the mechanics of linear vibrations of discrete systems in general. This is
interpreted by the diagram in figure 1.1°.

Figure 1.1°: Modal approach to a system at 2 DOF

1.3 - Continuous elastic systems

1.3.1 - Generally Real systems are rarely discrete. Thus, a beam is

deformable at any point, has a certain inertia at any point and is capable of
dissipating energy at any point.
We are therefore in the presence of a problem of the dynamics of continuous environments: to the
statics equations we must therefore add the term that matches the inertia forces.
However, we must not believe that the study of discrete systems was useless: we will see that,
from a practical point of view, the study of continuous systems leads finally to the study of
discrete systems. Such an approach will necessarily be an approximation, as a discrete system
has a finite number of DOFs, whereas a continuous system has an infinite number of DOFs. The
dynamic study of a continuous elastic system requires:
• setting the vibrational problem (formulating the equations):
o determining the equation for the partial derivatives governing the field of

displacement X (x,y,z,t): this is the equation of the movement,

o giving the equations expressing the boundary conditions: these equations may also

be equations of partial derivatives,

o giving the initial conditions.

• solving the problem:

o calculating the natural modes of the continuous elastic system,

o calculating the response of the continuous elastic system.

To do this, we assume that the systems studied check the following hypotheses:
• the continuous elastic system is only subject to small strains around its natural state,
• the continuous elastic system has (by definition) a law of linear elastic behaviour; its
mechanical characteristics are E, its Young's modulus, and p, its density,
• the continuous elastic system vibrates in a vacuum.

1.3.2 - Formation of the equation

In this chapter, we study a beam (to be understood here in its widest sense): this is a rectilinear
uni-dimensional continuous environment capable of deforming:
• by tension-compression (bar),
• by pure bending.
We will study these two cases successively.
We will only be studying bi-dimensional constructions with no real loss of generality: the tri-
dimensional aspect only adds additional variables.
In a general way, the field of displacement X(x,y,z,t) of a point M(x,y,z,t) on a beam is
u( x, y, z, t)
characterised by its DOFs: X (x, y, z, t) = w( x, y, z, t)
0(. x, y, z, t) _
in which:
• u is the longitudinal displacement, i.e. along the direction of the beam,
• w is the transverse displacement (deflection), i.e. along a direction perpendicular to the
beam,
• 0 is the rotation around an orthogonal axis in the plane of the construction: this is the
slope adopted by the beam, due to the bending moment,

In addition, we are working within a reference linked to the beam: the axis of the beam is
combined with (x；x) and the system is in the plane (x,z)

1.3.2.1 Longitudinal movement of a bar

We are only interested therefore in the component u(x,t) of X(x,t). The balance of a length of
beam of thickness (assumed infinitesimal) dx and of sectional area S, subjected to:
• the normal force at x,
• the opposite of the normal force at x+dx,
• an external distributed force (pre-stressing) p(x) dx.
leads to the equation of the movement of a bar of constant sectional area:
d2 u d2 u
S , t) 1.21)
P 舌- ES 乔-p( x (Eq.

1.3.2.2 Transverse movement

We study a beam in pure bending. We use the Navier hypothesis: straight sections remain
straight. We assume, in addition, that transverse shear is negligible (Euler-Bernoulli beam).
We are only interested therefore in the component w(x,t) of X(x,t). The balance of a length of
beam of thickness dx, of sectional area S and of inertia I, subjected to:
• the shear force and the bending moment at x,
• the opposite of the shear force and of the bending moment at x+dx,
• an external distributed force F(x,t).
leads to the equation of the movement of a beam in bending of constant sectional area:
d2 w d4 w
(, ) 1.22)
P +El S =F x (Eq.
t

1.3.2.3 Boundary equations

To solve movement equations, there have to be initial conditions (temporal) and boundary
conditions (spatial).
The boundary conditions are very important data, as they set the resonance frequencies of the
construction. They are associated with:
• imposed displacements (geometric condition): housings, supports, hinges, etc.
• imposed forces:
o ends free (natural condition): normal force, zero shear, zero bending moment, etc.

o localised masses,

o localised stiffness.
Example 1:
Fixed beam in bending-tension-compression with x = ° and free at x = L:
x=° x=L
u=° N=°
w=° T=°
0=° M=°
Example 2:
Supported beam in bending-tension-compression with x_ = ° and supported at x = L :
x=° x=L
N=° N=°
w=° w=°
M=° M=°
Example 3:
u(L,t)

m
I
I
L
----------- >
Figure 1.11: Fixed bar (E, S, L) in tension-compression with x = 0 with a localised mass m at x = L.

In order to obtain the boundary condition at x = L, the balance of the mass m is written:
N(L,t)=mu&&(L,t)
I.e.:
-ESuf(L, t) = mu (L, t)
Example 4:

Figure 1.12: Fixed beam (E, I, L) in pure bending with x = 0 with a localised mass m at x = L and a transverse
localised stiffness k at x = L.

In order to obtain the boundary condition at x = L, the balance of the mass M is written:
T(L,t)-kw(L,t) = mw&& (L,t)
M(L,t) = 0
I.e.: = mw&&
EI w(3)(L,t)-kw(L,t) (L,t)
(2)
w (L,t) =0
It can be seen that, in the two examples above, there are six boundary conditions: Two associated
with the tension-compression (second order equation) and four associated with the bending
(fourth order equation).

1.3.3 - Natural modes of a continuous elastic system

1.3.3.1 Methodology
In order to determine the natural modes of a continuous elastic system, we can use:
• the balance equation,
• the boundary conditions.
One natural mode of a continuous elastic system is a solution u(x,t) to the problem that is written
in the form:
 u(x,t) = 0(x) a(t) (Eq. 1.23)
In addition, it can be shown that the temporal function is harmonic:
a(t) = a°cos( Q t + a)
A mode consists of the data of a natural shape 0 (x) (shape of the construction) and a natural
pulsation j. A mode is thus a stationary wave: all points of the system vibrate in phase.
In order to determine the natural modes of the system, the method is as follows:
• the solution (1.23) is injected into the balance equation without a second member and
without damping,
• the time and space variables are separated: there then appears a constant, the sign of
which is clear, in order to have a physically acceptable solution,
• the equation (probably differential) is then solved, associated with the spatial value:
integration constants appear. The general solution obtained will then permit the natural
shapes 0 (x) of the system to be determined,
• the integration constants are determined using boundary conditions: a homogenous
system of equations is obtained. As its solution cannot be a zero solution (all the
constants zero), in order to determine the constants it will be necessary to impose the
nullity of the determinant of the system: this condition gives the characteristic equation
of the system,
• the solution of the characteristic equation then provides the natural pulsations of the
system.
We apply these principles to the two traditional cases: longitudinal vibration of a bar and bending
vibration of a beam.

1.3.3.2 Longitudinal vibrations

The following solution is injected: u(x,t) = 0 (x) a(t) in the balance equation of a bar (E, S, L,
p):
=0

After simplifications and separation of the variables, we have:

E
=constant=-Q
p0(x) a(t)
The constant is necessarily negative, otherwise a solution is obtained that grows exponentially
over time and is, therefore, physically unacceptable. It is found, therefore, that a(t) is sinusoidal:
a(t) = a0cos(j t + a)

In the same way, we get the general form of the natural shapes of a bar:
Thus, the modal solution is:
r c 0x) = A sin Q
u(x, t) = a°cos(Qt + a) A sin Q r
+ B cos Q
There therefore remains to be determined the integration and pulsation constants Q:
• ao and a are determined with the initial conditions,
• A, B and Q are obtained with the boundary conditions.
Example: Mixed supported bar: the boundary conditions are written:
 u (0, t) = 0 = a(t )0(0)
du
"N (L, t) = 0 = ES —(厶 t) = ESa()0(L)
dx
The following system can be inferred from this:

As B is zero, in order to obtain a non-zero solution, it must be:

rp A
cos 0 ^-L = 0
IV丿 E

(2" -1)
n =1,2,L
2L \P
We can therefore infer the natural pulsations from this:
The natural shapes (defined to the nearest multiplicative constant) are therefore:
0n (x) = Asin 2n -1
2L
In the same way as the discrete case, a generalised stiffness kn and a generalised mass mn can be
defined:
m n =『P 02 ( ) dx S x

kn = “S 犷(x) dx

We find the relationship: 0n2

1.3.3.3 Transverse vibrations (pure bending)

The following solution is injected: w(x,t) = 0 (x) a(t) into the balance equation:
d2 w d4w
PS
乔+ EI

After simplifications and separation of the variables, we have:

EI 0"心) pS a
&&(t)=constante= 2 0
0( )
x
a(t)
Here again, the sign of the constant arises from a physically acceptable solution; we find that
a(t) is sinusoidal. In addition, the differential equation governing 0 is of the fourth order:
d40 P
EI 2 S

4
0(x)=0
dx

PS02
If we take k = 4 , the general solution of the above equation (therefore the shape) is:
v EI

0 (x) = A sin(kx) + B cos(kx) + C sinh(kx) + D cosh(kx)

We use the boundary conditions to determine the integration and pulsation constants. Example:
Beam supported at each end: the boundary conditions are written:
 w(°,t) -°
M(°,t) -° - EIw"(°, t)
w(L,t) -°
M(L,t) -° -EIw"(L, t)
Whence the system:
B+ D - °
-B+D - °
Asin(kL) + B cos(kL) + C sinh(kL) + D cosh(kL) - ° -Ak2 sin(kL)-Bk2
cos(kL)+Ck2 sinh(kL)+Dk2 cosh(kL) - °
As this system is homogenous, there can only be a non-zero solution if the determinant of the
system is zero; we can infer from that that characteristic equation which reduces to: sin (kL) = °
The resolution of this equation leads to the natural pulsations:
22
n n on EI
-
L \pS
and, finally, to the mode shapes:
(nn x
sin
0
n =A l L
A generalised mass and stiffness can also be defined:
)
m n
-
P n
S0 (x dx

kn - \：EI0TW dx

1.4 - Discretisation of the continuous systems

oduction
As has been mentioned, few modal analysis problems of continuous elastic systems have an
analytical solution. That is why it is necessary to use approximation methods:
• direct mass discretisation method: the construction is approached by masses and springs,
• Rayleigh-Ritz method: the spatial variation of functions is apparently postulated,
• finite element method: the construction is broken down into sub-sections, to which a
Rayleigh-Ritz method is applied.
These methods are discretisation methods: we pass from an infinite number of DOFs for
continuous systems to a finite number of DOFs.

1.4.2 - Direct discretisation of masses

This method may depend heavily on the aptitude of the "modeliser" to discretise a construction: it
is, however, very important, as it is widely used to carry out civil engineering modelisations
(particularly for earthquake-protection design). It also permits the mass and stiffness matrices to
be obtained very simply.
This method consists of:
• dividing the construction up geometrically,
• concentrating the mass of each divided part on a node (in general its centre of gravity) in
the form of:
 o mass acting in translation,
o inertia of the mass acting in rotation.
As a consequence, the DOFs of the discrete system are the "physical" DOFs associated with the
point on which the mass is concentrated: it is supposed, therefore, that each section "strictly
follows" the DOF of the node, whence the importance of the choice of dividing up. Such a
method leads to a diagonal mass matrix. As far as rigidity is concerned, the stiffness is
determined by connecting 2 DOFs together: the rigidity matrix is not necessarily diagonal.
Example: Discretisation of a fixed/free bar (figure 1.13): the first node is located at 1/3 of the
length, the second at 2/3 of the length and the last one at the end. Each node is allocated half of
the mass of each element to which it is connected; the stiffness of each spring is calculated from
the rigidity of a bar element.
The choice of ki and mi is important and determines the accuracy that there will be in the natural
frequencies. A choice can be made for a division into three sections of the same length:

y TU-2 777-3

」」 」
X-L (t) X2(t) X^t)

J
U(Xyt)
Figure 1.13: Direct discretisation of the mass of a bar

1.4.3 - Rayleigh-Ritz method

As the system to be calculated is continuous, it is determined as soon as the continuous functions
describing the DOFs of each point are known: translations, rotations. It is proposed therefore to
find out about these continuous functions u(M, t) by the determination of a finite number of
parameters {a； (/)}/ =】N (comprising the vector [a(t)]) thanks to the approximation functions
0(M):
N

u(M, t) = ~(M, t) = f 必(M) at (t) = t [0][a(t)]

i=1
with:
• a ：⑴:generalised coordinate. These are our unknowns to be determined: they are
grouped together in the vector of generalised coordinates [a(t)]; the dimension n of the
vector [a(t)] gives the number of DOFs of the discretised system,
• 0(M): given spatial function. It must be kinematically permissible and defined over the
whole construction, which occupies the domain V.
Thus, when the generalised coordinates are known, using the approximation functions 妬(M), we
find u at any point in the system.
The general method consists of:
• Writing the kinetic energy, the system strain energy, and also the work of external forces
~
according to the field approached u .
• Re-writing these energies in matrix form, by demonstrating the vectors of the generalised
coordinates:
T - 1/2 [a&(t)][M][a&(t)]
t

J - 1/2 [a(t)][K][a(t)] t

Wext - [a(t)][F] - [F][a(t)]

t t

• The matrices [M] and [K] which then appear are the matrices of the mass and the stiffness
of the discretised system: the governing equation [a(t)] is then:
[M][a&&(t)]+[K][a(t)]-[F(t)]
• In order to determine the natural modes (o, [0 (x)]), we use the procedure described in the
chapter on discrete systems with n DOF; we resolve:
[K][0(x)]--o2 [M][0(x)]
Let us follow the procedure described in the introduction to this chapter:
• Calculation of the kinetic energy:
T-1/2\vpu2(M,t) dV -1/2 [&(t)] [jvp[^] [%]dV ][a(t)]
t t

厂 1
―2-----------------------------------'

We infer from this the expression of the mass matrix of the discretised system:

[M]- J p[^| "]dV V

t

In the simple case of a bar or a beam, the mass matrix therefore becomes:
[ ]- [ ( )] )]d
M P S J ： ^ x t
网 x x

• Calculation of the strain energy:

The general calculation of the strain energy is not made here: depending on the RDM hypotheses,
we get different "simplified" expressions, depending on whether the system is modelised by a
beam, a bar, etc. We do recall, however, the most typical energies:
Tension-compression
1/2ES (/(x))2 dx J
Bending
1/2EIJ (w"(x))2 dx
We can then infer from this the stiffness matrices:
(•L
Tension-compression
J
[K]- ES °[0(x)] [0(x)]dx t

Bending [K]- EI『 °

""(x)]'[0"(x)]dx

• Calculation of the work:

Wext -fv [u(M,t)][f (M,t)]dV 三 [a(t)][F(t)]- [F(t)][a(t)]

t t t

V
Knowing all these matrices, we can then infer from them the balance equation:
[M][a&&(t)]+[K][a(t)]-[F(t)]
The whole arsenal developed for systems at n DOF can then be applied:
• calculation of the natural modes of the discrete system,
• response to an external force, etc.
Once the discrete problem has been solved, we can return immediately to the continuous system.
Thus, if the natural vectors [0i] of the discrete system associated with the natural pulsations 0i
have been determined, the first n modes (close) of the continuous system are determined by the
same natural pulsation 0i and by the mode shape ui(x):
)][0 ]
i
u (x) = 网
t x

Comment 1: As many modes are determined as there are DOFs. In practice, it can be estimated
that only the first n/2 modes are determined with sufficient accuracy.
Comment 2: Accuracy is improved when the number of DOFs is increased. The estimate of the
natural pulsations by the Rayleigh-Ritz method is always made by excess.
Comment 3: When the system being studied is formed from beams, it is normal to use polynomes
for the functions 妬(x). For example for a fixed/free beam, we choose:妬(x) = x with - > 2. It is
1

easy to check that these functions are all kinematically permissible.

Comment 4: When n = 1, this method is known as Rayleigh's method.
Comment 5: The static shape of the construction subjected to a load proportional to its selfweight
gives, in general, a good approximation of the mode shape of the first mode.

1.4.4 - Finite element method

1.4.4.1 Weakness of the Rayleigh-Ritz method

Although it is easy to determine the functions 屮 i(x) for a straight fixed/free beam, the same does
not necessarily apply to systems that are hardly more complex, such as, for example, two beams
rigidly fixed at one end but non-collinear: in this case, how do we choose the interpolation
functions? The simple solution is to "break" the system: we turn therefore to the finite element
method.

1.4.4.2 Brief reminders

The construction is sub-divided into fields of a simple geometric shape (of which we know the
analytical expression), the contour of which is supported at points (the nodes): these are the
elements.
These elements have a sufficiently simple shape for it to be possible to determine functions that
are kinematically permissible on each of these elements: these are generally polynomes. We then
apply the Rayleigh-Ritz method to each of the elements: we calculate the kinetic and strain
energies for each element. We can then infer the kinetic and strain energies for the whole
construction: we use the additivity of the energy. We can then infer the mass and stiffness
matrices of the construction: we turn once again to the study of a system with n DOFs.
NB: The approximation functions, called here interpolation functions, are selected in such a way
that the generalised coordinates are the values of the displacements of the nodes: the generalised
coordinates thus have a physical meaning that enables a continuous displacement field to be
obtained over the construction.

We can also determine a load vector by writing, in matrix form, the work of the external forces
applied to the system. We can therefore study the response of a continuous system subjected to
any load.
2. Appendix 2: Modelling of the pedestrian load
Pedestrian footbridges are subjected mainly to the loads of the pedestrians walking or running on
them. These two types of loading must be treated separately, as there is a difference between
them: when walking, there is always one foot in contact with the ground, but the same does not
apply when a person starts to run (figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1: changes of the force over time for different types of step (Ref. [17])

Whatever the type of load (walking or running), the force created comprises a vertical component
and a horizontal component, it being possible to break down the horizontal component into a
longitudinal component (along the axis of the footbridge) and a transverse component
(perpendicular to the axis of the footbridge). In addition, apart from the individual action of a
pedestrian, we will consider making allowance for a group of people (crowd) and also the stresses
connected with exceptional loadings (inaugurations, deliberate excitation, etc.). Finally, when
they exist, we will indicate the recommendations specified in the Eurocodes covering dynamic
models of pedestrian loading.
For activities without displacement (jumping, swaying, etc.), experimental measurements show
that it is preferable to make allowance for at least the first three harmonics to represent the
stresses correctly, while, for the vertical component of walking, we can restrict ourselves to the
first harmonic, which can be described sufficiently as F(t). The values of the amplitudes and of
the phase shifts, arising from experimental measurements, are set out below for the various
components of F in the case of walking and of running. It should be noted, however, that the
values one can find in the literature are approximate, in particular as far as the phase shifts (0i);
the values provided are, therefore, orders of magnitude corresponding to an average
displacement.
As can be seen in figure 2.1, the shape of the stress changes between walking and running, and
also according to the type of walking or running (slow, fast, etc.). The amplitudes Gi are therefore
linked to the frequency fm and the values indicated subsequently are therefore average values,
corresponding to "normal" walking or running.

2.1 - Walking
Walking (as opposed to running) is characterised by continuous contact with the ground surface,
as the front foot touches the ground before the back foot leaves it.

2.1.1 - Vertical component

In normal walking, the vertical component, for one foot, has a saddle shape, the first maximum
corresponding to the impact of the heel on the ground and the second to the thrust of the sole of
the foot (see figure 2.2). This shape tends to disappear when the frequency of the walking

increases, until it is reduced to a semi-sinusoid when running (see figure 2.1).

For normal (non-obstructed) walking, the frequency may be described as a Gaussian distribution
of average 2 Hz and standard deviation 0,20 Hz approximately (from 0.175 to 0.22 depending on
the authors). At the average frequency of 2 Hz (fm = 2 Hz), the values of the Fourier transform
一
-&OMouss _<DO

」
OU_

coefficients of F(t) are as follows (as remarked previously, the first three terms are taken into
account, in other words n = 3, the factors of the terms of greater order being less than 0.1 G0):
Gi = 0,4 Go ； G2 = G3 〜 0,1 Go ；

Time [s]
Figure 2.2: force resulting from walking (fm = 2 Hz) (Ref. [3])
 (p2 =(p3 Q n/2.
As can be seen above, the values of Gi and of 0i for the terms beyond the first are hardly precise,
this being due, on the one hand, to uncertainties when taking measurements and, on the other
hand, to differences between one person and another.
Comment: for a frequency of walking of 2.4 Hz, the recommended value of G1 is 0.5 G0, the other
values being unchanged. In the same way, for slow walking (1 Hz), we have G1 = 0,1G0.
We have plotted on figure 2.3, for a person of 700 N walking at a frequency fm of 2 Hz and over 1
second, the change in F(t), taking into account one, two or three harmonics in the previous
development. We can see that only when taking the first three harmonics into account can the
saddle shape be found. Apart from the shape of the signal, the difference lies in the frequential
content of the excitation, a fundamental aspect when calculating response.

0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1

T圉
1400
1200
1000

左 800 亠 600
400
200

| ........... 1 h；m「nji：iniqi」e - 2 h 音匸 i「iiqi」eE g h 日匸 i「iiqi」eE |

Figure 2.3: walking 一 vertical component f = 2 Hz)

It should be noted that, in the annex to Eurocode 1 covering dynamic models of pedestrian loads,
the recommended load was (DLM1):
80sin( )
Q pv =2 2n/； t

which corresponds, in fact, to 0.4 G0 with G0 = 700 N, the weight of the pedestrian. This was,
therefore, the first term (dynamic) of Fourier's transform. This model has since been deleted from
the Eurocode, but its physical reality remains no less relevant.

2.1.2 - Horizontal component

The horizontal component of the load is, admittedly, of less intensity, but cannot, however, be
neglected as it can be a source of problems. It is apparent that people are very sensitive to being
moved sideways and walking is rapidly disturbed, leading, for example, to keeping close to the
handrail, to a feeling of insecurity or even the closing of the footbridge, etc.
As announced previously, we will investigate successively being moved transversely and
longitudinally (although longitudinal movement is more rarely a problem on footbridges). The
transverse component, corresponding to changing from one foot to the other when walking,
occurs, therefore, at a frequency of half that of the frequency of walking (1 Hz for fm = 2 Hz). On
the other hand, the longitudinal component is mainly linked to the frequency of walking (see
figure 2.4).
In order to present Fourier's transform of the transverse component (at the frequencies fm/2， fm
， 3fm/2) according to the basic frequency of walking fm, the solution generally used is to modify
the presentation in the following form:

F(t
)
= f G, sin2
n
im f t

i=1/2

i therefore being able to have (non-whole) values of 1/2, 1, 3/2, 2, etc. In addition, as the phase
shifts are close to 0, they do not therefore appear in the previous expression. Finally, as opposed
to the vertical force, the transverse and longitudinal components do not have, of course, a static
part (no constant term in the expression of F(t)).
 2S
N
卜

poo
8ln26-aM 0
一

0
一

eouap
二

c
£
»♦—

J-'

― -*■

Figure 2.4: changes in the vertical force (a), the transverse (b) and longitudinal (c) components of the displacement
(and of the acceleration) measured 一 walking at 2 Hz Ref. [22]

2.1.2.1 Transverse component

As indicated above, tests have shown that the main amplitudes of this component are located at a
frequency of about half that of the vertical component, a frequency corresponding to the lateral
oscillations of the centre of gravity of the body when walking. The corresponding values of the
Fourier coefficients are thus as follows:
G1/2 = G3/2 沁 0.05 G°; G1 = G2 沁 0.01 G0.
As for the vertical component (G0 = 700 N, fm = 2 Hz), we have marked on figure 2.5 the
transverse component, taking into account from one to four harmonics. As expected, it can be
seen that, on the one hand, the frequency is half that of the vertical component (in other words the
period is double) and, on the other hand, that taking into account the first four terms gives an
appearance close to those measured in figure 2.4 (b).
 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0.5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1

-—1 harrnonique 2 harrnoniques

■ ■ 3 harrnoniques 4 h a rrno n iq u e s
Figure 2.5: walking 一 transverse component f = 2 Hz)

an
2.1.2.2 Longitudinal component
The main frequency associated with this component is approximately the same as for the vertical
component (fm = 2 Hz). Its oscillations correspond, for each step, initially to the contact of the
foot with the ground, then to the thrust exerted subsequently. For this component, the values of
the Fourier coefficients are:
G1/2 q 0.04 G0 ; G1 q 0.2 G0 ; G3/2 q 0.03 G0 ; G2 q 0.1 G0 .
We have shown in figure 2.6, under the same conditions as for the other components (G0 = 700 N,
fm = 2 Hz), the change in this component, depending on the number of harmonics taken into
account, the previous comments remaining valid.

Figure 2.6: walking 一 longitudinal component f = 2 Hz)

It should be noted that, in practice, the longitudinal component of the walking force of a
pedestrian has, in general, little influence on most footbridges. The influence is greater when the
footbridge bears on overhanging, flexible piers, for which the longitudinal component of the
pedestrian leads to the bending of the pier.
2.2 - Running
As indicated in the introduction, running is characterised by a discontinuous contact with the
ground (see figure 2.7 (a)), the frequency fm generally being between 2 and 3.5 Hz.

2.2.1 - Vertical component

In an initial approximation, the vertical component of the load can be approached by a simple
sequence of semi-sinusoids, represented using the following expression:
F(t)=kpG0sin(nt/tp)for (j-1)Tm<t<(j-1)Tm +tp

F(t)=0 for (j-1)m+tp <t< jTm

with: kp : the impact factor (kp = Fmax / G0),
j : the step number (j = 1, 2, etc.),
Fmax : the maximum load,
G0 : the weight of the pedestrian,
tp : the period of the contact,
Tm : the period (Tm = 1/fm, noted Tp on fig.3.4(b)), fm being the frequency of
running.

(b)
 000 O?5 0 50 0 75 too

Figure 2.7: running — change in the force according to time (a); impact factor according to the relative period of
contact (b) Ref [3]
The period of contact tp in this model is simply the half-period Tm, which enables the expression
of F(t) to be written also in the following form:

F(t)=kpG0 sin(27rfmt) for (j-1)Tm<t< j-%T (

(
F(t)=0for j- <t<jTm
 This approximation of the period of contact tp is an
over-estimation of the values measured experimentally,
which are represented according to the frequency of
running on the graph in figure 2.8. As for the values of the
impact factor kp, these are inferred from figure 2.7 (b),
according to the relative period of contact (tp/Tm). As an
example, running at a frequency of 3 Hz (thus a period Tm =
0.33) gives tp = 0.17 s and kp = 3 when tp/Tp = 0.5 (instead
of kp = 2.4 when tp/Tp = 0.61). As announced, we can
therefore see from this example that the semi- sinusoidal
approximation is conservative.

It is also possible to use, for running, a Fourier transform, which has the advantage of not
revealing explicitly the impact factor kp, the determination of which is delicate. In order to make
allowance for the natural discontinuous contact when running, only the positive part of the
transform is retained, which may be written, with the previous notations:

F(t)=G0 +若 Gisin2nifmt for (/-1)Tm©W(/-%)T

F(t)=0for (j-)2)Tm<t<jTm
In this case, the phase shifts are assumed to be negligible and the amplitudes of the first three
harmonics are average values, these coefficients being, in strict logic, as kp, a function of the
frequency of running (figure 2.9) :
G1 = 1.6 G0 ; G2 = 0.7 G0 ; G3 q 0.2 G0.

Figure 2.8: Change in the period of contact Figure 2.9: Amplitude of the various
according to frequency harmonics
On figure 2.10 are represented (still over 1 second with G0 = 700 N, but at a frequency fm = 3 Hz),
on the one hand, a semi-sinus approximation and, on the other hand, the Fourier series transform,
taking into account 1 to 3 harmonics. We can see that the various graphs are close. More
precisely, a semi-sinus approximation leads to a weaker amplitude signal (with the value of kp
used) than taking only one harmonic into account in the Fourier series.
This load according to time can be broken down into a Fourier series, revealing a constant section
at about 1250 N and a varying section of the same frequency as the running for the first harmonic
and of amplitude 1250 N. It is this value that could be used if a specific analysis of runners had to
be made. This guide does not cover specific load cases of runners on a footbridge, as it is
considered that the effects of a crowd of pedestrians are clearly less favourable.

2.2.2 - Horizontal component

To our knowledge, no measurements have been taken of the horizontal component during a
running race, either of its longitudinal projection, or of its transverse projection. However, it is
reasonable to think, on the one hand, that, during a race, the transverse component (that to which
the public is most sensitive) has a low relative amplitude compared with the vertical component
(the race appearing to be a more "directed" progress), whereas the longitudinal component will
be larger (larger motor force). In addition, as for walking, it is logical to estimate that the
frequency of the transverse component will be half the vertical component, whereas that of the
longitudinal component will be of the same order of magnitude.
3. Appendix 3: Damping systems

3.1 - Visco-elastic dampers

The use of visco-elastic materials for controlling vibrations dates back to the 1950s, when they
were used to limit fatigue damage caused by vibrations on aircraft frames. The application to
civil engineering constructions dates from the 1960s.

3.1.1 - Principle
The visco-elastic materials used are typically polymers that dissipate energy by working in shear.
Figure 3.1 shows a visco-elastic damper formed from layers of visco-elastic materials between
metal plates. When this type of device is installed on a construction, the relative displacement of
the outer plates in respect of the central plate produces shear stresses in the visco-elastic layer,
which dissipates the energy.

Figure 3.1 — Visco-elastic damper

Under a harmonic load of frequency Q , the strain /) and the shear stress T(/) are also at the
frequency Q, but, in general, out of phase:
Y(t) = Y0 sin(Q t) T(t) = T sin(Q t +
(Eq. 3.1.)
The parameters Y0T0 and 甲 depend, in general, on the frequency Q
. The shear stress may, however, be re-written:
T(t) = Y0I &cos© sinj t) +T°sin^cos(Q t) I
(E
"0 Y0 丿 q. 32)
=Y0(G] (Q) sin(Q /) + G2 (Q) COS(Q t))

By replacing the terms sin(Q t) and COS(Q t) by Y(t)/Y0 and Y(t)/(Q Y0), the following stressstrain ratio
is obtained:
T(t) = G1 (Q) Y(t) + 2Q)
G
Y(t) (Eq. 3.3.)
Q
which defines an ellipse (Figure 3.2), the area of which is the energy dissipated by the material
per unit of volume and per cycle of oscillation.
 Figure 3.2 — Stress-strain
diagram
This energy is given by:
f2n/0
(Eq. 3.4.)
T(t) Y() dt = n Y0T0 sinp 0
The equation (3.3) reveals an initial term in phase with the displacement, representing the elastic
modulus; the second term describes the dissipation of energy. The damping G (0)/0 leads to
2

expressing the damping factor by:

G (0)
2 0 tanp
(Eq. 3.5.)
0 2G](0) 2
The parameters G (0) and tanp determine completely the behaviour of the visco-elastic damper
2

under harmonic excitation. The term tanp is called the dissipation factor. These factors vary not
only according to the frequency, but are also function of the ambient temperature. As the
dissipation of energy is in the form of heat, the level of performance of the visco-elastic dampers
must also be evaluated in relation to the variation in internal temperature that appears when they
are working.

3.1.2 - Layout and design of dampers

The layout of the dampers is an essential parameter in their effectiveness in relation to the
dissipation of energy. However, technical constraints may prevent the most appropriate places
from being selected. The effectiveness of a visco-elastic damper is measured by its capacity to
work in shear; it is, therefore, recommended that the dampers be set out in such a way that this
condition can be checked.
This type of damper has been little used for footbridges.

3.2 - Viscous dampers

3.2.1 - Principle
Dry or visco-elastic friction dampers use the action of solids to dissipate the vibratory energy of a
construction (Figure 3.3). It is, however, also possible to use a fluid.
The first device to come to mind is one derived from a dashpot. In such a device, the dissipation
takes place by the conversion of the mechanical energy into heat, using a piston that deforms a
very viscous substance, such as silicone, and displaces it. Another family of dampers is based on
the flow of a fluid in a closed container. The piston is not limited to deforming the viscous
substance, but forces the fluid to pass through calibrated orifices, fitted or not with simple
regulation devices. As in the previous case, the dissipation of the energy leads to heat being given
off. Very high levels of energy dissipation can be reached, but require adequate technological
devices.
The main difference between these two technologies is as follows. In the case of a pot or wall
damper, the dissipative force will depend on the viscosity of the fluid, whereas, in the case of an
orifice damper, this force is due mainly to the density of the fluid. Orifice dampers will therefore
be more stable in respect of variations in temperature than pot dampers or wall dampers.
In the case of pedestrian footbridges, the movements are very weak and dampers must be
selected that will be effective even for small displacements, in the order of one millimetre.
Because of the compressibility of the fluid, friction in the joints, and tolerance in the fixings, this
is not easy to achieve.
Viscous dampers must be located between two points on the construction having a differential
displacement in respect of each other. The larger these differential displacements, the more
effective the damper will be. In practice, these dampers will be located either on an element
connecting a pier and the deck a few metres away from the pier (for horizontal or vertical
vibrations), or on the horizontal bracing elements of the deck (for horizontal vibrations).

Figure 3.3 — Example of viscous damper

3.2.2 - Laws of behaviour of viscous dampers

As part of the study of the behaviour of a construction, it is necessary to have a macroscopic
behaviour model of the damper. For this, it is traditional to use a force-displacement law as
described by a differential equation of order K (Ref. [55]):
f (t) + (t)
芳"K ⑴=C0 (Eq. 36)
dt dt
in which f (t) is the force applied to the piston, and x(t) the resultant displacement of the piston. The
parameters C°,入 K represent respectively the damping factor at zero frequency, the relaxation time
and the order of the damper. These parameters are generally determined experimentally,
although approximations do exist to estimate them analytically on the basis of the characteristics
of the materials (Ref. [56]).
Notes:
When 免三 0, the case for a linear viscous damper is made. It should be pointed out that it is often
the most-used, as, obviously, it simplifies an analysis of the behaviour of the construction.
Another formulation may be used:

a is a coefficient generally between 0.1 and 0.4.

Note that, for certain fluids, the kinematic viscosity also varies according to the rate of shear of
the fluid, which is itself proportional to the speed gradient.
Viscous dampers were installed on the Millennium footbridge in London.

3.3 - Tuned mass dampers (TMD)

A tuned mass damper (abbreviated to TMD) comprises a mass connected to the construction by a
spring and by a damper positioned in parallel. This device enables the vibrations in a construction
in a given vibration mode, under the action of a periodic excitation of a frequency close to the
natural frequency of this mode of vibration of the construction, to be reduced substantially.
The first developments of TMDs applied essentially to mechanical systems for which a
frequency of excitation is in resonance with the basic frequency of the machine.

3.3.1 - Principle
Consider an oscillator with 1 degree of freedom, subjected to a harmonic force f(t). The response
of this oscillator may be reduced in amplitude by the addition of a secondary mass (or TMD) that
has a relative movement in respect of the primary oscillator. The equations describing the relative
displacement of the primary oscillator in respect of the TMD:
M &y& (t)+C y& (t)+K y (t)=c y& (t)+k y (t)+ f(t) m&y& (t)+c
1 1 1 2 2 2
(Eq. 3.8.)
y& (t)+k y (t)=-m &y& (t)
2 2 1

which is reduced to the single equation:

(M +m)&y& (t)+C y& (t) + K y (t)=-m &y& (t) + f(t)
1 1 1 2 (Eq. 3.9.)

3.3.2 - Den Hartog's solution

In the case where the primary oscillator has zero damping (C =0), it is possible to determine the
optimum characteristics of the TMD for a harmonic excitation f(t) of amplitude f and of pulsation 0

Q. This optimum solution is the solution deduced by Den Hartog in his first studies. For a
harmonic excitation, the impact factor A, defined as the ratio between the maximum dynamic
amplitude y and the static displacement y , is expressed by:
1max 1stat

(
A= y 1max = ______________ -俨 )+(2^/)2 ________
[[ )
Mstat 斗 -俨 02 /0 切 (2£adaa0) 02 -俨山 where:
1- )- + )1-

Q
ada 2
；2=亠；Q$a
Q Q osc k
osc (Eq. 3.11.)
m
c
2Q m
m
(Eq. 3.12)
ada

The dynamic amplification factor A therefore depends on four parameters: “,a, P,^ada. Figure 3.4
gives the changes of A according to the frequency ratioP, for various damping factors and for a =
1 (agreement of frequencies) and “ = 0,05 . This figure shows that, for the case where the damping

覚岛 zero, the response amplitude has two resonance peaks. Contrary to when the damping
tends towards infinity, the two masses are virtually fused, so as to form a single
oscillator of mass 1,05 M with an infinite amplitude at the resonance frequency. Between these
extreme cases, there is a damping value for which the resonance peak is minimal.

07 O 0^9~~LT L3
P
Figure 3.4 — Impact factor depending on 0
(“ =0,05 et a = 1,0 )
The objective of a tuned mass damper consists, therefore, of bringing the resonance peak down as
low as possible. Figure 3.4 shows the independence in relation to £a&a of two points (P and Q) on
the graphs A= f (0). The minimum amplitude of the resonance is thus obtained by selecting the
ratio a such that these two points are of equal amplitudes. This optimum ratio is thus given by the
expression:
(Eq. 3.13)

R
and the amplitudes at points P and Q are: =F
(Eq. 3.14)

The optimum frequency 心 and the optimum damping factor ^opt can be determined for the tuned
mass damper 1 , in the case where the construction does not have its own damping: this is
Den-Hartog's solution (Ref. [51]):
fopt =古人 (Eq. 3.15)

3“ (Eq. 3.16)
雨（1+〃）3

3.3.3 - General solution

A more detailed analysis has been carried out by Warburton (Ref. [54]) in order to determine the
optimum characteristics of the TMD for several types of excitations (in the presence of weak
structural damping). The analysis proposed by Warburton also enables the results to be

1
The optimum frequency is very slightly less than that of the construction, the added mass
always being in the order of a few hundredths of the mass of the construction.
used for primary oscillators with one degree of freedom, to cases with several degrees of
freedom. These analogies are based on a breakdown on the basis of the standardised natural
modes of the construction. Optimality is not therefore sought on a given mode (modal
component), but on a generalised coordinate (displacement or derivatives). The reader is
therefore referred to reference 54 for further details on these analogies. In addition, this section
will be limited to dealing only with the case of oscillators with 1 degree of freedom. The
optimum characteristics of Den Hartog's tuned mass damper for a harmonic excitation have been
established, minimising the impact factor A. This is the very principle of the determination of an
optimum TMD: first defining a criterion of optimality A, then seeking the solutions minimising
this criterion. Apart from the impact factor, numerous other criteria can be selected, such as the
minimisation of the displacement of the construction, of the displacement of the damper, of the
acceleration of the construction or of forces in the construction, etc., all for various types of
excitations. In particular, when the excitation is random (the primary system is subjected to a
random force — in other words, in our case, the crowd), the optimum parameters aopt and ^opt are
given by the expressions:

(Eq. 3.17)

(Eq3.18)

3.3.4 - Case of a damped primary oscillator

In the case where the construction has natural damping, the theoretical optimum frequency is
very slightly weaker than that given by the above formula (valid for a harmonic excitation),
which is nevertheless sufficient in usual cases (Ref. [53]) :
0,241 1,7 2, 1,0 1,9
a
opt = aopt -( + “一 6“2 )fosc -( — “ + “2 )£sc
~ (Eq. 3.19)
Eopt Nopt +(0,13 + 0,12“ + 0,4“ )c-(0,01 + 0,9“ + 3“ ) in which Eosc is the damping factor of the
2 2

primary mass. These expressions show less than 1% error for 0.03<“<0.40 and 0.0<^osc <0.15.

The effectiveness of a tuned mass damper is much more sensitive to the natural frequency of the
added mass, than to the value of the added damping. This is why it must be possible to adjust the
natural frequency of the mass when fixing the device, so as fine-tune it to the actual natural
frequency of the construction. This is generally done by varying the value of the mass itself,
which is much easier to adjust than the stiffness of the spring.

3.3.5 - Examples
There are various types of tuned mass dampers. The most typical type consists of a mass
connected to the construction by means of vertical coil springs and one or more hydraulic or
pneumatic dampers. These TMDs may be linked together to damp torsion vibrations. Figure 3.5
gives an overview of such a device.
 Figure 3.5 — Tuned mass damper for the Solferino footbridge
When the vibration to be damped is horizontal, a device consisting of a mass attached to the
bottom of a pendulum, associated with a horizontal hydraulic damper, may be considered.

3.4 - Tuned liquid dampers

In the technology of tuned mass dampers, a second mass is attached to the construction using
struts and dampers (figure 3.6a). Another category of dampers consists of replacing the mass,
strut and damper by a container filled with a liquid. As for a traditional TMD, the liquid acts as
the secondary mass and the damping is provided by friction with the walls of the container. As
the action of gravity comprises a recall mechanism, the secondary system (figure.3.6b) thus
formed has characteristic frequencies that can be tuned to optimise one performance criterion.
The first TLD prototype was proposed in the 1900s by Frahm to control rolling in ships. Since the
1970s, these dampers have been installed on satellites to reduce long period vibrations. But it has
only been since the 1980s that building applications have been considered.

(a) TMD with mass

Figure 3.6 — Comparison between TMD with mass and TLD with fluid

The principles used for the sizing of TMDs also apply to TLDs. However, although the
parameters of a TMD can be optimised and analytical formulae provided, the non-linear response
of the fluid in movement in a container makes such optimisation very difficult. The response of
the "container/construction" system is thus dependant on the amplitude of the movements.
 Figure 3.7 — Description of a TLD
Let us consider a rectangular container of length 2a filled with a liquid of viscosity v and of
average depth h. The fluid is assumed to be incompressible and irrotational. The container is
subjected to a horizontal displacement x(t). It is assumed that the free surface remains continuous
(no waves breaking) and that the pressure p(x,z,t) is constant over this free surface (figure 3.7).
According to the linear theory of the boundary layer, the natural vibration frequency of the fluid
is:

(Eq. 3.2o)
加；
The damping factor may be approached by the expression (Ref. [57]) :
1 h)
1 + 訂； (Eq.
0
adaf
in which b is the width of the tank. The equations of
the same as
the coupled system are written in exactly way equations (3.&) and (3.9.) with m =

2
0osc
2应 adqf
0
adaf

, ,k ,
pad^2abh c = 2^%0adaf =吨藹 in other words:
1 + equation shows
This ^ ^osc the
osc analogy that can exist between a tuned mass damper
3.22) and a tuned liquid
2 0 0
2 0adaf
; (Eq.
fj.
damper. This analogy only makes sense subject to the validity of the expressions (3.20) and (3.21)
0
.J
selected as equivalent pulsation and damping factor. In reality, the resolution of the coupled
problem is more complex due to the fluid nature of the secondary oscillator.
As opposed to numerous high-rise towers, to our knowledge, no footbridge has had tuned fluid
dampers installed. They were, however, considered for the Ikuchi bridge (Japan), in order to
dampen the horizontal vibrations of the pylons. The total fluid mass was 4770 kg and the tuning
frequency was 0.255 Hz.

3.5 - Comparative table

Type of damper Field of use Advantages Disadvantages

Visco-elastic Very little used Damps several Needs to be fixed to work in shear
modes
Viscous pot or wall Little used Damps several Temperature-sensitive, nonlinear
dampers modes calculation
Viscous orifice Little used Independent of Non-linear calculation
dampers temperature, damps
several modes
Tuned mass Widely used Easy to size
dampers
Additional mass to be considered,
damps a given mode, needs
adjustment in frequency
Tuned liquid Very little used
"Innovative", additional mass to
dampers
be considered, damps a given
mode, needs adjustment in
frequency
4. Appendix 4: Examples of footbridges
We will be reviewing several different designs of footbridges recently constructed, from the
main types of constructions. We will be presenting a construction with lateral beams, a steel
box-girder construction with orthotropic deck, a construction with a ribbed slab, a bow-string
arch with orthotropic deck, a suspended construction with one steel mast, a steel lattice arch, a
cable-stayed construction. We will indicate the main features of each of the bridges and its
method of construction, and we will give the results of the dynamic studies and, as applicable, the
results of tests.

4.1 - Warren-type lateral beams: Cavaillon footbridge

The bridge is a Warren-type construction with lateral beams 3.20 m high; it comprises two
independent bays of 49.7 m span. The deck consists of a reinforced concrete slab bearing on floor
beams 2.26 m apart. The functional width is 3.00 m. The works were carried out in 2000 - 2001.
The steel construction was erected with a crane, the mass of the framework is 18.8 t per bay.
A modal analysis made using an analytical calculation gave the following results:
Mode 1 Vertical bending 1.95 Hz
This frequency was calculated without taking the mass of the pedestrians into account.

Photograph 4.1 — Cavaillon footbridge

4.2 - Steel box-girder: Stade de France footbridge

The bridge is a box-girder bridge with double intermediate supports, of a total length of 180 m,
with a central bay of 64 m span, and end bays of 54 and 50 m. The structure of the deck is formed
from a steel box girder with orthotropic topping. The functional width is 11.00 m. The works
were carried out in 1997 - 1998. The construction was erected with a crane; the total mass of the
framework is 595.0 t.
The modal analysis carried out using finite element design software gave the following results:
Mode 1 Vertical bending central bay 1.97 Hz
Mode 2 Vertical bending of end bay 1 2.06 Hz
Mode 3 Vertical bending of end bay 2 2.20 Hz
The dynamic study gave the following results:
1 pedestrian deflection 2.7 mm acceleration 0.4 m/sec2
640 pedestrians 25 in phase deflection 70 mm acceleration 10 m/sec2
The dynamic study with damper of 2.4 t mass:
640 pedestrians 25 in phase deflection 6.5 mm acceleration 1 m/sec2

Photograph 4.2 — Stade de France footbridge

4.3 - Ribbed slab: Noisy-le-Grand footbridge

The bridge is a ribbed slab in pre-stressed concrete of varying depth of a total length of 88 m,
with a central bay of 44 m span, and end bays of 22 m. The depth of the slab varies from 1 m at
the summit to 3.05 m at the piers. The functional width is 5 m. The works were carried out in
1993 - 1994. The two beams comprising the structure were constructed perpendicularly to their
final position and positioned over the A4 motorway by rotation; the total mass of the deck is
860.0 t.
The modal analysis carried out using finite element design software gave the following
results:
Mode 1 Vertical bending 1.65 Hz
Mode 2 Axi-symmetrical bending 3.48 Hz
Mode 3 Lateral bending 4.86 Hz
 Photograph 4.3 — Noisy-le-Grand footbridge

4.4 - Bow-string arch: Montigny-les-Cormeilles footbridge

The bridge is a bow-string with polygonal arch of 55 m span. The structure of the deck comprises
two lateral steel tubes connected by an orthotropic topping. The functional width is 3.50 m. The
works were carried out in 1998 - 1999. The construction was erected with a crane; the total mass
of the framework is 85.0 t.
A modal analysis carried out using finite element calculation software gave the following results,
with the tubes of the tie filled with cement, and the mass of the bridge being increased by the
mass of the pedestrians corresponding to a(l):
Mode 1 Vertical bending 2.51 Hz
Mode 2 Anti-symmetrical bending 2.52 Hz
Mode 3 Lateral bending of deck 2.62 Hz

Comment: without the pedestrians, the frequencies increase by 0.5 Hz.

Photograph 4.4 — Montigny-les-Cormeilles footbridge

4.5 - Suspended construction: Footbridge over the Aisne at
Soissons
The bridge is a suspension bridge of 60 m span. The structure of the deck is formed from a steel
box-girder suspended from a mast consisting of four inclined tubes joining at mid-span. The
functional width is 3.00 m. The works were carried out in 2000. The structure was erected with a
crane on temporary legs before the mast was erected; the total mass of the steel framework is
105.0 t.
The modal analysis carried out using finite element design software gave the following results:
Mode 1 Lateral bending of deck 1.10 Hz
Mode 2 Lateral bending of the arches 2.80 Hz
Mode 3 Vertical bending of the deck 3.10 Hz

Photograph 4.5 — Soissons footbridge

4.6 - Steel arch: Solferino footbridge

The bridge is a steel arch of 106 m span. The structure of the arch is formed from two double
parabolic arches as a ladder beam, linked by cross-pieces supporting a lower deck. The double
upper deck is supported on A-frames and braces bearing on the two arches. The functional width
varies from 12 m to 14.80. The works were carried out in 1998 - 1999. The structure was erected
with a crane on temporary legs; the total mass of the framework is 900.0 t.
The modal analysis carried out using finite element design software gave the following results:
Mode 1 Lateral swing 0.71 Hz
Mode 2 Axi-symmetrical vertical bending1.03 Hz
Mode 3 Torsion-bending 1.37 Hz
Mode 4 Vertical bending 1.66 Hz
Mode 5 Torsion-swing 1.66Hz
The dynamic tests and measurements gave the following frequencies empty (without damper):
Mode 1 Lateral swing 0.81Hz
Mode 2 Axi-symmetrical vertical bending1.22 Hz
Mode 3 Torsion-bending 1.59Hz
Mode 4 Vertical bending 1.69Hz
Mode 5 Central torsion-swing 1.94Hz
Mode 6 Central torsion-swing 2.22 Hz
Mode 7 Bending-torsion 3.09Hz
The damping for the empty structure varied from 0.3% to 0.5%.
The dynamic tests and measurements gave the following accelerations:
16 pedestrians balance mode 1 acceleration 0.5 m/sec2
16 pedestrians walking mode 6 acceleration 2.0 m/sec2
16 pedestrians running mode 7 acceleration 2.5 m/sec2
The damping with 16 pedestrians on the footbridge varied from 0.4% to 0.8%.
106 pedestrians balance mode 1 acceleration 1.5 m/sec2
106 pedestrians running mode 7 acceleration 5.7 m/sec2
The damping with more than 100 pedestrians on the footbridge varied from 0.7% to 1.6%.
Dampers
6 pendular systems supporting masses of 2.5 t and 1.9 t allow damping of 3.9% in respect of
mode 1 (lateral swing) to be achieved.
8 mass/spring systems supporting masses of 2.5 t allow damping of 2.75% in respect of modes 5
and 6 (central torsion-swing) to be achieved.

Photograph 4.6 — Solferino footbridge

4.7 - Cable-stayed construction: Pas-du-lac footbridge at St
Quentin
The bridge is a dissymmetric cable-stayed bridge of a total length of 188 m, with, on one side,
two bays with spans of 68 m and 36 m, and, on the other, two bays, each of 42 m span. The
structure of the deck is formed from two steel beams, suspended from a single pylon, linked by
floor beams. The functional width is 2.50 m. The works were carried out in 1991 - 1992. The
construction was positioned with a crane.
The modal analysis carried out using finite element design software gave the following results:
Mode 1 Lateral bending of deck 1.38 Hz
Mode 2 Displacement-bending of deck 1.85 Hz
Mode 3 Bending of pylon 1.92 Hz
Mode 4 Vertical bending of the deck 1.95 Hz

Photograph 4.7 — Pas-du-Lac footbridge

4.8 - Mixed construction beam: Mont-Saint-Martin footbridge
The bridge has a mixed steel-concrete deck with a span of 23 m. The structure of the deck is
formed from two slightly cambered steel beams linked by floor beams. The functional width is
2.50 m. The works were carried out in 1996. The structure was erected with a crane; the mass of
the framework is 22.0 t.
A modal analysis made using an analytical calculation gave the following results:
Mode 1 Vertical bending 2.15 Hz
Mode 2 Vertical bending 3.99 Hz
Mode 3 Lateral swing 4.50 Hz
5. Appendix 5: Examples of calculations of
footbridges.
This section sets out a full study of two standard footbridges based on actual examples, together
with a sensitivity study of the natural frequencies of typical footbridges.

The two complete examples of dynamic calculation have been carried out using the methodology
of the guide, taking into account the various categories of traffic. If the results led to unacceptable
accelerations, the characteristics of these constructions were modified to improve their dynamic
behaviour and to try and satisfy comfort conditions.

5.1 - Examples of complete calculations of footbridges

5.1.1 - Warren-type lateral beam footbridge

The first footbridge studied is a construction with a mixed steel-concrete framework forming one
independent bay with a span of 38.85 m. The longitudinal profile is curved to a radius of 450
metres.

The framework is formed from two triangulated lateral beams. These beams, of a constant depth
of 1.215 m, are linked by floor beams located at the level of the bottom member. A precast
reinforced concrete slab, 10 cm thick, bears on these floor beams.

/
members /
400x200x12
1.215 m
Useful width 2.50 m
■

A
\
2.90 m
Figure 5.2: Cross-section of the lateral beam footbridge

The distance between the centre lines of the beams is 2.90 m, giving a width of passage for
pedestrians of 2.50 m.

Characteristics of the deck

The moment of inertia is calculated taking into account the reinforced concrete slab with a
homogenisation coefficient of 6, and the mass of the deck is calculated taking into account the
floor beams and the reinforced concrete slab.

Moment of inertia of the deck: I =0,030 m4 Natural linear density of the deck: m =1456 kg/m
Young's modulus of the steel: E = 210 x 109 N / m2

5.1.1.1 Class III

First of all, we will consider class III, in other words a normally-used footbridge that can
sometimes be crossed by large groups, but never loaded over its whole area.
5.1.1.1.1 Calculation of natural modes

The natural frequencies are equal to: fn n2n [El

莎彳
pS is the linear density of the deck PS
increased by the linear density of the pedestrians, which is calculated for each crowd density,
depending on the class of the footbridge.

For class III, we are interested in a sparse crowd, where the density d of the crowd is equal to 0.5
pedestrians/m2.
The number of pedestrians on the footbridge is: np=0.5x38.85x2.5=48.6

The linear density of the pedestrians is: mp=3402/38.85=87.6 kg/m

The linear density is: PS=1456+87.6=1534.6 kg/m
For the first mode, the high-bond and low bond frequencies are equal to:
1
( )n
210x109 x0.030
f1 = 238i5H — =
1456
1
( )n 210 x 109 x 030
f1 = O' = 2.02H
2(38.85)2 1630.8
For the second mode, the high-bond and low bond frequencies are equal to:
f2 =(2)2 疋 210 109
x xO'
030
= 8.54 H
1456
2(38.85)2 f = (2)n
210x109 x 0.030
2(8 亦)Y —―
1630.8— =8.08
The total mass of the pedestrians is: 70x48.6=3402 kg
Only the first mode is likely to cause uncomfortable vibrations.

5.1.1.1.2 Calculation of the dynamic load of the pedestrians

We will calculate the load for the first mode only, with a critical damping ratio of 0.6% (mixed
deck).

The surface load to be taken into account for the vertical modes is:
屮 is equal to 1, as the frequency of the first mode, which is 2.08 Hz, is within range 1 (1.7 to
2.1 Hz) with a maximum risk of causing resonance.
We have 10.8 崔=10.8 =0.120
n 48.6
The surface load is equal to:
Fs =0.5x280xcos(2^x2.08xt )x0.120x1=16.8xcos(2^x2.08xt) N/m
The linear load is equal to:
F=Fsxlp =16.8x2.5xcos(2 乃 x2,08xt)=42.0xcos(2 龙 x2.08xt) N/m
This load is applied to the whole of the footbridge.
5.1.1.1.3 Calculation of dynamic responses
The calculation of the acceleration to which the construction is subjected gives:
Acc max= 1 4x42.0 =2.91 m/s2
"2x0.6/100^x1534.6
The maximum acceleration calculated is located within range 4 of the accelerations, in other
words at an unacceptable comfort level (acceleration > 2.5 m/sec2).

5.1.1.2 Class II
We will next consider class II, in other words an urban footbridge linking populated zones,
subjected to a high level of traffic and likely, on occasions, to be loaded over its whole area.
5.1.1.2.1 Calculation of natural modes
For class II, we are interested in a dense crowd, where the density d of the crowd is equal to 0.8
pedestrians/m2.
The number of pedestrians on the footbridge is: np=0.8x38.85x2.5=77.7=78
The total mass of the pedestrians is: 70x78=5460 kg
The linear density of the pedestrians is: mp=5460/38.85=140.5 kg/m
The linear density is: pS=1456+140.5=1596.5 kg/m

For the first mode, the high-bond and low bond frequencies are equal to: / (1)” )210 x
109 x 0.030
f
1 =最討—阪—= 2A4HZ

f= 1 LJ210 x
109 x 0^ = 2.02Hz
2(38.85)2 V 1630.8
For the second mode, the high-bond and low bond frequencies are equal to: f 殛=8^4 Hz

f
2
⑵” 210 x 109 x 0.030
=8.08 Hz
2(38.85) V
2
1630.8

Only the first mode is likely to cause uncomfortable vibrations.

5.1.1.2.2 Calculation of the dynamic load of the pedestrians
With 0.6% of critical damping, as in the previous case, we have:
0 6/100
10.8 f=10.8/ . =0.120
n 48.6
The surface load is equal to:
Fs =0.8x280xcos(2^x2.04xt)0.095x 上 21.28xcos(2 龙 x2.04xt) N!~mi
The linear load is equal to:
F=Fsxlp =21.28x2.5xcos(2nx2.04xt )=53.2xcos(2nx2.04xt) N/m
5.1.1.2.3 Calculation of dynamic responses
Acc max= 1 4x53.2 =3.53 m/s2
2x0.6/100 nx1596.5
The maximum acceleration calculated is located within range 4 of the accelerations, in other
words at an unacceptable comfort level (acceleration > 2.5 m/sec2).

5.1.1.3 Class I
We will finally consider class I, in other words an urban footbridge linking zones with high
concentrations of pedestrians (presence of a station, for example), or frequently used by dense
crowds (demonstrations, tourists, etc.), subjected to a very high level of traffic.
5.1.1.3.1 Calculation of natural modes
For class I, we are interested in a very dense crowd, where the density d of the crowd is equal to
1.0 pedestrian/m2.
The number of pedestrians on the footbridge is: np=1x38.85x2.5=97
The total mass of the pedestrians is: 70x97 = 6790 kg
The linear density of the pedestrians is: mp=6790/38.85=174.8 kg/m
f2 =
The linear density is: pS=14561630.8
+174.8=1630.8 kg/m
For the first mode, the high-bond and low bond frequencies are equal to:
1 210x109 x0.030
—
f1 = ( )n
23I^H 1456 =
1 210 x 30
f1 = ( )n & °.° = 2.02H
x

2(38.85) V 1630.8
2

For the second mode, the high-bond and low bond frequencies are equal to:
2 210 109 30
f2 =( )2n °.° = 8.54 H
x x

1456
(38.85) 30
210 2
/ 、 Jx
& x °.° = 8.08 Hz 2(38.85)2 V

Only the first mode is likely to cause uncomfortable vibrations.

5.1.1.3.2 Calculation of the dynamic load of the pedestrians
We will calculate the load for the first mode only, with 0.6% of critical damping (mixed deck).

The surface load to be taken into account for the vertical modes is:
屮 is equal to 1, as the frequency of the first mode, which is 2.02 Hz, is within range 1 (1.7 to
2.1 Hz) with a maximum risk of causing resonance.

The surface load equals:

5.1.1.3.3 Calculation of dynamic responses
We = 1 4x131.5
The have:
linearAload
cc max
is xequal
"2 to: nx1630.8 =8.55 m/s2
0.6/100
F=Fsmaximum
The xlp =52.60xacceleration 2.02xt )131.5
2.5xcos(2nxcalculated xcos(2within
is located t) N/m
nx2.02xrange 4 of the accelerations, in other
words at an unacceptable comfort level (acceleration > 2.5 m/sec2).

5.1.1.4 Summary
2
It can be seen that the accelerations are always higher than 2.5 m/sec , whatever class is
selected. It should be pointed out that this example is a particularly unfavourable case, as the first
natural frequency is in the middle of the range of maximum risk.

In order to reduce the accelerations obtained, the stiffness of the construction must be increased.
To do this, the depth of the triangulated lateral beams can be increased (for example by 20 cm)
and the thickness of the sheet metal of the members also increased (for example 14 mm).
We choose both to increase the thickness of the metal in the members and to increase the depth
of the beams, and then we recalculate the frequencies, the dynamic loads and the corresponding
responses.

5.1.1.5 Stiffening of the structure

The sheet metal of the members is increased from 12 to 14 mm. The depth between centre lines
of the members is increased from 1.215 m to 1.415 m.

members
400x200x14
1.415 m

Figure 5.3: Cross-section of the footbridge with members in 14 mm sheet metal and depth of 1.415 m
Characteristics of the deck
The moment of inertia of the deck is modified and equals: I=0.045 m4
The natural mass of the deck is slightly increased, but that is not significant.

The frequencies of the first modes are modified in the following way:
Class III: 2.57 Hz
Class II: 2.52 Hz
Class I: 2.50 Hz

The frequency of 2.57 Hz for class III does not lead to any calculation, as this frequency is
outside the range 1.7 Hz — 2.1 Hz.

For class I and II, calculations are necessary, but with a coefficient 0=0.21 for class I and 0=0.16
for class II.
This leads to the following accelerations:
2
Acc = 0.55 m/sec for class II, which is compatible with a medium comfort level, and almost
maximum (0.50 m/sec?)
Acc = 1.78 m/sec? for class I, which is compatible with a minimum comfort level (1 — 2.5
m/sec2)
To make this footbridge even more comfortable, it would be possible, for example, to increase
the thickness of the sheet metal to 16 mm so that the natural frequencies are greater than 2.6 Hz.
The coefficient 0 is then zero. In this case, the second harmonic of the pedestrians must be taken
into account, but if it stays around 2.6 Hz, it should not cause any problems.

5.1.2 - Box-girder footbridge

The second footbridge studied is a steel box girder with two bays, each of 40 m, with concrete
deck topping.

4
1 40.00 m 7^ 40,00 m
!◄ ------ Figure 5.4: ------ ►1 b*footbridge
Steel box girder ---- --------
►!

Useful width 3.50 m

Concrete slab
4.00 m x 0.10 m

/
sheet 30 mm

The framework is formed from a steel box girder of a constant depth of 1 metre. A 10 cm thick
pre-cast reinforced concrete slab bears on this girder.
Figure 5.5: Cross-section of a mixed box girder footbridge

The width of the slab is 4.00 m, the width for pedestrian passage is 3.50 m.

1.00 m

2.00 m
Characteristics of the deck
The mass of the deck is calculated taking into account the reinforced concrete slab and the mass
of the balustrades. The moment of inertia is calculated taking into account the concrete slab with
a homogenisation coefficient of 6.

Moment of inertia of the deck: I =0,057 m4

Natural linear density of the deck: m =3055 kg/m
Young's modulus of the steel: E = 210x109 N/m2

5.1.2.1 Class III

First of all, we will consider class III, in other words a normally-used footbridge that can
sometimes be crossed by large groups, but never loaded over its whole area.
5.1.2.1.1 Calculation of natural modes
The natural modes of the deck were calculated using the Systus program.

pS is the total linear density, in other words the linear density of the deck (including the slab),
increased by the linear density of the pedestrians, which is calculated for each crowd density,
depending on the class of the footbridge.

For class III, we are interested in a sparse crowd, where the density d of the crowd is equal to 0.5
pedestrians/m2.
The number of pedestrians on the two bays is: np=0.5x(2x40)x3.5=140
The total mass of the pedestrians is: 70x140=9800 kg
The linear density of the pedestrians is: mp=9800/80=122.5 kg/m
The total linear density is: pS=3055+122.5=3177.5 kg/m
For the first mode, the high-bond and low bond frequencies are equal to:
f =1.94 Hz f =1.86 Hz
1 1

For the second mode, the high-bond and low bond frequencies are equal to:
f =3.04 Hz f = 2.92 Hz
2 2

5.1.2.1.2 Calculation of the dynamic load of the pedestrians

First of all, we calculate the load for the first mode, and a critical damping ratio of 0.6% (mixed
deck).
The surface load to be taken into account for the vertical modes is:
屮 is equal to 1, as the frequency of the first mode, which is 1.90 Hz, is within range 1 of the

The surface load is equal to:frequencies (1.7 to 2.1 Hz).

We have: 10

Fs=0.5x280xcos(2”x1.90xt)x0.071x1=9.94xcos(2”x1.90xt)N/m2
The linear load is equal to:
F=Fsxlp=9.94x3.5xcos(2”x1.90xt)=34.79xcos(2”x1.90xt) N/m
5.1.2.1.3 Calculation of dynamic responses
The acceleration under the vertical load is equal to:
Acc max== 2x0.1/1003^-1.16 ^/
The maximum acceleration calculated is located within range 3 of the accelerations, in other
words at the minimum comfort level (acceleration between 1 and 2.5 m/sec2). However, the
medium comfort level is almost reached.
For the second mode, the frequency of 2.96 Hz does not impose particular checks.

5.1.2.2 Class II
We will then consider class II.
5.1.2.2.1 Calculation of natural modes
For class II, we are interested in a dense crowd, where the density d of the crowd is equal to 0.8
pedestrians/m2.
The number of pedestrians on the footbridge is: np=0.8x(2x40)x3.5=224
The total mass of the pedestrians is: 70x224 =15680 kg
The linear density of the pedestrians is: mp =15680/80 =196 kg/m
The total linear density is: PS =3055+196 =3251 kg/m
For the first mode, the high-bond and low bond frequencies are equal to:
f =1.94 Hz f =1.86 Hz
1 1

For the second mode, the high-bond and low bond frequencies are equal to:
f =3.04 Hz f = 2.92 Hz
2 2

5.1.2.2.2 Calculation of the dynamic load of the pedestrians

First of all, we calculate the load for the first mode, and a critical damping ratio of 0.6% (mixed
deck).
The surface load to be taken into account for the vertical modes is:
Fs = d x(280N)x cos2nfvt x 10,8 x /— x 屮
n
屮 is equal to 1, as the frequency of the first mode, which is 1.879 Hz, is within range 1 of the
frequencies (1.7 to 2.1 Hz).
We have 10,J—=10,8 护朗^=0.056

The surface load is equal to:

Fs =0.8x280xcos(2nx1.879xt)0.056x1.0=12.54xcos2n1.879 N/m
The linear load is equal to:
F=Fsxlp =12.54x3.5xcos(2nx1.879xt)=43.89xcos(2nx1.879xt) N/m
5.1.2.2.3 Calculation of dynamic responses
The acceleration under the vertical load is equal to:
Acc max=2—ppn=2x0.6/1004x43x89 皿讪 $ ?
The maximum acceleration calculated is located within range 3 of the accelerations, in other
words at a medium comfort level (between 1 and 2.5 m/sec2).
For the second mode, the frequency of 2.92 Hz requires us to take the second harmonic into
account. But, with a force of one-quarter of that of the first harmonic, and taking into account the
above acceleration result, the comfort level obtained is maximum.

5.1.2.3 Class I
We will finally consider class I.
5.1.2.3.1 Calculation of natural modes
The natural modes of the deck were calculated using the Systus program.

For class I, we are interested in a very dense crowd, where the density d of the crowd is equal to
1.0 pedestrian/m2.
The number of pedestrians on the footbridge is: np=1x(2x40)x3.5=280
The total mass of the pedestrians is: 70x280 =19600 kg
The linear density of the pedestrians is: mp =19600/80= 245 kg/m
The total linear density is: pS =3055+245=3300 kg/m
For the first mode, the high-bond and low bond frequencies are equal to:
f =1.94 Hz f =1.86 Hz
1 1

For the second mode, the high-bond and low bond frequencies are equal to:
f =3.04 Hz f = 2.92 Hz
2 2

5.1.2.3.2 Calculation of the dynamic load of the pedestrians

First of all, we calculate the load for the first mode, and a critical damping ratio of 0.6% (mixed
deck).
The surface load to be taken into account for the vertical modes is:

屮 is equal to 1, as the frequency of the first mode, which is 1.86 Hz, is within range 1 of the
frequencies (1.7 to 2.1 Hz).
The surface load equals:

The linear load is equal to:

F =Fsxl p =30.956x3.5xcos(2”x1.86xt )=108.35xcos(2”x1.86xt
) N/m Calculation of dynamic responses
5.1.2.3.3
The acceleration under the vertical load is equal to:
Acc max
=册=2x0.6/10043x310 精 亠 8 m//s

The maximum acceleration calculated is located within range 4 of the accelerations, in other
words at an unacceptable comfort level (acceleration > 2.5 m/sec2).
For the second mode, the frequency of 2.91 Hz requires us to take the second harmonic into
account. But, with a force of one-quarter of that of the first harmonic, and taking into account the
above acceleration result, the comfort level obtained is medium (approximately 0.9 m/sec?).
5.1.2.4 Summary
Class Damping ratio Acceleration in
Frequency in Hz m/sec2
III 1.90 0.6 1.16

II 1.88 0.6 1.43

I 1.86 0.6 3.48

Table 5.1

It can be seen that the accelerations are higher than 1 m/sec? for all categories. If the medium
comfort level is selected, the project will have to be modified.

In order to reduce the accelerations obtained, the stiffness of the construction must be increased.
To do this, the depth of the box girder can be increased (for example by 40 cm).

5.1.2.5 Stiffened steel box girder footbridge

The framework is formed from a steel box girder of a constant depth of 1.40 metres. A 10 cm
thick pre-cast reinforced concrete slab bears on this girder.
The moment of inertia of the deck is modified and equals: I=0.106 m4
Natural linear density of the deck: m = 3241 kg/m
Young's modulus of the steel: E = 210x109 N /m2

The high bond and low bond frequencies are modified as follows:
f = 2.57 Hz f = 2.47 Hz and f = 4.02 Hz f = 3.83 Hz
1 1 2 2

For class III, the two natural frequencies are outside the range of frequencies that have to be
checked. In class III, the comfort level is therefore automatically maximum.
The accelerations associated with the first mode are, for class I and II:
1
In class II: Accmax = 1 4^ = 乍 10.36=0.32 m/s2
2^ pSn 2x0.6/1003437xn

1
In class I: Accmax=丄 4 泸= 」 =0.85 m/sz
4x28 7

2^ pSn 2x0.6/100 3437xn

For class II, the comfort level is maximum. It is medium for class I, but acceptable even so. The
conclusions on comfort levels, taking the second harmonic of pedestrians walking into account,
for the second natural modes, are unchanged.

5.2 - Sensitivity study of typical footbridges.

This section sets out a study of four types of standard footbridges based on actual examples, in
which the span of these typical footbridges is varied around the actual span, but remaining within
their field of use.
The first paragraph sets out the footbridges studied and the second states their natural
frequencies.

5.2.1 - Presentation of the footbridges studied and static

pre-sizing
Four main types of footbridges were distinguished: in reinforced concrete, in pre-stressed
concrete, mixed steel-concrete box girder and steel lattice.
For each type, rough pre-sizing was carried out, for footbridges of a total length of between 20
and 80 m; the assumptions and the procedure used in each case are given in the following section.
In order to allow a comparison between the various footbridges, the same net width of 3.50 m
was taken for all the footbridges. In the same way, the superstructures are comparable, even
though they have been adapted to each case.

5.2.1.1 Reinforced concrete footbridge

For reinforced concrete, a distinction is made between two fields of span: small spans (20 to 25
m), for which a rectangular reinforced concrete slab is sufficient, and longer spans (25 to 45 m),
for which we will use an H-shaped reinforced footbridge. Only the depth h varies when the span
changes, the fixed dimensions are as follows:
3 m 50

20 m < L < 25 m 30 m < L < 45 m

Figure 5.6: Reinforced concrete footbridges h
The depth of the footbridge to Vbe used is that which enables the compression limit of the concrete
(here 15 MPa) to be guaranteed, and to take the steels, either in the 3.50 m width, for the slab, or
in the two 50 cm beams, for the H-shaped footbridge.
0.50their
The superstructures of this footbridge, together with m weights, are:
- damp-proofing 3.5 x 0.03 x 24 = 2.5 kN /m
- finish 3.5 x 0.04 x 24 = 4 kN /m
- sundries 1 kN / m
i. e. 7.5 kN / m in total.
The role of the balustrade is played by the H-beams themselves. For the reinforced slab, two edge
brackets and two balustrades must be added, i.e. 16 kN / m in total.

5.2.1.2 Pre-stressed concrete footbridge

In the same way as for reinforced concrete, a distinction is made between two distinct fields:
where L is between 20 m and m, a pre-stressed rectangular slab is used. On the other hand, as
soon as L becomes longer than 35 m (up to 50 m), a pre-stressed box girder is preferably to be
used. Only the depth h varies when the span changes, the fixed dimensions are as follows:
 Figure 5.7: Pre-stressed concrete footbridges

The superstructures of this footbridge, together 0.2

with their weights, are:
- 2 edge brackets 2 x 25 x (0.25 x 0.34) = 4.5 kN / m 2 x 2 = 4
- 2 balustrades kN / m
- damp-proofingV 4 x 0.03 x 24 = 3 kN /m
- finish 3.5 x 0.04 x224
m = 4 kN /m
- sundries 1 kN / m
20 m < L < 30 m 35 m < L 16.5
< 50 kN
m / m in total.
5.2.1.3 Steel or mixed footbridge
This type of footbridge is a steel box girder (welded reconstituted beams) in grade S355 steel. A
concrete slab bears on this box girder; if it is connected to it, it becomes a mixed section. If it does
not, the load-bearing section is the steel alone, but the thickness of the concrete is still there and
adds to the overall weight. Only the depth of the footbridge varies when the span changes, the
fixed dimensions are as follows:

i.e.
0.10 m
0.025 m

0.025 m

0.025 m

Figure 5.8: Mixed footbridge

We will study this type of footbridge for total spans ranging from
40 to 80 m. For the mixed box girder, the sizing is done on the
assumption that the steel section bears its own weight and also that of the wet concrete (assumed
placed in a single pour). On the other hand, the mixed section takes the superstructure (with an
equivalence factor n = 18) and the static pedestrian loads (factor n = 6). For the steel box girder,
the only load-bearing section is the steel girder. The superstructures of this footbridge, together
with their weights, are:
- 2 edge brackets 2 x 25 x (0.25 x 0.34) = 4.5 kN / m
- 2 balustrades 2 x 2 = 4 kN / m
- damp-proofing 4 x 0.03 x 24 = 3 kN /m
- finish 3.5 x 0.04 x 24 = 4 kN /m
- sundries 1 kN / m
i.e. 16.5 kN / m in total.
5.2.1.4 Steel lattice footbridge
The main field of span taken into account for this type of footbridge is 50-80 m. It is assumed that
the footbridge is properly triangulated. The values that remain fixed when the span changes are:
3 m 50

Figure 5.9: Steel lattice footbridge

The superstructures of this footbridge, together with their weights, are:

- 2 balustrades 2 x 2 = 4 kN / m
- damp-proofing 3.5 x 0.03 x 24 = 2.5 kN /m
- finish 3.5 x 0.04 x 24 = 4 kN /m 1 kN / m
i.e. - sundries 11.5 kN / m
in total.

5.2.2 - Natural frequencies

The four previous types of footbridges are considered to be iso-static bays. For an iso-static bay,
the formula giving the natural frequency of the bridge is:
1 nnn E
~L pS
• fk is the natural frequency of the mode n;
• L is the length of the bay in m;
• I is the inertia in m4, vertical or horizontal, depending on what is being sought;
• E is the Young's modulus of the material comprising the structure in N / m?;
• pS is the linear density of the bridge (self-mass and mass of the superstructures) in
kg / m, to which is added the mass of the pedestrians on the footbridge. We have
taken 1 pedestrian / m?, with 70 kg per pedestrian; i.e. pS = permanent loads + 3.5
x 70 x 1 in kg / m.

We therefore varied the length of the iso-static bay for each type of footbridge. The depth was
determined according to static sizing.
The following tables set out the four natural frequencies: the first two vertical and the first two
horizontal.

mixed box-girder steel box-girder lattice girder

L vert. vert. hor. hor. vert. vert. hor. hor. vert. vert. hor. hor.
freq. freq. freq. freq. freq. freq. freq. freq. freq. freq. freq. freq.
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
40 1.2 4.6 3.6 14 1.6 6.2 3.1 12
50 1.1 4.4 2.3 9.3 1.5 6.0 2.0 &1 1.4 5.6 2.0 &3
60 1.1 4.2 1.6 6.5 1.4 5.7 1.5 5.9 1.4 5.7 1.4 5.6
70 1.0 4.1 1.2 4.9 1.4 5.5 1.1 4.5 1.4 5.7 1.0 4.1
80 1.0 3.9 1.0 3.8 1.4 5.3 0.9 3.5 1.5 5.8 0.8 3.1
Table 5.2

in RC in PC
L vert. vert. hor. hor. L vert. vert. hor. hor.
freq. 1 freq. freq. freq. freq. 1 freq. freq. freq.
2 1 2 2 1 2
slab 20 2.7 11 19 77 slab 20 2.0 &0 15 58
RC 25 2.5 10 13 50 PC 25 1.8 7.1 10 39
H- 25 3.4 13 15 30 1.9 7.7 7.0
61 28
sect.
30 3.0 12 11 44 box girder 30 2.4 9.8 5.2 21
35 2.7 11 8 33 35 2.3 9.1 3.9 15
40 2.5 10 6 26 40 2.1 &5 3.0 12
45 2.4 10 5 21 45 2.0 &2 2.4 9.5
50 2.0 7.9 1.9 7.7
Table 5.3

The following comments may be inferred from these tables:

> Only the first mode need be used for these simple types of footbridges, both for vertical and
horizontal vibrations;
> For vertical vibrations, the first natural frequency of metal footbridges is around 1 — 1.5 Hz,
whereas, for concrete footbridges, it is nearer 2 - 3 Hz (more precisely, 2.5 - 3 Hz for reinforced
concrete and 2 - 3 Hz for pre-stressed concrete);
> Footbridges that are unable to vibrate under pedestrian excitation are rare; these are H-
shaped reinforced footbridges of 25 m. All others would appear to be classified as "at risk";
> Finally, for lateral vibrations, it would be sufficient to study large-span steel footbridges (for
all others, the first horizontal frequency is beyond 2.5 Hz).
6. Annexe 6: Bibliography

6.1 - Generally
1. Dynamique des constructions. J. Armand et al.. ENSMP courses, 1983.
2. Introduction to structural dynamics. J.M. Biggs. McGraw-Hill Book Company, June
1964.
3. Vibration problems in structures - Practical guidelines. H. Bachmann etal. Birkhauser,
1997, 2nd edition.

6.2 - Regulations
4. Eurocode 2 - Design of concrete structures — Part 2: Concrete bridges . ENV 1992-2,
1996.
5. Eurocode 5 - Design of timber structures - Part2 : Bridges. PrENV 1995-2, 14 January
1997.
6. Permissible vibrations for footbridges and cycle track bridges. BS 5400 - Appendix C.
7. Practical guidelines. CEB, B. I. 209, August 1991.
8. Recommendations for the calculation of the effects of wind on constructions. CECM,
1989.

6.3 - Dampers
9. Two case studies in the use of tuned vibration absorbers on footbridges. R.T. Jones; A.J.
Pretlove; R. Eye. The Structural Engineer, June 1981, Vol. 59B No. 2.
10. Tuned vibration absorbers for lively structures. H. Bachmann; B. Weber. Structural
Engineering International, 1995, No. 1.
11. Tuned mass dampers for balcony vibration control. M. Setareh; R. Hanson. ASCE
Journal of Structural Engineering, March 1992, Vol. 118, No. 3.
12. Tuned mass dampers to control floor vibration from humans. M. Setareh; R. Hanson.
ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, March 1992, Vol. 118, No. 3.
13. Manufacturers' documentation: Taylor - Jarret.
14. Stade de France footbridge — Design of tuned mass dampers. C. Outteryck; S. Montens.
French Civil Engineering Review, October 1999.

6.4 - Behaviour analysis

15. Human tolerance levels for bridge vibrations. D. R. Leonard, 1966.
16. Dynamic design of footbridges. Y. Matsumoto; T. Nishioka; H. Shiojiri; K. Matsuzaki.
IABSE Proceedings, 1978, P-17/78, pp. 1-15.

17. Pedestrian induced vibrations in footbridges. J.E. Wheeler. Proceedings ARRB, 1980,
Vol. 10, part 3.
18. Prediction and control of pedestrian-induced vibration in footbridges. J. Wheeler. ASCE
 Journal of structural engineering, September 1982, Vol. 108, No. ST9.
19. Structural serviceability - Floor vibrations. B. Ellingwood; A. Tallin. ASCE Journal of
Structural Engineering, February 1984, Vol. 110, No. 2.
20. Dynamic behaviour of footbridges. G.P. Tilly; D.W. Cullington; R. Eyre. IABSE
periodical, February 1984, S-26/84, page 13 et seq.
21. Vibration of a beam under a random stream of moving forces. R. Iwankiewicz; J. Pawel
Sniady. Structural Mechanics, 1984, Vol. 12, No. 1.
22. Vibrations in structures induced by man and machines. H. Bachmann; W. Amman.
IABSE, Structural Engineering Documents, 1987.
23. On minimum weight design of pedestrian bridges taking vibration serviceability into
consideration. H. Sugimoto; Y. Kajikawa; G.N. Vanderplaats. ASCE Journal of
Structural Engineering, October 1987.
24. Design live loads for coherent crowd harmonic movements. A. Ebrahimpout; R.L. Sack.
ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, 1990, Vol. 118-4, pp.1121-1136.
25. Durch Menschen verursachte dynamische Lasten und deren Auswirkungen auf
Balkentragwerke. H. Bachmann. Kurzberichte aus der Bauforschung, November 1990,
Report No. 125.
26. Vibration Upgrading of Gymnasia - Dance Halls and Footbridges. H. Bachmann.
Structural Engineering International, February 1992.
27. Case studies of structures with man-induced vibrations. H. Bachmann. ASCE Journal of
Structural Engineering, March 1992, Vol. 118, No. 3.
28. Bases for design of structures - Serviceability of buildings against vibration. ISO 10137,
15 April 1992, first edition.
29. Schwingungsuntersuchungen fur FuPgangerbrucken. H. Grundmann; H. Kreuzinger; M.
Schneider. Bauingenieur, 1993, No. 68.
30. Synchronisation of human walking observed during lateral vibration of a congested
pedestrian bridge. Y. Fujino; B.M. Pacheco; S.I. Nakamura; P. Warnitchai. Earthquake
engineering and structural dynamics, 1993.
31. Design criterion for vibrations due to walking. D.E. Allen; T.M. Murray. Engineering
Journal/ American Institute of Still Construction, 1993, 4th Quarter.
32. Guidelines to minimise floor vibrations from building occupants. S. Mouring; B.
Ellingwood. ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, February 1994, Vol. 120, No. 2.
33. Measuring and modelling dynamic loads imposed by moved crowds. Various Authors.
ASCE Journal of Structural engineering, December 1996.
34. Mechanical vibration and shock - Evaluation of human exposure to whole-body vibration
— Part 1: General requirements. International Standard ISO 2631-1, 1997.
35. Serviceability vibration evaluation of long floor slabs. T.E. Price; R.C. Smith. ASCE
Structures Congress, Washington DC, USA, 21-23 May 2001. ASCE, 1991.
36. Development of a simplified design criterion for walking vibrations. L. M. Hanagan; T.
Kim. ASCE Structures Congress, Washington DC, USA, 21-23 May 2001. ASCE, 2001.
37. An investigation into crowd-induced vertical dynamic loads using available
measurements. M. Willford. The Structural Engineer, June 2001, Vol. 79, No. 12.
38. The London Millennium Footbridge. P. Dallard; A.J. Fitzpatrick; A. Flint; S. Le Bourva;
A. Low; R.M. Ridsdill Smith; M. Willford. The Structural Engineer, 20 November 2001,
Vol. 79, No. 22.
6.5 - Calculation methods
39. Study of vibratory behaviour of footbridges as pedestrians pass. F. Legeron; M.
Lemoine. Revue Ouvrages d'Art, No. 32. SETRA, July 1999.
 40. Dynamic study of pedestrian footbridges. G. Youssouf — course leader F. Legeron.
MSOA thesis of ENPC promotion 2000.
41. Cable dynamics - A review. U. Starossek. Structural Engineering International 3/94,
1994.
42. Using component mode synthesis and static shapes for tuning TMDs. Various Authors.
ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, 1992, No. 3.

6.6 - Articles on either vibrating or instrumented footbridges

43. Pedestrian-induced vibration of footbridges. P. Dallard; A.J. Fitzpatrick; A. Flint; A.
Low; R. Ridsdill Smith; M. Willford. Structural Engineer, 5 December 2000, Vol. 78,
No. 23-24.
44. Modal identification of cable-stayed pedestrian bridges. M. Gardnermorse; D. Huston.
ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, November 1993, Vol. 119, No. 11.
45. A briefing on pedestrian-induced lateral vibration of footbridges. French Civil
Engineering Review, October 2000. 4, No. 6.
46. Dynamic testing of the Sherbrooke pedestrian bridge. P. Paultre; J. Proulx; F. Legeron;
M. Le Moine, N. Roy. 16th IABSE Congress, Lucerne, Switzerland, 2000.

6.7 - Specific footbridges

47. Sacramento River pedestrian bridge USA. C. Redfield; J. Straski. Structural Engineering
International, 1991, 4/91.
48. Construction of the world's longest pedestrian stress-ribbon bridge. Various Authors. FIP
notes 98-1, 1998.
49. Rebirth of the ribbon. Various Authors. Bridge, 1998, 4th quarter.

6.8 - Additional bibliography

amping
51. Mechanical vibrations. J.P. Den Hartog. Mc Graw-Hill, 1940, 4th edition.
52. Aerodynamic behaviour of open-section steel deck cable-stayed bridges. J.C. Foucriat.
Journees techniques AFPC, 1978, part I.
53. On the dynamic vibration damped absorber of the vibration system. T. Ioi; K. Ikeda.
Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Mechanical Engineering, 1978, 21, 151.
54. Optimal absorber parameters for various combinations of response and excitation
parameters. G.B. Warburton. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 1982,
Vol.10, pp. 381-401.

55. Fractional-derivative Maxwell model for viscous dampers. N. Makris; M.C.

Constantinou. ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, 1991, Vol. 117, pp. 27082724.
56. Dynamic analysis of generalised visco-elastic fluids. N. Makris; G.F. Dargush; M.C.
Constantinou. Journal of Engineering Mechanics, 1993, Vol. 119, No. 8.
57. Vibration control by multiple tuned liquid dampers. Y. Fujino; L.M. Sun. ASCE Journal
of Structural Engineering, 1993, Vol. 119, No. 12.
6.8.2 - OTUA Technical Bulletins
58. Steel bridges bulletins.
59. Steel structures bulletins.

6.8.3 - Additional literature on pedestrian behaviour studies

60. Proceedings and technical texts of the 2002 Footbridge International Conference, Paris
France, November 2002.
61. Model for lateral excitation of footbridges by synchronous walking. S. Nakamura. ASCE
Journal of Structural Engineering, January 2004
62. Experimental study on lateral forces induced by pedestrians. S. Nakamura; H.
Katsuura; K. Yokoyama. IABSE Symposium, Shanghai, China, September 2004.
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These guidelines round up the state of current knowledge on dynamic behaviour of
footbridges under pedestrian loading. An analytical methodology and equipement.gouv.fr
recommendations are also proposed to guide the designer of a new footbridge when
considering the resulting dynamic effects.

The methodology is based on the footbridge classification concept (as a function of

traffic level) and on the required comfort level and relies on interpretation of results
obtained from tests performed on the Solferino footbridge and on an experimental
platform.

These guidelines are aimed at Owners, designers and engineers.

This document covers the following topics:

• a description of the dynamic phenomena specific to footbridges and identification of
the parameters which have an impact on the dimensioning of such structures;
• a methodology for the dynamic analysis of footbridges based on a classification
according to the traffic level;
• a presentation of the practical methods for calculation of natural frequencies and
modes, as well as structural response to loading;
• recommendations for the drafting of design and construction documents.

Supplementary theoretical (reminder of structural dynamics, pedestrian load

modelling) and practical (damping systems, examples of recent footbridges, typical
calculations) data are also provided in the guideline appendices.

This document is awailable and can be downloaded on Setra website:

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http://www.setra.equipement.gouv.fr
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© 2006 Setra — Reference: 0644A - ISRN: EQSETRA--06-ED17--FR+ENG the French Public Work
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