Engineering Failure Analysis 14 (2007) 1205–1217

www.elsevier.com/locate/engfailanal

In-body corrosion fatigue failure of a stainless steel

orthopaedic implant with a rare collection
of different damage mechanisms
a,*
H. Amel-Farzad , M.T. Peivandi b, S.M.R. Yusof-Sani a

a
Department of Materials and Metallurgical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran
b
Department of Orthopaedics, Medical Faculty, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran

Received 20 July 2006; accepted 20 November 2006

Available online 22 January 2007

Abstract

A stainless steel orthopaedic (femoral) implant was examined, which had fractured inside a patient’s thigh. It had been
in his leg for almost two years, with no problem in the bone reconstruction process. The plate had apparently fractured
during the first few months, when the bone had not been reconstructed completely. Different investigations such as visual
assessments, hardness testing, stereoscopy, metallography, quantometry, SEM fractography and EDS microanalysis were
performed in order to analyze the failure mechanism and its cause(s). Different damages were observed such as crevice cor-
rosion pitting, initiation of cracks from these pits, intergranular surface cracking inside the crevice, and also SCC-like
branched cracks. But, the main failure mechanism was determined to be corrosion fatigue assisted by crevice corrosion.
Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Corrosion fatigue; Crevice corrosion; Failure analysis; Stainless steel orthopaedic implant

1. Introduction

The ‘‘DCS Barrel Plate’’ had been fixed to the outer side of the femor, using several screws (Fig. 1). It had
been against the extra-cellular fluid, all along the 2 years durtion of its placemet in the patient’s thigh [1]. This
environment is a waterbased liquid which normally contains 0.105 mole/l of the corrosive Cl ion, 24 mole/l of
HCO + þ2 + 2 
3 , 139 mole/l of Na and much less amounts of SO4 , K , HPO4 , H2 PO4 and etc. with a pH of about
7.2 [2] which may sometimes shifts down more. Because of the inwards curvature of the femor, the plate is
under cyclic loading (a combination of stresses caused by compression and bending), during the patient’s
walking. Because of the bone fragmenting, none of the applied stress (neither caused by compression nor
bending) can be endured by the mechanically assembled bone before reconstructing. It is obvious that, only
the zone between the two holes adjacent holes to the fracture region of the bone (and consequently the similar
region of the plate) had been under the applied stresses.

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +98 915 507 3285; fax: +98 5118763305.
E-mail address: hh_amel@yahoo.com (H. Amel-Farzad).

1350-6307/$ - see front matter Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.engfailanal.2006.11.037
1206 H. Amel-Farzad et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 14 (2007) 1205–1217

Fig. 1. Radiograph of a placed DCS plate, a similar case from archive.

2. Experimental procedures

2.1. Sample preparation

The received plate had extremely dirty fracture surfaces. Lots of organic and inorganic deposits had been
formed on the fracture surfaces and around them. The plate was washed chemically, and then cleaned in ultra-
sonic cleaner for tens of minutes using standard solvents (see Fig. 3a–c) [3].

2.2. Visual investigations

The plate had several macroscopic cracks near the fracture surfaces, two long ones in the lateral surface
(cracks 1 and 2, as named in Fig. 6) and some others in the in-contact surface visible in Fig. 2a, and the
top surface as observable in Fig. 2b. Furthermore, so many corrosion pits are visible with unaided eye in this
surface, either apart from the cracks or no. The vacancy of some pieces is visible in Fig. 2a.

2.3. Stereoscopy

Stereoscopy was performed to assess the main fracture surfaces, and probable cracks and pits. The fracture
had a fatigue mechanism initiated from a crevice between the screw(head) and the hole inner surface (Fig. 6).
Several crevice corrosion pits were also observed in the in-contact surface of the plate and its stressed zone
 H. Amel-Farzad et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 14 (2007) 1205–1217 1207

Fig. 2. Top and lateral views of the fitted fractured mates after ultrasonic cleaning.

(Figs. 3, 5, 10 and 12). So many long intergranular cracks were observed near the fracture region too, either
related to the corrosion pits or no (Figs. 5, 10 and 12). Furthermore, some of the pits and secondary cracks
were opened intentionally by overloading in the lab. Stereo-micrographs of the inside surface of the pit visible
in Fig. 3, is shown in Fig. 4 [3]. It could have probably led to the definite failure, even independently, if the
current failure did not happen (see Fig. 13).

2.4. Metallography

Metallographic investigations were performed, both as-polished and as-etched, to study the cracks, corro-
sion pits, inclusions and etc. as well as the microstructure. The samples were cut from positions, both close to
the fracture and far from it, and prepared from all the three main surfaces. The microstructure was consisted
of relatively fine austenite grains all over the plate; and almost no sign of mechanical treatment was evident,
neither near to nor far from the fracture zone. Some inclusions were also observed, mostly elongated sulphides
and fine oxides. The crevice corrosion pitting was determined to be assisted by the sulphide inclusions solution
(see Figs. 12 and 16d and also ‘‘Discussion’’).

2.5. SEM fractography

SEM fractography was performed to study the morphologies and the nature of the fracture surfaces,
cracks, and pits, before opening them and after that, and also those of the corrosion products and etc.

2.6. EDS chemical analysis

EDS chemical analysis was performed from different points of the plate, containing the base metal, corro-
sion pits lacy covers, deposits formed on the base metal, an opened crack surface and the fracture surface [6].
Elements detected in different points are listed in Table 1.
1208 H. Amel-Farzad et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 14 (2007) 1205–1217

Fig. 3. A large and deep crevice corrosion pit in the vicinity of the fracture zone, after (a), and before (b and c) cleaning is evident. It has
been formed in the stressed zone of the plate and its triple junction with the screw and the bone. Attend to the crack, apart from the pit in
(a), inside the hole and extended to the in-contact surface too. This crack was opened later (see Fig. 4).
 H. Amel-Farzad et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 14 (2007) 1205–1217 1209

Fig. 4. Stereoscopic view of the opened surface of the crevice corrosion pit, shown in Fig. 3a–c, is evident. The crack in the right (in-
contact) surface has been opened more, when opening the pit. The stains on this surface are assessed with SEM and EDS too (Figs. 12 and
16d). The rusted surface in the top is the one inside the hole; and its upper limit is the edge of the crack observed in Fig. 3a after opening;
and its left edge is the screwhead seat angle, which has been concentrating the applied stress (see Section 3). The light surface in the bottom
is the fully dimpled one, formed during the overload ductile fracture (Fig. 13). The dark gray surface in the center is that of the opened
crevice corrosion pit (Fig. 3a–c). Large amounts of rusts and also severe cracking are observed inside the pit.

2.7. Hardness testing

Vickers hardness testing (HV20) was performed to detect any specific phenomenon in the plate (either a
local or general one). Hardness was about 282–286 HV20 (with a mean value of 284 HV20) all over the plate.

2.8. Chemical composition

Quantometric analysis of the plate showed that, the used alloy was attentively different from stainless steel
implants, as advised by ASTM ASTM F 138-97 [7]. It is obvious that, this deviation has been the main cause
of the fracture and the other damages.

Fig. 5. A large crevice corrosion pit in the in-contact surface and its stressed region is evident in the vicinity of the fracture region, which
has assisted the formation of crack 3 (Fig. 6). Crack 4 can be partially observed in the top left. A crack network mostly initiated from the
pit is visible, from which Figs. 10 and 11 are taken. The zone in the top is region 3 (Fig. 6).
1210 H. Amel-Farzad et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 14 (2007) 1205–1217

3. Discussion

As it is discussed before, different damage mechanisms were occurred in the plate. Severe crevice corrosion
pitting was observed in the stressed region of the in-contact surface. One of these dangerous deep pits is shown
in Figs. 3 and 4 in different conditions, as received, after being by ultrasonic cleaner, and after being opened in
the lab by overloading. It can be observed in Fig. 4 that, the pit and its related cracks had been propagated
almost through all the thickness of the hole wall; and so it could have probably led to definite failure
independently.
The other damage was a network of intergranular surface cracks, which was observed exactly in the fre-
quently stressed region of the in-contact surface, but nowhere else (see Figs. 8, 9a, d, 10 and 11). Some
branched cracks are also observed in the microstructure in the vicinity of the fracture point, which are slightly
similar to those of SCCs (Fig. 9b). But, it must be reminded firstly, that these cracks are thicker and have
smoother surfaces than those of SCC; and secondly, that the branches have a convergent nature, while those
of SCCs are divergent usually [4,5].
As it is discussed before, because of the bone curvature, these plates are under cyclic stresses caused by a
combination of compression and bending. Considering the effect of corrosive Cl ions, either sealed or not,
and attending to the kind of loading, initiation of fatigue cracks from the outer surface, and from the screw
hole would not be unexpected (Figs. 6 and 7).
The crack shown in Figs. 9a and e is typical of those of corrosion fatigue, because so many mass-corroded
regions exist in the crack path, which has smooth and curved surfaces. The main corrosion fatigue cracks had
been initiated from some locations inside the hole in which all the assisting factors have been present, such as
the corrosive ions, the proper crevice, the tensile cyclic loading, stress concentration (because of the angle
designed in the screw hole, and also in the next steps, the sharp edges of the crevice corrosion pits), physical
contact with the screw (which could have probably scratched the surface) and also previously formed pits and
cracks (as the first steps of the crack nucleation) (Fig. 6). As explained before, the main fracture surface, which
is typical of fatigue fractures (Fig. 6), the morphology of the cracks near the fracture (Fig. 9e, and also 8 and
9b) and the loading condition assures one about the occurrence of corrosion fatigue.
Figs. 6 and 7 can provide us a complete view about the whole occurred phenomena. There are several
marked points and regions in these figures. The ‘‘origin points’’ are determined to be the first points that

Fig. 6. The stereoscopic mosaic view of one of the fracture mate surfaces, visible in the right hand side of Fig. 2a, is evident. (The mosaic
was used because it was almost impossible to focus the lens on a field of almost 10 mm depth with a width of less than 20 mm (compare
with Figs. 2a and 7).) The top surface is the in-contact one. The bottom surface is the mostly tensed during the bending cycles. The total
fracture surface is typical of fatigue fractures with obvious ratchet lines and beach marks. Fatigue cracks have been initiated from the
‘‘origin points’’ inside the screw hole, which had been one of the most proper places for crevice corrosion, and simultaneously under
concentrated frequent tensile stress. Cracks 1 and 2, whose surfaces are parallel to the top one, which are both continued to the lateral
surface too, are analyzed to be formed (at least mostly) before the corrosion fatigue occurrence, and under type II (in-plane shear) loading.
Region 1 is probably the first damaged points of the plate and the origin of crack 1. The phenomena occurred in the other regions and
cracks will be discussed later (see ‘‘Discussion’’).
 H. Amel-Farzad et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 14 (2007) 1205–1217 1211

Fig. 7. The fracture mate of that of Fig. 6 is evident. Region 2 chip is formed by the complex loading in the time of the final fatigue
fracture, at the place in which the main fatigue cracks and previous crack 2 have met. Region 3 is a deep pit formed by crevice corrosion at
the in-contact surface before fatigue cracks arrival (see Fig. 6). It is visible that fatigue cracks have initiated mostly from crack 1, and have
grown outwards.

the corrosion fatigue cracks had been initiated from. The cracks growth direction is easy to observe,
attending to the visible beach marks and ratchet lines. But, there are some other cracks in the plate
too, most importantly the cracks called 1–4 (Fig. 6). It is obvious that cracks 1 and 2 had formed (at

Fig. 8. The austenitic microstructure of the cross section of the plate, in the vicinity of the fracture zone, after etching by the Kalling’s No.
1 reagent, is evident. Severe intergralular cracking and also mass-corroded zones are observed near the left (in-contact) surface. The black
region in the top right is the gap inside a large crack which is visible in the left-hand side of Fig. 9a in a lower magnification.
1212 H. Amel-Farzad et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 14 (2007) 1205–1217

Fig. 9. As-polished metallographic view from the same location as Fig. 8 (which is taken from a place above that of (b)), is evident. The
upper branch of the main crack has been opened more, when cutting the plate for metallography. The main crack has smooth and curved
surfaces. It has a wide gap, and there are also so many mass-corroded regions all along its path. So it is typical of fatigue corrosion cracks
(a and e) [5]. Severe intergranular cracks are visible in the in-contact surface, near the main fracture (b), but nowhere else. The deep
branched crack visible in (b) may appear similar to those of SCC. But, the convergence and the wideness of its gap imply that this crack is a
corrosion fatigue one too. The crack in the tip of the upper branch of the main crack has most probably formed during sample cutting (c).
Severe localized corrosion is evident in the in-contact surface (d) (see Figs. 3 and 5).

least mostly) before the propagation of the main corrosion fatigue cracks. This judgment is based on the
fact that, there can be almost no applied stress after the fracture of the plate, and so there could have
been almost no crack growth in that stage. Additionally, some other cracks, such as cracks 3 and 4,
are evident too (Fig. 6), which are all formed in the in-contact surface, and its frequently compressed
and relaxed region of the plate. These cracks are mostly made by the conjunction of the shorter cracks
which are formed in the edges of the previously formed crevice corrosion pits (see Fig. 10). It is also nec-
essary to note that, although the discussed region of the in-contact surface seems to be under a fully com-
pressive loading cycles (in a total view), but, at the same time, there may be large amounts of tensile
stress, in the pits’ sharp edges. All the cracks 1–4 are somehow initiated under the assistance of the crevice
corrosion.
It is obvious that, when the corrosion fatigue cracks have met crack 1, they have followed its path naturally,
and inclined inwards later, as imposed by the applied stress. This is the reason of the formation of the sharp
 H. Amel-Farzad et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 14 (2007) 1205–1217 1213

Fig. 10. Conjunction of intergranular surface cracks and corrosion pits, in the stressed zone of the in-contact surface is evident.

step, collinear with the crack 1 surface on the main fracture surface, in the corrosion fatigue cracks path (Figs.
6 and 7). Additionally, this is the reason that, why the crack 1 has not extended to the other fracture mate. The
step of the crack 2 is probably formed during a similar scenario.
Of course, all these damages could have probably been avoided simply, if the alloy was the standard 316L,
which has acceptable resistance to crevice corrosion.
Attending to the spectrums taken from EDS chemical analysis tests, one can see that, apart from the
biological deposits mostly formed on the main fracture surface, which contain alkaline metals, two different
rust types, have formed on the plate. The firsts are those formed on the flat surface of the plate (again in
the in-contact surface and stressed zone). The second ones are those formed inside the pits and corrosion
fatigue cracks (Figs. 12, 14–16a–c and Table 1). The first group deposits consist of the elements existent in
the plate, plus some oxygen and also more carbon content. But, the second group deposits consist of all
those elements, plus large amounts of chlorine and also some sulphur and silicon too. This means that the

Fig. 11. Severe intergranular cracking in the in-contact surface of the plate and its stressed region is evident. Some chipped grains are
visible, which are mostly formed by corrosion and probably the frequently applied stress. Attend to the zigzag form of the cracks whose
angles are nearly 120° and their side lengths are mostly 10–20 lm (compare with those visible in Figs. 8 and 10).
1214 H. Amel-Farzad et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 14 (2007) 1205–1217

Fig. 12. The corrosion pits, formed in the surface in-contact with the bone, which so can be called ‘‘crevice corrosion pits’’, are evident.
Two different corrosion phenomena are evident: pitting (point C) and general corrosion (point B). Although the sample has not been
etched, one can observe that the size and the polygonal shape, or at least sharp near-120 angles, of some pits are very similar to those of the
typical austenite grains. So the pit in the bottom, for instance, may exactly be a former austenite grain. The white masses on the pits are
their lacy cover, which have broken in the right hand side pit; and so let one see the pit depth. The alphabetic marks show the points of
EDS chemical analyses whose results are presented and discussed later.

chlorine ions have great importance in the formation of the crevice corrosion pits and consequently initi-
ation of the corrosion fatigue cracks, but, probably no influence in the formation of the rusts on the flat
surfaces.
Although the type 1 rusts have been formed on the flat surface of the plate (at the in-contact surface and
under the frequent compressive stress), probably without any significant assistance of Cl ions, but, they have
been formed in no other point. This is most probably because of the possible decrease of pH of the biological
environment to acidic values of about 5 or even sometimes to 4, around the fracture point, which occurs due to
the special biological reflexes at the injured sites [3].

Fig. 13. Fully dimpled fractographic view of the location of ductile fracture during the lab intentional overloading is evident.
 H. Amel-Farzad et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 14 (2007) 1205–1217 1215

Fig. 14. Severe intergranular cracking network at the bottom of a valley in the surface of an opened secondary crack is evident. Note the
presence of corrosion products in the surface. EDS chemical analysis result taken from the deposits formed at the point D is presented in
Fig. 16d and Table 1.

It should also be noted that the most attentive sulphur peak is visible in the spectrum taken from a cor-
rosion pit lacy cover (See Figs. 12 and 16c). This means that the (crevice) corrosion pits, or at least the
chemically analyzed one, have most probably formed (or at least initiated) in the places of former MnS type
inclusions.
Although the nickel content of the alloy, which is much lower than what the standards determine (Table 2)
[7], may firstly appear safer for the patient’s health; but, it must be reminded that, even a nickel poisoning may
occur in such cases, because of the less Cr content of the alloy and consequently its less corrosion resistance, as
compared to the standard 316L alloy. More detailed systematic studies on probable biological effects of the
implants alloying elements are left for future.

Fig. 15. A fractographic view of the main fracture surface is evident. Attend to the presence of the corrosion products (small prominent
gray points in the left) and the biological deposits (white regions). Worn surfaces of the former hills, caused by the frequent contact of the
fracture mates after the fracture, are evident.
1216 H. Amel-Farzad et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 14 (2007) 1205–1217

Fig. 16. EDS chemical microanalyses results: taken from the base metal (a) and rusts formed on it (b), deposits covering a pit on it (c)
(Fig. 12), deposits formed on the opened surface of an opened crack (d), and deposits formed on the fracture surface (e) (Figs. 14 and 15).
 H. Amel-Farzad et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 14 (2007) 1205–1217 1217

Table 1
Detected elements in the EDS chemical analyses results, taken from the important points, which are marked in the figures
Analysis point Analysis point description Elements whose peaks were detected
Fe Cr Mn C Cl K Na Ca O S Si
A (Fig. 12) In-contact surface clean regions + + +        
B (Fig. 12) In-contact surface free deposits + + + +     +  
C (Fig. 12) A pit lacy cover in the in-contact surface +   + +    + + 
D (Fig. 14) Deposits on surface of an opened crack + + + + +    + + +
E (Fig. 15) Fracture surface deposits + +  + + + + + + + +

Table 2
Comparison between the standard 316L and the implant alloy [7]
Alloy C (wt%) Si (wt%) Mn (wt%) Cr (wt%) Ni (wt%) Mo (wt%) V (wt%) Cu (wt%) S (wt%) P (wt%)
316L 60.030 60.75 62.00 17–19 13–15 2.25–3.00 – 60.50 60.010 60.025
Currenta 0.113 0.355 5.513 9.997 1.444 0.096 0.095 1.460 0.007 0.026
a
Each value is the average of three analyses results, with a deviation of at most 0.009%.

4. Conclusion

Although there have been different damage mechanisms, the main failure had occurred under corrosion
fatigue, assisted by crevice corrosion pitting.
Apart from the alloy intensive weakness against the crevice corrosion, the sulphide inclusions had probably
assisted the formation of the corrosion pits in the crevice regions.
The decrease of pH in the injured point has most probably played a significant role on the occurrence of all
corrosion mechanisms and consequently the corrosion fatigue leading to the failure.
The failure could have been most probably avoided by using the standard 316L material, which has much
more corrosion resistance even against a crevice, an applied stress and such cases of pH falling down.

Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully acknowledge Prof. A. Haerian because of his kindness to the authors and current
study. Also, Dr. M. Kahrom’s efforts are appreciated sincerely. Additionally, Mr. R. Safar-Mohammadloo
is thanked for his collaboration in metallography.

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