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CHAPTER- 1
WATER TECHNOLOGY
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Causes –
(i) CaCl2, CaSO4, Ca (HCO3)2, MgCl2, MgSO4,
Mg (HCO3) 2 make the water hard.
NAME OF AGENCIES
1. Colour (Units) 5 25 5 50
2. Turbidity(Units) 5 25 5 25
3. Total dissolved
- - 500 1500
solids
4. pH 7-8.5 - 7-8.5 -
5. Total hardness as
CaCO3 125 350 125 350
equivalents
6. Iron 0.3 1.0 0.3 1.0
7. Manganese 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.5
8. Nitrate 20 50 - 50-100
9. Chloride - - - 250
10. Fluoride 1.0 2.0 0.5 1.0-1.5
11. Sulphate 200 400 200 400
12. Pathogenic Micro 1 1
Organisms coliform coliform
(Coliform) - -
per 100 per 100
ml ml
A Recommended concentration (mg/lit)
B Maximum permissible concentration (mg/lit)
Water Technology 1.7
7. Chemical
Oxygen
Demand
1.8 Engineering Chemistry-II
(COD)
1.6.1 ALKALINITY
Definition
Alkalinity of water is a measure of its acid neutralizing
ability or it is the tendency of water to accept H+ ions in order to
neutralize it with the supply of OH - ions.
In water analysis, it is often desirable to know the kinds
and amounts of the various forms of alkalinity present in water.
Unit : ppm of CaCO3.
Sources
o Alkalinity in water is due to the presence of bicarbonates,
carbonates and hydroxides of Ca, Mg, Na and K.
o This type of alkalinity is usually introduced into the water
resource by metallurgical industries, chemical industries,
drainage from abandoned mines and from many other
industrial sewage.
Thus, the alkalinity of water may be due to
1. Hydroxide only
2. Carbonate only
Water Technology 1.9
3. Bicarbonate only
4. Both hydroxide and carbonates
5. Both carbonates and bicarbonates.
The possibility of hydroxide and bicarbonate existing
together in water is ruled out because they combine with each
other to form carbonate.
OH - + HCO3 - CO3 2- + H2 O
Classification
1. Bicarbonate alkalinity
2. Carbonate alkalinity
3. Hydroxide alkalinity
Sanitary Significance
1) High alkalinity in natural water favours the growth of algae
and phytoplankton’s. Usage of this alkalinity water may
cause some effects on human beings.
2) It is used in evaluating the buffering capacity of waste waters
and sludges.
3) Determines the suitability of water for irrigation.
4) Provides an idea of the nature of salts present.
5) It indicates the corrosion extent of the water.
6) Used in removal of ammonia in air striping.
7) In Water softening
Alkalinity measurements
o Alkalinity may be determined by potentiometric method
or using pH meter or titrimetry using different acid base
indicators.
o Out of these methods, determination of various types and
amounts of alkalinity is easily carried out by titration with
standard hydrochloric acid employing phenolphthalein
1.10 Engineering Chemistry-II
Estimation of Alkalinity
Titrimetric method is preferred using phenolphthalein and
methyl orange as indicators.
Principle:
Alkalinity of a given water sample can be obtained by
neutralizing the hydroxide, carbonate and bicarbonate ions with
standard acid, using phenolphthalein and methyl orange as
indicators. The phenolphthalein end point at pH 8.3 indicates the
complete neutralization of hydroxide ions and half of carbonate
ions. Further, titration upto the methyl orange endpoint indicates
the neutralization of total alkalinity due to hydroxide, carbonate
and bicarbonate ions.
OH- +H+ H2O (1) Phenolphthalein
2- + -
CO3 + H HCO3 (2) pH = 8 to 9
- +
HCO3 + H H2O + CO2 (3) Methyl orange
2. CaSO4 136
3. Ca(HCO3)2 162
4. CaCl2 111
5. CaCO3 100
6. Mg2+ 24
7. MgCO3 84
8. Mg(HCO3)2 146
9. MgCl2 95
10. MgSO4 120
Problems
1. A sample of water contains 120mgs of MgSO4 per litre.
Calculate the hardness in terms of CaCO3 equivalents.
Solution:
Given: The amount of MgSO4 = 120mgs/lit
Weight of hardness
CaCO3 producing salt
equivalent
= x Molecular weight of
Molecular weight of CaCO3
the salt
We know that , the molecular weight of MgSO4 =120.
Thus amount equivalent to CaCO3=120*100/120=100 mg/lit.
Sample 2:
10mg/lit magnesiumbicarbonate = 10*100/146
Amount equivalent to CaCO3 = 6.85mg/lit
Sample 3:
10mg/lit magnesium sulphate = 10 * 100 / 120
Amount equivalent to CaCO3 = 8.26mg/lit
Hence, the sample 3 is more hard.
3. If a sample of water contains 50mgs of Ca2+ ions per litre,
calculate its hardness in terms of CaCO3 equivalent?
Solution:
Given: The amount of Ca2+ ions = 50mg/lit.
We know that, the molecular weight of calcium = 40
Amount equivalent to CaCO3 = 50*100/40 = 125mg/lit.
4. A sample of water on analysis contains 13.6 mg/ litre of
calcium sulphate, 14.6 mg/ litre of magnesium bicarbonate,
12 mg/ litre of magnesium sulphate. Calculate the total
hardness of the sample.
Solution:
In order to calculate the total hardness of the sample,these
salts have to be converted in to their equivalents of CaCO 3.
Water Technology 1.15
14.6 *100 = 10
Mg(HCO3)2 146 14.6
146
12*100 = 10
MgSO4 120 12
120
Temporary Hardness = 10 mg/ litre (Mg (HCO3) 2 alone)
Permanent Hardness = 10+10 = 20 mg/ litre (CaSO4 + MgSO4)
Total Hardness = (Temporary + Permanent) Hardness
=10 + 20 = 30 mg/litre (or) ppm
Units of Hardness
o Parts per million (ppm)
It is the number of parts of calcium carbonate
equivalent hardness per million (106) parts of water.
1 ppm = 1 part of CaCO3 equivalent hardness in 106
parts of water.
o Milligram per Litre (Mg/L)
It is the number of milligram of CaCO3 equivalent
hardness present per litre of water.
1 mg/litre = 1 mg of CaCO3 equivalent hardness in
1 litre of water
0
Cl-degree clerk is the number of parts of calcium carbonate
equivalent hardness per 70000 parts of water. 1ppm = 0.07 0Cl
1.16 Engineering Chemistry-II
0
Fr- degree French is the number of parts of calcium carbonate
equivalent hardness per 105 parts of water. 1ppm=0.10Fr
not be uniform.
O2,CO2
acidic and basic dyes. Dyes even precipitate out in such water.
These precipitates form unwanted spots or shades on the fabric.
Organic matter imparts foul smell.
If the water contains Fe, Mn, colour or turbidity, it
causes uneven dyeing and leaves strain on fabrics. Hence, water
should be free from these impurities.
Disadvantages in Laundry
Laundries require soft water, free from colour, Mn and
Fe. Hardness increases the consumption of soaps. Salts of Fe
and Mn impart a grey or yellow shade to the fabric, thereby
spoiling their beauty.
Disadvantages in Washing
Textile industries needs frequent washing right from the
yarn to the fabric. So when hard water is used it does not
produce lather with soap. It produces a sticky scum of calcium
and magnesium soaps. The formation continues until all the
magnesium and calcium ions are removed from hard water. So
after complete removal of Ca and Mg only the soap will start to
lather. This thus results in wastage of soap.
Sticky scum formed adheres on to the yarn, fabric, etc.,
resulting in formation of spots. Also they do not produce the
exact required shades of colour.
Disadvantages in Starch industry:
Water Technology 1.21
Pharmaceutical industry
These require ultrapure water. Hard water, if used for
preparing pharmaceutical products, may produce certain
undesirable products in them. This will affect the efficiency of
the drug and sometimes be hazardous.
Bakeries
Organic matter such as fungi, bacteria if present in
water used in bakeries may affect the yeasts. So the quality of
the materials produced is poor.
Beverages require water which should not be alkaline. The
alkalinity destroys or modifies the taste by neutralizing the fruit
acids.
N-CH2-CH2-N
HOOC-H2C CH2-COOH
In this complexometric method, disodium salt of ethylene
diamine tetra acetic acid is actually used.
NaOOC-H2C CH2-COOH
N-CH2-CH2-N
HOOC-H2C CH2-COONa
Principle
o Disodium salt of EDTA forms complex with
calcium and magnesium ions present in water.
o The indicator used in this titration is Eriochrome
Black-T (EBT) which also form unstable complex
with calcium and magnesium ions present in
water, at pH value about 8-10.
o In order to maintain the pH , buffer solution
[ NH4Cl-NH4OH] mixture is added. Only at this
pH such a complexation is possible.
pH=8-10
1.24 Engineering Chemistry-II
Reagents Required :
1) EDTA solution
It is prepared by dissolving 4 gms of EDTA in 1000ml of
distilled water.
ii) Standard hard water
1 gm of pure CaCO3 is dissolved in minimum quantity of
HCl and then made upto 1000ml using distilled water.
1 ml of standard hard water = 1mg of CaCO3 equivalent
hardness.
iii) EBT indicator
0.5 gms of EBT is dissolved in 100 ml of alcohol.
iv) Buffer solution:
67.5 gms of NH4Cl and 570 ml of NH3 are dissolved and the
solution is made upto 1000 ml using distilled water.
Procedure
1. Standardisation of EDTA solution
Water Technology 1.25
Calculation
20 ml of sample hard water = V2 ml of EDTA
20
= V2 × mg of CaCO 3 equivalent hardness
V1
In 1000 ml of water sample
.. .
20 1000
= V2 × × mg of CaCO 3 equivalent hardness
V1 20
V2
Total Hardness = 1000 × mg / litre (or) ppm.
V1
V3
Permanent Hardness = 1000 × mg/litre (or) ppm
V1
V2 V3
Temporary Hardness = 1000 × mg/litre (or) ppm
V1
1
Normality × Volume × 20
= = 100 = 2.0 ×10 4
1000 1000
Number of gram moles of EDTA consumed
4
2.0 × 10 4
= = 1.0 × 10
2
Since, 1 gm mole of EDTA = 105 mg of CaCO3
1.0 × 10 4
gram moles of EDTA = 105 × 1.0 × 10 4
= 10 mg of CaCO3
10
Hence, total hardness of the sample = × 1000
100
= 100 mg/L of CaCO3
Problem 3 :
100 ml of a hard water sample require 25 ml of 0.01 M
EDTA with NH4Cl-NH4OH buffer and EBT indicator.
Another 100ml of the sample is boiled for about half an hour
and after filtering the precipitate, the volume of the filtrate is
made to 100 ml again by the addition of distilled water. 20ml
of this boiled sample require only 4 ml of 0.01 M EDTA
following the same procedure. Calculate the temporary and
permanent hardness of the sample.
Solution :
i)Calculation of total hardness of the sample :
100 ml of the sample requires 25 ml of 0.01 M EDTA.
0.01 × 25 4
= = 2.5 × 10
1000
1 gram mole of EDTA = 105 mg of CaCO3
4
2.5 × 10 gram moles of EDTA = 10 5 × 2.5 × 10 4
= 25 mg of CaCO3
Hence, total hardness of the given sample
25
= × 1000 = 250 mg/L of CaCO3
100
ii) Calculation of permanent hardness :
The boiled sample will contain only permanent hardness
20 ml of the boiled sample consumes 4 ml of 0.01 M EDTA
Number of gram moles of EDTA consumed
0.01 × 4 5
= = 4 × 10
1000
1 gram mole of EDTA = 105 mg of CaCO3
4 × 10 5 gram moles of EDTA = 10 5 × 4 × 10 5
= 4 mg of CaCO3
Hence permanent hardness of the given sample
4
= × 1000 = 200 mg/L of CaCO3
20
iii) Calculation of temporary hardness :
Temporary hardness = Total hardness – permanent hardness
= ( 250 – 200 ) mg/L of CaCO3
= 50 mg/L of CaCO3
Problem 4 :
1.30 Engineering Chemistry-II
Problem 7 :
0.28 gm of CaCO 3 was dissolved in HCl and the
solution made upto one litre with distilled water.
100ml of the above solution required 28ml of EDTA
1.32 Engineering Chemistry-II
Total hardness
100 ml of hard water = 27 ml of EDTA
= 27 × 1 mg of CaCO 3
= 27 mgs of CaCO 3
1000
1000 ml of hard water = 27 ×
100
= 270 mgs/lit (or) ppm
Total hardness = 270 mgs/lit (or) ppm
Water Technology 1.33
1000
= 20 × mgs of CaCO 3 equivalent
100
= 200 mgs/lit or ppm
Total hardness = 200 mgs/lit or ppm
Problem 9 :
500 ml of a water sample is boiled for 1hr. It is then
cooled and filtered. The filtrate is made upto 500ml
again with distilled water. 50ml of this solution
requires 12 ml of N/50 EDTA with EBT-indicator and
NH 4 Cl-NH 4 OH buffer. Determine the permanent
hardness of the water sample.
Solution :
Given :
50 ml of water sample after boiling, filt ering requires
12 ml of N/50 EDTA
We know that
1ml of N/50 EDTA = 1mg of CaCO 3 equivalent
hardness
12 ml of N/50 EDTA = 12 mgs of CaCO 3
50 ml of the boiled water sample requires
= 12 ml of N/50 EDTA
= 12 mgs of CaCO 3
1000
1000 ml of the water sample = 12 ×
50
= 240 mgs/lit or ppm
Problem 10 :
100ml of a sample of water required 1 8 ml of 0.01M
EDTA for titration using Erio-chrome Black-T
Water Technology 1.35
3. Taste Agreable
4. Turbidity 5 NTU
Water Technology 1.37
8. Calcium 75 mg/L
9. Magnesium 30 mg/L
v) Filtration
Filtration is the process of removal of coarse impurities,
colour taste and some micro organisms, by passing water through
a porous material consisting of a bed of fine sand , coarse sand
and gravels. The porous material used is called filtering medium
and equipment used for water treatment is called a filter.
The water for municipal supply is usually filtered by sand filter.
Sand Filter
The filtering medium in a sand filter consists of three
layers as shown in Fig.3.1. The top layer is thick and is made of
fine sand. The middle layer consists of coarse sand, while the
bottom layer consists of gravels. The filter is provided with an
inlet for water and an under drain channel at the bottom for the
exit of the filtered water.
Water Technology 1.41
a) Boiling
The harmful disease producing bacteria can be killed by
boiling water for 15-20 minutes. Boiling is a simple sterilization
method but has the following limitations:
i) The method is costly and is not much suitable for the
sterilization of water in bulk.
1.42 Engineering Chemistry-II
b) By using ozone
Ozone is a powerful disinfectant and is readily absorbed
by water. Ozone is highly unstable and breaks down to give
nascent oxygen.
O3 O2 + [O]
iii) As Chloramine
The use of excess chlorine gas or bleaching powder as
disinfectants often produces disagreable odour and unpleasant
taste in water.
This can be avoided by using chloramines. When chlorine
and ammonia are mixed in the ratio 2:1, a compound chloramines
is formed
Cl2 + NH3 NH2 Cl + HCl
Chloramine provide a greater lasting effect than that of chlorine.
NH2Cl + H2O HOCl + NH3
Hypochlorous acid
HOCl HCl + [O]
Nascent oxygen
Since chloramines decomposes slowly to give chlorine, it is
particularly useful when the treated water has to be stored.
Super Chlorination
The sterilization process involving a large excess of
chlorine is called superchlorination. Superchlorination not only
destroys the micro organisms but also the other organic
impurities present in water. The process is usually followed by
dechlorination by NH3 or SO2.
Destruction of
Formation of chloramines
chloramines and chloro
Residual chlorine
Break point
chlorination
Applied chlorine dose
Classification of Boilers
Boilers are generally classified according to their
pressures into three categories.
i) Low-pressure boilers: Upto 15 kg/cm2
ii) Medium-pressure boilers: 15 to 30 kg/cm2
iii) High pressure boilers: Over 30 kg/cm 2
1 Hardness
2 pH 7.0
3 Colour Colourless
4 Odour Nil
Water
Heat Heat
Loose precipitate Hard, adhering coating
suspended in water on inner walls of boiler
(sludge) (scale)
(a) (b)
1. Deposition of CaSO4
The solubility of calcium sulphate in water decreases with
rise of temperature. CaSO4 gets precipitated as hard scale on the
heated portion of the boiler. CaSO4 is quite adherent and difficult
to remove.
2. Presence of SiO2 (Silica)
SiO2 present in water even in small quantities deposits as
CaSiO3 and MgSiO3. These deposits stick very firmly to the inner
side of the boiler surface and are very difficult to remove.
2 Na2SO3 + O2 2 Na2SO4
Sodium sulphite Sodium sulphate
N2H4 +O2 N2 + 2 H2O
Hydrazine
Hydrazine is found to be an ideal compound for removing
dissolved oxygen in the water. It reacts with oxygen forming
nitrogen and water. Nitrogen is harmless.
b) Mechanical method
Dissolved oxygen can also be removed from water by
mechanical de-aeration.
Mechanical de-aeration
Water Technology 1.53
To vacuum
pump
Heater
Perforated
plates
Tower
Deaerated water
Fig. 4.2 Mechanical Deaerator
Fig. 1.4 Mechanical De-aerator
Carbonic Acid
Carbon dioxide is also released inside the boiler, if water
used for steam generation contains bicarbonates of Calcium and
Magnesium.
Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 +H2O +CO2
3. Caustic Embrittlement
Caustic embrittlement is a type of boiler corrosion, caused
by using highly alkaline water in the boiler. It means the inter
crystalline cracking of boiler metal.
Boiler water usually contains a certain proportion of
sodium carbonate, added for water softening purposes. In high-
pressure boilers, Na2CO3 decomposes to give sodium hydroxide
and carbon dioxide,
Na2CO3 + H2O 2NaOH + CO2
and this makes the boiler-water “caustic”.
This NaOH flows into the minute hair cracking usually present
on the boiler material by capillary action and dissolves the
surrounding area of iron as sodium ferroate.
Fe + 2NaOH Na2FeO2 + H2
Sodium Ferroate
This causes embrittlement of boiler parts, particularly
stressed parts like bends, joints, rivets etc., causing even failure
of the boiler.
Prevention
It can be prevented by
1. adding sodium sulphate (or) sodium phosphate as softening
reagent instead of sodium carbonate.
2. adding tannin, lignin to the boiler water which blocks the hair
cracks.
3. adjusting the pH of the feed water between 8 and 9.
1.56 Engineering Chemistry-II
Softening of Water
Water used for industrial purposes should be pure. ie.,it
should be free from hardness, scale forming substances and
corrosive agents like dissolved O2 etc., The process of removing
hardness producing salts from water is known as softening of
water.
Softening of Water can be done by the following two ways
1. External conditioning or External treatment
2. Internal conditioning or Internal treatment.
Functions of soda
During the removal of Mg2+, Fe2+, Al3+, HCl and H2SO4
by lime, permanent calcium hardness is introduced in the water
due to formation of calcium salts. The permanent calcium
hardness thus introduced on account of the treatment of water
with lime and the permanent calcium hardness already present in
water before lime treatment are removed by soda. The reactions
involved are as follows,
CaCl2 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + 2NaCl
[ii] Process
The lime-soda process can be carried out both at room
temperature as well as at higher temperatures. The process
carried out at room temperature is called cold lime –soda process
and that carried out at 94°-100°C is called hot lime-soda process.
1. Cold Lime-Soda Process
In this method, water to be softened is treated with
calculated quantities of lime and soda at room temperature. Small
amounts of a coagulant such as alum, aluminium sulphate,
sodium aluminate etc., are also added. The coagulant helps the
finely divided precipitate formed in the process to flocculate.
Sodium aluminate also helps in the removal of silica and oil
present in water.
Method
The mixture of water, calculated quantities of lime and
soda and a small amount of a coagulant is fed from the top into
inner chamber of a vertical circular tank (Fig.3.5). The chamber
is provided with a vertical rotating shaft carrying a number of
paddles to ensure vigorous stirring and continuous mixing of
water with the chemicals added.
Water Technology 1.61
Table 1.4 Difference between cold and hot lime soda process
Nacl
Hard
water
Hard water
Sodium zeolite
Soft water
Raw
water
Cation
Cation Anlon
Antion
exchanger
exchanger exchanger
exchanger
Fig. 2.15Demineralisation
Fig.1.8 Demineralizationprocess
process
The cation free water is then passed through an anion
exchange column, which absorbs all the anions like Cl-, SO42-
etc., present in the water.
ammonium chloride.
Advantages
1. It is the most compact unit, the cost of installation and
operation is economical.
2. If electricity is easily available, this process is best suited.
Piston
Sea water
Semi-
permeable
membrane
Fresh water
Fresh
water
Fig. 4.6 Desalination of sea water.
Fig.1.10 Reverse Osmosis
Semi permeable membrane is one which permits only
water molecules to pass through it. Examples of semi permeable
membrane are cellulose acetate, polyamide, polymide, etc.,
1.80 Engineering Chemistry-II
Removal of microorganisms
1. Activated sludge process
2. Filtration
3. Disinfection
Screening
The raw water which contains larger suspended floating
impurities is passed through screens. This retains the
impurities.
Types of screens
1. Bar screen
2. Perforated screens
3. Comminutor screens
Impurities that can be removed
Trees, logs rags etc.
Sedimentation
Certain impurities are removed by allowing the water to
stay undisturbed in a tank for a period of time. The clear
supernatant water is then drawn from tank and sent to
aerator.
Retention period – 3-4hrs (75% of impurities are settled)
Principle:
Principle of Gravity applies.
Water Technology 1.83
Aeration
The process of bringing water in contact air is called
aeration.
Types of Aeration
This is done either by
1. Cascading water through air (OR)
2. Passing air through water under pressure.
Construction
Fountains with spraying nozzles are used which effects
intimate contact of water and air.
Impurities that can be removed
Deactivating the anaerobic bacteria.
Gases like CO2 and H2S, which causes bad taste and
odour to the water.
1.84 Engineering Chemistry-II
Coagulation
Principle:
The suspension of particles in water is stabilized by the
mutual repulsion of like charges on the particles.
Neutralisation of these charges by coagulants (i.e. with high
valence ions) results in coalescence.
Coagulants:
These are positively charged molecules of relatively low
molecular weight. With water these form an insoluble
gelatinous precipitate. It adsorbs and entraps very fine
suspended impurities forming bigger flocs, which settles
down easily.
Example : Alum, Ferrous sulphate
Impurities that can be removed
Colloids
Water Technology 1.85
Example
Aluminium sulphate
Used only in high alkaline waters. (OR) water is pretreated
with lime
The Aluminium sulphate reacts with OH - to form the
Aluminium hydroxide, which is a gelatinous precipitate.
Al2(SO4)3 + 6H2O 2Al(OH)3 + 3H2SO4
Gelatinous precipitate
The precipitate adsorbs and entraps very fine negatively
charged suspended impurities forming bigger flocs, which
settles down easily.
Principle
The activated sludge is obtained by settling sewage in
the presence of excess oxygen. Thus Activated sludge is that
sludge which settles down after the sewage has been freely
aerated and agitated for a certain time. The activated sludge is
biologically active and contains a large number of aerobic
bacteria and other micro-organisms.
In Activated sludge process effluent is treated biologically.
When the sludge is mixed with effluent, the bacteria in the
activated sludge multiply rapidly. These aerobic bacteria
oxidises the organic matters and promotes coagulation and
flocculation. They also convert the colloidal and suspended
solids into settleable solids.
Process
The effluent is mixed with the required quantity of
activated sludge and it is aerated for 4-10hrs. The aerated
mixture is sent to secondary clarifier.
Water Technology 1.87
Advantages
Gives clearly treated liquid
free from bad smell or odour
The degree of purity can be varied depending on the
requirements
No trickling filter flies
Disadvantages
Skilled supervision and constant check on the return
sludge is necessary.
The process is not efficient in removing all industrial
wastes.
Large volume of sludge presents difficulty in disposal.
The process gets upset when there is a change in the
quality or quantity of water.
The success depends on mainly the aeration provided.
1.88 Engineering Chemistry-II
Sedimented
water Fine sand
Coarse sand
Gravels
Under drains
Working
Formation of a gelatinous layer (or biofilm) called the
hypogeal layer or Schmutzdecke in the fine sand layer occurs.
This layer consists of bacteria, fungi, protozoa and a range of
aquatic insect larvae. The Schmutzdecke is the layer that
provides the effective purification in potable water treatment,
the underlying sand providing the support medium for this
biological treatment layer. Water enters the filter
compartment above the media and flows down through the
sand on gravity basis. As water passes through the
Schmutzdecke, particles of foreign matter are trapped in the
mucilaginous matrix and dissolved organic material is
adsorbed and metabolised by the bacteria, fungi, protozoa
etc. The water produced from a well-managed slow sand
filter can be of exceptionally good quality with no detectable
bacterial content
suspending any solids held in that layer and then running the
water to waste. The filter is then filled to full depth and
brought back into service.
Advantages
Effective treatment for turbidity, bacteria, and removal
of cysts.
Cost effective and reliable
No chemicals or electricity is used
No replaceable parts
Non pressurised systems
Requires minimal operator training
Cleaning is easy
Low maintenance treatment process
No large amount of wastewater to dispose of.
No automation required.
A failure to clean the filter will result in loss of
production but no loss of quality.
Disadvantages:
Raw water turbidity must generally be low because with
raw water blinding of the filter occurs
Raw water must not have high algae counts.
Colour removal is fair to poor.
Water Technology 1.93
Disinfection / Sterilization:
The process of destroying / deactivating pathogenic
bacteria and other micro-organisms
Disinfectants:
The chemicals used for deactivating or killing micro-
organisms.
Some of the important methods of disinfection are as
follows:
1. Chlorination
2. Boiling
3. By using ozone
4. By using ultraviolet radiations
Chlorination
Chlorine when treated to water produces hypochlorous acid.
Cl2 + H2O HCl + HOCl
Hypochlorous acid
1.94 Engineering Chemistry-II
Review Questions
1. Define hard water and soft water
2. What are the requirements of boiler feed water?
3. What are the problems encountered in boiler feed water
4. Distinguish sludge from scale
5. What is meant by boiler corrosion ? How is it prevented ?
6. What is caustic embrittlement ? how is it prevented?
7. What is meant by priming and foaming what are their
effects in boilers ?
8. What is meant by carry over? How it is caused?
9. What is aeration ? why it is required ?
Water Technology 1.95