FLIGHT PLANNING

Basic Definitions
•
by K.Haroon » Sat Jul 30, 2011 1:34 pm
Basic Empty Mass (Basic Mass) is the mass of an aeroplane plus standard items such as:
unusable fuel and other unusable fluids; lubricating oil in engine and auxiliary units; fire
extinguishers; pyrotechnics; emergency oxygen equipment; supplementary electronic equipment.

Dry Operating Mass (DOM) is the total mass of the aeroplane ready for a specific type of
operation excluding usable fuel and traffic load. The mass includes items such as:

i) Crew and crew baggage.

ii) Catering and removable passenger service equipment.

iii) Potable water and lavatory chemicals.

iv) Food and beverages.

Maximum Structural Landing Mass (MSLM) is the maximum permissible total aeroplane mass
on landing in normal circumstances.

Maximum Structural Take-Off Mass (MSTOM) is the maximum permissible total aeroplane
mass at the start of the take-off run.

Maximum Structural Taxi Mass is the structural limitation of the mass of the aeroplane at
commencement of taxi.

Maximum Zero Fuel Mass (MZFM) is the maximum permissible mass of an aeroplane with no
usable fuel.

Operating Mass (OM) is the DOM plus fuel but without traffic load.

Performance Limited Landing Mass (PLLM) is the landing mass subject to the destination
aerodrome limitations.

Performance Limited Take-Off Mass (PLTOM) is the take-off mass subject to departure
aerodrome limitations.

Regulated Landing Mass (RLM) is the lowest of the ’performance limited’ and ’structural
limited’ landing mass.

Regulated Take-Off Mass (RTOM) is the lowest of the ’performance limited’ and ’structural
limited’ TOM.

Take-Off Mass (TOM) is the mass of the aeroplane including everything and everyone contained
within it at the start of the take-off run.

Taxi Mass is the mass of the aeroplane at the start of the taxi (at departure from the loading
gate). Sometimes referred to a Ramp Mass.

Traffic Load is the total mass of passengers, baggage and cargo, including any ’non-revenue’
load.
Zero Fuel Mass (ZFM) is DOM plus traffic load but excluding fuel.

ATC Flight Plan

If the Flight Plan is submitted before flight and the flight requires ATC service or Air Traffic Advisory
Service. it must be submitted 60 minutes before departure.

If the Flight Plan is submitted in flight it must be transmitted in time to reach the appropriate ATS unit
at least 10 minutes before the aircraft is estimated to reach:

- The intended point of entry into a Control Area or Advisory Area

or

- The point of crossing an airway or advisory route

Flight plans for IFR flights over the North Atlantic and on routes subject to Air Traffic Flow
Management should be filed a minimum of three hours before departure.

If departure is delayed. the Flight Plan must be amended or resubmitted if that delay exceeds:

- 30 minutes in the case of a controlled flight

- 60 minutes for an uncontrolled flight

Variation of TAS by +/- 5% (or 0.01 Mach) from that submitted in the flight plan must be reported to
the appropriate ATS unit.

Variation of ETA by +/- 3 minutes from that submitted in the flight plan must be reported to the
appropriate ATS unit alongwith a revised estimate.

Changing from IFR to VFR is acceptable when pilotin-command initiates the message by saying
"CANCELLING MY IFR FLIGHT".

Inform the "Filed Destination Aerodrome" as soon as you can within 30 minutes of landing if you land
at an aerodrome other than the filed destination.

In an ATS flight plan, a cruising pressure altitude of 32000 feet would be entered as F320 and speed
of 470 knots is entered as N0470. See a Sample (http://www.flysouth.org/icaofp.htm)

A current flight plan is a filed flight plan with amendments and clearance included.

Repetitive flight plans may be used for IFR flights with a high degree of stability over the same days
of consecutive weeks on at least 10 occasions.

From the options given below select those flights which require flight plan notification:

1 – Any Public Transport flight

2 – Any IFR flight
3 – Any flight which is to be carried out in regions which are designated to ease the provision of the
Alerting Service or the operations of Search and Rescue
4 – Any cross-border flights
5 – Any flight which involves over-flying water

ATC fligt plan is required for using ATC services and for crossing international borders. Thus option 2 and
4 are correct.

ICAO mandates separation minima based upon wake vortex categories that are, in turn, based upon
the Maximum Take Off Mass (MTOW|MTOM) of the aircraft. These minima are categorised are as follows:

Light – MTOW of 7,000 kilograms (15,000 lb) or less;

Medium – MTOW of greater than 7,000 kilograms, but less than 136,000 kilograms (300,000 lb);

Heavy – MTOW of 136,000 kilograms or greater.

In the ATS flight plan item 19, if the number of passengers to be carried is not known when the plan is
ready for filing, then write TBN (to be notified).

When completing an ATS flight plan for a flight commencing under IFR but possibly changing to VFR,
the letters entered in item 8 (FLIGHT RULES) would be Y (or Z if vice versa)

When an ATS flight plan is submitted for a flight outside designated ATS routes, points included in
item 15 (route) should not normally be at intervals of more than 30 minutes flying time or 200 NM or
370 Km.

In an ATS flight plan item 15 (route), in terms of latitude and longitude, a significant point at 41'35N
4'15E should be entered as 4135N00415E.

On a VFR flight plan the total estimated time is from take-off to overhead the destination airport.

For an IFR flight, TOTAL ELAPSED TIME is from take-off until reaching the IAF (Initial Approach Fix) of
the destination aerodrome.

On an ATC flight plan, to indicate that you will over-fly the way point ROMEO at 120 kt at flight level
085, you will write: ROMEO/N0120 F085.

Reference item 19 of the ICAO flight plan, endurance is, "Fuel Endurance of the Aircraft".

In the event that SELCAL is prescribed by an appropriate authority, SELCAL code will be entered in the
section "Other Information" in the ATS flight plan.

For a radio equipped aircraft, the identifier in the ATS flight plan item 7 must always be the "RTF Call
Sign" to be used.

If the destination airport has no ICAO indicator, in box 16 of your ATS flight plan, then you write ZZZZ.
 When filling in item 9 of the flight plan and there is no aircraft designator listed, the entry should be:
ZZZZ followed by an entry at item 18.

In the ATS flight plan item 10 (standard equipment) is considered to be: VHF RTF, ADF, VOR and ILS

In the ATS flight plan item 19, emergency and survival equipment carried on the flight should be
indicated by crossing out the box relevant to any equipment not carried.

Your initial cruising speed and level are 300 kt and flight level 250 at position STP on airway B3 you
plan to climb to flight level 330 and increase speed to 350 kt. This change should be shown in box 15 on
the flight plan form like this: STP/N0350F330 B3

For a change of flight rules, the point at which the change is to take place should be followed by a
"Space" (instead of a slash) and then by VFR or IFR (as required). e.g. STP IFR

RPL (repetitive flight plan) must be cancelled and re-filed if there is a change in:

- Aircraft Identification
- Departure Aerodrome
- Destination Aerodrome
- Route

RPL (repetitive flight plan) can be amended by notifying ATC as early as possible but at least 30
minutes before departure for a change in:

- Aircraft Type
- Wake Turbulence Category
- Speed
- Level

Example: A repetitive flight plan (RPL) is filed for a scheduled flight: Paris-Orly to Angouleme, Paris-Orly
as alternate. Following heavy snow falls, Angouleme airport will be closed at the expected time of
arrival. The airline decides before departure to plan a re-routing of that flight to Limoges.

In this case the RPL must be cancelled for that day and a specific flight plan has to be filed.

Specific Air Range (SAR)

- Nautical air miles per pound of fuel (NAM/lb).

- SAR = TAS / Fuel Flow

- Greater the number of NAMs flown per unit of fuel, greater the efficiency.

Gross Fuel Flow (GFF)

- GFF = Fuel flow / Ground Speed (lb/NGM). NGM = Nautical ground miles.

- Smaller the figure, greater the efficiency.

Question #1

(Refer to figure 10-29) The planned flight is over a distance of 440 NM. Based on the wind charts at
altitude the following components are found:

FL50: -30 kt
FL100: -50 kt
FL180: -70 kt

Which of the following flight levels (FL) gives the best range performance?

a) FL 050
b) Either FL 050 or FL 100
c) FL 180
d) FL 100

Solution:

Interpolate to get the required data:

At FL50 - TAS 192 (GS 162) and FF 208

At FL100 - TAS 201 (GS 151) and FF 192

At FL180 - TAS 216 (GS 146) and FF 163

Method 1:

Fuel Consumed for a distance of 440NM.

FL50 (time 2.71) - Time x FF = 564

FL100 (time 2.91) - Time x FF = 559

FL 180 (time 3.01) - Time x FF = 491

Best Range = FL180

Method 2:

Gross Fuel Flow (FF/GS)

FL50 = 1.28 litre/NGM

FL100 = 1.27 litre/NGM

FL180 = 1.11 litre/NGM

Best Range = FL180

Question #2:

(Refer to CAP 697 figure 4.5.3.2) Find the SPECIFIC RANGE for the twin jet aeroplane flying below the
optimum altitude (range loss = 6%) and using the following data:

Mach .74 cruise

Flight level 310
Gross mass: 50000 kg
ISA conditions

Solution:

Specific Air Range = TAS / Fuel Flow

TAS = 434

FF = ?

Refering to the table:

At 50,000 Kgs --- 2994 NAM

After one hour we cover 434 mles (TAS=434)

So 2994 - 434 = 2560 NAM

Against 2560 --- Weight is 47,700 Kgs

Difference in weight is 50000-47700 = 2300 Kgs which is fuel burned after covering a distance of 434
miles or one hour.

So fuel flow is 2300 Kgs per hour.

Range = 434/2300 = 0.188 miles per Kg or 188.7 miles per 1000 kgs.

Range loss = 6% of 188.7 = 11.3

Final Range = 177 NAM/1000Kg

Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption

To move an airplane through the air, a propulsion system is used to generate thrust. The amount of
thrust an engine generates is important. But the amount of fuel used to generate that thrust is
sometimes more important, because the airplane has to lift and carry the fuel throughout the flight.
Engineers use an efficiency factor, called thrust specific fuel consumption, to characterize an engine's
fuel efficiency. "Thrust specific fuel consumption" is quite a mouthful, so engineers usually just call it the
engine's TSFC. What does TSFC mean?

The fuel consumption of TSFC is "how much fuel the engine burns each hour." The specific of TSFC is a
scientific term meaning "divided by mass or weight." In this case, specific means "per pound (Newton) of
thrust." The thrust of TSFC is included to indicate that we are talking about gas turbine engines. There is
a corresponding brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) for engines that produce shaft power. Gathering
all the terms together, TSFC is the mass of fuel burned by an engine in one hour divided by the thrust
that the engine produces. The units of this efficiency factor are mass per time divided by force (in
English units, pounds mass per hour per pound; in metric units, kilograms per hour per Newton).

Engineers use the TSFC factor several different ways. If we compare the TSFC for two engines, the
engine with the lower TSFC is the more fuel efficient engine. Let's consider two examples:

Suppose we had two Engines, A and B, that produced the same amount of thrust. And suppose that
Engine A uses only half the fuel per hour that Engine B uses. We would then say that Engine A is more
fuel efficient than Engine B. If we compute the TSFC for Engines A and B, the TSFC of Engine A is one
half the value of Engine B.

Looking at it another way, suppose we had two Engines, C and D, and we fed the same amount of fuel
per hour to each of them. Suppose Engine C produces twice the thrust of Engine D. Then we are getting
more thrust from Engine C for the same amount of fuel, and we would say that Engine C is more fuel
efficient.

Again, if we compute the TSFC for Engines C and D, the TSFC of Engine C is one half the value of Engine
D.

Let's look at the second example with some numerical values. In this case we are comparing a turbojet
engine and a turbofan engine. The engines are being fed from a fuel tank that delivers 2000 pounds
mass per hour to each engine. The turbojet produces 2000 pounds of thrust, while the turbofan
produces 4000 pounds of thrust. Computing the TSFC for each engine shows that the TSFC of the
turbojet is equal to 1.0 (pounds mass/hour/pound) while the TSFC of the turbofan is 0.5 (pounds mass/
hour/pound). The turbofan, with a lower TSFC, is more fuel efficient. The values of 1.0 for a turbojet and
0.5 for a turbofan are typical sea level static values. The value of TSFC for a given engine will vary with
speed and altitude, because the efficiency of the engine changes with atmospheric conditions.

TSFC provides important information about the performance of a given engine. A turbojet with an
afterburner produces more thrust than a plain turbojet. If the TSFC were the same (1.0) for the two
engines, in order to increase thrust, we would have to increase the fuel flow rate by an equivalent
amount. For example,

Initial thrust = 2000 pounds

Thrust with afterburner = 3000 pounds
TSFC = 1.0
Fuel flow rate = 3000 pounds per hour.
But a turbojet with an afterburner has a typical TSFC value of 1.5. This says that adding the afterburner,
although it produces more thrust, costs much more fuel for each pound of thrust added. For example,

Initial thrust = 2000 pounds

Thrust with afterburner = 3000 pounds
TSFC = 1.5
Fuel flow rate = 4500 pounds per hour.

Engineers use the TSFC for a given engine to figure out how much fuel is required for an aircraft to
perform a given mission. If the TSFC = 0.5, and we need 5000 pounds of thrust for two hours, we can
easily compute the amount of fuel required. For example,

5000 pounds x 0.5 pound mass/hour/pound x 2 hours = 5000 pound mass of fuel.

Range:

- Specific Air Range (SAR) improves as the SFC reduces. It is also dependant on the best ratio of TAS to
Drag. The best TAS to drag ratio occurs at the tangent to the drag curve, at about 1.32 times the
minimum drag speed (VMD).

- The best SAR on a jet is with 90% rpm and 1.32 VIMD (without accelerating).

- Best range speed is faster in a headwind.

- LRC is 4% faster than still air best range speed and gives 99% of the range i.e. 1 % reduction in range
for the speed gain.
Endurance:

- The best endurance for a jet is with 90% thrust and VMD.

- Best endurance altitude is above best range altitude.

- The best endurance speed in the AFM may be above VMD as the advantage of speed stability (by flying
faster) is often considered to outweigh the reduction in endurance.

Exam Question Tips:

Endurance speed, Max range speed and LRC all reduce as weight reduces.

Long Range Cruise Mach number and TAS increase with height.
FMS Optimum Altitude

Altitude where 90% thrust equates to 1.32 VMD modified for cruise wind and cost index. Aim to cruise
within 2000ft of the FMS optimum altitude. As fuel is burnt off the optimum altitude increases.

FMS Maximum Altitude

The aircraft's maximum altitude is limited by:

1. Absolute Ceiling.
2. Pressurisation Ceiling.
3. Certificate of Airworthiness maximum altitude
4. Cruise buffet boundary.

Normally for a jet the cruise buffet boundary is the lowest and most limiting. The FMS maximum altitude
shows the altitude limited by the Cruise Buffet Boundary (with a margin of 1.3g).

Buffet boundary limit is only likely to be above the C of A limit when the aircraft is very light

The absolute ceiling is only likely to be below the C of A limit when the aircraft is very heavy

Buffet Boundary Limit

The buffet boundary has both low and high speed limits The low speed buffet boundary marks the onset
of the pre-stall buffet at a 10% margin above Vs and the high speed buffet boundary marks the onset of
Mach related buffet, normally MMO or sometimes slightly below that.

At height the two speeds close together to become the "Coffin Corner" since you can't fly faster or
slower and you would either stall or hit MMO.

Increased load factor reduces both the buffet margins and the maximum altitude.

1.3g Boundary charts equates to moderate turbulence or a 40 deg bank level turn.

1.6g Boundary charts equates to severe turbulence or a 50 deg bank level turn.

The margins between the aircraft and the low and high speed buffet are reduced by:

- Heavy Aircraft Weight.

- High Altitude.

- High Load Factor

- Forward CG position (which increases the stall speed)

The buffet boundary and the margins between low speed and high speed buffets are shown on the
speed tape of the EFIS PFD as a yellow margin for 1.3g buffet boundary and by black and red squares for
a 1.0g limit.

Interpolating between two values

Example:
Flying at 4000 feet below optimum has a fuel mileage penalty of 4%

Flying at 8000 feet below optimum has a fuel mileage penalty of 10%

Flying at 5200 feet below optimum has a fuel mileage penalty of ???

Formula:

4 + [ (1200/4000) x 6 ]

= 5.8%

Visual Solution:

Write one value on the left draw a line and write the other one on the right.

4000 ----------------- 8000

A total range of 4000 (i.e. 8000 - 4000 = 4000)

Now where are you in betwen this range?

4000 --- 5200 ------------- 8000

whats your position shift from 4000?

5200 - 4000 = 1200

Divide the position shift by the total range

1200 / 4000 = 0.3

or in terms of percentage, multiply it by 100

0.3 x 100 = 30%

So you have shifted from position 4000 towards position 8000 by 30%

Since we have to find the value between 4 and 10 as our fuel penalty is between these values, write
these values as:

4 -------------- 10

4 corresponds to 4000 and 10 corresponds to 8000 as mentioned in the question.

We shifted 30% from 4000 towards 8000 (as calculated above)

That means the value (we are trying to find is) 30% from 4 towards 10

Since the total range is 6 (i.e. 10 - 4 = 6), the value is at a position which is 30% of 6.

30% of 6 is 30/100 x 6 = 1.8

That means our value is 1.8 from position 4 towards 10

That makes it 4 + 1.8 = 5.8

Answer: 5.8% fuel mileage penalty when flying at 5200 feet below the optimum level.

Same logic will help in calculating % MAC (Mean Aerodynamic Chord) if:

- The total range is considered as Chord.

- Value on the left is considered as LEMAC (Leading Edge Mean Aerodynamic Chord).

- Inbetween value is considred as CG.

Interpolating Between the Graph Curves

Exam Question Tips

Normally one goes to the reference line first, then adjust to the condition. However When working
backwards, go to the condition first, then adjust back to the Reference line.
Table Regarding Fuel Used for a Given Distance

If the weight is 38,300 Kg the air miles are 730

If the air miles are 1417 then the weight is 41,500 Kg

If the starting weight is 44,700 Kg the Air Miles are 2084. In order to find the end weight (to
calculate fuel) subtract the miles flown. Lets say in this case they were 500 then 2084-500 =
1584. Now find the value closest to 1584. In this case it is 1586. The weight at 1586 is 42300 Kg.
The difference in weight is 44,700 - 42300 = 2400 which is the fuel.
Table for Detailed Fuel Planning - Climb

Don't use TAS provided in this table for getting the ground speed (which is required in converting air
miles to ground miles). In order to get TAS, use air miles and time to calculate it.
Conversion Between Air Nautical Miles and Ground Nautical Miles

Remember the couple:

Airmiles / Airspeed

Ground Miles / Ground Speed

To get Ground Miles Multiply by Ground Speed:

Multiply the couple Airmiles/Airspeed by Ground Speed.

= NAM/TAS x GS

To get Air Miles Multiply by Air Speed:

Multiply the couple Ground Miles/Ground Speed by (True) Air Speed.

= NGM/GS x TAS

The Basic Formula is S = V x T

Where S = Distance, V = Velocity and T = Time

e.g. for converting air miles to ground miles:

- If time and distance are know (as generally available from the graphs)

- Get the TAS from V=S/T

- Then use the wind component to convert TAS into GS (ground speed).

- Then use the formula S=VT to get the ground nautical miles (V here is the GS).

Remember:

While calculating Time from the formula S=VT

- If distance is in air miles then speed should be air speed (TAS).

- And if distance is in ground miles then speed should be ground speed (GS).

Extended Range Operations (EROPS), or Extended Twin Operations (ETOPS)

A twin engine aeroplane in Performance Class A can not operate over a route which contains a point
further from an adequate aerodrome than the distance flown in 60 minutes. The distance is calculated at
the one-engine inoperative TAS in standard conditions and still air.

With the specific approval of the Authority an operator could extend that 60 minute rule time. They are
allowed to put themselves up to 3 hours from an adequate diversion aerodrome.

The precise ETOPS clearance (90 minutes, 120 minutes) will vary depending on Operator/Airframe/Route
combination.

The navigation procedures will require that the aeroplane be routed in such a way that at all times it will
remain within the prescribed ETOPS range of an adequate airfield. This may mean a routing which is not
the most direct to the destination.
3% ERA Aerodrome

Contingency can be calculated in a number of different ways. Generally the standard option is 5% of Trip
Fuel. However there is an option to use 3% of Trip Fuel. Use of this option requires the selection of an En-
Route Alternate (ERA) aerodrome.

The 3% ERA aerodrome shall be located within a circle having a radius equal to 20% of the total flight
plan distance. The centre of which lies on the planned route at a distance from the destination
aerodrome of 25% of the total flight plan distance or at least 20% of the total flight plan distance plus
50NM, whichever is greater (all distances to be calculated in still air conditions).
Reduced Contingency Fuel (RCF) Procedure or Decision Point Procedure

When an operators fuel policy includes pre-flight planning using the RCF procedure to a Destination
aerodrome (commercial destination):

- A Decision Point (DP) will be defined enroute along with an Enroute Alternate (optional refuelling
destination).

- The amount of usable fuel on board for departure shall be the greater of Calculation 1 or 2 below:

Calculation 1 (The sum of):

Taxi fuel

Trip fuel to the Destination aerodrome, via the DP

Contingency fuel equal to but not less than 5% of the estimated fuel consumption from the DP to the
Destination aerodrome

Alternate fuel (if required)

Final reserve fuel

Additional fuel

Extra fuel if required by the commander.

Calculation 2 (The sum of):

Taxi fuel

Trip fuel to En-route Alternate aerodrome, via DP

Contingency fuel equal to but not less than the amount calculated in accordance with the normal
rules from departure aerodrome to the En-route Alternate aerodrome.

Alternate fuel, if an alternate to En-route Alternate aerodrome is required

Final reserve fuel

Additional fuel

Extra fuel if required by the commander

An Example of RCF Procedure

Exam Question Tips:

Purpose of Decision Point Procedure is to carry minimum fuel for increasing Traffic Load.

Calculating the Fuel Price Ratio

Fuel Price Ratio = Departure Fuel Price / Destination Fuel Price

Example:

Fuel price at Departure Aerodrome = 70 cents per gallon

Fuel price at Destination = 90 cents per gallon

Fuel Price Ratio = 70 / 90 = 0.77

Note:

1) If you invert the values:

e.g. 90/70

The answer in this case is 1.28 which is wrong, as it always has to be less than 1.
2) If price is the same at both places:

e.g. 70/70

The answer in this case is 1. That means no need to tanker since the need is only when fuel is expensive
at destination.

PET (Point of Equal Time) / ETP or CP (Critical Point)

PET is a point on a track where it is as quick to go on as it is to turn back. Also known as ETP
(equal time point) and CP (critical point).

Distance (to PET) = D x H / 0 + H

D= Sector Distance

O = Onward GS

H= Home bound GS
T
o
Q K.Haroon
upby K.Haroon » Thu Aug 04, 2011 9:02 amP Site
oEngine Failure Point of Equal Time o Admin
t s
eIn this case we are trying to answer the question,
t "Is it quickest to go on or to turn around and Posts:
go1
home with a failed engine?" 337
Joined: Sun Dec 11, 2005
Example: 8:37 pm

Sector distance A to B = 962 NM

2 engine TAS = 450 kts

1 engine TAS = 270 kts

GS ON = 1 Engine TAS after wind adjustment = 290

GS HOME = 1 Engine TAS after wind adjustment = 245

GS ON = 2 Engine TAS after wind adjustment = 470

Solution:

Distance (to PET) = D x H / 0 + H

However both 0 & H must be the engine failure groundspeeds as they represent travel ON from
the PET with a failed engine or travel HOME from the PET with a failed engine.

Distance (to PET) = 441NM

Time = Distance / Velocity

Velocity here is based on the ALL ENGINE Speed (GS out 470 kts in this case).

Time to Eng Fail PET = 56 mins

VFR - Visual Flight Rules
•
by K.Haroon » Fri Aug 05, 2011 8:56 pm
Exam Question Tips

VFR flights shall not be flown over the congested areas of cities at a height less than 1000 ft
above the highest obstacle within a radius of 600m from the aircraft.

Isolated Aerodrome Procedure

Isolated: When no alternate is available. Also sometimes called Island Destination.

Regarding planning to an isolated aerodrome, the last point of diversion to any available enroute
alternate aerodrome shall be used as the predetermined point. Rest is then as Predetermined Point
Procedure

Exam Question Tips:

A jet aircraft is due to fly to an isolated aerodrome. The aircraft fuel burn in the cruise is 7500 kg/hr
and 5000 kg/hr in the hold. What is the absolute minimum additional fuel it should carry?

You will plan to arrive overhead of your isolated aerodrome with atleast 2 hours of fuel at cruise
consumption.

Answer: 15,000 Kg

Pre-Determined Point Procedure

This procedure is designed for the scenario where the distance between the destination aerodrome and
the destination alternate is such that the flight can only be routed via a pre-determined point (PDP) to
one of these aerodromes. It would not be possible to route first to the destination aerodrome and then
carry out a missed approach and divert to the alternate.

The amount of usable fuel on board for departure shall be the greater of Calculation 1 or 2 below:

Calculation 1 (The sum of):

Taxi fuel

Trip fuel from the departure aerodrome to the destination aerodrome via the PDP

Contingency fuel (normal rules).

Additional fuel if required, but not less than:

(i) For aeroplanes with reciprocating engines, the lesser of the following two conditions:

Fuel to fly for 45 minutes + 15% of the flight time planned to be spent at cruising level

OR

Two hours

(ii) For aeroplanes with turbine engines:

Fuel to fly for two hours at normal cruise consumption above the destination aerodrome (shall not be
less than final reserve fuel).

Extra fuel if required by the commander.

Calculation 2 (The sum of):

Taxi fuel

Trip fuel from the departure aerodrome to the destination alternate aerodrome via the PDP

Contingency fuel (normal rules).

Additional fuel if required, but not less than:

(i) For aeroplanes with reciprocating engines:

Fuel to fly for 45 minutes.

(ii) For aeroplanes with turbine engines:

Fuel to fly for 30 minutes at holding speed at 1500 ft above the destination alternate aerodrome
elevation in standard conditions (shall not be less than final reserve fuel).

Extra fuel if required by the commander

Converting Gallons to Litres and Kilograms
•Q
Pbyu K.Haroon » Sat Aug 06, 2011 10:46 am
o
oExam Question Tips:
st
t e You are required to uplift 40 US gallons of AVGAS with Sp. Gravity of 0.72. How many litres and
kilograms is this?

1 US gallon = 3.78 litres (imperial is 4.54)

40 x 3.78 = 151 litres

Had it been water 1 litre = 1 kg, but AVGAS is lighter (sp gravity less than 1)

151 x 0.72 = 109 Kg

Avgas has a density of 6.02 lb/U.S. gal at 15 °C, or 0.721 kg/l, and this density is commonly
used for weight and balance computation.

High Frequency (HF) Communications

In the HF range (3 MHz to 30 MHz) radio waves propagate over long distances due to reflection from the
ionised layers in the upper atmosphere.

Due to variations in height and intensities of the ionised regions, different frequencies must be used at
different times of day and night and for
different paths. There is also some seasonal variation (particularly between winter and summer).
Propagation may also be disturbed and enhanced during periods of intense solar activity.

Frequencies chosen for a particular radio path are usually set roughly mid-way between the lowest
usable frequency (LUF) and the maximum usable frequency (MUF). The daytime LUF is usually between
4 to 6 MHz during the day, falling rapidly after sunset to around 2 MHz. The MUF is dependent on the
season and sunspot cycle but is often between 8 MHz and 20 MHz.

Hence a typical daytime frequency for aircraft communication might be 8 MHz whilst this might be as
low as 3 MHz during the night.

Exam Question Tips:

During a flight at night a position has to be reported to ATC. The aeroplane is at a distance of 750 NM
from the groundstation and at flight level 350. The frequency to be used is:

a) 17286 KHz
b) 123.9 MHz
c) 5649 KHz
d) 1136 KHz

Answer:

In this scenario VHF is not going to work so you'll have to use HF.

b) and d) are out of HF Band.

Out of a) and c) the lowest is c) which is correct, as it is night. "Sun Down - Frequency Down"
Top of Descent (TOD) Calculation
•
by K.Haroon » Sun Aug 07, 2011 11:49 am
Question #1

ATC require a descent from FL270 to FL160 to be level 6 NM before a VOR. If rate of descent is
800 feet per minute, mean groundspeed is 256 kts, how far out from the VOR must descent be
started?

Solution:

Height to loose = 11,000 feet

Vertical Speed = 800 fpm

Time to loose 11,000 feet = 11000/800 = 13.75 minutes

Ground Distance covered in 13.75 minutes = GS x Time = 256 x 0.23 = 58.9 (59 for all practical
purposes)

If we start our descent at 59 miles before VOR we will be at FL160

To be FL160 6 miles before VOR start descent 6 miles earlier: 59 + 6 = 65 miles.

Question #2

In the cruise at FL155 at 260 kt TAS, the pilot plans for a 500 feet/min descent in order to fly overhead
MAN VOR at 2000 feet (QNH 1030). TAS will remain constant during descent, wind is negligible,
temperature is standard. The pilot must start the descent at a distance from MAN of:

Solution:

Same as above except:

Height to loose is now 15,500 - 2000 = 13,500 + QNH/QNE difference of 17

17 x 27 = 459

So height to loose becomes 13,500 + 459 = 13,959 feet.

Question #3

An aircraft is in cruising flight at FL095, IAS 155 kt. The pilot intends to descend at 500 ft/min to arrive
overhead the MAN VOR at 2000 ft (QNH 1030 hPa). The TAS remains constant in the descent, wind is
negligible, temperature standard. At which distance from MAN should the pilot commence the descent?

Solution:

Same as above except:

You have to calculate TAS

IAS = 155

Standard Temperature at 9500 feet = -4 deg C

TAS comes around 177 (through flight computer)

Time to PSR (Point of Safe Return)

The Point of Safe Return (PSR) is the last point on a route at which it is possible to return to the
departure airfield arriving back with the required fuel reserves still available in the tanks. Continuing
passed the PSR you are now committed to landing at your destination.

Time (to PSR) = E x H / 0 + H

E = Safe endurance based on available fuel

H = Ground speed home

0 = Ground speed out

Engine Failure PSR

How far can we go on all engines, then have an engine failure and still return to our point of departure?

Example:

Tota Fuel = 46500 kg

Reserves = 4800 kg

All Engine: FF = 3250 kg/hr, TAS = 385 kts

Engine Failure: FF = 2300 kg/hr, TAS = 260 kts

GS Out = All Engine TAS after wind adjustment = 376

GS Home = Engine Fail TAS after wind adjustment = 264

Solution:

Step 1 is to calculate the Gross Fuel Flow i.e. fuel used per nautical ground mile (NGM).

Fuel flow out will be different from fuel flow home due to engine failure. So we have to calculate two
different GFF and then get their total.

Going Outbound (All Engines)

All engine FF = 3250 kg/hr

Ground nautical miles covered in one hour = 376

i.e. in 376 miles fuel used is 3250

or in 1 mile the fuel used is 3250/376 = 8.64 kg/ngm

So simple formula is:

GFF = Fuel Flow / Ground Speed = KG / NGM

Coming Home (With Engine Fail)

Engine Failure FF = 2300 kg/hr

GFF = Fuel Flow / Ground Speed

GFF = 2300/264 = 8.71

Thus for each mile flown, the fuel required to get Out (all engine) and back (engine failure) is the sum of
these two GFF figures:

i.e. GFF Out 8.64 (All Eng) + GFF Home 8.71 (Eng Fail)

Total GFF = 17.35 kg/ngm

Step 2 is to find the Distance to the engine failure PSR.

We cant use S=VT here since we don't know time.

But we know from GFF (calculated above) that 17.35 Kg of fuel will take us 1 mile.

And we know the total fuel we have which is 46500

Since we will keep our reserves intact, the total fue will be:

Total fuel - Resereves = 46500 - 4800 = 41700 kg

If 17.35 Kg of fuel will take us 1 mile

then 1 Kg of fuel will take us 1/17.35 miles

and 41700 kg of fuel will take us 1/17.35 x 41700

or 41700/17.35 = 2403 nm

So the simple formula is:

Distance to Eng Failure PSR = Fuel Available / Total GFF

Step 3 is to find Time to the engine failure PSR.

We can use S=VT here

T=S/V

Divide the distance by V which in this case is all engine outbound ground speed

i.e. 2403 / 376 = 6.39 hrs

or 6 hrs 23 mins
Questions #1
T
o
p helicopter is on a 150 NM leg to an off-shore oil rig. Its TAS is 130 kt with a 20 kt tailwind, its
A
endurance is 3h30min without reserve. Upon reaching destination, it is asked to proceed
outbound to locate a ship in distress, on a track which gives a 15 kt tailwind. Maintaining zero
reserve on return to the oil rig, how much distance outbound can the helicopter fly?

Solution:

Total Endurance = 3.5 hrs

Flying time to oil rig = 1 hr

Endurance at oil rig = 2.5 hrs

PSR is between oil rig and the ship in distress

Time to PSR = Endurance x GS Home / GS Out + GS Home

= 2.5 x 115 / 145 + 115 = 1.1 hrs

Distance to PSR = 145 x 1.1 = 160 NM

Questions #1

A helicopter is on a 150 NM leg to an off-shore oil rig. Its TAS is 130 kt with a 20 kt tailwind, its
endurance is 3h30min without reserve. Upon reaching destination, it is asked to proceed outbound to
locate a ship in distress, on a track which gives a 15 kt tailwind. Maintaining zero reserve on return to
the oil rig, how much distance outbound can the helicopter fly?

Solution:

Total Endurance = 3.5 hrs

Flying time to oil rig = 1 hr

Endurance at oil rig = 2.5 hrs

PSR is between oil rig and the ship in distress

Time to PSR = Endurance x GS Home / GS Out + GS Home

= 2.5 x 115 / 145 + 115 = 1.1 hrs

Distance to PSR = 145 x 1.1 = 160 NM

Flight Level and Height Questions
•
by K.Haroon » Sun Aug 07, 2011 12:02 pm
Question #1:

A mountain 6011 ft AMSL lies along an aircraft's track of 356 deg (T), variation 10 deg W, HDG
355 deg (M). What is the lowest VFR ICAO level the aircraft may fly to miss the mountain by at
least 2000 ft, QNH 990 hPa (assume 1 hPa = 30 ft)?

Solution:

Mountain = 6011
Clearance = 2000
QNH/QNE Diff = 690

Total Height = 8701

After varition correction track suggests an odd level

Lowest odd level after 8701 is FL90

and For VFR it will be FL95

Question #2

An aircraft, following a 215 deg true track at variation 3 deg W, must fly over a 10,600 ft obstacle with a
minimum obstacle clearance of 1500 ft. Knowing the QNH received from an airport close by, which is
almost at sealevel, is 1035 and the temperature is ISA -15 deg C, the minimum flight level will be:

Solution:

Total Height +/- QNH Correction +/- Temperature Correction

Obstacle = 10,600

Clearance = 1500

Total height = 12,100

QNH correction = 1035 - 1013 = 22 x 27 = 594

Temp correction = 15 x 4 x 12.1 = 726

Total 12,100 - 594 + 726 = 12232

First level above 12232 is FL130

Track and and Variation suggest an even level

So minimum flight level = FL140

Information in AIP
•
by K.Haroon » Fri Aug 12, 2011 7:21 am
In AIP, you will find information regarding:

- Customs and Health facilities

- Search and Rescue procedures

- Dates and times when temporay danger areas are active

- Parking and landing fees in the FAL (Facilitation) section

Speed Questions
•
by K.Haroon » Fri Aug 12, 2011 7:22 am
Question #1

An aircraft is flying at MACH 0.84 at FL 330. The static air temperature is -48 deg C and the
headwind component 52 kt. At 1338 UTC the controller requests the pilot to cross the meridian of
030W at 1500 UTC. Given the distance to go is 570 NM, the reduced MACH No is?

Solution:
Distance to Cover 570 nm

Requirement to cover 570 nm in 1hr and 22 minutes (i.e. 1500 - 1338)

Required GS = 570 / 1.36 = 419

If there was no wind then to get a ground speed of 419, a TAS of 419 would be required.

With a headwind of 52 kts a TAS of 419 will reduce the ground speed, so the required TAS has to
be:

419 + 52 (headwind) = 471

Mach Number = TAS/Local speed of Sound

Local speed of Sound = Square root of ( 273-48 ) x 39

Mach = 0.80 (Answer)

Question #2:

On a given path, it is possible to choose between four flight levels (FL) each associated with a
mandatory flight Mach Number (M). The flight conditions, static air temperature (SAT) and headwind
component (HWC) are given below. The flight level allowing the highest ground speed is?

FL370, M=0.80, Ts= -60 deg C, HWC= -15 kt

FL330, M=0.78, Ts= -60 deg C, HWC= -5 kt

FL290, M=0.80, Ts= -55 deg C, HWC= -15 kt

FL270, M=0.76, Ts= -43 deg C, HWC= 0

Solution:
Find TAS (from flight computer) and then Groundspeed (by using given wind info).
The flight level allowing the highest ground speed is FL270

Variation and Deviation Questions

•
by K.Haroon » Fri Aug 12, 2011 7:25 am
Question #1:

You are flying a constant compass heading of 252 deg. Variation is 22 deg E, deviation is 3 deg W
and your INS is showing a drift of 9 deg to the right. True track is?

Solution:

Compass = 252

Magnetic = 252 - 3 = 249

True = 249 + 22 = 271

Drift is 9 deg to the right i.e. wind from the left.

Compass heading into the wind (left) so track is to the right

Track 271 + 9 = 280

Or you can start the calculations with compass heading of 261 by adjusting for the drift in the
beginning.

Balanced Field

A balanced field takeoff is a condition where the accelerate-stop distance required (ASDR) is equal to the
takeoff distance required (TODR) for the aircraft weight, engine thrust, aircraft configuration and runway
condition. For a given aircraft weight, engine thrust, aircraft configuration and runway condition the
shortest runway length that complies with safety regulations is the balanced field length.

The rejected takeoff initial actions speed V1, or critical engine-failure recognition speed (Vcef), is the
fastest speed at which the pilot must take the first actions to reject the takeoff. At speeds below V1 the
aircraft may be brought to a halt before the end of the runway. Above V1 the pilot must continue the
takeoff even if an emergency is recognized.

To achieve a balanced field takeoff, engine power is selected to provide enough acceleration so that at
the lowest possible speed to continue the takeoff the remaining necessary takeoff distance with one
engine not working is equal to the remaining & necessary accelerate-stop distance.
The balanced field length is the shortest field length at which a balanced field takeoff can be performed.

Factors affecting the balanced field length include:

The mass of the aircraft - higher mass results in slower acceleration and higher takeoff speed.

Engine thrust - affected by temperature and air pressure but reduced thrust can also be deliberately
selected by the pilot.
Density altitude - reduced air pressure or increased temperature increases minimum take off speed.

Aircraft configuration such as wing flap position.

Runway slope and runway wind component.
Runway conditions - a rough or soft field slows acceleration, a wet or icy field reduces braking.
Exam Question Tips:

Which is true regarding a balanced field? "It Provides minimum field length required in the case of an
engine failure".
Change in Graphical Values in Terms of Percentage:

Question:

(Refer to CAP 697 figure 4.3.1C) Within the limits of the data given, a mean temperature increase of 30
deg C will affect the trip time by approximately:

Solution:

Consult the upper left part of the chart.

The upper end of the diagoal black line is at ISA -10.

The lower end of the diagoal black line is at ISA +20.

The temperature difference between the upper and lower ends is 30 degrees.

An increase of temperature means coming down from up.

That means reduction in time.

Since a reference time value is not mentioned in the question, take any line to see the change.

According to the figure above the reduction in the time is 0.3 hrs i.e. from 6.1 to 5.8

In terms of percenatge: 0.3/6.1 x 100 = 4.9 or 5%

Answer = -5%

Integrated Range Flight Planning

Which of the following statements is relevant for forming route portions in integrated range flight
planning?
Answer: The distance from take-off up to the top of climb has to be known.

Reason: Since "Cruise Fuel Calculations" are involved, one has to know the TOC.

Mass and Balance Question:

Maximum allowable take off mass: 64400 kg

Maximum landing mass: 56200 kg

Maximum zero fuel mass: 53000 kg

Dry operating mass: 35500 kg

Estimated load: 14500 kg

Estimated trip fuel: 4900 kg

Minimum take-off fuel: 7400 kg

Find: maximum additional load

Solution:

MZFW = 53,000 Kg

DOM = 35,500 Kg

Max Allowable Load = MZFW-DOM = 17,500 Kg

Load we have = 14,500 Kg

Additional we can have = 17500-14500 = 3,000 Kg

Speed of Sound and Mach No:

The speed of sound is the distance travelled during a unit of time by a sound wave propagating through
an elastic medium. In dry air at 20 °C (68 °F), the speed of sound is 343.2 metres per second (1,126
ft/s). This is 1,236 kilometres per hour (768 mph), or about one kilometer in three seconds or
approximately one mile in five seconds.

In fluid dynamics, the speed of sound in a fluid medium (gas or liquid) is used as a relative measure of
speed itself. The speed (in distance per time) divided by the speed of sound in the fluid is called the
Mach number. Objects moving at speeds greater than Mach1 are traveling at supersonic speeds.

The speed of sound varies from substance to substance. Sound travels faster in liquids and non-porous
solids than it does in air. It travels about 4.3 times faster in water (1,484 m/s), and nearly 15 times as
fast in iron (5,120 m/s), than in air at 20 degrees Celsius.

The speed of sound is variable and depends on the properties of the substance through of which the
wave is travelling. In solids, the speed of longitudinal waves depend on the stiffness to tensile stress,
and the density of the medium. In fluids, the medium's compressibility and density are the important
factors.

In gases, compressibility and density are related, making other compositional effects and properties
important, such as temperature and molecular composition. For a given ideal gas the sound speed
depends only on its temperature. At a constant temperature, the ideal gas pressure has no effect on the
speed of sound, because pressure and density (also proportional to pressure) have equal but opposite
effects on the speed of sound, and the two contributions cancel out exactly.

Source: (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_of_sound)

Converting Mach to TAS:

Converting TAS to Mach:

TAS = True Air Speed

M = Mach Number

T = Temperature in Kelvin (Kelvin = C + 273)

Computerized Flight Plans:

Correct statements regarding computer flight plans:

1. The computer can file the ATC flight plan.

2. The computer calculates alternate fuel sufficient for a missed approach, climb, cruise, descent and
approach and landing at the destination alternate.

Incorrect statements regarding computer flight plans:

1. In the event of inflight re-routing the computer produces a new plan.

2. Wind data used by the computer is always more up-to-date than that available to the pilot.

3. The computer takes account of bad weather on the route and adds extra fuel.

Minimum Fuel Required for Turbojets:

1. Taxi

2. Trip

3. Contingency (5% of trip or 5 minutes holding - whichever is higher)

4. Alternate

5. Final Reserve (30 mins holding at 1500 ft)

6. Additional (15 mins holding at 1500 ft - Incase there is no alternate)

Exam Questions:

An operator shall ensure that calculation of usable fuel for an IFR flight with a turbojet aeroplane for
which no destination alternate is required includes, taxi fuel, trip fuel, contingency fuel and fuel to fly
for:

Answer:

45 minutes at holding speed at 450m above aerodrome elevation in standard conditions.

Reason:

Final Reserve (30 minutes) + Additional Fuel (15 minutes) = 45 mins holding at 1500 ft (450m) above
the aerodrome

However "Final Reserve" always remains - 30 mins holding at 1500 ft.

e.g. In another question it is asked:

A Jet aeroplane is to fly from A to B. The minimum final reserve fuel when no alternate is required is?

Answer: 30 minutes holding at 1500FT above destination aerodrome elevation.

To Summarize:

Final reserve is always for 30 minutes whether there is an alternate or not. If there is no alternate then
additional fuel for 15 minutes holding is required. That makes the total holding fuel of 45 minutes.

Requirements for an Offshore Platform:

For a flight to an off-shore platform, an alternate aerodrome is compulsory but not under the following
conditions:

1) Flight Time: Flight duration of less than two hours.

2) Weather: Ceiling and visibility forecast is greater or equal to 1.5 times the applicable minima, within
+/- 2 hrs of the estimated landing time.

3) Availability: The platform is available.

4) Other Traffic: No other flight either from or to the platform is expected between A and B below:

A) estimated departure time

estimated landing time + 1.5 hrs

Exam Questions:

For a flight to an off-shore platform, an alternate aerodrome is compulsory, except if:

1) flight duration does not exceed two hours.

2) during the period from two hours before to two hours after the estimated landing time, the forecast
conditions of ceiling and visibility are not less than one and a half times the applicable minima.

3) the platform is available and no other flight either from or to the platform is expected between the
estimated time of departure and one half hour after the estimated landing time.

Answer: All options are correct.

To carry out a VFR flight to an off-shore platform, the minimum fuel quantity on board is identical to
that defined for VFR flights over land.

Fuel Calculation Questions

•
by K.Haroon » Fri Aug 05, 2011 9:23 pm
Question #1

For a planned flight the calculated fuel is as follows:

Flight time: 3h: 06min

Taxi fuel: 8 kg
Block fuel: 118 kg

The reserve fuel, at any time, should not be less than 30% of the remaining trip fuel.

How much fuel should remain after 2 hours flight time?

Solution:

Take Off fuel = Block - Taxi = 118-8 = 110 Kg

Now 110 Kg of Fuel contains Trip fuel + 30% of Trip Fuel (i.e. reserves )

Putting it mathematically

110 = trip fuel + 30% trip fuel

If trip fuel = x

then

110 = x + 30%x

110 = x + 0.3x

110 = 1.3 x

x = 110 / 1.3 = 84.6 Kg

Thus Trip Fuel is 84.6 Kg

Flight Time is 3 hrs and 06 mins or 3.1 hrs

Fuel Flow = Trip Fuel / Flight Time = 84.6 / 3.1 = 27.3

After 2 hours trip fuel "consumed" will be 2 x 27.3 = 54.6

After 2 hours trip fuel "remaining" will be 84.6 - 54.6 = 30 Kg

Reserve which is 30% of trip fuel will be 30 x 0.3 = 9 Kg

Answer:

After 2 hours Trip Fuel remaining is 30 Kg and Reserve 9 Kg

Question #2

MTOM: 64400 kg

MLM: 56200 kg

MZFM: 53300 kg

DOM: 35500 kg

Traffic load: 14500 kg

Trip fuel: 4900 kg

Minimum takeoff fuel: 7400 kg

What is the maximum allowable take off fuel?

Solution:

Maximum Takeoff Weight = 64,400 Kg

Landing Limited Takeoff Weight Limit = 56,200 + 4900 = 61,100 Kg

Takeoff limit is the lower one i.e. 61,100

61,100 - (DOM + Traffic Load)

Answer:

11,100 Kg is the Max allowable Fuel

Question #3:

Minimum planned take-off fuel is 160 kg (30% total reserve fuel is included). Assume the
groundspeed on this trip is constant. When the aeroplane has done half the distance the
remaining fuel is 70 kg. Is diversion to a nearby alternate necessary?

Solution:

First calculate the trip fuel:

Trip fuel = 160 / 1.3 = 123 Kg (explanation in question #1)

Half of the distance is covered with 70 Kg fuel i.e. 123 - 70 = 53 Kg trip fuel left.

Second half also requires 70Kg but we have only 53 so diversion is necessary otherwise we will be
using our reserves.
Question #4:

The navigation plan reads:

Trip fuel: 136 kg

Flight time: 2h45min

Calculated reserve fuel: 30% of trip fuel

Fuel in tank is minimum (no extra fuel on board)

Taxi fuel: 3 kg

What should the endurance on the ICAO flight plan read?

Solution:

Endurance = Total Fuel / FF

Total Fuel = Trip + 30% Trip = 136 x 1.3 = 177

FF = Trip Fuel / Flight Time = 49.5

The endurance on the ICAO flight plan should read 3 hrs and 34 mins.

Question #5

An aircraft has a flight time of 2 hrs 30 mins, a contingency fuel of 30% is carried. What is the total
endurance?

Solution:

Trip fuel gives a flight time of 2.5 hrs

30% of trip fuel will give additional 30% flight time

So 30% more than 2.5 is = 3.25 or 3 hrs and 15 minutes endurance.

Question #6
T
o
(Ref:
p CAP 697 figure 3-3) Trip time 2 hr 37 min from departure to destination at 2500 RPM, 65%
power. For the climb and descent add 13 mins of cruise fuel. Reserve = 30% of trip fuel. Taxi fuel
is 5 US gal. What is the min ramp fuel?

Solution:

Min Ramp Fuel = Taxi + Trip + Reserves

Trip fuel = Climb/Descent + Cruise

= 13 min + 2h:37min = 2.83 hrs

FF 23.3 GPH (Ref: CAP 697 figure 3-3)

Trip fuel = 23.3 x 2.83 = 66 Gallons

Reserves = 30% of 66 = 20 Gallons

Taxi = 5 Gallons

Ramp Fuel = 91 Gallons

Question #7

True Air Speed: 170 kts Wind in the area: 270/40 kts . According to the attached the navigation log, an
aircraft performs a turn overhead BULEN to re-route to ARD vioa TGJ. The given wind conditions
remaining constant. The fuel consumption during the turn is 20 litres. The total fuel consumption at
position overhead ARD will be:

Solution:

Data provided is in Black

Solution is in Red and Blue

Question #8:

8-A) The fuel burn of an aircraft turbine is 220 l/h with a fuel density of 0.80. If the density is 0.75 the
fuel burn will be:

Soultion:

Step 1: Convert burn rate into Kg/hr [ 220 x 0.8 = 176 ]

Step 2: Convert this burn rate (176 Kg/hr) back to litres/hr with the new SG (0.75) [ 176 / 0.75 = 235]

Answer: 235 l/h

8- A turbine engined aircraft burns fuel at 200 gals per hour (gph) with a Fuel Density of 0.8.
What is the fuel flow if Fuel Density is 0.75?

Soultion:

Same as above except this time convert gallons to litres and then to Kg/hr.

200 x 3.8 x 0.8 = 608 kg/hr

then back to litres (608 / 0.75) and then gallons ( 810 / 3.8 )

Answer: 213 gph

8-C) The fuel burn off is 200 kg/hr with a relative fuel density of 0.8. If the relative fuel density is 0.75
the fuel burn will be:
Soultion:

Fuel burn in kg/hr will not vary with SG. However the volume (litres/hr) will vary as seen in examples
above.

So Answer is 200 kg/hr

Question #9-A:

The Trip Fuel for a jet aeroplane to fly from the departure aerodrome to the destination aerodrome is
5350 kg. Fuel consumptionin holding mode is 6000 kg/h. The quantity of fuel which is needed to carry
out one go-around and land on the alternate airfield is 4380 kg. The destination aerodrome has a single
runway. What is the minimum quantity of fuel which should be on board at take-off?

Solution:

Contigency is the higher of A or B below:

A) 5% trip fuel

5 minutes holding at 1500 feet

Min fuel at takeoff is:

Trip = 5350
Alternate = 4380
Holding = 3000
Contigency = 500

Total = 13230 kg

Question #9-B:

The quantity of fuel which is calculated to be necessary for a jet aeroplane to fly IFR from departure
aerodrome to the destination aerodrome is 5352 kg. Fuel consumption in holding mode is 6000 kg/h.
Alternate fuel is 4380 kg. Contingency should be 5% of trip fuel.What is the minimum required quantity
of fuel which should be on board at take-off?

Solution:

Same as above except that now contingency has been defined as 5% of trip fuel, whereas it was not in
the previous question. So contingency will be exactly as specified or if not specified then apply the
above criterion of 5% trip or 5 minute holding, whichever is higher.

So in this case the answer is 13000 Kg.

Question #10:

(Refer to CAP 697 figure 4.5.3.1)

Aircraft mass at top of climb 61500 kg
Distance 385 nm
FL350
OAT – 54 deg C
Tailwind of 40 kt

Using Long Range Cruise, how much fuel is required?

Solution:
Remember that the distance 385 nm is the ground distance and you have to convert it into air distance
for using the chart.

fuel calculations
•
by needz4speed » Sun Aug 04, 2013 7:05 am
Using the following data, determine the maximum fuel load:
DOM: 2800 kg
Trip: 300 kg
Payload: 400 kg
MTOM: 4200 kg
MLM: 3700 kg

First

Landing limited takeoff weight limited = MLM + Trip fuel

=3700 + 300 = 4000 lbs

Landing limited takeoff weight limited – (DOM + TRAFIIC LOAD(PAY LOAD)

4000lbs – (2800 + 400) lbs
= 800 lbs answer 

Formula for Wind Components

•
by K.Haroon » Wed Aug 17, 2011 4:05 am
Headwind or Tailwind Component:

Wind Speed x Cos (Wind Direction - Rwy Direction)

or
Wind Speed x Cos (Wind Direction - Heading)

Crosswind Component:

Wind Speed x Sin (Wind Direction - Rwy Direction)

or
Wind Speed x Sin (Wind Direction - Heading)